figures are available. Also, even with an assumed figure for C, the calculation of the neces- sary heating surface is not quite simple, However, it has been possible to construct a chart in the form of a nomogram* which can give a useful guide for the determination of the heating surfaces required in juice heaters ¢ see Fig. 5. How to use the chart wall be explained by examples based on the conditions shown in Fig. 4. According to Fig. 4 the first stage limed juice heater has to heat 100t/h from t, = 80 to t, = 180 with vapour having T= 212. If we connect on the chart the point on the seale for T— t, = 212 — 80 = 132 with the point on the scale for T— t, = 212 — 180 = 32 by a straight line, this intersects the central scale from which we get the readings of 1000 and 1300 for (a) and (6). For the stage of heating under consideration we may regard the conditions as favourable, because the mean temperature difference is great and because there is little likelihood of sealing. Thus we shall choose the reading (a) which indicates that for our 100t/h a heating surface of 1000 sq. ft. should be sulficient. Similarly we find for our second stage : T— t, = 230— 180 = 50, T— t, = 230-220 = 10, and the heating surface required 1100/1500 sq. ft. We see that in the second stage a greater heating surface is needed than in the first stage although far less heating is to be done. This is due to the relatively small temperature difference between steam and juice. This small temperature difference makes the conditions rather unfavourable, and there is also a greater likelihood of scale formation at the higher temperature of the juice, so that we should choose a heater of 1500 sq. ft. or even more. (The second stage has to make up any deficiency in the heating of the first staze). For the clarified juice pre-heater we find T — t, = 245 — 200 = 45, T— ty = 245-230 =I5 and the reading on the central scale 750/100. This means, for 1101/h, 825 sq. ft., assuming favourable conditions. A practical choice appears to be four equal juice heaters of 1000 sq. ft. each : one for 2nd vapour heating, two for Ist vapour heating and one as pre-heater. This is in good agreement with practical experience, though somewhat larger heaters might in fact be chosen for the sake of a greater safety margin. C.—Evaporator The conditions of heat transmission in the calandrias of evaporator vessels are entirely different from those prevailing in juice heaters. Many data and calculations have been Published, which could be applied to sugar factory evaporators, but theit application is difficult and they lead to no more definite a determination of the heating surfaces required than the simplified approach to the problem, which will be demonstrated here. (The effect of “ boiling point elevation ” will not be considered). Let us look first at a “ straight evaporator ” as assumed in Chapter VI B. Each of the four evaporator bodies has to evaporate 22+25t/h. If, as is common practice, the four bodies are made with equal heating surfaces, and if the coefficient of heat transmission, C, were the same in all four bodies, then the available temperature drop of (245 — 114) = 131°F would be equally divided into four steps of 33°F. We have, however, already assumed temperature drops (see steam table in VI) of (245— 230) = 15, (330—212) — 18, (212 — 179) = 33, and (179— 114) = 65°F. These temperature drops, from body to body, are in fact not pre-determined, but will adjust themselves automatically according to the value of C prevailing in each body. The lowest coefficient applies to the last body in which the juice is already highly concentrated and in which seale formation is likely to be greatest. Measurements have shown that C, may be 6 to 8 times as great as C,, when some scaling has taken place in all bodies, and most heavily in the last body. In fact the ratios between the coefiicients will vary quite unpredictably and the temperatures and pressures will adjust themselves to suit ; we can nevertheless control the total evaporation by controlling the steam pressure in the first calandria, * Based on: mean temp. dif. Am = 7