Francisco Javier Torrijo Echarri
Geotechnical Engineering, Techniques and Methods
Colección Académica
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Geotechnical Engineering,
Doctor en Geología e ingeniero civil. Profesor
UPV del Departamento de Ingeniería del Terreno
de la Universitat Politècnica de València. Ha
desarrollado su vida profesional en empresas
Techniques and Methods
geotécnicas, en el sector público y en el ámbito
universitario. Es subdirector del Departamento
de Ingeniería del Terreno, investigador del mis-
mo departamento y profesor visitante en diver-
sas universidades de Argentina, Ecuador y Perú.
ISBN 978-84-9048-911-6
Francisco Javier Torrijo Echarri | Julio Garzón Roca Imparte docencia en asignaturas de grado rela-
cionadas con la ingeniería geotécnica y la geo-
Guillermo Cobos Campos logía aplicada a la ingeniería civil. Sus líneas de
investigación actuales se centran en la interac-
ción suelo-estructura, el estudio de estabilidad
de taludes y el comportamiento de materiales
Geotechnical Engineering, rocosos en la construcción de túneles.
Techniques and Methods Julio Garzón Roca
Doctor en Ingeniería de Caminos, Canales y
Francisco Javier Torrijo Echarri | Julio Garzón Roca Puertos. Antiguo profesor del Departamento de
Guillermo Cobos Campos Ingeniería del Terreno de la Universitat Politèc-
nica de València (UPV) y actualmente trabaja
Infrastructures and buildings are built on a material that como investigador en el Departamento de Inge-
is heterogeneous in nature and whose properties are im- niería Civil y Medio Ambiente de la Universidad
posed by its origin: the ground. Soil or rock, the ground de Surrey (Reino Unido). Ha trabajado asimismo
plays an important role in the cost and viability of any in- como investigador en el Departamento de In-
frastructures and buildings during both their construction geniería de la Construcción y del Instituto de
and their operation. Thus, knowing the ground and properly Ciencia y Tecnología del Hormigón de la UPV,
y en el Departamento de Ingeniería Civil de la
characterizing it, stands essential. This Book deals with the
Universidade do Minho (Portugal). Además, ha
geotechnical engineering techniques and methods used to
desarrollado su vida profesional como consultor
carry out a useful and successful study of the ground. Begin- independiente de estructuras y geotecnia. Sus
ning by laying the foundations for a good geotechnical plan- líneas de investigación se centran en la interac-
ning, which must be supported on the use of appropriate ción suelo-estructura y el estudio de la estabi-
geological-geotechnical cartography, the Book shows the lidad de taludes.
different techniques for terrain recognition and ausculta-
tion, addresses the geotechnical description of rock masses Guillermo Cobos Campos
and summarizes the more common laboratory tests used in Doctor en Ingeniería de Caminos, Canales y
soils and rocks. All this based on the recommendations and Puertos. Profesor del Departamento de Ingenie-
principles given in relevant technical documentation such ría del Terreno de la Universitat Politècnica de
as the “Guía de Cimentaciones en Obras de Carretera” of València. Ha desarrollado su vida profesional en
Spain and the recommendations of the International Society empresas de ingeniería civil y en el ámbito uni-
for Rock Mechanics (ISMR). versitario. Imparte docencia en asignaturas de
grado relacionadas con la evaluación ambiental
en la ingeniería civil, la ingeniería geotécnica
y la geología aplicada en la ingeniería civil.
Corresponsal e investigador principal en Espa-
ña del World Glacier Monitoring Service, cuyo
objetivo es el estudio, seguimiento y evalua-
ción del estado de los glaciares. Sus líneas de
investigación actuales se centran en la cuanti-
ficación de los efectos del cambio climático y
su implicación en la modificación de los riesgos
geológicos e hidrológicos.
 Francisco Javier Torrijo Echarri
Julio Garzón Roca
Guillermo Cobos Campos

Geotechnical Engineering,
Techniques and Methods
Collection Académica

To cite this publication please use the following reference: Torrijo Echarri, F. J.;
Garzón Roca, J.; Cobos Campos, G. (2020). Geotechnical Engineering,
Techniques and Methods. Valencia: Universitat Politècnica de València

First edition, 2020 (printed version)

© Francisco Javier Torrijo Echarri

Julio Garzón Roca
Guillermo Cobos Campos

© 2020, Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València

sale: www.lalibreria.upv.es / Ref.: 0218_03_01_01

ISBN: 978-84-9048-911-6

If the reader detects a mistake in the book or wishes to contact the authors, he can send an
email to edicion@editorial.upv.es

The UPV Publishing House authorizes the reproduction, translation and partial dissemination of this
publication for scientific, educational and research purposes that are not commercial or for profit,
provided that the UPV Publishing House, the publication and the authors are duly identified and
recognized. The authorization to reproduce, disseminate or translate the present study, or compile or
create derivative works of the same in any form, for commercial / lucrative or non-profit purposes,
must be requested in writing by edicion@editorial.upv.es
 Index

Chapter 1. Geotechnical problems .................................................................................. 1

1.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Addressing the problem ....................................................................................... 2
1.2.1. Main principles .......................................................................................... 2
1.2.2. Conditioning factors .................................................................................. 2
1.2.3. Good practice rules to ensure the success of the works ............................. 2
1.2.4. Regulations in the field of Geotechnical Engineering and foundations .... 4
1.3. The geotechnical study ......................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2. Planning a geotechnical investigation ........................................................... 7

2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Information gathering ........................................................................................... 8
2.2.1. Basic data .................................................................................................. 8
2.2.2. Additional information .............................................................................. 9
2.3. Geotechnical investigation planning .................................................................. 11
2.3.1. General criteria ........................................................................................ 11
2.3.2. Type of investigations and number of points to be investigated ............. 12
2.3.3. Exploration depth .................................................................................... 15
2.3.4. Samples and tests ..................................................................................... 16
2.3.5. Geotechnical investigation of buildings .................................................. 17

Chapter 3. Geological-geotechnical cartography .......................................................... 21

3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 21
3.2. Types of cartography .......................................................................................... 21
3.3. Producing and using cartography ....................................................................... 23

III
Geotechnical Engineering, Techniques and Methods

3.3.1. Analytical cartography ............................................................................. 23

3.3.2. Synthetic cartography and geotechnical zoning....................................... 29
3.3.3. Working tools used for producing geotechnical maps ............................. 31

Chapter 4. Geotechnical investigation techniques......................................................... 33

4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 33
4.2. Trial pits ............................................................................................................. 34
4.2.1. Definition ................................................................................................. 34
4.2.2. Uses and limitations ................................................................................. 34
4.2.3. Typologies of trial pits ............................................................................. 36
4.2.4. Sampling and measurements ................................................................... 36
4.3. Boreholes ............................................................................................................ 38
4.3.1. Definition ................................................................................................. 38
4.3.2. Drilling techniques................................................................................... 38
4.3.3. Sampling and measurements ................................................................... 41
4.4. In situ tests .......................................................................................................... 44
4.4.1. Generalities .............................................................................................. 44
4.4.2. In-situ tests in the interior of boreholes and trial pits .............................. 44
4.4.3. Dynamic penetration tests ........................................................................ 48
4.4.4. Static penetration tests ............................................................................. 51
4.4.5. Flat dilatometer test ................................................................................. 52
4.5. Geophysical prospecting..................................................................................... 52
4.5.1. General considerations ............................................................................. 52
4.5.2. Geophysical methods ............................................................................... 53
4.6. Instrumentation and monitoring ......................................................................... 56
4.6.1. General considerations ............................................................................. 56
4.6.2. Measurement of displacements ................................................................ 57
4.6.3. Measurements of pore pressures .............................................................. 61
4.6.4. Measurement of strains ............................................................................ 62
4.6.5. Measurement of stresses .......................................................................... 63
4.6.6. Choosing instrumentation ........................................................................ 63

IV
 Index

4.7. Permeability tests on field .................................................................................. 65

4.7.1. Permeability in situ tests .......................................................................... 65
4.7.2. Pumping tests........................................................................................... 66
4.8. Estimation of costs of the geotechnical investigation ........................................ 67

Chapter 5. Rock masses description.............................................................................. 69

5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 69
5.2. Intact rock........................................................................................................... 70
5.2.1. Lithology and Petrology .......................................................................... 70
5.2.2. Basic properties ....................................................................................... 71
5.2.3. Mechanical properties ............................................................................. 71
5.3. Discontinuities.................................................................................................... 72
5.3.1. Types of discontinuities ........................................................................... 72
5.3.2. Quantitative description of discontinuities .............................................. 75
5.4. Rock masses ....................................................................................................... 79
5.4.1. Intrinsic features ...................................................................................... 79
5.4.2. Number of sets ......................................................................................... 79
5.4.3. Weathering .............................................................................................. 79
5.4.4. Stress state of the rock mass .................................................................... 81
5.4.5. Block size and degree of fracturing ......................................................... 81
5.4.6. Rock mass parameters ............................................................................. 81
5.4.7. Recovery and RQD.................................................................................. 83
5.4.8. Seepage and groundwater ........................................................................ 83
5.5. Describing rock masses ...................................................................................... 84
5.5.1. Description and zoning of the outcrop..................................................... 84
5.5.2. Geomechanical stations ........................................................................... 85
5.6. Geomechanical classification systems ............................................................... 85
5.6.1. Generalities .............................................................................................. 85
5.6.2. Rock Mass Rating (RMR) ....................................................................... 87
5.6.3. Quality index (Q-value) ........................................................................... 90

V
Geotechnical Engineering, Techniques and Methods

5.6.4. Use of the RMR and the Q-value ............................................................. 91

5.6.5. GSI system ............................................................................................... 94

Chapter 6. Laboratory tests on soils and rocks .............................................................. 95

6.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 95
6.2. Working methodology ........................................................................................ 95
6.2.1. Generalities .............................................................................................. 95
6.2.2. The sample ............................................................................................... 96
6.3. Basic tests ........................................................................................................... 98
6.3.1. General summary ..................................................................................... 98
6.3.2. Basic tests on soils ................................................................................... 98
6.3.3. Basic tests on rocks ................................................................................ 104
6.4. Mechanical tests ............................................................................................... 106
6.4.1. General summary ................................................................................... 106
6.4.2. Mechanical tests on soils ....................................................................... 106
6.4.3. Mechanical tests on the intact rock ........................................................ 110
6.4.4. Mechanical tests on the discontinuities.................................................. 114
6.5. Permeability tests.............................................................................................. 114
6.6. Chemical tests ................................................................................................... 115
6.6.1. General summary ................................................................................... 115
6.6.2. Organic matter content........................................................................... 116
6.6.3. Carbonates content................................................................................. 116
6.6.4. Soluble sulfates content ......................................................................... 116
6.6.5. pH determination ................................................................................... 116
6.6.6. Chemical analysis of pore water ............................................................ 116
6.7. Alterability tests................................................................................................ 117
6.7.1. General summary ................................................................................... 117
6.7.2. Pin-hole test ........................................................................................... 117
6.7.3. Collapse test ........................................................................................... 118
6.7.4. Swelling tests ......................................................................................... 118
6.7.5. Swelling test on rocks ............................................................................ 119

VI
 Index

6.7.6. Los Angeles test and Deval test ............................................................. 119

6.7.7. Rock alteration tests .............................................................................. 119
6.8. Other tests......................................................................................................... 121
6.8.1. Compaction of soils – Proctor test ......................................................... 121
6.8.2. CBR test ................................................................................................ 121
6.9. Estimation of costs of the tests ......................................................................... 121

Bibliography and references ....................................................................................... 123

Recommended bibliography ................................................................................... 123
References ............................................................................................................... 124

VII
 Chapter 1
Geotechnical problems

1.1. Introduction
Any practitioner who develops their activity on the design, construction or exploitation
of infrastructures is aware of the influence that the ground has on the cost and the via-
bility of their activities. From foundations to slope stability issues, the field cover by
Geotechnical Engineering is quite wide and unlike the structure of a bridge or the fa-
çades of a building, the output of solving the engineering problem is nearly in all cases
completely hidden (i.e. not visible). This leads to the generally misunderstood concept
of “saving”, as many investors (including the State itself) do not want to invest money
where no one will see it. However, a great disproportion usually exists between those
saving and the cost of repairing the damages caused by the lack of suitable geotech-
nical measures.
Solving a constructive issue which involves a geotechnical problem could in most cas-
es be considered a kind of handicraft. Combination of experience and a series of tech-
niques (which may be more or less accepted) are therefore needed, and they should
always be used together with some inspiration.
In Geotechnical Engineering almost any problem cannot be solved using the same
solution as used before and the same problem is often addressed by different practi-
tioners with different solutions. Fortunately, a series of rules and principles may be
identified to reach a technically and reasonable solution. An approach may be therefore
established which can be used to adequately face and address geotechnical problems.

1
Geotechnical Engineering, Techniques and Methods

1.2. Addressing the problem

1.2.1. Main principles

The approach to solve a geotechnical problem, despite not being possible to standard-
ize a general procedure, should be based on three main principles:
 The experience of the practitioner who addresses the new geotechnical prob-
lem. This is needed for identifying the geological environment, proposing a
proper ground study and different alternatives, selecting the appropriate calcu-
lation method and analyzing the results obtained.
 The quality of the work conducted. This includes the scope and aim of the
geological and geotechnical investigation, the parameters to be obtained, and
the adjustment of the techniques and methods to use.
 The safety of the proper solution to perform. This should be based, rather than
on a simple final ratio, on an assurance of each and every of the phases of the
work developed.

1.2.2. Conditioning factors

Infrastructure works are characterized by being frequently subjected to some condition-
ing factors which may sometimes result in, consciously or unconsciously, an incom-
plete evaluation of the geological and geotechnical risks.
Lack of resources is the most important and common conditioning factor. The lack of a
budget for geotechnical investigation, the lack of time to perform it, the limitations of
the works themselves, or even the need to perform the works at certain times, makes
the proposals not be developed in the ideal conditions of “quality-safety”, even though
the practitioners have the required experience.
Sometimes is the experience required the factor scarce on the work site. This might be
the consequence of not possible to have the right person, either by time or by term.
Under those circumstances the site work practitioners are forced to tackle a problem for
which they are not especially skilled, but whose solution is pressing.
For all these reasons, it is very important to have the tools to overcome the lack of time
and the resources to ideally develop the “experience-quality-safety” principles that
should guarantee any engineering work.

1.2.3. Good practice rules to ensure the success of the works

1.2.3.1 Experience
To ensure an approach based on experience, the first and main principle, the following
guidelines should be followed when facing a geotechnical problem:

2
 Geotechnical problems

 If the practitioner is not an expert in the problem, the most direct and easy so-
lution would be to contact a specialist in the topic. Unfortunately, this is not
always possible because of economic reasons or because of temporal or geo-
graphical unavailability.
 In order to partially overcome that absence, one should make use of the previ-
ous experience kept in existing documents and bibliography, such as:
o Designs and maps.
o Aerial photos.
o Previous studies of nearby areas.
o Technical texts.
o Technical articles (however, it is well known that obtaining texts in
the geotechnical field is difficult and sometimes even their practical
application in complex problems is unreliable to inexperienced practi-
tioners).
 Consulting the current legislation, standards and guidelines is essential, since
they reflect the previous experience accepted by the technical authorities in the
country and because it ensures, or at least partially covers, the responsibility of
the practitioner.
 The engineering team should include those practitioners from other specialties
that are necessary in the project and/or execution of the infrastructure/building.

1.2.3.2 Quality
In order to ensure the quality of the work, an aspect which should never be taken for
granted, the following measures should be addressed:
 Proposing a geotechnical investigation and exploration in accordance with the
existing ground and the typology of the works to be constructed, which should
consider:
o Types of investigations and explorations.
o Scope, number and magnitude.
o In-situ and laboratory tests.
o Performance conditions of each investigation and test.
 Having adequate resources to carry out the proposed geotechnical investiga-
tion without too many restrictions.
 Conducting the geotechnical investigation by experienced staff and accredited
companies.

3
Geotechnical Engineering, Techniques and Methods

 Supervising the geotechnical investigations on site by technicians and practi-

tioners specialized in these kinds of tasks.
 Rearranging and/or complementing the initial investigations when any possi-
ble information gap is detected, as well as when inconsistencies or doubts
about the results initially envisaged arise or when any change in the typology
of the projected works occurs.

1.2.3.3 Safety
Safety of the proposed solution should be based, besides and beyond the simple defini-
tion of a “coefficient”, in other important aspects such as:
 Ensuring the representativeness of the results obtained on site and in laborato-
ry tests.
 Identifying the main values of the materials properties.
 Selecting the appropriate design model.
 Contrasting the assumptions adopted in the design phase with the “real-scale”
observations in the implementation phase.
 Contrasting the expected results by monitoring the works, either by instrumen-
tation or by direct observation.

1.2.4. Regulations in the field of Geotechnical Engineering and foundations

Standards and guidelines are a tool of untold value. In fact, these are reference docu-
ments that bring together and collect the experiences of other experts. Regardless of its
scope or level of exigency, the existence of these documents is recognized for facilitat-
ing the work of the practitioners and for determining the success of their actions. Obli-
gations and restrictions, safety margins, rules and regulations regarding control as well
as similar aspects, must be understood as the result of experience, and not as mere ca-
prices of the legislators or practitioners who wrote it and demand their application.
Understanding that nowadays not all practitioners have the knowledge or capacity to
fully deal with the diversity of problems that arise in the performance of their activities
is vital. And sometimes asking for the right person is not easy or affordable, especially
in small works. Therefore, one should always take into account the available regula-
tions (both general guidelines and local standards) existing in the field of Geotechnical
Engineering, Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics.

1.3. The geotechnical study

Addressing and solving a geotechnical problem requires a complex process which in-
cludes several actions and activities such as gathering information, planning a series of
explorations and investigations, performing such explorations, conducting in-situ and

4
 Geotechnical problems

laboratory tests, analyzing the data, interpreting the results and proposing a geotech-
nical solution. That process is summarized in what is usually referred as “geotechnical
study”, which must be always elaborated following the three main principles (experi-
ence, quality and safety) and according to the existing standards and regulations.
Typically a geotechnical study covers the following three phases:
 Preliminary study: a compilation and analysis of pre-existing information is
carried out. Stratigraphy and basic geotechnical properties may be retrieved
from other previous geological (or even geotechnical) studies. This phase
should include a study of the different possible alternatives to tackle the prob-
lem as well as a preliminary design of the solution, together with the work
plan of the geotechnical investigations and explorations.
 Geotechnical investigation and exploration: fieldworks and laboratory tests are
conducted according to the geotechnical investigation planned. Works to carry
out should be programmed in a document, specifying all that issues considered
to be fundamental, relevant or important.
 Geotechnical report: finally, a report is produced. It must collect, summarize
and analyze all the previous information gathered and obtained. The report
must propose the values of relevant geotechnical parameters and include pro-
ject recommendations to be used as guidelines and background for future de-
signs and studies.

5
 Chapter 2
Planning a geotechnical
investigation

2.1. Introduction
Geotechnical investigations and explorations aim to establish the ground conditions in
order to define the viability, design and construction of engineering works. They de-
termine the nature of subsoil materials, allow the study of the geological, geotechnical,
hydrogeological and environmental conditions and set the geotechnical properties
needed for the design and construction of an infrastructure. Furthermore, in some cas-
es, the geotechnical investigation can be the cornerstone of a project, helping in the
selection of the most favorable infrastructure location and identifying potential ground
instability problems and possible geological hazards (like expansive clays, landslides
and floods).
Thus, geotechnical investigations are used in each phase of a project:
 In previous studies, geotechnical investigations are a part of the informative
studies and help in defining the viability of the project.
 In the preliminary project, geotechnical investigations are necessary for select-
ing infrastructure locations and solutions, and for estimating the project cost.
 In the designing project phase, geotechnical investigations have an influence
in the design, in the final definition of solutions and in the budget.

7
Geotechnical Engineering, Techniques and Methods

 In the construction phase, geotechnical investigations help in the verification

of the project and the control of it, and are used in the study of ground treat-
ments.
 During the exploitation phase, geotechnical investigations can be used for the
infrastructure monitoring, surveillance and control.

2.2. Information gathering

A geotechnical investigation always needs information. Two kinds of information
sources may be distinguished:
 Basic data, necessarily for a correct planning of the geotechnical study and
which should exist before any work.
 Additional information, gathered in different phases of the geotechnical study
and which contributes to the correct interpretation of the existing problems.

2.2.1. Basic data

When any geotechnical study is commissioned or initiated, data should be available, as
complete as possible, on the following points:
 Topographic map of the work area.
 Location of the planned structures and works.
 Future use of the planned structures and works.
 Work characteristics.
 Structure typology and materials (e.g. concrete, steel or precast walls).
 A top view of the structural layout.
 Order of magnitude of the loads at the foundation depth.
 Structure tolerances to total or differential movements and service limit condi-
tions.
 Eventual vibrations or thermal effects generated in the use of the structure.
 Expedited earthworks (excavations or fillings).
 Legal problems, accesses problems, availability of water and other similar as-
pects, which may affect the development of the geotechnical investigations.
Besides, any geotechnical studies performed previously in the area should be always
supplied by the person/entity who commissions the study, as well as any other infor-
mation available that affects any of the points dealt in the following section.

8
 Planning a geotechnical investigation

2.2.2. Additional information

Information to gather considered of great interest include:
 Local experience and background, which should reveal:
o In the specific case of foundations, foundation practices in the area.
o Possible geotechnical problems reflected in cracks, distortions or
movements.
o Problems of instability, landslides or subsidence affecting the studied
area.
o Previous uses of the site or the area (e.g. orchard, landfill, industry)
and especially those activities that may have led to hidden problems
(such as quarries, trenches, walls and archeological areas).
 Features of the area and its surroundings reflecting:
o Provisions relating to the protection of nearby buildings and public
services such as communication routes, waterways, pipelines, under-
ground or air utilities.
o Foreseeable or known obstacles in the area like buried pipes or collec-
tors, underground power lines or subway lines.
o Type and depth of adjacent foundations and retaining structures.
o Characteristics of dividing and surrounding structures.
 Local geology, covering the most relevant aspects:
o The stratigraphic, lithological and structural identification of the for-
mations in the area.
o The geomorphological characterization (e.g. alluvial plains, dejection
cones, moraines, paleochannels, thalwegs).
o The location of faults, fractures and other accidents that may affect
the projected works.
o The possible seismotectonic activity in the area.
o Active and/or potential instabilities of natural origin (e.g. landslides,
avalanches, subsidence, karstification) and/or artificial (e.g. dumps,
leaks of channels/pipes).
o Existence of organic, expansive and/or collapsible deposits.
o Erosion and scouring problems.

9
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