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Shalimar Monasterio
Rubén N. Zambrana M.
Universidad del Zulia. Venezuela
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Marco T. Cardozo R.
Fernando J. Martínez O.
Universidad Nacional Experimental de Guayana.
Universidad de Chile. Chile
Venezuela
Ramón G. Pérez V.
Jesús Medina
Universidad Tecnológica de La Habana José Anto-
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Williams Méndez
María Sindoni
Universidad Técnica de Manabí. Ecuador Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas.
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Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.
Ángel R. P. Paulo G. C.
México
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Contenido
Content/Sumário
Volumen 51, N° 90, abril 2023
1 Editorial
Petrophysic/Petrofísica
Workflow development to determine storage and flow capacities variations on
conventional reservoirs based on the petrophysical properties calibration at con-
fining pressures. Case studies from North and South America
Desarrollo de flujos de trabajo para determinar variaciones de capacidad de almacena-
miento y flujo en yacimientos convencionales con base en la calibración de propiedades
petrofísicas a presiones de confinamiento. Estudios de casos de América del Norte y
del Sur
Desenvolvimento de fluxo de trabalho para determinar variações de capacidade de ar-
mazenamento e vazão em reservatórios convencionais com base na calibração de pro-
priedades petrofísicas em pressões confinantes. Estudos de caso da América do Norte
e do Sul
5 Alfonso Quaglia, Rafael Panesso, Edilio Atencio, Juan Carlos Porras
Ingeniería económica/Economic engineering/Engenharia econô-
mica
Estudio de factibilidad técnico-económico de una fábrica de producción de leche
en polvo a base de bovino ubicada en el municipio Heres, estado Bolívar.
Technical-economic feasibility study of a factory for the production of powdered bovine
milk located in the municipality of Heres, Bolivar state.
Estudo de viabilidade técnico-econômica de uma fábrica de produção de leite em pó de
base bovina localizada no município de Heres, estado de Bolívar.
23 Iván de J. Quintero, Cesar Castellano, Osmar Diaz, Eritzamar Martinez
Technical opinion article on
Educación/Education/Educaçao
La importancia de las matemáticas en la ingeniería
33 Ángel Daniel Durango Zambrano
Environment/Ambiente/Meio ambiente
What is the commitment to environmental protection of South American countries com-
pared to benchmark countries, and what are the best practices and lessons learned to
follow?
41 Andres Yrigoyen, Alfonso Quaglia
Future of the global mining industry, based on the efforts made in recent years to redu-
ce the carbon footprint
53 Ángel R. P. Paulo G. C., José Herrero N.
Panorámica ambiental/Environmental overview/Panorãmica am-
biental
21 El cañón de plasma que puede traer energía ilimitada antes que la fusión nuclear.
29 6 inovações na produção de materiais que contribuem para tornar a construção “carbono zero”.
39 Cleantech startup aims to transform mine waste into a ‘climate solution’.
49 10 especies en peligro de extinción.
Editorial
Overview The well log data was availa- throat radius estimated from mer-
In the oil industry, it is es- ble in “.LAS” and “Excel” formats. cury injection capillary pressure
sential to determine detailed The study wells had density, neu- data.
petrophysical properties before tron and sonic logs, as well as
characterizing reservoirs and fin- resistivity, spontaneous potential, Panesso, R., Quaglia, A.
ding out its economic potential, spectral gamma and caliper logs. (2002). In their work, “Reserves
for which multidisciplinary teams Regarding the core data, the- re-estimation using Scal to vali-
and the use of new technologies re were conventional analyses, date SW model from neural net
are needed. Specific tools are uti- such as: core gamma, porosity, processed old logs. La Ceibita
lized to allow predicting the quali- permeability, grain density, pe- field, eastern Venezuela, case
ty and performance of reservoirs. trographic analyses and special study”. The petrophysical charac-
analyses such as capillary pres- terization had the objective of the
The core-to-log calibration sures, that were necessary to definition of rock types, which
is one of the primary practices perform the calibration of the pe- were classified according to the
that allows to improve the level trophysical models. The available estimated pore throat radius from
of certainty of formations evalua- data for this study is subject to mercury injection capillary pres-
tion, since from the integration confidentiality policies, therefore, sure data. In this paper, reserves
of the petrophysical properties details of exact geographic loca- volumes were calculated and
measured in rock samples, either tion or real names of the wells will successfully updated and increa-
from conventional or special core not be given. sed after redefining the contact
analysis, it is possible to compare location.
and furtherly calibrate with those The studied reservoirs are
obtained from well log analysis. geographically located in South Contreras, E. Garcia, P. (2007).
America and North America. A In their publication “Importan-
Commonly these core analy- total of 4 wells were used, which ce of planning, cutting, handling
ses are measured at 800 PSI are shown in table 1. and analysis activities of oil well
confining pressure, which are
considered Lab/standard condi- Table 1. Project Wells, regional Location & Reservoir nomenclature
tions from where the petrophysi-
cal properties such as porosity
and permeability are calibrated
for reservoir modeling, ignoring
the influence of overburden pres-
sure.
Following the methodology only necessary to perform depth vs. Porosity, resulting in trends
workflow (Figure 1), a series of adjustments and curve editing. that honored the set of samples
steps are briefly described: for the studied wells ALFA-1 and
Commonly in sampling pro- ALFA-2 as well as GAMMA-1 and
1.- Literature review and se- cesses, as is the case with dri- GAMMA-2. From the intersection
lection of best reservoir nature lling cores, the samples suffer of the formation factor (Y axis),
driven equations to determine mechanical damage, which pre- of the previously mentioned gra-
petrophysical properties: This vents the total recovery of the ph, for a porosity value equal to
activity included the bibliographic core in the drilled intervals of in- 1, the tortuosity factor was obtai-
compilation and consultation of terest, as a consequence a depth ned, a=1 for all the wells under
available references regarding gap is observed between the log study. In this same way, regarding
the study wells. It is important to data, and core data. Therefore, it the saturation exponent “n”, it was
mention that this research was is necessary to adjust the depths calculated by plotting the resisti-
supported by the work carried of the core data set. Usually, Core vity index vs. Water saturation,
out by Inter-Rock, C. A (Inter- gamma vs log gamma are used thus obtaining the slope “n”. (Inter-
Rock, 2009 and 2011). Regarding to match or Depth Shift the cur- Rock, 2009 and 2011)
the selection of equations, it was ves sets. Similar adjustments are
necessary to organize and classi- to be made for other data sets as 5.2.- Geothermal Gradient:
fy them in order to evaluate their core data (porosity, permeability, According to Inter-Rock, 2009, to
applicability, because the availa- saturation, XRD, among others). determine the geothermal gra-
ble data limit the application of Regarding the logs, there’s always dient of the study areas, data
certain equations at the time of the need to perform a curve edi- from Well log headers as bottom
the analysis to determine petro- ting process since sometimes, hole temperature and depth were
physical properties and parame- the used tools for petrophysical used to calculate the geothermal
ters. properties measurements yield gradient of the study areas from
erroneous readings for several the following equation:
2.- Available Core & Log reasons. These erroneous values
Data collection: The set of were corrected either for borehole GG= (T_2-T_1)/(P_2-P_1)
data collected is composed of irregularities or data acquisition.
well logs (acoustic, electrical, Where:
nuclear, lithological), and core 5.- Determination of pe- GG = Geothermal gradient
data, (Routine and special analy- trophysical parameters and
ses (porosity, permeability, grain properties: to determine the T_2 = Bottom hole tempera-
density, fluid saturation, capillary petrophysical parameters, the ture
pressure, among others). These measurements resulting from the
data were received in “. LAS” and electrical properties of cores in T_1 = Surface Temperature
“Excel”, which were subsequently the “A1” and “G1” formations were
P_2 = Bottom hole depth
uploaded to the Interactive Petro- used. (Inter-Rock, 2009 and 2011)
physics (IP) software. P_1 = Surface depth
5.1.- Cementation exponent
3.- Identification and clas- (m), saturation exponent (n), 5.3.- Formation water resis-
sification of data: This process tortuosity factor (a): based on tivity “Rw”: the calculation of
basically consisted of the orga- the study carried out by Inter- “Rw” is fundamental to estima-
nization and categorization of all Rock, 2009 and 2011, the cemen- te the water saturation “Sw” and
the existing data sets, for all the tation exponent “m” was estima- this in turn allows obtaining the
formations and each one case ted by plotting the formation factor oil saturation. There are several
studies, including all the studied methods from which this parame-
wells and its detailed core & log ter is determined, such as Pickett
inventory. plot, Through SP curve analysis,
physical-chemical analysis of
4.- Data Quality Control:
the formation water, this method
Quality control is determinative
being the most decisive as long
when it comes to the adequate
as the samples are representati-
certainty needed in petrophysical
ve of the formation water. For this
evaluations. This process encom-
investigation, “Rw” values were
passes different activities as sta-
taken from Inter-Rock’s 2009 and
ted by Inter-Rock, C.A (Figure 2).
2011 previous studies.
The data used for this project was
previously subjected to quality Figure 2. Well Log data prepara- 5.4.- Vclay Model: to determi-
control process, therefore, it was tion ne Vclay model, it was necessary
8 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Workflow development to determine storage and …
ρ_ma=∑ρ_i*V_i
Where:
Meanwhile, the Vcl calculations for GAMMA-1 RHOclayi=Density of each type of clay present
and GAMMA-2 wells were generated by applying in the samples, g/cm3.
the Larionov Older Rocks equation (Figure 3).
Vclayi=Volume (normalized@100% from XRD),
Larionov Older Rocks equation: of different types of clay present in the sample (Ta-
ble 2).
VclGR=0.333×(2^(2×IGR)-1)
ΦD = (rma-rb-Vcl(rma-rWetcl))/(rma-rflxSxo-rHyAp(1-Sxo))
Where:
rHyAp=2*rhden((10-2.5*rhden)/(16-2.5*rhden))
Where:
Neutron Porosity: The equations used to calculate porosity from the Neutron log are shown below:
ΦN=(neu-Vcl*NeuMatrix-Exfac+NeuSal)/(Sxo+(1-Sxo)*NeyHyHI)
Where:
Exfact=(ρma/2.65)2*(2*Swx*(Φx)**2+0.04*Φx)*(1-Swx)
Φx=Φ+Vc*NeuCl
Swx=(Φ*(Sxo+(1-Sxo)*NeuHyHI)+Vcl*NeuCl)/Φx
NeuHyHI=9*rhden*((4−2.5*rhden)/(16−2.5*rhden))
Density-Neutron Porosity: the equations used to calculate porosity from the combination of Den-
sity-Neutron logs are shown below:
ΦDN=ΦD1+((ΦN1−ΦD1)/(1−(ΦN1−ΦN2)/(ΦD1−ΦD2)))
Where:
ΦDN=Density-Neutron Porosity.
5.6.- Water saturation (Sw): for the determination of the water saturation model (Sw), this was calculat-
ed from the Archie equation for all studied wells.
Where:
Φ = Porosity (%).
Water saturation (Sw) curves were calculated directly from logs and compared with Laboratory saturation
analysis results. The described procedure was applied only to the ALFA-1 and GAMMA-2 wells because the
other wells did not have core saturation analysis.
5.7.- Permeability: The permeability for the ALFA-1 and ALFA-2 wells was determined from the k/phi
ratio obtained from core analyses. A core permeability (NOBP) vs. core porosity (NOBP) chart was made
from which equation the below equation was obtained, which allows calculating permeability from porosity.
Where:
In the case of the GAMMA-1 GAMMA-2 wells, the permeability was calculated using the Schlumberger
Chart K3 equation shown below:
K=10,000*(Phi4.5/Sw2)
KNOBP= 0.8512*KSTD(0.9893)
Figure 4. Porosity relationship between values at Where:
standard pressure conditions (STD) vs. overburden
(NOBP). Formation A1. KNOBP=Permeability under overburden condi-
tions (NOBP)
From figure 4, a Porosity NOBP vs. Standard
conditions calibration equation was obtained, which KSTD=Permeability at standard conditions
allows correcting porosity values for overburden (STD)
conditions (NOBP) to laboratory conditions (STD):
In the case of the G1 formation, an already es-
ΦNOBP=0.8896*ΦSTD+1.1839 tablished equation from a previous project carried
out by Inter-Rock, C.A (2009) was used and applied
In the case of the G1 formation, an already es- to calculate permeability at overburden conditions
tablished equation from a previous project carried (NOBP) from available permeability data at stan-
out by Inter-Rock, C.A (2009) was used and ap- dard conditions (STD):
plied to calculate porosity at overburden conditions
(NOBP) from available porosity data at standard KNOBP= 0.1042*KSTD(1.2983)
conditions (STD):
Where:
ΦNOBP=1.105*ΦSTD−2.514
KNOBP=Permeability to overload conditions
Where:
KSTD=Permeability at laboratory conditions
ΦNOBP=Porosity at overburden/confining condi-
tions (NOBP). The calibration of the permeability model was
performed in the same way as the previous porosity
ΦSTD=Porosity at laboratory/standard condi- model. A template was generated in which the per-
tions (STD). meability curves obtained from established equa-
tions with the help of core permeability from labora-
It is important to mention that these equations tory analysis at overburden conditions (NOBP).
will be used to determine the corrected porosity for
12 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Workflow development to determine storage and …
Tables 5, 6, 7 and 8, show Table 5. Average petrophysical properties and Net Reservoir thickness of
average petrophysical prop- project reservoirs at standard conditions (STD).
erties (volume of clay, effec-
tive porosity, water satura-
tion) either at standard (STD)
and net overburden pressure
(NOBP) conditions in the in-
terval of interest.
8.2.- Permeability variations: As a result of the permeability model evaluated at standard conditions
(STD), where frequency histograms are shown, the permeability curve at standard conditions (red curve)
and the permeability at overload conditions (NOBP) for the ALFA-1 and ALFA-2 wells, respectively. From
14 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Workflow development to determine storage and …
Histograms on figure 11 show the pore throat radius variations from standard conditions (STD – red
curves) to overburden conditions (NOBP – black curves). These variations resulted in 0.35 and 0.38 mi-
crons, which represent a decrease of 20% and 25% regarding the pore throat radius curve calculated at
overburden conditions (NOBP), for the GAMMA-1 and GAMMA-2 wells respectively.
8.4 Volumetric calculations of reserves: or also known as Original hydrocarbon in place for this work
(OHIP) was obtained from the hydrocarbon reservoir thickness and the petrophysical properties average
such as porosity and saturation, assuming an area equal to 1 acre (A= 1 acre) and volume factor equal to
GEOMINAS, abril 2023 15
A.Quaglia, R. Panesso, E. Atencio, J. C. Porras
9- Discussion: the
proposed petrophysical
workflow that considers
variations between stan-
dard and confining pres-
sure conditions definitely
helps. It allows a scientific
and realistic observation
of a laborious process
through which resulting Figure 11. Pore throat radius variation at standard conditions (STD) and overbur-
petrophysical properties den conditions (NOBP). Alfa-1 (left) & Alfa-2 (Right).
can be related using sta-
tistical charts. Such petrophysical properties are
Table 9. Variations (%) of original hydrocarbon in place directly related to reserves, flow capacity and
(BN per Acre/Foot). storage capacity of the reservoir. It is well known
they would tend very often to be reduced de-
pending on the confinement pressure, which are
associated with lithology, fluids, compaction, and
stress regime to which the studied formations
are subjected. It is also important to highlight
that this workflow becomes extremely important
when it comes the time to get a realistic volume
of reserves number in order to low the uncertainty in the determination of the original hydrocarbon in place
(OHIP) which represent the most important factor in an asset evaluation. It will support a better budget plan
and will aim for a more successful reservoir management. Among other things, there is the determination of
the reservoir quality, which is evaluated through a rock type model and is determined from the pore throat ra-
dii that also vary depending on the conditions under which they are calculated; either at standard conditions
(STD) or at net confinement conditions (NOBP), where it can be observed that with the reduction of the pore
throat radius when applying the net effective stress, this directly affects the rock type classification resulting
to be of almost always lower rock quality. In the case of the A1 formation, in both wells, it is observed that
part of the Megaporous rocks became Macroporous due to the effect of the overburden pressure. In the
same way, G1 formation decreases
in rock quality with respect to the
standard conditions due to partial
reduction in pore throat radius due
to the effect of overburden pressure.
Figures 12, 13, 14 and 15 show pie
charts with Rock Types variations
from standard conditions (STD) to
overburden conditions (NOBP).
Figure 12. Rock Types PIE CHART (STD) and (NOBP) conditions.
Alpha-1 well.
16 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Workflow development to determine storage and …
Regarding the volumetric calculation of reserves (OHIP) under overburden conditions, this decreased
approximately 22% for A1 Reservoir, while in reservoir G1 the volume of reserves experimented a reduction
of approximately 14%. Table 10 show variations in (%) of the petrophysical properties and the Hydrocarbon
in Place.
For the great majority of the formation analysts, this workflow may appear a pretty straight forward pro-
cedure and that could be true; nevertheless, the main objective of this matter is related to its importance in
reservoir characterization and volumetric estimations since most of the studies worldwide omit this issue,
with the further consequences either in over estimating reserves or mislead economic feasibility studies.
3. Petrophysics calculations:
this phase of the workflow deter-
mines the necessary petrophys-
ical parameters and properties
in order to obtain Vclay, porosity,
water saturation permeability and
Rock type models.
4. Core-to-Log Calibration:
consists of performing the cali-
brations between properties and
petrophysical parameters deter- Figure 17. Core-Log calibration, Well ALFA-1.
Glover, P. (2001). Petro- lar por inyec- La Ceibita field, Theys, P. (1999). Log
physics. Depart- ción de mercu- Eastern Ven- data acquisition
ment of Geology rio. Geominas ezuela, case and quality con-
and Petroleum- 48(82), Agosto study. Congre- trol. 2da edicion.
Geology, Uni- 2020. Recuper- so Anual SCA Paris, Francia.
versity of Aber- ado de https:// (Society of Core Editorial Tech-
deen. Scotland, sites.google. Analysts), SCA nics.
Aberdeen. com/view/ 2002-47, Califor- Tiab, D., Donaldsond,
Montilva, A., Porras, geominason- nia, USA. E. (2004). Petro-
J., Panesso, R. line/home/au- Rider, M. (1996). The physics: theory
y Quaglia, A. thors/82/82-5 geological in- and practice of
(2020). Análi- Panesso, R., Quaglia, terpretation of measuring res-
sis comparativo A. (2002). Re- well logs. 2da ervoir rock and
para los rangos serves re-es- edicion. Suther- fluid transport.
de propiedades timation using land, Escocia. GULF Profes-
petrofísicas us- Scal to validate Editorial Rid- sional publish-
ando diferentes SW model from er-French Con- ing Boston,
métodos de neural net pro- sulting Ltd. pp USA.
presión capi- cessed old logs. 14-21.
Conciencia conservacionista
Jesús Díaz. El Confidencial experimentos a escala 1:1 con gran éxito — será
Seis años. Eso es lo que tardaremos en ver la pri- en un prototipo que arrancará en 2024. Si va bien,
mera central eléctrica que promete un nuevo tipo de “la primera operación comercial arrancará en 2028”,
explotación geotérmica que nos dará electricidad ili- asegura el ingeniero, que utilizará sistemas de per-
mitada y barata a escala planetaria. Todo gracias foración de ondas milimétricas para poder excavar
al magma, corriendo por tubos kilométricos exca- más allá de lo que nadie ha conseguido jamás. En
vados en la corteza terrestre por perforadoras de las imágenes que acompañan este artículo se pue-
plasma desarrolladas en el Instituto Tecnológico de de ver cómo será la primera central experimental.
Massachusetts (MIT).
Mucho antes que la fusión nuclear
Si el proyecto tiene éxito — y parece que van por
buen camino, a juzgar por su desarrollo en los úl- “La geotermia puede proporcionar la escala de
timos meses — será una revolución energética sin energía adecuada para nuestra civilización y cuen-
igual en la historia de la humanidad. Es una tecno- ta con una mano de obra, una cadena de suminis-
logía que, según me cuenta Carlos Araque — inge- tro y un marco normativo establecidos para hacerlo
niero del MIT, CEO y cofundador de Quaise — está más rápidamente que la fusión”, me dice Araque. “La
mejor posicionada que la fusión para ofrecer electri- geotermia funciona. La fusión aún no.” La idea de
cidad ilimitada a escala planetaria. Quaise es perforar directamente en los lugares en
los que ya existen centrales térmicas tradicionales,
Araque dice que el primer test fuera del labora- que usan combustibles fósiles. Primero usarán sis-
torio — donde ya han llevado a cabo numerosos temas de perforación tradicionales para llegar a los
*
https://www.elconfidencial.com/tecnologia/novaceno/2022-11-24/energia-termica-plasma-magma_3529091/?fbclid=IwAR0M78xAAzxZIPhZXm2Y2Gzg52Z-2-Si8sjmQjFmnflVvGST_SvCQ3P9fSI
GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023 21
Panorámica ambiental
Arquitectura de la primera central de pruebas. Obsér- La energía ilimitada de Quaise pasa por perforar la
vese la escala por los containers azules. (Cortesía de tierra hasta una profundidad de 20 kilómetros en cual-
Quaise). quier parte del mundo.
cinco kilómetros de profundidad, mecánicas. A esta profundidad, euros.
algo normal en la industria de la accederán a una temperatura lo
extracción de gas o petróleo. En suficientemente alta como para El acceso a una cantidad virtual-
ese punto, pasarán a su taladro hacer funcionar una turbina de mente ilimitada y constante de
de energía dirigida. una central térmica. Una vez calor también permitiría que la
adaptadas, las centrales tradicio- humanidad continúe avanzando
El taladro fue inventado en el nales pasarían a utilizar el ese sin generar CO2. Según las es-
MIT por Paul Woskov — uno de poder calorífico. timaciones, podríamos alimentar
los cofundadores Quaise — que la civilización durante 20 millones
creó este sistema de perforación El santo grial de la ener- de años usando sólo el 0,1% de
usando un girotrón. A grandes gía su calor. Libre de límites energé-
rasgos, este aparato derivado de ticos, también se podría generar
los tubos de vacío utiliza un haz Si, como afirman los científicos hidrógeno verde en cualquier
de electrones que se amplifica de Quaise, podemos llegar a esta parte, lo que serviría para elec-
en cavidad hueca de resonancia. profundidad en cualquier parte trificar el transporte con un uso
Dentro hay un campo magnético del mundo, conseguiremos una limitado de las baterías de litio.
que acelera estos electrones a fuente energética ilimitada duran- Tambié dejaríamos de depender
velocidades relativistas, amplifi- te las 24 horas del día por un cos- de las renovables — que son
cando de forma radical la ener- te muy reducido. El acceso global intermitentes por naturaleza y
gía de las microondas. El resul- a la energía geotérmica elimina- requieren de soluciones de alma-
tado es que el haz de energía ría la necesidad de combustibles cenamiento, caras y tóxicas como
que sale del taladro de Woskov fósiles de un plumazo. Todos los las baterías. En definitiva, podría-
es capaz de vaporizar cualquier países serían totalmente autosu- mos quitarnos de encima todas
roca imaginable. ficientes. En poco tiempo, esta las plantas solares, hidráulicas,
fuente de energía gratuita podría atómicas y eólicas que afectan a
Los ingenieros de Quaise asegu- abaratar la factura de la luz a pre- la vida salvaje reclamando esos
ran que su nuevo taladro de ener- cios ridículos, afirma la compa- espacios para la naturaleza. Es-
gía dirigida llegará sin problemas ñía. En Islandia, por ejemplo, la peremos que tengan éxito y re-
a profundidades de hasta 20 ki- factura energética media — que suelvan los retos técnicos que
lómetros, una distancia totalmen- incluye electricidad, calefacción y tienen por delante. Tendremos la
te imposible con perforadoras agua caliente — es de unos 22 respuesta en sólo dos años.
más de una clase”; de acuerdo a lo planteado se El estudio técnico estará basado en una se-
establece que la presente investigación se ubica cuencia de 6 aspectos fundamentales, primero la
como tipo exploratorio y descriptivo, la investigación elección de la ubicación idónea de la fábrica, pos-
se expone en un inicio de tipo exploratorio porque teriormente el establecimiento del tamaño óptimo,
permitirá obtener datos y elementos fundamentales descripción del proceso productivo para la fabrica-
que conducirán a formular con mayor precisión las ción de los productos, consecutivamente se deter-
interrogantes de la investigación, ubica en un enfo- minarán los recursos y equipos requeridos y por
que descriptivo, ya que comprende la descripción, último la distribución más eficiente para la fábrica.
análisis e interpretación de la naturaleza registrada
hasta la actualidad, además se trabaja en la reali- La localización de la planta se determinó me-
dad de los hechos para una correcta interpretación diante dos aspectos diferentes como lo son la ma-
de los datos y así obtener un buen resultado en la cro y micro localización, la macro localización se
investigación. encuentra comprendida por el municipio Heres del
estado Bolívar, por lo tanto, por ser una planta que
Los datos han sido obtenidos por el Instituto Na- contará con bovinos se ha determinado que la lo-
cional de Estadística (INE), el cual ha proyectado calización se establezca en las parroquias rurales,
para el 2018 una población en el municipio Heres de las cuales son: Orinoco, Panapana y Zea, o ya sea
427.399 personas, de allí que la muestra de estudio en las urbanas alejadas del entorno urbanístico,
estará representada por 384 individuos, con un 95 como lo es la parroquia Marhuanta. En la micro lo-
% de confiabilidad, y un error muestral de 5 % calización se eligió el punto exacto ubicado dentro
de las parroquias de la macro localización para la
ubicación idónea de la planta, por medio del méto-
Análisis de resultados do de los factores ponderados, ya que este permite
estudiar los factores que influyen directamente en la
Con la realización del proyecto se pretende pro-
decisión para la ubicación de la planta, por lo tanto,
ducir leche en polvo a base de bovino, en su pre-
se describen a continuación los factores relevantes
sentación entera y descremada. El estudio estará
para la selección de la localización: tamaño del te-
basado en la caracterización del producto, el cual
rreno, servicios básicos, medios de transporte, co-
comprende los atributos físicos y funcionales, usos
municaciones y facilidad de acceso, cercanía con
y requisitos físico-químicos. A demás se definirá la
el mercado.
comercialización del producto, la cual engloba el
análisis del precio, establecimiento de los canales El tamaño óptimo de la fábrica estará estableci-
de distribución y estrategias de promoción de ven- do por la demanda potencial insatisfecha, primero
tas y publicidad se debe determinar la capacidad diseñada de la fá-
brica o el volumen máximo que tendrá la producción
La leche en polvo debe cumplir con los requisi-
y se establece por el 10 % de la demanda poten-
tos físico-químicos establecidos en la norma CO-
cial insatisfecha, obtenida la capacidad diseñada
VENIN 1481:2001. (Ver tabla 1).
se determina el volumen de producción
Tabla 1. Requisitos físico-químicos de la leche en polvo (Norma
diario, con este se determinará la can-
COVENIN 1481, 2001). tidad de leche líquida por producto y
total requerida, una vez determinada la
cantidad de litros de leche líquida se fija
la cantidad de ganado requerido para
cumplir con la producción.
Tabla 2. Producción diaria, mensual y anual para el año 2018. y gastos para su constitución, los
mismos están conformados por
la inversión del proyecto, los cos-
tos operacionales, depreciación y
amortización, punto de equilibrio,
el balance general, el estado de
resultado proforma y por último
el cronograma de inversiones del
proyecto para el estudio de los
costos y gastos requeridos na-
cionales se utilizó la reconversión
de bolívares soberanos (BsS) a
dólares estadounidenses (US$),
con la igualdad de 1 US$=61,120
establecido por Dicom el día 29
de agosto del 2018.
Conclusiones
De acuerdo con los resultados es-
tablecidos, se obtiene que se tiene la
capacidad para soportar un aumento
en los costos operacionales del 40 %
seguir siendo económicamente rent-
able.
la producción para seguir siendo y así incursionar en diversos era en Venezuela. Su evolu-
rentable económicamente, que el segmentos del mercado. ción. Caracas, Venezuela.
precio de venta puede disminuir FAO. (2016). Organización de las
hasta un 15 % para seguir siendo • Establecer estrategias para naciones unidas para la ali-
rentable económicamente frente convertirse en el líder del mer- mentación y la agricultura. 15
a un riesgo de mercado, y que cado, es otra de las recomen- de diciembre de 2017. Obteni-
los costos pueden aumentar en daciones específicas, con la do FAO.
un 40 % y el proyecto seguirá finalidad de ir en constante cre- FAO. (2017). Organización de las
siendo rentable frente a un riesgo cimiento en el mercado. naciones unidas para la ali-
financiero. mentación y la agricultura. 15
de diciembre de 2017. Obtenid
Referencias do FAO.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística.
Recomendaciones Arias, F. (2006). El proyecto de Demográficos, proyecciones
• Al obtener un proyecto técnico investigación. Editorial Epis- de población. 10 de junio de
y económicamente rentable, se teme. 5.ª edición, p 23 - 74. 2018. Obtenido de INE.
recomienda ejecutar el mismo Baca, G. (2013). Evaluación de Martínez, J. (2017). El cooperan-
con las características realiza- proyectos. McGraw-Hill Inter- te. 15 de diciembre de 2017.
das. americana Editores, S.A. Sép- Obtenido de El Cooperante.
tima edición. p 208 – 234. Norma Venezolana COVENIN
• Estudiar la posibilidad del
CAVILAC. Cámara Venezolana 1481:2001. (2001). Leche en
diseño de nuevas gamas de
de Industrias Lácteas. (CAVI- polvo. 15 de junio de 2018.
productos, con el fin de abarcar
LAC) 2008. La industria lech- Obtenido de SENCAMER.
las necesidades de los clientes
tivas em 2021, com a utilização Cocolitóforos são uma espécie na produção do cimento libera-
de 1 milhão de toneladas de de algas brancas que capturam ria apenas dióxido de carbono
resíduos. Na prática, isso resul- dióxido de carbono do ar através que foi previamente extraído da
tou em uma redução de 833 mil da fotossíntese. As algas criam atmosfera durante a vida das
toneladas de emissões de CO2 carbonato de cálcio, que pode algas. Ou seja, assim seria pos-
– e evitou o consumo de 525 mil ser usado como substituto do sível neutralizar as emissões da
toneladas de coque de petróleo. calcário extraído da terra na pro- fabricação do cimento.
dução de cimento.
Em contraste, o aquecimento do
calcário vindo da terra libera car-
bono armazenado por milhões
de anos. A estimativa é que a
substituição do calcário extraído
pelo produzido pelas algas pos-
sa evitar duas gigatoneladas de
emissões de dióxido de carbono
por ano.
#3 Tecnologia para captura
de CO2 na fabricação do ci-
mento
Outro exemplo de inovação que
visa neutralizar as emissões de
dióxido de carbono na produção
do cimento é uma solução da fa-
bricante Hanson.
A tecnologia, chamada C-Captu-
re, utiliza um solvente para captu-
Centro de coprocessamento de pneus não utilizáveis na fábrica da rar seletivamente o CO2 produzi-
Votorantim Cimentos em Rio Branco do Sul (PR) – Foto: Divulgação. do. Esse processo utiliza 40%
menos energia do que outros
#2 Cimento feito com ajuda
de algas
O processo atual de fabricação
do cimento Portland, um dos
materiais de construção mais
comuns do mundo, consiste em
extrair o calcário de pedreiras e
aquecê-lo em temperaturas altas.
Como resultado desse aque-
cimento, o carbono que ficaria
preso na terra é liberado na at-
mosfera na forma de dióxido de
carbono – o que contribui direta-
mente para o aquecimento glo-
bal.
Uma tecnologia desenvolvida na
Universidade de Colorado pro-
mete ajudar a diminuir o impacto
da fabricação deste insumo. Ins- Wil Srubar, líder do trabalho e diretor do Laboratório de Materiais Vivos
pirados pela produção de calcá- da Universidade do Colorado Foto: Glenn Asakawa/CU Boulder.
rio que acontece nos recifes de
corais, os pesquisadores criaram Isso pode ser um divisor de processos de captura de carbo-
um método que utiliza microalgas águas, afinal, com o calcário no, o que reduz significativamen-
na fabricação do cimento. produzido pelos cocolitóforos, te o custo da descarbonização do
o aquecimento que acontece cimento.
Imagem: Divulgação.
Além do projeto nas fábricas de Ketton, também es- concreto obtidos da demolição de edifícios.
tão sendo realizados testes com essa solução na
Através de um processo chamado mineralização, o
indústria de vidro e em uma usina de resíduos para
dióxido de carbono é permanentemente ligado ao
energia. Se for bem-sucedida, a tecnologia poderá
concreto.
ser implementada em outros locais, com previsão
de instalações C-Capture em escala comercial até Os agregados de concreto tratados dessa maneira
2030. são, então, adicionados ao concreto fresco, como
substituto do cascalho.
As misturas de concreto podem
ser otimizadas com o objetivo de
reduzir a quantidade de cimento
utilizada. Menos cimento equivale
a menos emissões de CO2. Assim,
até 20kg de novas emissões de
CO2 por m³ de concreto fresco são
evitados.
Segundo a Neustark, já é possível
armazenar cerca de 10 kg de CO2
permanentemente em um me-
tro cúbico de concreto fresco. Até
2025, a empresa estima aumentar
esse valor para mais de 150 kg de
CO2 por metro cúbico.
Imagem: Divulgação. #5 Materiais de construção
#4 Concreto reciclado que
armazena CO2
Neutralizar as emissões de carbo-
no durante a fabricação do cimen-
to pode ser uma boa alternativa.
Mas e se formos e além e pen-
sarmos que o próprio cimento po-
deria ajudar a capturar o CO2 da
atmosfera? E melhor, se utilizar-
mos concreto reciclado que seria
descartado na natureza? Essa é
justamente a ideia da tecnologia
desenvolvida pela Neustark.
De maneira resumida, funciona
assim:
A empresa mistura CO2 captura-
do da atmosfera a agregados de Imagem: Divulgação.
GEOMINAS, abril 2023 31
Panorámica ambiental
Ángel D. Durango Z.
var en nuevas tecnologías o de trabajo, los teléfonos que ya que es este profesionista
crear nuevas herramientas se comunican con nosotros a el que se dedica al estudio
que permitan a la industria largas distancias, el horno de de las matemáticas y es, a su
mejorar la producción. microondas y el refrigerador vez, apasionado de la tecno-
que nos ayudan a proporcio- logía.
La investigación matemá- narnos los alimentos adecua-
tica permitirá a los ingenieros dos que requerimos así como
desarrollar la capacidad de todos los demás equipos que
identificar, explicar, represen- El papel de las matemáti-
en mayor o menor medida uti- cas en la ingeniería
tar y simular problemas que lizamos en nuestra vida dia-
surgen en la industria para ria han sido producto, todos De todas las herramien-
mejorar los procesos asocia- ellos, de la aplicación de las tas que tienen los ingenieros
dos a estos problemas. matemáticas. para resolver sus problemas
profesionales, las matemáti-
Hoy en día la tecnología cas son una de las más va-
Las matemáticas en la es parte de la educación, liosas. Las técnicas matemá-
ingeniería existen dos medios que son ticas, junto con las ciencias
teóricamente opuestos entre naturales aplicadas, son el
No hay ingeniería sin ma- si, por un lado están los tra- fundamento en todos o casi
temáticas. Para los ingenie- dicionalistas que creen que todos los trabajos, dispositi-
ros, es importante no creer en las matemáticas deben cono- vos o procesos desarrollados
las matemáticas en sí, sino cerse y entenderse precisa- por los ingenieros, por lo que
creer en su aplicación. Las mente para poder continuar es muy importante que los
matemáticas aplicadas son el progreso de la ingeniería, futuros ingenieros actualicen
las que han hecho posible por otro lado, los que piensan y desarrollen constantemente
concretar el desarrollo alcan- que la tecnología es el único sus conocimientos matemá-
zado por las ciencias exactas medio para su progreso, la ticos y aprendan a aplicarlos
de la ingeniería. educación a distancia, las con seguridad y eficacia.
videoconferencias, los saté-
Los ingenieros estudian fí- lites, las materias virtuales, La ingeniería sin números
sica para la humanidad, pero muchas novedades presentan y cálculos no existe; la habili-
debemos considerar como un gran panorama de temas dad matemática es un requi-
estudiamos, la respuesta educativos, aunque el tema sito esencial para la práctica
está en las matemáticas, que de las matemáticas o cual- exitosa de la ingeniería. Los
son un producto de la mente quier otra materia involucrada estudiantes de ingeniería y
humana. Son el medio más parece ser de carácter secun- los aspirantes a ingenieros
poderoso por el cual las per- dario. necesitan aprender una gran
sonan comprenden el mundo cantidad de conocimientos
que las rodea. Sin embargo, Es necesario apreciar que relacionados con las matemá-
es un hecho indiscutible que el fin está olvidado, lo que ticas: álgebra lineal, álgebra
la aplicación de las matemáti- hay que decidir es cuál es el superior, integración, diferen-
cas ha llevado a la ingeniería medio adecuado, a pesar de ciación, ecuaciones diferen-
al estado que ocupa hoy, y que la respuesta sea ¨ningu- ciales, etc.
ellas tienen principios muy no¨ porque si desconozco el
antiguos. fin para qué se quiere los me- Es indispensable que el
dios. Lo que se busca nunca ingeniero sea hábil y ágil en
Los avances técnicos que se va a encontrar en alguna los cálculos, aprende atajos
hemos mencionado más de posición polarizada, ni una para obtener resultados rá-
una vez son tangibles y ob- educación para el ingeniero pidamente con una precisión
jetivos gracias a los disposi- saturada de matemáticas, razonable, y es importante
tivos tecnológicos que cada y menos en una educación usar el sentido común al dar
vez son más parte de nuestra para formar ingenieros opera- respuestas numéricas a algún
vida cotidiana, como por dores de tecnología. El caso problema.
ejemplo: los vehículos que particular de la ingeniería
nos llevan a nuestros lugares provoca especial confusión
34 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Future of the global mining industry, based on the...
satisfacer los propósitos declarados en el cu- • ¿cómo evaluar los aprendizajes para
rrículum, hay numerosos retos que pueden que los juicios que se emitan certifiquen que
visualizarse tanto desde las perspectivas insti- los alumnos han recibido la formación y han
tucionales como individuales. desarrollado las competencias esperadas, que
son de más largo alcance?
Desde la perspectiva institucional cabe
plantearse asuntos que están en el tapete de Creemos que está fuera de discusión, la
la discusión de este momento, tales como: necesidad de que la educación matemática de
los futuros ingenieros sea:
a) necesidad de acortar las carreras en
su tiempo de duración para una incorporación a) tan sólida como las condiciones institu-
temprana de los nuevos profesionales al mun- cionales lo permitan;
do laboral;
b) forjadora de personas competentes
b) la derivación hacia el postgrado de para resolver problemas;
ciertos conocimientos especializados;
c) formadora de personas creativas y con
c) la definición de los perfiles profesiona- disposición para la investigación;
les en términos de competencias;
d) promotora de individuos con capacidad
d) la pertinencia social de la universidad para el uso de instrumentos de apoyo (calcu-
y de los profesionales que está preparando; ladoras, computadores), y
e) la homologación de los estudios de e) impulsora de personas con conciencia
ingeniería a niveles nacionales e internaciona- de la importancia del trabajo en equipo.
les.
La evaluación de los aprendizajes no
Los esfuerzos para abordar estas condicio- puede disociarse del proceso de enseñanza-
nes afectan directamente el diseño de cursos, aprendizaje de manera que, entre otras consi-
particularmente la elección de contenidos deraciones se debe:
y métodos, con el potencial de optimizar el
siempre escaso tiempo asignado a las tareas, a) inspirar en un modelo que no sólo
cada vez más exigentes, de investigación, do- contemple los avances del estudiante, sino
cencia y extensión universitaria. también permita redireccionar las tareas que
se han planificado;
Los docentes enfrentan nuevos desafíos en
el sentido de que dejan las responsabilidades b) contemplar variados eventos objetivos
tradicionales: monopolio del conocimiento, (exámenes, pruebas, ejercicios, presentación
transferencia de conocimiento, líder del tra- de informes), y subjetivos (apreciación de la
bajo de los estudiantes y único organizador dedicación o disposición al trabajo encomen-
de los planes de estudios, y reemplazan o se dado);
superponen con los siguientes roles: díagnos- c) considerar la autoevaluación y coeva-
ticador, especialista en recursos, buscador de luación como registros del comportamiento
valor, investigador, coordinador, organizador ante los retos y con indicadores específicos,
de estudios de casos y grupos de producción. tales como: participación, responsabilidad, ca-
Las grandes interrogantes siguen siendo lidad de las intervenciones y presentaciones,
las más antiguas de todas las que rodean el pertinencia de los aportes, y consideraciones
acto pedagógico: para la validación del trabajo realizado.
sea muy hábil y diestro en el tienen como fundamento los mación del ingeniero.
manejo de sus cálculos, que llamados métodos numéricos. (s/f). Recuperado el
sepa llegar a los resultados 6 de enero de 2023,
rápidamente, con aceptable Las matemáticas son la de https://reader.digi-
exactitud, y que use su senti- base de todas las carreras talbooks.pro/content/
do común cuando tenga que relacionadas con las ciencias preview/books/66918/
dar respuesta numérica a al- exactas, pues un ingeniero book/OEBPS/chap-
gún problema. necesita desarrollar cuestio- ter07.xhtml
nes numéricas y de manejo
Las matemáticas des- de datos para poder realizar La enseñanza de la mode-
empeñan un papel muy im- su trabajo de una forma efec- lación matemática
portante en el avance y el tiva. en ingeniería. (s/f).
desarrollo de la ingeniería. Recuperado el 6 de
Gracias a ellas, los ingenieros enero de 2023, de
pueden cuantificar de manera Bibliografía http://ve.scielo.org/
más precisa las diferentes scielo.php?script=sci_
variables que intervienen en Aliat. (2020, enero 22). Impor- arttext&pid =S0798-
un proyecto de ingeniería y tancia de las matemá- 40652010000300005
el impacto en la sociedad de ticas en la ingeniería.
sus diseños. Onaliat. https://onaliat. ¿Para qué sirven las mate-
mx/blog/index.php/ma- máticas en la carrera
Las matemáticas apli- tematicas-en-el-estu- de ingeniería? - Quora.
cadas, como la estadística, dio-de-una-ingenieria/ (s/f). Recuperado el 6
cuyas bases son el cálculo de enero de 2023, de
diferencial, el cálculo integral, Balderrama, R. I. (s/f). Las https://es.quora.com/
el álgebra lineal, entre otras, Matemáticas en la In- Para-qu%C3%A9-
o más recientemente el di- geniería. sirven-las-
seño y la programación de matem%C3%A1ticas-
los modernos computadores, Introducción a la ingeniería: en-la-carrera-de-
cuya lógica y procedimientos Una perspectiva desde ingenier%C3%ADa
el currículo en la for-
Conciencia conservacionista
Keith Arnold. Climate March 2019 in New York, New York. Obtenido de: https://www.
worldwildlife.org/descubre-wwf/historias/5-formas-en-las-que-wwf-ayudo-a-combatir-la-crisis-
climatica-en-2022
38 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Panorámica ambiental
Environmental overview
Panorãmica ambiental
*
https://www.mining.com/cleantech-startup-aims-to-transform-mine-waste-into-a-climate-solution/?utm_source=Daily_Digest&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=MNG-DIGESTS&utm_content=cleantech-startup-
aims-to-transform-mine-waste-into-a-climate-solution
GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023 39
Panorámica ambiental
Overview
One approach: The increase in the earth’s average
temperatures is generally referred to as global warming.
This increase in the earth’s average temperature has
been discussed by several scientific studies. An accurate
perception of the degree of scientific consensus is a cru-
Andres Yrigoyen Alfonso Quaglia cial element of public support for climate policy (Ding et
al. 2011).
A large sample of the scientific literature on global CC,
published over a 21-year period, was examined in order
Democratically elec- to determine the level of scientific consensus that human
ted governments activity is very likely causing most of the current GW
(anthropogenic global warming, or AGW) (John Cook et
and free markets are al., 2013).
Discussion
Even though these two
scientific approaches differ in
the average earth temperature
calculations, this study aims
to find actions and strategies
that are aligned to create a
conservation awareness of
the environment where we live
and take the best practices
of those countries that are
world reference in this regard
and recommend implemen-
Figure 5. Global temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration over ting them in South American
the past 570 million years. Purple line is CO2 concentration (ppm); blue
line is change in temperature (∆°C). Horizontal scale is not in constant
countries in order to reduce
units. CO2 scale derived from ratios to levels at around 1911 (300 ppm) emissions that contaminate
calculated by Berner and Kothavala (2001). Source Idso et al. (2019) the air and would cause the
adapted from Nahle (2007), referencing Ruddiman (2001), Scotese (2002), greenhouse effect.
Pagani et al. (2005).
GEOMINAS, abril 2023 43
A. Yrigoyen, A. Quaglia
One method that quantifies and numerically classifies the environmental performance of a
country’s policies is the Environmental Performance Index (EPI). The EPI was preceded by the
Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI), published between 1999 and 2005. Both indicators
were developed by the Center for Environmental Law and Policy at Yale University, in conjunction
with the Network Information Center of the International Center for Earth Sciences of Columbia
University in collaboration with the World Economic Forum.
The Environmental Performance Index designed in 2008 focuses on two broad objectives of
environmental protection: (1) reduce the environmental impact on human health and (2) promote
the vitality of the ecosystem and the rational management of natural resources (SEDAC, 2008).
The Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is a method of quantifying and numerically marking
the environmental performance of a state’s policies.
EPI indicators provide a way to spot problems, set targets, track trends, understand outco-
mes, and identify the best policy practices. Good data and fact-based analysis can also help go-
vernment officials improve their policy agendas, facilitate communications with key stakeholders,
and maximize the return on environmental investments.
Figure 6 shows the fra-
mework of the Environmental
Performance Index 2022
(EPI, 2022) which provides a
data-driven summary of the
state of sustainability around
the world. Using 40 perfor-
mance indicators across 11
issue categories, the EPI
ranks 180 countries on envi-
ronmental health and ecosys-
tem vitality. These indicators
provide a gauge at a national
scale of how close countries
are to established environ-
mental policy targets.
The three EPI policy ob-
jectives, represented by the
innermost ring in figure 6
are: environmental health
with a weight of 20%, climate
change with a weight of 38%,
and ecosystem vitality with a Figure 6. 2022 EPI Framework (EPI, 2022).
weight of 42 %.
The 11 categories in order from most to least important, represented by the second ring in
figure 6 are climate change mitigation (38%), biodiversity and habitat (18%), air quality (11%),
ecosystem services (8%), fisheries (5%), sanitation and drinking water (5%), acid rains (4%),
agriculture (4%), water resources (3%), waste management (2%), heavy metals (2%).
The 40 indicators used in the EPI estimation are shown in the outermost ring of figure 6, of
which we can mention the three areas that have the greatest weight in the EPI calculation, which
are: projected greenhouse gas emissions in 2050 (13.8%), CO2 emissions (13.8%), and the loss
of area covered by trees (6%).
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the climate change objective and the overall EPI
scores for the Latin America & Caribbean region versus top performers (global west). Table 1
shows the exact values of the climate change scores and the overall EPI score per country and
44 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
What is the commitment to environmental protection of ...
Figure 7. Relationship between the Climate Change objective and the overall EPI scores for the Latin America
& Caribbean region and top performers (global west), (EPI, 2022).
Table 1. South America countries Total EPI and EPI Objectives perfor- the average for South Ame-
mance versus Top three benchmark countries.adapted from Nahle (2007), rican countries. From table 1
referencing Ruddiman (2001), Scotese (2002), Pagani et al. (2005). we can see there is a gap of
about 56 score points bet-
ween the average climate
change score for the South
American countries and Den-
mark (the best performer for
this objective). This means
there is much to do to reach
the top-performance coun-
tries.
Figure 8 shows the rela-
tionship between the Ecosys-
tem Vitality objective and the
overall EPI scores for the
Latin America & Caribbean
region and top performers
(global west), (EPI, 2022).
From table 1 we can see there is a gap of about 16 score points between the average ecosys-
tem vitality score for South American countries and the United Kingdom (the best performer for
Figure 8. Relationship between the Ecosystem Vitality objective and the overall EPI scores for the Latin Ame-
rica & Caribbean region and top performers (global west), (EPI, 2022).
this objective). In this case, Figure 10 shows the EPI ders and laggards in environ-
the gap is not as big as in the versus the PIB for the South mental performance and pro-
previous case, nonetheless, America countries and Ben- vides practical guidance for
best practices and lessons chmark countries. From this countries that aspire to move
learned from top performers figure we can note, all the toward a sustainable future.
should be analyzed. South American countries are Figure 10 shows that good
close to the trend line with policy results are associated
Figure 9 shows the Rela- EPI scores ranging between with wealth (GDP per capi-
tionship between the Environ- 37.4 (Uruguay) and 46.7 (Chi- ta), meaning that economic
mental Health objective and le). There is an important gap prosperity makes it possible
the overall EPI scores for the (about 35 EPI score points) for nations to invest in policies
Latin America & Caribbean between the top EPI perfor- and programs that lead to de-
region and top performers mers and the average EPI of sirable outcomes.
(global west). From table 1 South American countries.
we can see there is a gap of
about 47 score points bet- Based on the EPI and the
ween the average score for three EPI objectives analysis EPI Analysis
South American countries (environmental health, clima- • The relationship between
and Finland (the best perfor- te change, and ecosystem economic prosperity and
mer for this objective). This vitality) South American cou- EPI. Pollution and other
means there is much to do to ntries have a window of op- strains on ecosystem vitali-
reach the top ten benchmark portunities to improve all EPI ty are generally associated
countries’ Environmental objectives. The EPI offers a with industrialization and
Health scores. scorecard that highlights lea- urbanization, particularly in
46 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
What is the commitment to environmental protection of ...
Figure 9. Relationship between the Environmental Health objective and the overall EPI scores for the Latin
America & Caribbean region and top performers (global west), (EPI, 2022).
and Finland place 2nd and Index of Economic Freedom John Cook, Dana Nuccitelli, Sarah
A Green, Mark Richardson,
3rd, both earning high sco- (IEF) scores, the 2022 EPI Bärbel Winkler, Rob Painting,
res for reducing greenhouse drivers analysis suggests Robert Way, Peter Jacobs, and
gas emissions in recent that democratically elected Andrew Skuce, 2013, Quanti-
fying the consensus on anthro-
years. governments and free mar- pogenic global warming in the
kets are best positioned to scientific literature.
• National sustainability efforts respond to environmental Julian Andres Salazar Velasquez,
must be deepened on all as- 2021, Gerencia de campos no
challenges and adopt policy convencionales de lutitas. La
pects by laggards. preferences that drive coun- gran pregunta y la gran verdad:
tries toward a more sustaina- el CO2 y el calentamiento glo-
• Several key countries in the bal.
Global South, such as India ble future. Nahle, N., 2007. Cycles of Global Cli-
mate Change. Biology Cabinet
and Nigeria, are near the • The importance of the EPI Journal Online. Article no. 295.
bottom of the list. Their poor lies not only in the overall http://www.biocab.org/Carbon_
EPI scores suggest that they Dioxide_Geological_Timescale.
rankings, which are intended html , accessed and archived
need to pay more attention to encourage productive August 27, 2020
to a wider range of sustaina- competitiveness, but also in NASA, 2022. Global climate chan-
bility needs, with a particular ge. https://climate.nasa.gov/
the issue-by-issue metrics, evidence/
emphasis on crucial con- which are used as a diag- NASA, 2022. Global climate change.
cerns including air and water Las causas del cambio climá-
nostic tool for countries to tico. https://climate.nasa.gov/
quality, biodiversity, and cli- determine areas of weak- causas/
mate change. ness and strength inside IPCC, 2022. Summary for Policy-
makers. In: Climate Change
their own borders. These 2012: Mitigation of Climate
metrics are the starting point Change. Contribution of Wor-
Best practices and les- for planning concrete actions king Group III to the Sixth As-
sessment Report of the Inter-
sons learned (Key fin- to increase the three goals governmental Panel on Climate
dings) established in the EPI 2022. Change.
Pagani, M., Zachos, J. C., Freeman,
• High-scoring countries have K. H., Tipple, B., Boharty, S.,
2005. Marked decline in atmos-
lengthy policies and pro- pheric carbon dioxide concen-
cedures in place to protect References trations during the Paleogene.
Science, Vol. 309, Issue 5734,
public health, preserve na- Berner, R. A., and Kothavala, Z., p.600-603, DOI: 10.1126/scien-
tural resources, and reduce 2001. GEOCARB III: A revised ce.1110063
model of atmospheric CO2 over Poyet, Patrice (2021). The Rational
greenhouse gas emissions. Phanerozoic time. American Climate e-Book. Cooler is ris-
The findings also imply that Journal of Science, Vol. 301, p. kier. https://patricepoyet.org/
countries that make concen- 182–204, DOI SEDAC, Socioeconomic Data and
Ding D, Maibach E W, Zhao X, Ro- Applications Center Environ-
trated efforts to decarbonize ser-Renouf C and Leiserowitz mental Performance Index,
their electrical sectors have A, 2011, Support for climate 2008 Release (1994 – 2007).
made the most progress in policy and societal action are https://doi.org/10.7927/
linked to perceptions about H4HT2M77.
combatting climate change, scientific agreement. Ruddiman, W.F., 2001. Earth’s Cli-
with positive outcomes for EPI, Environmental performance in- mate: Past and Future. First
dex, 2022. https://epi.yale.edu/ Edition, New York, NY: W.H.
ecosystems and human epi-results/2022/component/ Freeman and Co., ISBN-13:
health. epi. 978-0-7167-8490-6, 388 pp
Idso, C. D., 2019. What Rising CO2 Scotese, C.R. (2002) Analysis of the
• Good governance is related Means for Global Food Se- Temperature Oscillations in
curity. CO2 Coalition, http:// Geological Eras. W.H. Freeman
to high EPI score. For instan- co2coalition.org/wpcontent/ & Company, New York.
ce, countries like Nepal and uploads/2019/02/Rising_CO2__ Yale Center for Environmental Law
Afghanistan, suffer bigger Food-Security-2-21-19-1.pdf, & Policy, and Center for Inter-
accessed and archived on Au- national Earth Science Infor-
issues like civil conflict, and gust 8, 2020. mation Network at Columbia
their low rankings are almost IPCC, 2014. Summary for Policy- University, 2008. Environmental
entirely due to poor gover- makers. In: Climate Change Performance Index.
2014, Mitigation of Climate Wrightstone, Gregory (2020). Incon-
nance. Change. Contribution of Wor- venient Facts. The science that
king Group III to the Fifth As- Al Gore doesn´t want you to
• Considering the strong as- sessment Report of the Intergo- know. https://inconvenientfacts.
sociation between EPI and vernmental Panel on Climate. xyz
*
https://celere-ce.com.br/sustentabilidade/inovacoes-construcao-carbono-zero/
GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023 49
Panorámica ambiental
Gorila de montaña
Están catalogados como
una especie en peligro por la
Lista roja de IUCN, que señala
el Parque Nacional de Bwindi,
Uganda, y la región de Virunga
Volcanes de Ruanda, Uganda y
República Democrática del Con-
go (RDC), como lugares en los
que todavía se pueden encontrar
ejemplares de esta especie de
gorilas. Según WWF, sólo que-
dan 720 que vivan en su hábitat
natural.
Tigre
WWF es una de las orga- por plásticos y la contaminación subiendo las temperaturas a esta
nizaciones internacionales que ambiental perjudican su sistema velocidad.
más experiencia tienen en el endocrino y de reproducción, vol-
ámbito de la protección de las viéndose así una especie doble- Atún rojo
especies en peligro de extinción. mente amenazada.
Estudios recientes han contabili- Este pez aparece en la Lis-
zado sólo 3.200 tigres que vivan ta roja de IUCN como especie en
Morsa del Pacífico
en su hábitat natural, el cual está peligro de extinción. WWF seña-
amenazado también por el cam- Vecina del oso polar, com- la que la causa fundamental por
bio climático. parte con él los mismos proble- la que se encuentra amenazada
mas derivados del deshielo y el esta especie es su pesca exce-
Panda gigante calentamiento del Ártico. Como siva, debido a que tiene un gran
en el caso de los osos polares, valor en el mercado japonés.
Se estima que hay menos las prospecciones petrolíferas
de 2.500 pandas gigantes ma- también son una amenaza para Tortuga laúd
duros viviendo en libertad y que la morsa del Pacífico.
cada población tiene menos de La organización interna-
250 individuos maduros, según cional OCEANA cita entre sus
Pingüino de Magallanes
la UIMP, que los clasifica en su principales amenazas las captu-
Lista Roja como especie en peli- Además del cambio climá- ras accidentales cuando se usan
gro de extinción. La degradación tico, este tipo de pingüino está técnicas como el arrastre o de
de su hábitat es la principal ame- amenazado también por la con- palangreros. Además, como casi
naza a su supervivencia. taminación por hidrocarburos, el todas las especies en peligro de
turismo y la expansión de sus de- extinción de esta lista, se ve per-
Oso polar predadores. El pingüino de Ma- judicada por el deterioro de su
gallanes es una de las especies hábitat.
Su imagen para poner en peligro de extinción que antes
cara al cambio climático ha dado podrían desaparecer si siguen Otro problema al que se
la vuelta al mundo. La polución enfrentan estas tortugas es que
confunden las bolsas de plástico
con las medusas que forman par-
te de su alimentación y a menudo
acaban ingiriéndolas. Esto puede
tener consecuencias devastado-
ras porque el plástico puede pro-
vocarles asfixia.
Mariposa monarca
Esta especie se ve ame-
nazada fundamentalmente por
la deforestación y degradación
forestal por la tala ilegal que tiene
lugar en sus lugares de hiberna-
Preservar la naturaleza
debe ser una prioridad en los
próximos años. Además, la Co-
vid-19 no ha hecho más que evi-
denciar la idea de que nuestra de-
pendencia por un planeta sano es
mayor de la creíamos.
importantes que hacen peligrar habitan gorilas y otros animales. cir que su siembra no ha supues-
la vida de muchos animales que to la destrucción de bosques.
habitan en ellos. Sello Fairtrade Internatio-
nal: se trata de una organización Compra con responsabili-
Recicla tus aparatos elec- que promueve el comercio justo. dad ya que la protección animal
trónicos. Gran parte de estos Asegúrate que el chocolate y el comienza en nosotros mismos y
contienen coltán, un mineral que café que adquieres cuentan con aquello que consumimos.
se extrae de los bosques donde este sello. Si lo tienen quiere de-
Conciencia conservacionista
WWF. Dale una mano a la vida silvestre. Imagen obtenida en: https://
www.acuarios-marinos.com/threads/wwf-dale-una-mano-a-la-vida-silves-
tre.14424/
52 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Technical opinion article on
Environment/Ambiente/Meio ambiente
Goyder Renewables Zone, Neoen’s hybrid project in Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Engineering’s compact
South Australia. Image by Neoen avalaible in El periódico de CO2 capture system. Image by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
la energía
should come online by 2025, the initial investment for this is 6 billion US dollars, additionally, in
Porto do Açu, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a green hydrogen generation project with an electrolysis ca-
pacity of 300 MW, with the potential to produce 250,000 tons of “green” ammonia each year.
Fortescue has joined forces with Primetals Technologies, Mitsubishi Corporation, and Voes-
talpine to make zero-carbon iron based on hydrogen-fuelled electric furnaces.
Additionally, with the acquisition of Williams Advanced Engineering (WAE) by Fortescue,
this mining company is firmly oriented towards the total decarbonization of its fleets around the
world, in this, the association with Liebherr helps a lot.
Freeport-McMoRan, along with Rio Tinto, OZ Minerals, BHP, Newcrest Mining, Evolution Min-
ing, and Vale, have joined a consortium organized by Austmine to accelerate BluVein™ technol-
ogy to dynamically boost fleets mixed transportation while on the move without using fossil fuels;
allows for smaller on-board battery packs, among other advantages.
Freeport-McMoRan, BHP, Newmont
Corporation, Rio Tinto and Teck Resourc-
es Limited, have supported Caterpillar in
the development of the first battery-electric
793 mining truck, which, with a slope in
favor, can capture energy that would be
dissipated as heat and regenerate it in the
battery.
Glencore owns Kazzinc, which op-
erates the Bujtarminskaya hydroelectric
plant in Kazakhstan, contributing to the [YouTube video] Meet Caterpillar’s First Battery Electric
supply of renewable energy consumed Large Mining Truck.
56 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Future of the global mining industry, based on the...
by the company in that country, while in east- tingham have been carrying out tests of what
ern Canada and the Democratic Republic of they call the BioIron™ Process through which
Congo, it has energy providers of low carbon it will be possible to manufacture low carbon
hydroelectric. iron. Small-scale trials have already been suc-
cessful.
On the other hand, Glencore has a sub-
sidiary called Carbon Transport and Storage Teck Resources (Teck Metals/Elk Valley
Company (CTSCo), which has technology Resources) has invested in a number of ini-
to capture CO2 and store it; this technology tiatives to reduce its carbon footprint. These
would be available to its customers and other include investments and agreements to obtain
interested users. energy from renewable sources, as well as
investments in energy efficiency technologies,
Over the past decade, Glencore, at its and carbon capture and storage systems.
Australian coal operations, has reduced green-
house gas emissions by around 30 million Teck and Caterpillar have signed an agree-
tonnes of CO2e by flaring or generating elec- ment for Caterpillar to supply 30 zero-emission
tricity from methane gas captured from under- trucks, which Teck will deploy at its various
ground operations. operations around the world, beginning with
those in Canada.
Newmont Mining has obtained international
certification for sourcing 100% renewable en- Teck has also signed agreements with the
ergy in Yanacocha from the Cerro del Águila Oldendorff Carriers company for the maritime
Hydroelectric Power Plant. transport of part of its production by means of
ecological bulk carriers with low energy con-
Rio Tinto has agreed to supply aluminum sumption.
from its production in Canada, which will be
obtained with hydroelectric power to supply Teck has partnered with SAAM Towage to
the German vehicle manufacturer BMW. supply two ElectRA 2300 SX electric tugs,
which Teck will put into operation this year at
Rio Tinto has been making investments the Neptune Terminal in Vancouver, Canada,
to increase its clean energy generation. It is potentially eliminating more than 2,400 tons of
noteworthy that it currently has 34 MW of solar emissions annual greenhouse gas emissions.
energy installed in Gudai-Darri, to which 100
MW will be added no later than 2026, as well
as 200 MWh of on-grid battery storage in the
Pilbara.
It has been estimated that this would re-
duce 300,000 t of CO2, which represents a
10% reduction (based on 2021) of scope 1
and 2 emissions from the mining business of
this company in the Pilbara.
In Madagascar, Rio Tinto operates a mine
producing ilmenite, zirsill (a mixture of zirco-
nium and sillimanite), and monazite. For this ElectRA 2300 SX tugs. Image by Teck Resources obtained from
mining.com
mine, it has agreed with the African company
CrossBoundary Energy to supply renewable
energy (solar-wind) for 20 years, it should be
noted that the energy company also supplies This company, to power the Quebrada
or will supply the Balama Graphite operation Blanca copper mine, has signed a renewable
and the Molo Graphite mine, of Syrah Re- energy purchase agreement for 17 years with
sources and NextSource Materials Inc., re- the energy provider AES Andes, S. A. The ne-
spectively. gotiation has been carried out for 1,100 GWh
per year. 96% of the electricity consumed by
On the other hand, Rio Tinto in conjunction Teck comes from renewable energy sources
with Metso Outotec and the University of Not- and zero carbon emissions.
GEOMINAS, abril 2023 57
A. Paulo, J. Herrero
In both Brazil and Indonesia, Vale is testing 100% electric 72-tonne mining trucks made in
China by XCMG Mining Machinery; the goal is to invest US$4-6 billion in such machines to re-
duce around 9% of their Scope 1 and 2 CO2 emissions by 2050.
Additionally, Vale has already
received 2 100% electric loco-
motives that have been tested in
Brazil; it is important to know that
Vale has 490 locomotives that
are powered by Diesel engines,
hence the success in the tests
will lead to the replacement of
the current fleet, in the coming
years, and to another important
reduction in the company’s emis-
sions.
Vale has announced a break-
through in the use of low-carbon XCMG 72 t battery electric truck. Image obtained from International Mining
fuels for shipping, with a design
that has received an Approv-
al in Principle (AIP) from the
classification society DNV. The
advancement consists of the in-
corporation of multiple fuel tanks
adapted to store liquefied nat-
ural gas (LNG), methanol, and
ammonia in the future. With this
technology, Guaibamax category
ships will reduce emissions be-
tween 40% and 80% when run- Second 100% electric locomotive received by Vale for testing in Bra-
zil. Image obtained from International Mining
ning on methanol and ammonia,
and only 23% when using LNG.
It should be noted that Vale has already incorporated other energy efficient technologies such
as rotor sails, and air lubrication.
In relation to the rotor sails,
it has incorporated them since
2021, when the ship, catego-
ry Guaibamax, called “Sea
Zhoushan”, of 325 thousand tons,
sailed with its 5 rotor sails of 24
meters in height and 4 meters in
diameter, with what which can
propel the ship when they rotate
at different speeds, generating
pressure differences. With these
rotor sails, 3,400 t of CO2e/year
are reduced for each ship.
The company helps conserve
and protect almost 1 million hect-
ares in different parts of the plan-
Vale’s Guaibamax category ship, 325,000 t, with 5 rotor sails. Image
et. Since 1950, it has protected obtained from Portos e Navios
the 23,000-hectare Vale Nature
58 GEOMINAS, Vol. 51, N° 90, abril 2023
Future of the global mining industry, based on the...
Reserve; the work carried out in this reserve Of course, there have been exceptions,
represents a solid asset to materialize the and it is easy to identify them based on the
company’s goal of becoming carbon-neutral, achievements they already exhibit; additionally,
while what is developed in this reserve also there is the pressure, normally quite media
supports Vale’s actions to recover and protect and associated with political “ideologies”, which
500,000 hectares by 2030; all these actions joins the irrational positions of fanatics, for
help natural carbon sequestration. whom the achievements do not exist and min-
ing should be extinguished.
CODELCO, Boliden, BHP and Rio Tinto
maintain an alliance with Komatsu to collabo- The industry is struggling to become
rate with each other towards the goal of start- “green”, while adopting temporary measures
ing up zero-emission mines. that could be defined as transition, in order to
reduce carbon footprints, while investing, and
Karora Resources and Mayfair Gold, have contributing in multiple ways to the develop-
claimed carbon neutrality, the first in its two ment of technologies with good prospects, but
operations in Australia, and the other in its are not yet proven, or that are currently inap-
operation in Canada, both have done so by plicable due to their high costs, but they do
purchasing carbon offset credits. show possibilities of becoming viable, some in
Reducing the carbon footprint of the min- the short term, others in the medium term, and
ing industry has numerous benefits for the some others in the longer term.
different companies that make up the sector, What is stated in the preceding paragraph
and although the conversion of the industry, shows that despite the optimism of the various
into one that is considered “green”, requires mining corporations to meet goals already set
mega investments, it can be seen, nowadays, in order to achieve net-zero in their various
that greater operating efficiencies, greater types of emissions, they may not materialize
profitability, greater reduction of environmental on time.
impacts, better “green” quality of its products,
and a better reputation in the world opinion Now then, that in practice the proposed
matrix will be obtained. goals cannot materialize on time, in some
cases, it is not cause for great concern, if for
Despite the benefits indicated, the industry such dates proposed by each one of the cor-
faces challenges like never before in history, porations, important advances are made in
since the pressure of the planet itself, that of the diverse routes that each one of them have
organizations, and that of people based on defined.
science, to make the industry become “green”,
is very high, and it is evident that the efforts to So far, everything looks good prospects,
change have started late, and perhaps without it can be seen in many of the companies:
total conviction. commitment, effective investments in techno-
logical reconversions, willingness to promote
Aerial view of the Vale Nature Reserve. Image by Ricar- Native seedling nursery at Vale Nature Reserve. Image
do Teles by Ricardo Teles
third parties that have the rest of the anthropic activities. drastically reduce air and
possibility of providing solu- water pollution by helping to
tions, defined strategies and It is enough to observe remove toxic and hazardous
steps taken in the direction of everything that surrounds materials from the environ-
achieving objectives, in short, us, and investigate the origin ment.
if you can have hope. of such things to verify how
dependent we are on mining, Therefore, mining is not
However, the conversion additionally, the review of the only necessary to provide the
to “green mining” of 100% of technological knowledge that necessary resources for our
the actors within the mining humanity possesses at this daily lives, but it can also help
industry is not something that time will reveal that we do not improve the environment in
can be achieved by 2050, have substitutes for the goods the long term.
the most feasible thing is that produced by mining.
only a good part of the largest All the technology that the
corporations will achieve it, Without mining, there “mining-haters” use to attack
which is significant, since they would be no access to the the mining industry comes
are the ones that represent wide range of minerals that from mining: smartphones,
the highest emissions. underpin different aspects of laptops, tablets, cameras, the
modern society, from commu- buildings in which they have
The conversion and ad- nication and transportation their headquarters, the planes
aptation of the existing small networks to consumer elec- in which they travel, etc.
and medium-sized mining tronics and medical technol-
companies would take longer ogies. In a planet that is rapidly
and, very possibly, the new heading towards 10 billion
small and medium-sized com- It must be taken into ac- people and in which efforts
panies would be born or start count that we are around 8 have been materializing to
new operations, already with billion people on the planet, reduce poverty, and it is in-
cleaner technologies. it must also be taken into tended to bring it to zero by
account, in the analysis car- 2030, cannot think about bu-
On the other hand, the ried out on the extinction of colic scenarios in which the
fanatical approaches, and mining, that around 20% of population lives from gather-
those intentional from a sec- the world economy depends ing like our Australopithecus
tor of world politics for the on directly or indirectly from ancestors.
disappearance of the mining mining.
industry, would lead humanity More population without
to the times prior to those of Additionally, at this point poverty, it only has possi-
Homo erectus, who up to now in human history, mining can bilities through the use of
are accepted, in humanity’s
knowledge, as the firsts to dig
for mineral resources.
It is important to note that
people should not simply
allow themselves to be led
by opinion matrices gener-
ated by fanatics or political
operators clearly interested
in their own agendas, and
who promote the extinction
of mining. There are scientific
realities and technical-scien-
tific approaches that lead to
solutions without extinction,
neither the mining nor to the
Homo erectus digging for flint. Image generated by Playground
technologies, and so far they are based on A Gazeta. (2021, July 16). Reserva Natural Vale
minerals. ajuda a reflorestar áreas e recuperar na-
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Some of those who propose the extinction Além da Energia. (2022, September 13). Vale testa
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others have interests, very possibly, of political Anglo American. (2022, November 16). Anglo
ideology, to produce the total destruction of American sources 100% renewable elec-
tricity supply for Australia operations. Re-
the system regardless of the resulting impacts
trieved from Anglo American
on the humanity. Anglo American Platinum. (2022, May 13). Col-
The planet can continue to exist, and even laboration in action. Retrieved from Anglo
American
in better conditions, without mining, but the
Anyadike, N. (2023, January 23). “Important and
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actors within the mining industry have been ArcelorMittal. (2022, October 27). Carbon capture
making significant efforts in favor of reducing in the steel industry: ArcelorMittal, Mitsubi-
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