work only if the man in charge of it understands fully not only the control apparatus but also the apparatus-—and the process—it is to control, ie., in our case the evaporator and the whole system of vapour bleedin; ‘A simple control measure is “juice level control,” which is, however, applicable only to“ bulk evaporators” and would be senseless if attempted with “* once-through ” (sealed downtake) evaporators in which the juice finds the appropriate level by itself (as long as the vessels are not flooded, accidentally or through ignorant “ control"). (8) Superheated Process Steam Tt is a widely held view that superheated steam does not permit the attainment of high coefficients of heat transmission and that it has to be de-superheated before its admission into heat exchangers such as juice heaters or evaporator calandrias. This view is based on the correct notion that only condensing steam provides high coefficients of heat trans- mission, whereas superheated steam behaves like a hot gas. If superheated steam were used asa heating medium in such a manner that it should give up only its “heat of Superheat,” then only very low coefficients of heat transmission could be expected. Under our conditions, however, we extract from the steam both the “heat of superheat ” and the “ latent heat,” with consequent condensation and high coefiicients of heat transmission. Steam of 12 psig with 50°F superheat (total temperature 295°F) has a “ total heat ** (from 32°F) of 1185 B.Th.U./Ib of which only 22 B.Th.U,/lb is “heat of superheat ” and 950 B.Th.U,/Ib is “latent heat.” Thus the “heat of superheat” is only about 2% of the heat to be transmitted, and this is immediately absorbed when the steam comes into contact with the first heating tubes in a calandria, leaving all the remaining heating tubes to deal with condensing steam which allows high coefficients of heat transmission. ‘This shows why a small degree of superheat does not adversely affect our heat exchangers, and that therefore there is no need to de-superheat our process steam. Claassen, in. his Verdampfen und Verdampfer (1938) reaches this conclusion after an exhaustive investigation. © Boiling Systems ‘The ideal boiling system would, of course, be the “ One-boiling System.” With this we would simply boil a massecuite from syrup only, which, on curing in centrifugals, would yield raw sugar and final molasses. For many reasons this is, unfortunately, not practicable. ‘The next best thing is the two-boiling system considered in Chapter V, A, and this is, fortunately, thoroughly practicable. Nevertheless it has not been widely adopted so far. Its adoption requires as great a change of outlook of the factory operator, as that which ‘was required for the change from the " string proof ” to the “ crystallizer " treatment of L.G. masseeuites. The latter led gradually to the general adoption of efficient, water- cooled crystallizers for L.G. m.c., and the same is required for H.G. m.c. in order to make the two-boiling system feasible. ‘The essence of the two-boiling system is to form in and extract from the H.G. m.c, as much crystal as possible. To achieve this it is necessary to boil the m.c. to a high density without the formation of “ false grain ” and then to treat it in a cooling crystallizer. so that the crystals formed in the vacuum pan will grow further—again without the formation of false grain—until the purity of the mother liquor has dropped to the level deemed suitable for the boiling of the L.G, mc. This requires well-designed vacuum pans and crystallizers of ample capacity and com- petent operators. It is essential that the operators should understand the mechanism of Crystal growth from supersaturated mother liquors, Without going here fully into this interesting problem, I will mention the following points which must be observed :— (a) The massecuite must be boiled on good “ sced,”.which may be formed in the pan itself or by using a “ footing” prepared outside the pan. (8) The me. should be dropped into a crystallizer which does not contain any residue from a previous boiling. 2