1 3 Propagacin PDF

ESCUELA POLITÉCNICA NACIONAL
Comunicaciones Inalámbricas
Estudio del Canal Inalámbrico
Dra. Martha Cecilia Paredes

Tabla de Contenido
1. Propagación
2. Fading
1. Larga-scale fading
2. Smal-scale fading
IEE8J4@mcparedes ESCUELA POLITÉCNICA NACIONAL 2

Bibliografía
 Yong Soo Cho ... [et al.]. “MIMO-OFDM wireless
communications with MATLAB”, John Wiley & Sons, USA,
2010.
 Rappaport, T. S. Wireless communications: principles and
practice (Vol. 2). New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR. (1996).

Introducción
 El rendimiento de los sistemas inalámbricos
principalmente está gobernado por el comportamiento
del canal inalámbrico.
 El canal inalámbrico es dinámico e impredecible
Difícil realizar un análisis exacto
Complicación: crecimiento rápido de los servicios de
las comunicaciones móviles.
 En comunicaciones inalámbricas, la propagación radio
hace referencia al comportamiento de las ondas de
radio cuando se propagan entre el transmisor y el
receptor.

Propagación
 Todo sistema de telecomunicación debe diseñarse
para que en el receptor se obtenga una relación
señal-ruido mínima que garantice su
funcionamiento.
 Para la correcta planificación de cualquiera de estos
sistemas resulta esencial conocer los factores que
pueden alterar la propagación electromagnética, su
magnitud y su influencia en las distintas bandas de
frecuencias.

Propagación
 Las ondas de radio son afectadas
por varios fenómenos físicos:
 Reflexión, Difracción, Dispersión
 La intensidad de las ondas
electromagnéticas varía en
diferentes ambientes, siendo la
característica común el
desvanecimiento (fading)
 Variación de la amplitud de la señal en
tiempo y frecuencia
 Es una fuente de degradación distinta
del ruido de la señal que es
caracterizada como un disturbio no-
aditivo del canal inalámbrico

Desvanecimiento (Fading)
 El fading puede ser causado principalmente debido a
 Multitrayecto (multi-path fading)
 Sombra debido a los obstáculos (shadow fading)

Desvanecimiento (Fading)
 Multitrayecto
 Varias versiones de la señal con diferente:
 Amplitud
 Fase
 Retardo
 Desplazamiento Doppler
 Desfase

Tipos de Fading

Tipos de Fading
 Large-scale fading
 Se produce cuando un móvil se mueve a través de largas
distancias
 Distancia en el tamaño de una celda celular
 Es causado por las pérdidas por trayectoria (path loss) de una
señal en función de la distancia y de la sombra (shadowing) de
objetos grandes como edificios, estaciones terrenas y vegetación
 Shadowing es un proceso de desvanecimiento lento (slow fading)
caracterizado por la variación de la pérdida de trayectoria media
entre el transmisor y receptor en localizaciones fijas.
 Large-scale fading se caracteriza por la pérdida por trayectoria
media que decrece con la distancia y las pérdidas por sombra que
varía a lo largo de la pérdida por trayectoria media

Tipos de Fading
 Small-scale fading
 Se refiere a la variación rápida de los niveles de la señal debido a
la interferencia constructiva y destructiva de trayectorias
múltiples de señal (multi-path) cuando la estación móvil se
mueve a través de distancias cortas.
 Dependiendo de la frecuencia selectiva del canal se puede tener
desvanecimiento por selectividad de frecuencia (frequency-
selective or frequency flat fading) de un canal.
 Dependiendo de la variación en el tiempo en un canal debido a la
velocidad del móvil (caracterizada por la dispersión Doppler), a
corto plazo el fading puede clasificarse como desvanecimiento
rápido (fast fading) o desvanecimiento lento (slow fading).

Tipos de Fading
Large-scale fading vs. small-scale fading.

Fading
LARGE-SCALE FADING

Large scale fading
 The large-scale fading is characterized by average
path loss and shadowing.
 Large-scale wireless channel models illustrates the
power-loss of signals in the case of a large distance
between the transmitter and the receiver for a
propagation environment which is not critically
populated and this is the case for suburban areas.
The large scale models contribute to the
prediction of reflection, diffraction and long
distance power loss .

Large scale fading
 There are different models to predict illustrates the
power-loss of signals in the case of a large distance
between the transmitter and the receiver, which
considers different parameters.

Free-space path loss model
 The free-space propagation model is used for
predicting the received signal strength in the
line-of-sight (LOS) environment where there is
no obstacle between the transmitter and
receiver, the channel is uniform and non-
absorbent and that the transmitting antenna and
the Earth's surface are infinitely far away.

 Let 𝑑 denote the distance in meters between the
transmitter and receiver. When non-isotropic antennas
are used with a transmit gain of 𝐺𝑡 and a receive gain of
𝐺𝑟 , the received power at distance 𝑑, 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑), is expressed
by the well-known Friis equation.
 𝑃𝑡 represents the transmit power (watts),

 𝜆 is the wavelength of radiation (m)
 𝐿 is the system loss factor which is independent of propagation
environment.

 The system loss factor represents overall attenuation or loss in
the actual system hardware, including transmission line, filter,
and antennas.
 In general, 𝐿 > 1, but 𝐿 = 1 if we assume that there is no loss
in the system hardware.
 The received power attenuates exponentially with the distance 𝑑.
The free-space path loss, 𝑷𝑳𝑭 (𝒅), without any system loss can
be directly derived from 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) with 𝐿 = 1
 Without antenna gains (i.e., 𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟 = 1), the equation is

reduced to


Log-distance path loss model
 A generalized form of the path loss model can be constructed by
modifying the free-space path loss with the path loss exponent 𝑛
that varies with the environments.
 This is known as the log-distance path loss model, in which the path
loss at distance 𝑑 is given as
 𝑑0 is a reference distance at which or closer to the path loss inherits the

characteristics of free-space loss.
 Determined for different propagation environments.
 Typical value for 𝑑0 :

 𝑛 is the path loss exponent can vary from 2 to 6, depending on
the propagation environment.
 𝑛 tends to increase as there are more obstructions.
Table - Path loss exponent


Log-normal shadowing model
 Path loss increases with the path loss exponent 𝑛. Even if the distance
between the transmitter and receiver is equal to each other, every path may
have different path loss since the surrounding environments may vary with
the location of the receiver in practice. However, all the aforementioned
path loss models do not take this particular situation into account.
 A log-normal shadowing model is useful when dealing with a more realistic
situation.
 Let 𝑋𝜎 denote a Gaussian random variable with a 0dB mean and a
standard deviation of 𝜎 (𝑋𝜎 ~𝒩(0, 𝜎) ). Then, the log-normal shadowing
model is given as
 This model allows the receiver at the same distance 𝑑 to have a different
path loss, which varies with the random shadowing effect 𝑋𝜎

 Log-normal variables
 Definition: A random variable 𝑋 is a log-normal variable, if your
logarithmic follows a normal distribution
 In communications log-normal variables are power and power ratio (attenuaiton),

which are in dBs (dBm or dBW)
Log-norma distribution Norma distribution

Figure shows path loss that follows the log-normal shadowing model at 𝑓𝑐 = 1.5 GHz
with σ = 3 dB and 𝑛 = 2. It clearly illustrates the random effect of shadowing that is
imposed on the deterministic nature of the log-distance path loss model.

Pathloss

Okumura Model
 The Okumura model has been obtained through
extensive experiments to compute the antenna height
and coverage area for mobile communication systems
 It was developed during the mid 1960's as the result of
large-scale studies conducted in and around Tokyo.
 It is one of the most frequently adopted path loss models
that can predict path loss in an urban area
 Covers typical mobile communication system characteristics with
a frequency band of 500-1500MHz, cell radius of 1-100 km, and
an antenna height of 30m to 1000m.

Okumura Model
 The path loss at distance 𝑑 in the Okumura model is
where
 𝑃𝐿𝐹 is the path loss of the free space in dB
 𝐴𝑀𝑈 𝑓 is the medium attenuation factor at frequency 𝑓
 𝐺𝑅𝑥 and 𝐺𝑇𝑥 are the antenna gains of Rx and Tx antennas, respectively,
 𝐺𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 is the gain for the propagation environment in the specific area.
 Note that the antenna gains, are merely a function of the antenna height,
without other factors taken into account like an antenna pattern.
 𝐴𝑀𝑈 𝑓 and 𝐺𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 can be referred to by the graphs that have been obtained
empirically from actual measurements by Okumura

Okumura
Model
 𝐴𝑀𝑈 𝑓
 The value of
𝐴𝑀𝑈 𝑓 is
determined by
graphs that have
been obtained
empirically from
actual
measurements
by Okumura

Okumura Model
 𝐺𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴
 The value of
𝐺𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 is
determined by
graphs that have
been obtained
empirically from
actual
measurements
by Okumura

Hata Model
 The Okumura model has been extended to cover the
various propagation environments, including urban,
suburban, and open area, which is now known as the
Hata model.
 Hata model is currently the most popular path loss model.
 For the height of transmit antenna, ℎ 𝑇𝑋 [m], and the
carrier frequency of 𝑓𝑐 [MHz], the path loss at distance 𝑑
[m] in an urban area is given by the Hata model as
 𝐶𝑅𝑥 is the correlation coefficient of the receive antenna, which

depends on the size of coverage.

Hata Model
 For small to medium-sized coverage, 𝐶𝑅𝑥 is given as
 where ℎ𝑅𝑋 [m] is the height of transmit antenna.
 For large-sized coverage, 𝐶𝑅𝑥 depends on the range of

the carrier frequency

Hata Model
 The path loss at distance in suburban and open areas are
respectively given by the Hata model as

Otros modelos
Diferentes formas de clasificación:
Analíticos
Semiempíricos
Empíricos
DEBER No. 1

Fading
SMALL-SCALE FADING

Small-scale fading
 Small-scale fading is often referred to as fading or fading in short.
 Describes the rapid variation of the received signal level over a short
period of time or short travel distance, so the path loss effects can be
ignored.
 Caused by the effect of multiple signal paths, the signal can arrive
subsequently in the receive antenna with varying amplitude and
phases.
 Each of the multiple signal paths may undergo changes that
depend on the speeds of the mobile station and surrounding
objects.

Factors Influencing small-scale
Fading
 The following physical factors in the radio propagation
channel influence small-scale fading
1. Multi-path propagation
 The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the channel
creates a constantly changing environment that dissipates the
signal energy in amplitude, phase, and time.
 It results in multiple versions of the transmitted signal that arrive at
the receiving antenna, displaced with respect to one another in time
and spatial orientation.
 The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath
components cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby
inducing small-scale fading, signal distortion, or both.
 Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for
the baseband portion of the signal to reach the receiver which
can cause signal smearing due to intersymbol interference.

Fading
2. Speed of the mobile
 The relative motion between the base station and the mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different
Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.
• Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on whether the
mobile receiver is moving toward or away from the base station.

Fading
3. Speed of the surrounding objects
 If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a

time varying Doppler shift on multipath components.
 If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then
this effect dominates the small-scale fading. Otherwise, motion of
surrounding objects may be ignored, and only the speed of the mobile
need be considered.

Fading
4. The transmission bandwidth of the signal
 If the transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the

"bandwidth" of the multipath channel, the received signal will
be distorted, but the received signal strength will not fade
much over a local area (i.e., the small-scale signal fading will
not be significant).
 The bandwidth of the channel can be quantified by the
coherence bandtwidth which is related to the specific
multipath structure of the channel.
 The fading depends of the size of the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal

Effects of small-scale fading
 The three most important fading effects are
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or

time interval
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multi-path signals
3. Time dispersions (echoes) caused by multi-path propagation
delays

Doppler shift
 Definition: The shift in received signal frequency due to
motion is called the Doppler shift
 It is directly proportional to
 the velocity of the mobile
 the direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the
direction of arrival of the received wave

Doppler shift
 Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity 𝑣,
along a path segment having length 𝑑 between
points 𝑋 and 𝑌
 The mobile receives signals from a remote source 𝑆
 Assumptions: 𝑑 is small and 𝑆 is very remote
 When the distance of 𝑆 ≫ 𝑑 → 𝑆𝑋 is almost parallel
to 𝑆𝑌
 The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave
from source 𝑆 to the mobile at points 𝑋 and 𝑌 is
∆𝑙 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑣∆𝑡 cos 𝜃

 ∆𝑡 = time required for the mobile to travel from X to Y
 𝜃 = angle of arrival of the wave, which is the same at 𝑋 and 𝑌 due to the
assumptions

Doppler shift
 The transmitted signal can be expressed as
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴{exp[𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡]}
where
 𝐴 = amplitude of the signal
 𝑓𝑐 = carrier frequency
 The received signal at point 𝑋 is given by

𝑟𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐴{exp[𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑥 )]}
where
 𝜏𝑥 = propagation delay

Doppler shift
 The received signal at point 𝑌 is given by

Doppler shift
 From the previous slide, let
 Received frequency at point 𝑌 is
 where 𝑓𝑑 is the Doppler shift due to the motion of the mobile

 Note: 𝑓𝑑 is positive when the mobile is moving towards the
source S
Doppler shift
 If the mobile is moving away from the base station then
 Thus the received frequency at 𝑋 is

Doppler shift
 Example:
 Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier
frequency of 1850 MHz. For a vehicle moving 60 mph, compute
the received carrier frequency if the mobile is moving
1. Directly towards the transmitter,
2. Directly away from the transmitter,
3. In a direction which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival
of the transmitted signal.

Doppler shift
 Example:
 Solution:
𝑐
𝑓𝑐 = 1850 MHz, Then the wavelength 𝜆 = = 0.162 𝑚
𝑓𝑐
𝑣 = 60mph = 26.82 m/s
1. The vehicle is moving directly towards the transmitter.

The Doppler shift in this case is positive and the received
frequency
26.82
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 = 1850 × 106 + = 1850.00016 MHz
0.162

Doppler shift
 Example:
 Solution:
2. The vehicle is moving directly away from the transmitter.
The Doppler shift in this case is negative and hence the received
frequency is given by
26.82
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑑 = 1850 × 106 − = 1849.999834 MHz
0.162
3. The vehicle is moving perpendicular to the angle of arrival of

the transmitted signal.
In this case, 𝜃= 90°, cos 𝜃= 0 , and there is no Doppler shift.
The received signal frequency is the same as the transmitted
frequency of 1850MHz.

Power Delay Profile
 Power delay profiles (PDP) are
 used to derive many multipath channel
parameters
 generally represented as plots of relative
received power (𝑎𝑘2 ) as a function of excess
delay (𝜏 ) with respect to a fixed time delay
reference
 Power delay profiles are found by

averaging instantaneous power delay
profile measurements over a local area
in order to determine an average
small-scale power delay profile

Time Dispersion Parameters
 The time dispersion parameters that can be determined from
a power delay profile are
 Mean excess delay
 RMS delay spread
 Excess delay spread
 These parameters are useful channel parameters that provides
a reference comparison among different multipath fading. It
shows a general guideline to design a wireless transmission
system.
 The time dispersive properties of wide band multipath
channels are most commonly quantified by their mean excess
delay (𝜏 ) and RMS delay spread (𝜎ത𝜏 )

 Mean Excess Delay
 The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay
profile and is defined as
 𝑃 𝜏𝑘 denotes the power at 𝑘th path

 RMS Delay Spread
 The RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is defined to be

 The mean excess delay and RMS delay spread are
measured relative to the first detectable signal arriving at
the receiver at 𝜏0 = 0
 Typical values of RMS delay spread are on the order of
 microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel
 nanoseconds in indoor radio channels

 Maximum Excess Delay
 The maximum excess delay (𝑋 dB) of the power delay profile is

defined to be the time delay during which multipath energy falls
to 𝑋 dB below the maximum
 If 𝜏0 is the first arriving signal and 𝜏𝑋 is the maximum delay at

which a multipath component is with 𝑋 dB of the strongest
multipath signal (which does not necessarily arrive at 𝜏0 ), then
the maximum excess delay is defined as

Coherence Bandwidth
 The coherence bandwidth, defined as 𝐵𝑐, is a measure of the maximum
frequency difference for which signals are still strongly correlated in
amplitude.
 It shows the frequency range in which the channel varies significantly
 The RMS delay spread and 𝐵𝑐 are inversely proportional to one

another, that is
1
𝐵𝑐 ≈
𝜎𝜏
 If 𝐵𝑐 is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation
function is above 0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is approximately
1
𝐵𝑐 ≈
50𝜎𝜏
 where 𝜎𝜏 is the RMS delay spread

Coherence Bandwidth
 If 𝐵𝑐 the definition is relaxed so that the frequency
correlation function is above 0.5, then the coherence
bandwidth is approximately
1
𝐵𝑐 ≈
5𝜎𝜏

Types of Small-Scale Fading
 Fading due Frequency dispersion
 Due to time dispersion, a transmit signal may undergo fading over
a frequency domain
1. Frequency nonselective fading or Flat fading
2. Frequency selective fading
 Fading due Time dispersion

 Depending on the extent of the Doppler spread, the received
signal undergoes
1. Fast fading
2. Slow fading

Frequency nonselective fading
 Flat Fading is also referred as frequency nonselective fading
 A narrower bandwidth implies that symbol period 𝑇𝑠 is
greater than delay spread 𝜏 of the multipath channel
 As long as 𝑇𝑠 is greater than 𝜏, the current symbol does not affect
the subsequent symbol as much over the next symbol period,
implying that inter-symbol interference (ISI) is not significant.
 Even while amplitude is slowly time-varying in the frequency-non-
selective fading channel, it is often referred to as a narrowband
channel, since the signal bandwidth is much narrower than the
channel bandwidth.

 To summarize, a transmit signal is subject to frequency-
non-selective fading under the following conditions:
𝐵𝑠 ≪ 𝐵𝑐 and 𝑇𝑠 ≫ 𝜎𝜏
 where 𝐵𝑠 and 𝑇𝑠 are the bandwidth and symbol period of
s
the transmit signal, while 𝐵𝑐 and 𝜎𝜏 denote coherence

bandwidth and RMS delay spread, respectively.

 Transmit signal undergoes frequency-selective fading
when the wireless channel has a constant amplitude and
linear phase response only within a channel bandwidth
narrower than the signal bandwidth.
 The channel impulse response has a larger delay spread than a

symbol period of the transmit signal. Due to the short symbol
duration as compared to the multipath delay spread, multiple-
delayed copies of the transmit signal is significantly overlapped
with the subsequent symbol, incurring inter-symbol interference
(ISI).

Typical Values
 Typical Values:
 In building: 𝜎𝜏 = 30 − 300 ns, 𝐵𝑠 = 3 − 30 MHz.
 Urban area: 𝜎𝜏 = 300 ns − 3ms, 𝐵𝑠 = 300 kHz −

3 MHz.
 Open area: 𝜎𝜏 = 1 − 10 ms, 𝐵𝑠 = 100 kHz − 1 MHz.
 Examples:
 GSM, 200 kHz
 UMTS, 5 MHz.

Frequency selective fading
 The term frequency selective channel is used simply because
the amplitude of frequency response varies with the
frequency, as opposed to the frequency-flat nature of the
frequency nonselective fading channel.
 The occurrence of ISI is obvious in the time domain since
channel delay spread t is much greater than the symbol
period.
 This implies that signal bandwidth 𝐵𝑠 is greater than coherence
bandwidth 𝐵𝑐 and thus, the received signal will have a different
amplitude in the frequency response (i.e., undergo frequency
selective fading).
 Since signal bandwidth is larger than the bandwidth of channel
impulse response in frequency-selective fading channel, it is often
referred to as a wideband channel

Frequency selective fading
 The transmit signal is subject to frequency-selective
fading under the following conditions:
𝐵𝑠 > 𝐵𝑐 and 𝑇𝑠 > 𝜎𝜏
 Even if it depends on modulation scheme, a channel is

typically classified as frequency selective when
𝜎𝜏 > 0.1𝑇𝑠 .

Flat fading vs frequency
selective fading

Fast fading
 In a fast fading channel, the coherence time 𝑇𝑐 is smaller than
the symbol period and thus, a channel impulse response
quickly varies within the symbol period.
 Variation in the time domain is closely related to movement of
the transmitter or receiver, which incurs a spread in the
frequency domain, known as a Doppler shift.
 Let 𝑓𝑚 be the maximum Doppler shift, which is given by
v
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑑.𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜆
 Then, the bandwidth of Doppler spectrum, denoted as 𝐵𝑑 , is
given as
𝐵𝑑 = 2𝑓𝑚

Fast fading
 In general, 𝑇𝑐 is inversely proportional to Doppler spread, i.e.,
1
𝑇𝑐 ≈
𝑓𝑚
 Therefore, 𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇𝑐 implies 𝐵𝑠 < 𝐵𝑑 .
 The transmit signal is subject to fast fading under the
following conditions:
𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇𝑐 and 𝐵𝑠 < 𝐵𝑑

Slow fading
 Consider the case that channel impulse response varies
slowly as compared to variation in the baseband transmit
signal.
 In this case, we can assume that the channel does not change
over the duration of one or more symbols and thus, it is referred
to as a static channel.
 The Doppler spread is much smaller than the bandwidth of
the baseband transmit signal.
 Transmit signal is subject to slow fading under the

following conditions:
𝑇𝑠 ≪ 𝑇𝑐 and 𝐵𝑠 ≫ 𝐵𝑑

Slow fading
 In the case where the 𝑇𝑐 is defined as a bandwidth with
the correlation of 0.5 or above, the relationship must be
changed to
9 0.179
𝑇𝑐 ≅ =
16 𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚
 This eq. is derived under the assumption that a signal varies very
fast.
 The most common definition of coherence time is to use

the geometric mean of above eq.
9 0.423
Tc ≅ 2 =
16 πfm fm

Fast vs Slow fading
 It is important to note that fast or slow fading does not
have anything to do with time dispersion-induced fading.
 In other words, the frequency selectivity of the wireless channel
cannot be judged merely from the channel characteristics of fast
or slow fading.
 This is simply because fast fading is attributed only to the rate of
channel variation due to the terminal movement.

Summary
Summary of channel fading characteristics
BS Freq. sel. Freq. sel.

TS Fast slow
Flat Flat
slow fast BC
T Flat Flat
Freq sel. Freq sel.
slow fast Fast Slow
TC BD
Channel Models

Channel Models
 There are many models that describe the phenomenon
of small scale fading. Out of these models, Rayleigh
fading, Ricean fading and Nakagami fading models are
most widely used.

Additive White Gaussian
Noise (AWGN) Model
 The simplest radio environment in which a wireless
communications system or a local positioning system or
proximity detector based on Time of flight will have to operate
is the Additive-White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) environment.
 AWGN is the commonly used to transmit signal while signals
travel from the channel and simulate background noise of
channel.
 The mathematical expression in received signal that passed
through the AWGN channel is
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡)
 where 𝑠(𝑡) is transmitted signal and 𝑛(𝑡) is noise.

Additive White Gaussian
Noise (AWGN) Model
 An AWGN channel adds white Gaussian noise to the
signal that passes through it.
 The transmitted signal gets disturbed by a simple
additive white Gaussian noise process.

Rayleigh fading model
 The Rayleigh fading is primarily caused by multipath
reception.
 Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a
propagation environment on a radio signal.
 It is a reasonable model for troposphere and ionospheres
signal propagation as well as the effect of heavily built-up
urban environments on radio signals.
 Rayleigh fading is most applicable when there is no line
of sight between the transmitter and receiver

Ricean fading model
 The Ricean fading model is similar to the Rayleigh fading
model, except that in Ricean fading, a strong dominant
component is present.
 This dominant component is a stationary (non fading) signal and

is commonly known as the LOS (Line of Sight Component).

Generation of Fading
Channels
 In general, the propagation environment for any wireless
channel in either indoor or outdoor may be subject to:
 LOS (Line-of-Sight)
 NLOS (Non Line-of-Sight).

Statistical Characterization for
Fading Channel
 A probability density function of the signal received in :
 LOS environment follows the Rician distribution

 NLOS environment follows the Rayleigh distribution.
 Note that any received signal in the propagation

environment for a wireless channel can be considered as
the sum of the received signals from an infinite number
of scatters.

Rayleigh Fading Distribution
 In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution is
commonly used to describe the statistical time varying
nature of the received envelope of a flat fading signal, or
the envelope of an individual multipath component
 Remark: The envelope of the sum of two quadrature
Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution

Typical Rayleigh Fading Envelope

Rayleigh Distribution
 The probability density function (pdf) of the Rayleigh
distribution is given by

 The probability that the envelope of the received signal
does not exceed a specified value 𝑅 is given by the
corresponding Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)


Ricean Fading Distribution
 When there is a dominant stationary (non-fading) signal
component present, such as a line-of-sight propagation
path, the small-scale fading envelope distribution is
Ricean
 In such a situation, random multipath components
arriving at different angles are superimposed on a
stationary dominant signal. At the output of an envelope
detector, this has the effect of adding a de component to
the random multipath.

Ricean Distribution
 The pdf of the Ricean distribution is given by

Ricean Distribution

Example

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ESCUELA POLITÉCNICA NACIONAL

Estudio del Canal Inalámbrico

Dra. Martha Cecilia Paredes

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Large-scale fading vs. small-scale fading.

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 𝑃𝑡 represents the transmit power (watts),

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 Without antenna gains (i.e., 𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟 = 1), the equation is

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 𝑑0 is a reference distance at which or closer to the path loss inherits the

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Table - Path loss exponent

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 In communications log-normal variables are power and power ratio (attenuaiton),

Log-norma distribution Norma distribution

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 𝐶𝑅𝑥 is the correlation coefficient of the receive antenna, which

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 where ℎ𝑅𝑋 [m] is the height of transmit antenna.

 For large-sized coverage, 𝐶𝑅𝑥 depends on the range of

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2. Speed of the mobile

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3. Speed of the surrounding objects

 If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a

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4. The transmission bandwidth of the signal

 If the transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the

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1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or

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∆𝑙 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑣∆𝑡 cos 𝜃

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 The received signal at point 𝑋 is given by

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