Util idad y mag ia

en la vida cotidiana
6rganos de Gobierno de la Obra Social
COMISION DE OBRAS SOCIALES
Presidente Isidro Faine Casas
Vicepresidentes Salvador Gabarro Serra
Jorge Mercader Miro
Ma nuel Raventos Negra
Marta Domenech Sardil
Javier Goda Muntanola
Inmaculada Juan Franch
Secretario (no consejero) Alejandro Garcia-Bragado Dalmau
Vicesecretario (no consejero) Oscar Calderon de Oya
Director general Juan Maria Nin Genova
Presidente Isidro Faine Casas
Vicepresidente 10 Ricardo Fornesa Ribo
Vicepresidentes Salvador Gabarr6 Serra
Jorge Mercader Miro
Juan Maria Nin Genova
Ramon Balaguero Ganet
M' Amparo Camarasa Carrasco
Jose F. de Conrado y Villalonga
Marta Domenech Sarda
Manuel Garcia Biel
Javier God6 Muntanola
Inmaculada Juan Franch
Jaime Lanaspa Gatnau
Juan Jose Lopez Burniol
Montserrat Lopez Ferreres
Amparo Moraleda Martinez
Miguel Noguer Planas
Justo B. Novella Martinez
Director general Jaime Lanaspa Gatnau
Secretario (no patrono) Alejandro Garcia-Bragado Da
Vicesecretario (no patrono) Osca r Ca Ideron de Oya
Director Jorge Wagensberg
Director adjunto Javier Bertolin
Exposicion
Concepcion, produccion y direccion Fundacion la Caixa
Diseno Ambito Cero
Asesoramiento Cientifico y textos Claudi Aisina
Producci6n y Montaje Saguecom
Maquetas Gecco tridimensional
Justo B. Novella Martinez L1uis Batista
Magin Pallares Morgades
Attrezzo Oriol Roset
Audiovisuales y multi medias Digit
Solucions Web
Centro Espanol de Metrologia
Centro Nacional de Informacion Geogratica
Direccion General dellnstituto Geogratico
Nacional
Grupo de Tecnologia Musical dellnstituto del
Audiovisual de la Universidad Pompeu Fabra
Calalogo
Coordinaci6n Sonia Garcinuno
Diseno y composici6n Diana Zaforteza / Claudio Bado / gama sl
Vicente Oller Com pan
Fotograffas Jorge Wagensberg / Sergio Parra
Magin Pallares Morgades
Manuel Raventos Negra Traducci6n Olga Sala
Leopoldo Rodes Castane
Impresi6n ALEU
Luis Rojas Marcos
Lucas Tomas Munar
Francisco Tulz6 Bennasar
Jose Vilarasau Salal © de los lextos, sus autores
Nuria Eslher Villalba Fernandez © de las fotograffas, sus autores
Josep Francese Zaragoza Alba © de la edici6n, Fundaci6n "Ia Caixa", 2008
Av. Diagonal, 621 - 08028 Barcelona
ISBN: 978-84-7664-991-6
DL: B-25225-2008
2"
indice
Presentaci6n S

Introducci6n 9

Los numeros naturales 13

Los numeros enteros 17

Los numeros racionales 21

Los numeros reales 2S

Los numeros complejos 29

Los numeros ilustres 33

English 38
LComo serfa un mundo sin numeros? Este es el
punta de partida de la exposicion "NUM3ROS.Uti-
Iidad y magia en la vida cotidiana'; organizada por
la Obra Social "Ia Caixa'; que quiere dar a conocer
al visitante las diferentes familias de numeros y su
importancia en la vida cotidiana. Desde los nu-
meros naturales que dan respuesta a la necesidad
universal de contar y que en las culturas antiguas
son un indicio del desarrollo cultural, hasta los
numeros complejos que resuelven y facilitan el
calculo, y que en las sociedades mas avanzadas se
utilizan en ingenierfa electrica, en acustica, en hi-
drologfa, en mecanica cuantica, en la Teorfa de la
Relatividad 0 en la creacion de imagenes virtuales.
Los numeros enteros, los numeros racionales, los
numeros reales y los principales conceptos que a
ellos se asocian (medir, repartir 0 expresar la geo-
metrfa) se presentan de una manera comprensi-
ble y atractiva, a traves de objetos y experimentos,
modulos interactivos, grMicos y poemas. La expo-
sicion se cierra con una galerfa de numeros ilustres
desde el cero (conocido por algunos pueblos de la
antigOedad que, integrado en el tandem binario
0-1, ha posibilitado la revolucion digital de image-
nes y sonidos), alas aportaciones de los matema-
ticos del siglo XX, pasando por la popular docena
o el numero pi.
Uno de los retos de las exposiciones de ciencia
reside en la dificultad de visualizar 10 abstracto.
La Fundacion "Ia Caixa" ha desarrollado un nue-
vo tipo de exposicion que sin renunciar al rigor
cientffico, busca la comunicacion directa con el
espectador. Parte de la idea de que la ciencia esta
en todas partes y que nuestro entorno puede ser
un extraordinario campo de experimentacion. Las
exposiciones de la Fundacion "Ia Caixa" quieren
contribuir a romper la barrera que, todavfa hoy,
separa a muchas personas de la ciencia. Toman
como punta de referencia situaciones cotidianas,
ponen en juego elementos de distintas disciplinas
cientfficas, los combinan con referencias artfsticas
y Iiterarias que aportan imaginacion y creatividad,
y con materiales historicos y antropologicos que
permiten situar los avances de la ciencia en el mar-
co general de la evolucion humana. Lasnuevas tec-
nologfas se presentan como un instrumento que
permite profundizar en las diferentes materias de
estudio y como una herramienta de comunicacion
que ha revolucionado la transmision del saber.
"NUM3ROS. Utilidad y magia en la vida cotidiana"
responde plena mente a esta filosofia. Se dirige a
un publico muy diverse de escolares,estudiantes y
familias, con un lenguaje proximo y sugerente que
nos conduce de 10 mas simple a 10 mas complejo,
y que despierta el deseo de saber mas. EIobjetivo
es que los visitantes se sumerjan en la exposicion,
que participen de manera activa de sus propues-
tas y que realicen sus propios descubrimientos.
La Obra Social "Ia Caixa" quiere agradecer su co-
laboracion de todas las personas que han partici-
pado en esta exposicion, que pone de relieve la
importancia de los numeros en la vida de todos
los dfas y en el desarrollo del conocimiento.
Jaime Lanaspa Gatnau
Director General de fa Fundaci6n "La Caixa"
LQue tienen en comun una langosta, un coche y
una burbuja de cava? iEI numero 1! La familia de 105
numeros nos ha acompanado desde 105 tiempos
mas primitives y sigue hoy al servicio de nuestro
progreso. A 10 largo de cinco milenios, distintas
c1asesde numeros han ido surgiendo para resolver
problemas cada vez mas creativos.
EI desarrollo numerico ha permitido contar, orde-
nar, situar, comparar, repartir, calcular, codificar. .. y
disponer de un lenguaje que hoy es esencial tanto
para la vida cotidiana como para el desarrollo de la
ciencia y de la tecnica.
"Numeros de buena familia" es una propuesta para
comprender 105 numeros y su utilidad en la vida de
cada dfa.

Jorge Wagensberg
Director del Area de Media Ambiente y Ciencia
de la Fundaci6n "Ia Caixa"
 Un pastor que tiene ocho ovejas puede echar en falta a una de ellas porque
las conoce a todas, pero no puede controlar un rebario de quinientas ove-
jas sin contarlas. Contar dedos, cabezas de ganado, frutas, sacos de grano ...
jsean 105 numeros naturales!
La necesidad de contar ha side siempre universal y es tambien un indicio del
desarrollo cultural. Curiosamente, la representaci6n de 105numeros es muy
anterior a la aparici6n de la escritura.

EIorden habitual de 105numeros naturales, 1 2, 3-. permite contar de forma

ordenada, 1°,2°,3° ..., (numeros ordinales y porta 0 establecer una buena
relaci6n de orden entre 105 elementos considerados. As ordenamos archi-
vos, edificios de una calle, las hojas de los .bras-
Compara el esfuerzo de leerUEIQuijote en ediicKilllCon las paginas bien
ordenadas con el esfuerzo de leeilo despues anancar!as hojas, revolver-
las y borrar el numero de las paginas.los nUimemsnallJrcltlesordeAan y orde-
nar permite colocar, localizar y secuendar.
Contar un numero natural con precision puede ser tan
imposible como innecesario: las estrellas del cielo, las
bacterias de un cultivo, los arboles de un bosque, los
granos de arena de una playa... En ese caso, en lugar
de contar se puede estimar. Un buen truco consiste
en multiplicar una pequefla parte del todo (que sf es
contable) por el numero de veces que la parte cabe
dentro del todo. Por ejemplo: lcuantas personas par-
ticipan en una manifestacion? Usemos los numeros
naturales: En 1 m2 caben hasta 6 personas, imposible
25. De modo que en una avenida de 60 m de anchura,
por cada 1.000 m tendremos 60.000 m2 y, por tanto,
"unas 360.000 personas'; nunca 1 millon.

Si los numeros naturales no tienen cero, ni numeros

opuestos y un calculo con naturales no tiene por que
ser natural (por ejemplo, la resta), entonces ... isea el
numera enteral
Los numeros naturales cuentan a partir del primer ele-
mento (1, 2, 3... ) pero se precisa un 0 para tener un
punto de partida (Ia referencia) y numeros negativos
para poder contar hacia atras, hacia el pasado, hacia
abajo, hacia las deudas ... EI numero cero ha juga do un
doble papel: como indicador de un punto de partida
(instante 0, temperatura 0°, hora 0, kil6metro 0 ... ) y
como cifra de valor nulo en la escritura de numeros (10,
2006,5.070 ... ). Nunca tan poco fue tanto. Sia 105 nume-
ros naturales anadimos el cero y 105 numeros negativos:
jSean 105 numeros enteros!

A cada uno de estes paisajes Ie corresponde una dife-

rente temperatura. Para poder expresar temperaturas
necesitamos 105 numeros enteros: numeros negativos
para las temperaturas frias, numeros positives para el
calor. EInumero 0 es el punto de congelaci6n del agua.
En un edificio como este: lQue numero reci-
bira la planta baja? A la planta baja Ie corres-
pondera el numero cero. Pero,y si hay plantas
subterraneas de comercios 0 de aparcamien-
0, lque numeros se les asignaran?

En la tierra, la altura se expresa con numeros

enteros positivos con respecto al cero de Ali-
cante y, en el mar, las profundidades se expre-
san con enteros negativos.
Con este tipo de instrumento se determin6 el
nivel medio del Mediterraneo en Alicante gra-
cias a una boya que registraba continuamen-
te los cambios del nivel del agua. Actualmen-
e estos datos se miden mediante satelite.

Los enteros no son suficientes para repartir

y poco pueden precisar en las medidas. jNe-
cesitamos repartir, comparar y medir! Enton-
ces...i5ea el numero racional!
Para medir se necesita comparar un trozo de realidad
con una unidad patron (un metro, un segundo, un kilo ...).
Y pocas veces la medida coincide con un numero entero
de tales unidades.
Uno de cada tres fue al cine, un terreno repartido entre
siete, un 55% de descuento, la quinta parte del pastel...
j5ean los numeros racionales!
Para medir can precision debemos emplear 105
submultiplos adecuados. Un kilo es la milesima
parte de una tonelada, un centfmetro la centesima
parte de un metro, etc. Necesitamos otra familia
de numeros para establecer esta relacion: 105 ra-
cionales.

Cada numero racional relaciona dos enteros para

comparar cantidades a repartirlas y expresar pen-
dientes, proporciones a razones. Los numeros ra-
cionales comparan.
Partiendo de dos colores se pueden obtener infinitos tonos inter-
medios. Ocurre 10 mismo con 105 numeros racionales: para cual-
quier pareja de numeros racionales siempre existe otro numero
racional situado entre ellos. Ademas 105 numeros racionales re-
parten (un medio, un tercio, un cuarto ...) y nos ayudan a averiguar
probabilidades. Utilizamos 105 racionales para comprender la re-
laci6n entre el todo y sus partes.

jNecesitamos poder efectuar cualquier calculo!

5i con 105 racionales no podemos dar nombre a todos 105 puntas
de una recta (Ia diagonal del cuadrado no se puede expresar con
un numero racional) y tampoco podemos hacer calculos limite.
i5ea el numero real!

.. .. ..
II .L_
•
.. ..
lQue numero corresponde a cada punto de una recta
infinita? Los racienales permiten mostrar muchfsimos
puntos pero nb tOGos. Si queremos nombrar todos los
numeros intermedios que existen entre 0 y 1 los raciona-
les no son suficientes. Existen numeros que no pueden
expresarse mediante el cociente de dos enteros. Son nu-
meros que tienen infinitos decimales no peri6dicos: los
irracionales. Los racionales mas los irracionales forman la
familia de los numeros reales. Para nombrar un numero
irracional hay que ayudarse con algun sfmbolo, como le-
tras u otras convenciones: -J2, -J3, 11, e...
lQue numero corresponde a cada punto de una recta
infinita? Los racionales permiten mostrar muchfsimos
puntos pero no todos. Si queremos nombrar todos 105
numeros intermedios que existen entre 0 y 1 105 raciona-
les no son suficientes. Existen numeros que no pueden
expresarse mediante el cociente de dos enteros. Son nu-
meres que tienen infinitos decimales no peri6dicos: 105
irracionales. Los racionales mas 105 irracionales forman la
familia de 105 numeros reales. Para nombrar un numero
irracional hay que ayudarse con algun sfmbolo, como le-
tras u otras convenciones: -J2, -J3, 11, e...
La raton entre el perfmetro de una circunferencia y su diametro siempre parecfa Ile-
var a un mismo resultado. Matematicos griegos y arabes iniciaron la busca y captura
de este misterioso numero comun a todos 105 cfrculos, circunferencias y esferas.Me-
diante poligonos inscritos empezaron a aflorar 105 decimales del numero fantasma.
Erael nacimiento de Pi. La no repeticion de decimales y la imposibilidad de escrlbirlo
en forma de fraccion ya hizo sospechar que Pi era un numero irracional.
EI numero de oro <D(l +v5 )/2=1,618 ... es lIamado la divina proporci6n 0 proporci6n clurea y, curio-
samente, aparece con frecuencia en la naturaleza. Esta proporci6n nos resulta esteticamente bella
y por ello apar~ceen el arte, la arquitectura, el diseno ... Pintores renacentistas y profesionales pre-
ocupados par las proporciones humanas han comprobado el numero de oro en muchas relaciones
anat6micas. Con este numero podemos averiguar si tenemos una proporci6n aurea: segun la regia
de oro la altura de tu ombligo es tu altura dividida entre el numero <D.
G"nq", "",,'" Y "-O""O"'Q' <0_ L"""""" d,V,,,,,.s."",,~D.h.
°
Le CO'b" ••o, I." marone, do Los caled,. ••, .,,"<•• "Wo" '''0 ""
me", de oro ••• 'u, ob••, Pb""" <lo"" r,<"" f,,-..•..
.,.••
EI """.non •• "no d. 10' pr,n"••"" <em.,o, do""" q"O" <0<>,.,.
vall. (eval de estas, trcs f"eprc$~nt:u::i¢nes 10(;:'l.l;c;rcamas.\ Ia r~~.lJdJd'
S<olamO"te U"" I, q". m'mJO"O ''', ._."'., 'u,= E.., .'0
pQrdon ;i1J"~ e$Q presente en el tl'll,lndo del 2r«o: <Iel.1arqurt«to~
ycuadros.
el dlsenQ; t'afJeas de <:redltO 0 d~ YlSIU. ONI. ot!tetc» pell~es.
Joy,ls.
 EI Parten6n es uno de los principales templos
d6ricos que se conservan. lCual de estas tres
representaciones se acerca mas a la realidad?
SolameFlte una: la que mantiene sus propor-
. cignes aureas.

Siel resultEido de un calculo c·oh·'numerosrea-

'Ies no tie·ne por que ser un numero real (por
ejemplo, la raiz cuadrada de -1). Necesitamos
unafamilia numerica que nos permita resolver
todas las ecuaciones de segundo grado ... iSea
etnumero complejo!.
Las rafces cuadradas de los numeros negativos no pueden expresarse con
la familia de los numeros reales, par ello podemos decir que la soluci6n a
estas ecuaciones, al no ser real, es imaginaria. Para poder resolver todas las
ecuaciones necesitamos estos numeros imaginarios. Los numeros reales
mas 105 numeros imaginarios forman una nueva familia: j5ean los numeros
complejos!

La parabola Z=X2+y2 gira rapido y genera un parabolo ide de revoluci6n

Z=X2+y2. Como x2, y2 son positivos el valor de Z es siempre positivo. En otras

palabras, no existen valores reales de x e y que satisfagan la ecuaci6n para

valores negativos de z. jPero sf valores imaginarios! No se pueden ver en el
mundo real, pero sf en el mundo virtual de un espejo.
Las rafces cuadradas de 105 numeros negativos no
son numeros reales, pero sf expresiones con las
que uno se puede encontrar al hacer calculos. AI
ampliar 105 numeros reales con estas rakes nacen
105 numeros complejos.
Con un nuevo sfmbolo ("i") para la unidad imagi-
naria ..)-1 ,105 numeros complejos son expresiones
del tipo a+bi en las que a y b son numeros reales
que pueden representarse en el plano y permiten
resolver todas las ecuaciones polin6micas de cual-
quier grado.
Los numeros complejos resuelven y facilitan el cal-
culo y por ello se emplean en ingenierfa electrica,
en acustica, en hidrologfa, en mecanica cuantica,
en la Teorfa de la Relatividad, en la creaci6n de ima-
genes virtuales, etc.

Lavoz, la musica y el sonido dan lugar a ondas. Me-

diante las lIamadas series de Fourier, que usan el
calculo complejo, pueden estudiarse estas ondas 0
pueden usarse para generar nuevas emisiones.
EIprograma Vocaloid del Grupo de Tecnologfa Mu-
sical de la Universidad Pompeu Fabra permite va-
riar 105 matices tonales y conseguir miles de trans-
formaciones de la voz humana. Sin 105 numeros
complejos este programa no serfa posible.
La representaci6n grMica de la funci6n f(x)=x2+c
con numeros reales es una parabola. Si la misma
funci6n se trata con numeros complejos, nace,
en el plano, el conjunto de Mandelbrot. Con
este ejemplo, Benoit Mandelbrot inici6 la teorfa
de 105 fractales, objetos geometricos muy bellos
que se trazan con numeros complejos, iterando
f6rmulas y siendo sus partes parecidas al total.
Con fractales se producen imagenes virtuales
que simulan realidades (Star Trek) 0 se descri-
ben bien muchas formas naturales rugosas 0
quebradas (sistema arterial humano, ramas de
arboles, montanas agrestes... ).

What would a world without numbers
be like? This is the starting point for the
exhibition "NUMB3RS: Use and magic in
everyday life'; organised by"la Caixa" So-
cial Projects, which aims to introduce vi-
sitors to the different families of numbers
and their importance in everyday life
from the natural numbers that respond
to the universal need to count and were
a cultural development index in ancient
cultures, to the complex numbers that
enable calculation, and which in the more
advanced societies are used in electrical
engineering, acoustics, hydrology, quan-
tum mechanics, the Theory of Relativity
and the creation of virtual images. Whole
numbers, rational numbers, real numbers
and the main concepts associated with
them (measuring, distributing or expres-
sing geometry) are presented in an un-
derstandable and attractive way through
objects and experiments, interactive mo-
dules, graphics and poems. The exhibition
closes with a gallery of illustrious num-
bers from zero (which, known to some
peoples in Antiquity and integrated into
the binary tandem 0-1, has enabled the
digital revolution of image and sound), to
the contributions of the mathematicians
of the 20th century by way of the popular
dozen or the number Pi.
One of the challenges of science exhibi-
tions lies in the difficulty of visualising
the abstract. Fundaci6n "Ia Caixa" has
developed a new kind of exhibition whi-
ch, without sacrificing scientific serious-
ness, seeks direct communication with
the spectator. It starts from the idea that
science is everywhere and that our envi-
ronment can be an extraordinary field for
experiment. Fundaci6n "Ia Caixa" exhibi-
tions want to break down the barrier whi-
ch separates many people from science
today. Their reference points are every-
day situations and they bring into play
elements from different scientific disci-
plines, combining them with artistic and
literary references that bring imagination
and creativity and with historical and an-
thropological materials that enable us to
place the advances of science in the ge-
neral framework of human evolution. The
new technologies are an instrument that
enables us to delve deeper into the di-
fferent fields of study and a tool for com-
munication which has revolutionised the
transmission of knowledge.
"NUMB3RS: Use and magic in everyday
life" responds fully to that philosophy. It
is aimed at a wide public of schoolchil-
dren, students and families, and uses a
familiar, suggestive language that leads
us from the simpler to the more complex
and arouses a desire to find out more. The
aim is for the visitors to become engros-
sed in the exhibition, take an active part
in its concepts and make discoveries of
their own.
We at "Ia Caixa" Social Projects would like
to thank all those who have contributed
to this exhibition, which brings out the
importance of numbers in everyday life
and the development of knowledge.
Jaime Lanaspa Gatnau
Chief Executive Officer of "10Caixa" Foundation

What do a lobster, a car and a champag-
ne bubble have in common?The number
1! The numbers family has been with us
since the most primitive times and is still
serving progress. For five millennia diffe-
rent classesof numbers have emerged to
solve increasingly creative problems.
The development of numbers has ena-
bled us to count, order, situate, compare,
distribute, calculate, classify... and create
a language which is as essential for every-
day life asfor the development of science
and technology.
Numbers of good family" is an approach
·0 understanding numbers and their use
'n everyday life.
Jorge Wagensberg
Director of the Fundaci6n "10 Caixa" De-
partment of the Environment and Science
shepherd who has eight sheep can see
-hat one of them is missing because he
nows them all, but he cannot control
a flock of five hundred sheep without
ounting them. When counting fingers,
ead of cattle, fruit, sacksof grain ... bring
n the natural numbers!
e need to count has always been uni-
'ersal and is also an index of cultural de-
velopment. Oddly enough, the represen- example, subtraction), then ... bring on
tation of numbers came long before the the whole number!
appearance of writing.
The usual order of natural numbers, 1, 2,
3..., enables us to count in order, 1st, 2nd,
3rd ... (ordinal numbers) and therefore to
establish a good relation of order among
the elements considered. That is how we
order archives, buildings in a street, the Natural numbers count from the first
pages of books ... element (1, 2, 3, ... ) but we need a a to
have a starting point (the reference) and
Compare the effort of reading Don Quixo-
negative numbers to count backwards,
te in an edition with the pages in the rig-
towards the past, down, towards debts
ht order with the effort of reading it after
... The number zero has played a two-
tearing out the pages, shuffling them and
fold role: as an indicator of a starting
rubbing out the page numbers. Natural
point (instant 0, temperature 0°, a hour,
numbers order and ordering enables us
kilometre 0 ... ) and as a figure of no va-
to place, locate and sequence.
lue in the writing of numbers (10, 2006,
5,070... ). Never was so little so much. If
we add the zero and the negative num-
Counting a natural number with preci-
bers to the natural numbers ... bring on
sion can be as impossible as it is unneces-
the whole numbers!
sary: the stars in the sky, the bacteria in a
culture, the trees in a wood, the grains of Each of these landscapes has a different
sand on a beach. In this case, instead of temperature. To be able to express tem-
counting we can estimate. A good trick is peratures we need the whole numbers:
to multiply a small part of the whole (whi- negative numbers for the cold ones, po-
ch is countable) by the number of times sitive numbers for the heat. The number
the part goes into the whole. For exam- o is the freezing point of water.
ple: how many people are taking part in a
demonstration? We use natural numbers:
in 1 m2 there is room for up to 6 people,
but 25 is impossible. So in an avenue 60
On a building like this: what number is
m wide, for each 1000 m we will have
the ground floor given? The ground floor
60,000 m2 and therefore "about 360,000
corresponds to the number zero. But, if
people'; but never 1 million.
there are underground floors with shops
or car parks, what numbers will be assig-
ned to them?
If natural numbers do not have a zero or
opposite numbers, and a calculation with On earth, height is expressed with po-
naturals does not have to be natural (for sitive whole numbers in relation to the
Alicante zero, and in the sea the depths
are expressed with negative whole num-
bers.
With an instrument of this kind, the ave-
rage level of the Mediterranean in Alican-
te was determined thanks to a buoy that
constantly recorded the changes in the
water level. Today those data are measu-
re by satellite.
Whole numbers are not sufficient to dis-
tribute and cannot be very precise in
measurements. We need to distribute,
compare and measure... so bring on the
rational number!
To measure we need to compare one pie-
ce of reality with a pattern unit (a metre,
a second, a kilo ...). And usually the mea-
surement does not coincide with a whole
number of such units.
One in three went to the cinema, a pie-
ce of land shared between seven, a 55%
discount, a fifth of the pie ... bring on the
rational numbers!
To measure with precision we need to use
the appropriate submultiples. One kilo is
a thousandth part of a tonne, a centime-
tre a hundredth part of a metre, etc. We
need another family of numbers to esta-
blish that relationship: rational numbers.
Each rational number relates two who-
le numbers to compare quantities or
distribute them and express gradients,
proportions or ratios. Rational numbers
compare.
Starting from two colours we can obtain
infinite intermediate tones. The same is
the case with rational numbers: for any
pair of rational numbers there is always
another rational number situated bet-
ween them. Moreover, rational numbers
distribute (half, a third, a quarter ... ) and
help us to check probabilities. We use the
rationals to understand the relation bet-
ween the whole and its parts.
We need to be able to make any calcula-
tion!
If with the rationals we cannot give a
name to all the points on a straight line
(the diagonal of a square cannot be ex-
pressed by a rational number), nor can
we make limit calculations ... bring on the
real number!
What number corresponds to each point
on an infinite straight line? The rationals
allow us to show many points but not all.
If we want to name all the intermediate
numbers that exist between 0 and 1 the
rationals are not enough. There are num-
bers that cannot be expressed by the
quotient of two whole numbers. They are
numbers that have infinite non-periodic
decimals: the irrationals. The rationals
plus the irrationals make up the family of
real numbers. To name an irrational num-
ber we need the help of some symbol,
letters or other conventions: ~2, ~3, n, e...
The ratio between the perimeter of a
circumference and the diameter always
seems to lead to the same result. Greek
and Arab mathematicians began the
search for this mysterious number com-
mon to all circles, circumferences and
spheres. From inscribed polygons the
decimals of the phantom number began
to emerge. That was the birth of Pi. The
non-repetition of decimals and the im-
possibility of writing it in the form of a
fraction made them suspect that Pi was
an irrational number.
The golden number CD(1+~5 )/2=1.618 ...
is called the divine proportion or golden
section and, oddly enough, frequently
appears in nature. This proportion is aes-
thetically beautiful to us, which is why it
appears in art, architecture and design.
Renaissance painters and professionals
concerned with human proportions tes-
ted the golden number in many anatomi-
cal relations. With this number we can see
if we have a golden section: according to
the golden rule, the height of your navel
is your height divided by the number CD.

The Parthenon is one of the great Doric
temples still intact. Which of these three
representations is the closest to reality?
Only one: the one that keeps its golden
proportions.
If the result of a calculation with real
numbers does not have to be a real num-
ber (for example, the square root of -1),
which does not allow us to solve all se-
cond degree equations ... bring on the
complex number!
We need to be able to solve this equa-
tion!
Square roots of negative numbers can-
not be expressed with the family of real
numbers, and so we can saythat the solu-
tion to these equations, as it is not real, is
imaginary. To solve all equations we need
these imaginary numbers. Real numbers
plus imaginary numbers form a new fa-
mily: bring on the complex numbers!
The parabola z:=x2+? turns rapidly and
generates a paraboloid with a revolu-
tion of z:=x2+? As x2 and I are positive,
the value of z is always positive. In other
words there are no real values of x and
y that satisfy the equation for the nega-
tive values of z. But there are imaginary
values! They cannot be seen in the real
world, but they can be seen in the virtual
world of a looking-glass.
complex numbers, the Mandelbrot set is
created on the plane. With this example
The square roots of negative numbers are
Benoit Mandelbrot launched the theory
not real numbers; they are expressions
of fractals, beautiful geometrical objects
one may come across when making cal-
that are drawn with complex numbers,
culations. By extending the real numbers
repeating formulas, with their parts be-
with these roots the complex numbers
ing similar to the whole.
are born.
With fractals, virtual images that simulate
With a new symbol (Un for the imaginary
realities are produced (StarTrek) or many
unit -J-1, the complex numbers are expre-
rough or broken natural forms are descri-
ssions of the a+bi type in which a and b
bed (human arterial system, branches of
are real numbers that can be represented
trees, wild mountains ... ).
on the plane and make it possible to solve
all polynomial equations of any degree.
Complex numbers help with calculation
and so they are used in electrical engi-
neering, acoustics, hydrology, quantum There are some numbers whose appli-
mechanics, the Theory of Relativity and cations, both in mathematics and other
the creation of virtual images. disciplines, are so numerous or whose
historical milestone has been so impor-
tant that we could call them illustrious
numbers.
The voice, music and sound make waves.
Through the so-called Fourier series,whi-
ch use complex calculation, those waves
can be studied or used to generate new
emissions.
- Anonymous Babylonian, 400 BC
The Vocaloid programme of Pompeu
Its life began as an absence. None of the
Fabra University's Musical Technology
cultures that added values of symbols in
group makes it possible to vary the tonal
order to number even imagined it. It was
shades and obtain thousands of trans-
Hindu culture (200 BC) which, with the
formations of the human voice. Without
digits 1,2,3,4, S, 6, 7, 8, 9 and a positio-
the complex numbers this programme
nal system for expressing numbers with
would not be possible.
powers often, introduced the zero.
The zero as number and central figure of
arithmetic was used in India by Brahma-
gupta (630 BC), Mahavira (830 BC) and
The graphic representation of the func- Bhaskara (1130 BC). It was also used by
tion f(x)=x2+c with real numbers is a para- Mayan culture. When Arab culture adop-
bola. If the same function is treated with ted the Hindu system it was brought to
Europe in the Middle Ages through Spain
and Italy.
Little could the zero have imagined that
today, as part of the binary tandem 0-1,
it would make the digital revolution pos-
sible with the communication of images
and sounds.
- Anonymous human, ? BC
The 10 fingers of the hand were decisive
for the number 10 becoming the base of
arithmetic in the majority of numbering
systems. If the Babylonians used base 12
and the Maya base 20, all other cultures
have used base 10, both in additive syste-
ms (Egypt, Greece, Rome... ) and positio-
nal systems (India, Arabia, Europe ... ).The
decimal metric system confirmed base
10 for both calculating and measuring,
and celebrations of events take place in
decades, centenaries, etc., or in their divi-
sors (5, 25, 75... ).
- Anonymous human, ? BC
With each thumb the 12 joints of the
hand were counted, and the 12 was divi-
sible by 1,2,3,4,6 and 12.Therefore, until
the 19th century, all measurement syste-
ms used multiples and divisors of 12: ari-
thmetic with 10 and measurement with
12... and eggs in dozens. Forthe time be-
ing, the duodecimal system (12 months,
24 hours, 60 minutes, 60 seconds... ) is
still in force and the zodiac has 12 signs.
The numeric secret of the Cathedral of
La Sagrada Familia is the number 12: not
only do the 12 belfries correspond to the
12 Apostles, but the architectural propor-
tions are 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 213, 3/4 and 1/1,
which correspond to the divisors of 12.
The number has great geometrical pres-
tige (the dodecahedron has 12 sides,
a sphere touches 12 equal spheres ... )
and curious arithmetical properties
(12x12=144 and 21x21=441).
- Pythagoras, 540 BC
According to Pythagoras' theorem, it is
the diagonal of a unit square and there-
fore is drawn with a ruler and compass.
The solution to the equation x2-2=0, sur-
prisingly, turned out to be irrational. In
other words, there was no unit which, if
repeated, would measure both the dia-
gonal and the side of the unit square.
Despite that, there are fractions that are
very close to this number:
7/5, 17/12, 41/29, 99/70, 239/169,
557/408 ...
The proportion appears in DIN A paper, in
photographic numbers and square artis-
tic compositions.
tlij1Q' ~.rlll:m~zm~I:Z'1P
- Hans van der Laan, 1928
- Child of the Kasner family, mid-20th
century
Number conceived by some kindergar-
ten children who christened it with the
special name "googol': a "googolplex" be-
ing a 1 followed by a googol of zeros.
A googol exceeds the total number of
particles in the universe (which is 10raised
to the power of 80), but is smaller than
the number of different games of chess
that could possibly be played (which is
10 raised to the power of 120), far fewer
than the number of different free sonnets
(which in Spanish is 10 raised tothe power
of 415) and ridiculously smaller than the
number of Spanish novels with 200 pages
(10 raised to the power of 354,918).
- Mathematicians, 21st century
• Isany natural number greater than 5 the
sum of three prime numbers? (Golbach)
·15any natural even number greater than
2 the sum of two prime numbers? (Gol-
bach)

• Is there an odd number that is the sum

of all its divisors except itself?

• Could rre be a fraction?

• Is the number 1+ 1/23+ 1/33+ ... the so-
lution to a polynomial equation?
• If 5 is a complex number, is the real
part of the solutions to the equation
1+1/25+1/35+1/45+ ... =0 1/2? This pro-
blem, known as Riemann's Hypothesis,
is regarded as the most important open
problem in pure mathematics today.
·Is any natural even number greater than
2 the sum of two prime numbers? (Gol-
bach)

• Is there an odd number that is the sum

of all its divisors except itself?

• Could ne be a fraction?
·Is the number 1+1/23+1/33+ ... the so-
lution to a polynomial equation?
• If s is a complex number, is the real
part of the solutions to the equation
1+1/2s+1/3s+1/4s+ ... =0 1/2? This pro-
blem, known as Riemann's Hypothesis,
is regarded as the most important open
problem in pure mathematics today.