2.

Geomecánica

2.1 Comportamiento mecánico de la

roca
2.2 Mecánica de fracturas
2.3 Fricción de la roca y
comportamiento mecánico de fracturas
 El conocimiento de Geomecánica
es Importante en la Caracterización, Evaluación y Administración
de Yacimientos Naturalmente Fracturados
§  Determinar el origen, tipo y orientación de fracturas de principiosmecánicos de
la roca

● Caracterizar la distribución e intensidad de fracturas del análisis de esfuerzos/

deformación (stress/strain) usando:
-- Estratigrafía Mecánica
-- Espesor de la capa
-- Curvatura de la capa

● Evaluar el impacto potencial de la permeabilidad de la fractura dependiente del

esfuerzo en la productiviidad del yacimiento y el daño existente entre la
fractura y la formación durante la historia de producción

● Administrar la dinámica del yacimiento debido a cambiosen el estado de

esfuerzos inducidos por la producción usando modelos geomecánicos-
deformación acoplados con modelos de flujo de fluidos para predecir:
-- Comportamiento de fracturas en el yacimiento con el flujo de fluidos
-- Tiempo y tipo de programa de mantenimiento de presión
-- Ubicación óptima de pozos de relleno y de inyección
-- Activación de fallas – temblores debidos a la inyección de agua y
producción
-- Trayectorias óptimas de pozo para minimizar fallas en tuberías de
revestimiento debido a fallas de resbalamiento
 2.1 Comportamiento mecánico de la roca
•  Deformación Experimental de la Roca
- Naturaleza de los Experimentos
- Deformación Elástica
- Deformación Inelástica

•  Efecto Parámetros Ambientales de Fortaleza y Ductilidad

- Presión de Confinamiento
- Presión de Poro
- Temperatura
- Tiempo (Ritmo de deformación y Arrastre) Materials under a constant stress at an
elevated temperature will continuously deform with time, that is it is said to "creep"

•  Transición Quebradizo / Ductil

•  Fortaleza y Ductilidad de Rocas Sedimentarias Comunes
•  Estratigrafía Mecánica
 Comportamiento Mecánico de la Roca Depende
de la Interacción entre
Parámetros Ambientales Propiedades Intrínsecas

Presión de Confinamiento Composición

Presión de Poro Tamaño de Grano

Temperatura Porosidad
Tiempo (Ritmo de
Permeabilidad
Deformación)
Esfuerzo Diferencial Tamaño del Cuerpo
Composición del Fluido de
Espesor de la Capa
Poro
Discontinuidades
Mecánicas Pre-existentes
Mechanical properties include:
Elastic properties (Young’s modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, & Poisson’s ratio)
Inelastic properties (fracture gradient and formation strength)
 Estado de Esfuerzos In Situ
The orientation of a hydraulic fracture plane is controlled by the in situ state of stress
in the rock mass. When this state of stress approaches hydrostatic (all three principal
stresses near equal, or a very low differential stress), anisotropies within the rock can
dominate fracture orientation

Sperficie de la
Tierra
σV

σV > σHmax>σHmin

σHmin

σHmax
Estado de Esfuerzos In Situ
If the strains are high enough, the rock fails
either in shear or in tension. Three stress
regimes can be defined if the rock fails in
shear. These stress regimes are
associated with the 3 classic fault regimes:
normal, thrust & strike-slip fault regimes.
Stresses can be estimated by the adapted
shear failure model. The simplest shear
failure model that applies to rocks is the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. A stress
model based on this criterion assumes that
the maximum in-situ shear stress is
governed by the shear strength of the
formation.
The Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion can be written to give σ1 at failure
in terms of σ3 .
 Gradientes del Esfuerzo de Sepultamiento y
Presión de Poro

For normal conditions: Lithostatic pressure gradient=

SV = ρ g V Overburden stress gradient

Lithostatic pressure gradient=

Overburden pressure gradient
dSV/dV = 1.0 psi/ft (22.5 kPa/m)
for ρ = 2.3 g/cm3

Hydrostatic gradient
dP/dV = 0.45 psi/ft (10.0 kPa/m)
Hydrostatic gradient
 Relación entre Presión de Poro, Esfuerzo de
Sepultamiento y Esfuerzo Efectivo
In some reservoirs, pp is higher than normal. These are called overpressured or abnormal
pressured zones. The best source of pp is still the extrapolated formation pressures derived
from DST or RFT data. Some gas sands are naturally underpressured due to burial at depth
with subsequent formation expansion after surface erosion.

In an open system, connected to

earth’s surface, the compaction &
ϕ loss associated with burial can
be accommodated by fluid flow
without excess pressure build up.
However, in a low k formation in
confined sands isolated from
other sands, or in regions of such
rapid sedimentation & compaction
fluid expulsion cannot keep pace
with the ϕ loss. In this case, the
increasing overburden stress
driving compaction will cause
increases in pp as the overburden
stress is carried by the pp. This
state, in which externally applied
stresses are supported by pp, is
related to the concept of effective
stress
Esfuerzo Total = Presión de Poro + Esfuerzo Efectivo
Soportado por los Granos
Force Pores

Grains

Force

Pore fluids in the reservoir rock play an important role because they support a portion of the total
applied stress. Hence, only a portion of the total stress, namely, the effective stress component, is
carried by the rock matrix. Obviously, this effective stress changes over the life of the reservoir. In
addition, the mechanical behavior of the porous rock modifies the fluid response
 Esfuerzo Efectivo
σ = S – αP

donde
σ = Esfuerzo Efectivo
S = Esfuerzo Total
α = Parámetro Poroelástico =1
P = Presión de Poro

With pore-pressure drawdown the effective stresses in the reservoir increase, but at different
rates. A linear regression analysis of the effective minimum horizontal stress & effective vertical
stress data in 6 sandstone reservoirs before and after production shows that the ratio of change in
minimum effective horizontal stress to the change in effective vertical stress with the reservoir
pore-pressure drawdown ~stress path! is 0.53.
 Esfuerzos In Situ Incrementan con Profundidad

Strike-slip faulting hydrostatic

SHmax ≥ S v ≥ Shmin

The minimum horizontal stress is a primary control on the fracture gradient & a major constraint on
propagation of hydraulic fractures. Therefore, the minimum horizontal stress is a key parameter in
designs of well drilling & reservoir stimulation. The minimum horizontal stress is commonly
assumed to be ≈ 70% of the vertical stress magnitude in sedimentary basins.
 Load Frame and Confining Pressure Vessel
One of the more challenging applications is triaxial testing, which aims to accurately
recreate high confining pressures, high temperatures, high pore fluid pressures, & a
wide range of stress states.
The core of the triaxial cell assembly is the triaxial cell itself, which could include:
-  140 MPa (20,000 psi) confining pressures,
available with optional high-temp control
package
-  200 MPa (30,000 psi) available at ambient
temperature only.
Pruebas de Laboratorio Rutinarias J.P. Johnson, et.al.: Rock Mechanics of the Ekofisk
Reservoir in the Evaluation of Subsidence, OTC 5621,
1988 .
The type of laboratory compaction test which most closely simulates the compaction which takes place for the
majority of the rock in the reservoir is the uniaxial strain test. In this test the axial stress on the cylindrical sample
is increased & the radial stress is adjusted so that the radius of the sample remains constant throughout the test.
The sample compacts axially with zero radial deformation. A second type of laboratory compaction test is the
hydrostatic test, where the axial & radial stresses are equal, & the sample deforms in each direction in response
to the applied stress. Depending on the mode of the acting geological force & type of geological media the force is
acting upon, three types of deformation can result as well as three elastic moduli that correspond to each type of
deformation. Young’s modulus, E, is the ratio of uniaxial compressive (tensile) stress to the resultant strain.
(Fixed)

Bulk modulus, C, is the change in volume

under hydrostatic
pressure (i.e.,
the ratio of
stress to
strain)
(C is the
reciprocal of
compressibility.)
 Sistema de Carga Triaxial Verdadera en un Cubo de Roca
This apparatus allows independent loading of cubic rock samples in three axes, which is possible
due to the kinematic structure used in the design of the load assembly. The structure allows press
plates to approach in three directions without blocking each other. This offers the possibility to
recreate any stress conditions.
Comprehensive core testing for global geomechanics testing
applications include single or multistage triaxial tests, uniaxial
strain tests, & hydrostatic tests. The vertical stress can be the
In Situ Stress State
greatest, the intermediate, or the least principal stress. A
normal faulting Laboratory Test
regime is one in which the vertical stress is the greatest stress.
When the vertical stress Hydrostatic
is the intermediate stress, a strike-slip regime is indicated. If the
vertical stress is the least stress the regime is defined to be
thrust. The horizontal stresses at a given depth will be smallest
in a normal faulting regime, larger in a strike-slip regime, &
greatest in a thrust faulting regime. In general, vertical wells
Uniaxial Strain
will be progressively less stable as the regime changes from
normal to strike-slip to reverse, and consequently will require
higher mud weights to drill. If the strains are high enough, the
rock fails either in shear or in tension. Three stress regimes can
be defined if the rock fails in shear. These stress regimes are
associated with the three classic fault regimes: normal, thrust
and strike-slip fault regimes.

Triaxial Stress
 Prueba de Compresión Hidrostática
Compaction tests on rock samples are commonly carried out in one of two types of experiments,
uniaxial or hydrostatic. The hydrostatic test is experimentally easier to perform, and a relationship
has been derived to convert hydrostatic data to equivalent uniaxial results.

,P.Johnson and D.W. Rhett: Compaction Behavior of Ekofisk Chalk as a Function of Stress, SPE 15872, 1986.
 Prueba de Compresión Hidrostática
Figure illustrates schematically the change in porosity due to loading & unloading of a chalk, where it is seen
that the porosity loss due to burial is not recovered upon unloading. At low stress values, the chalk compacts by
a relatively small amount in a linear fashion, and this is the region of elastic deformation. At higher stress levels,
the chalk undergoes pore collapse, a phenomenon of large compaction and porosity reduction with increasing
stress, As one gets far into the pore collapse region, the decrease in porosity begins to level off as the sample
stiffens again at some reduced porosity, Once the chalk enters the pore collapse region, it will not return to its
original unstressed porosity with the removal of stress, but rather it will follow an elastic unloading path, as
shown in this figure.

,P.Johnson and D.W.

Rhett: Compaction
Behavior of Ekofisk
Chalk as a Function of
Stress, SPE 15872,
1986.
 Prueba de Deformación Uniaxial
The uniaxial test in which the sample is constrained to have no lateral deformation most
accurately duplicates the stress-strain conditions encountered by an element of reservoir rock
during pressure depletion for most reservoirs. The hydrostatic test is experimentally easier to
perform, & a relationship has been derived to convert hydrostatic data to equivalent uniaxial
results.

S1

S3

,P.Johnson and D.W.

Rhett: Compaction
Behavior of Ekofisk
S3 = KoS1 Chalk as a Function of
Stress, SPE 15872,
Ko is Uniaxial Strain
1986.
Compaction Coefficient
 Prueba de Deformación Uniaxial
The inflexion point in the slope of the porosity-effective pressure curves can be observed. The
corresponding effective confining pressures of the inflexion point is close to the estimated
maximum overburden of the rocks. Consequently, the stress dependency of sediment porosity
when the effective stress is greater than the maximum effective stress sustained by the sediments
is different to that when the effective stress is smaller than the maximum. Further, while a straight
line might be adequate to predict the stress dependent porosity within the experimental stress
range, extrapolating the porosity to larger confining pressures using a straight line might induce
unreasonable error.
 Curvas de Compactación del Yeso de Ekofisk
Figure shows a pore collapse trend from uniaxial tests on Ekofisk chalk samples. Porosity-stress
lines have also been constructed for a series of porositie. Examination of this figure indicates
something of the nature of the reservoir compaction in Ekofisk. The deformation of the high (>34%)
porosity chalk in the pore collapse region accounts for most all of the reservoir compaction which is
taking place. If the reservoir chalks deformed as they do in their elastic regions for all levels of
stress, reservoir compaction & surface subsidence would be a small fraction of what they are. Thus,
the pore collapse region & the
associated trend line are
of central concern in
evaluating the chalk
compaction.

,P.Johnson and D.W.

Rhett: Compaction
Behavior of Ekofisk
Chalk as a Function of
Stress, SPE 15872,
1986.
 Pruebas de Compresión Triaxial
EFECTO de PRESIÓN de CONFINAMIENTO FIJA en FORTALEZA Y DUCTILIDAD
Most rocks are significantly strengthened by confinement. Sliding along the fissures is possible if the rock is free
to displace normal to the average surface of rupture. But under confinement, the normal displacement required to
move along such a jagged rupture path requires additional energy input. Thus it is not uncommon for a fissured
rock to achieve an increase in strength by 10 times the amount of a small increment in mean stress. As mean
pressure is increased, the rapid decline in load carrying capacity after the peak load becomes
gradually less striking until,
at a value of the mean
pressure known as the brittle-
to- ductile transition pressure,
the rock behaves fully
plastically.
 Módulo de Young
Young's modulus, or the elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of a solid material.
It is a mechanical property of linear elastic solid materials, & will be depending on the
material being considered. It defines the relationship between stress (force per unit area)
& strain (proportional deformation) in a material. A solid material will deform when a load
is applied to it. If it returns to its original shape after the load is removed, this is called
elastic deformation. In the
range where the ratio between
load & deformation remains
constant, the stress–strain
curve is linear. Not many
materials are linear & elastic
beyond a small amount of
deformation. A stiff material
needs more force to deform
compared to a soft material.
Material stiffness should not
be confused with Strength.
The strength of material is
the amount of force it can
withstand & still recover its
original shape.
Curvas de Esfuerzo/Deformación en Compresión Triaxial
For a triaxial test, the volumetric strain of the cylindrical specimen is ε a + 2ε r , where ε a is the
axial strain & ε r is the radial strain. Volumetric strain vs axial stress can reverse its trend upon
reaching point; i.e., the rock specimen of rock type but also confining pressure, loading rate &
temperature, with a general transition from brittle to ductile behavior with an increase in confining
pressure, increase in temperature & decrease in loading rate. Moreover, in porous rocks, a
transition from dilatant to compactant behavior with confining pressure is also observed. Around
crack initiation (CI), during a compression test, both lateral & axial strains can change in a similar
fashion.

compression
Extension
 Cociente de Poisson
Poisson’s ratio, ν, is simply the ratio of lateral expansion to axial shortening. Poisson's ratio of a stable,
isotropic, linear elastic material will be greater than−1.0 or less than 0.5 because of the requirement for Young's
modulus, the shear modulus & bulk modulus to have positive values. Most materials have Poisson's ratio values
ranging between 0.0 & 0.5. A perfectly incompressible material deformed elastically at small strains would have
a Poisson's ratio of exactly 0.5.

∈lateral
υ =−
∈axial
Magnitudes Relativas de los 3 Módulos Elásticos

Young’s modulus= E = stress/strain

For isotropic materials:

Poisson’s ratio for most materials:

Schematic illustration of elastic constitutive laws. An ideal elastic rock strains linearly in
response to an applied stress in which the stiffness of the rock is E, Young’s modulus.
 Efecto de Parámetros Ambientales en Fortaleza y
Ductilidad
Without confining pressure, most rocks tested will form one or more fractures parallel to the axis of loading. As the
confining pressure is raised, the failed specimen demonstrates faulting, with an inclined surface of rupture
traversing the entire specimen. In soft rocks, this may occur even with unconfined specimens. If the specimen is
too short, continued deformation past the faulting region will drive the edges of the fault blocks into the testing
machine platens, producing complex fracturing in these regions and possibly apparent strain- hardening
behaviour. At pressures above •  Presión de Confinamiento
the brittle-to-ductile transition,
there is no failure, but the deformed specimen is found to contain parallel inclined lines that are the loci of
intersection of inclined rupture surfaces and the surfaces of the specimen.

•  Presión de Poro

•  Temperatura

•  Tiempo (Ritmo de Deformación y Arrastre)

 Curvas de Esfuerzo/Deformación mostrando
Comportamiento de Deformación Posible de la Roca
A typical stress-strain curve displaying the features of brittle rock behavior in the triaxial
compression test is shown in Fig. The curve divides itself into four regions: (I) in which it is slightly
convex upward; (II) a nearly linear portion; (III), a non-linear region of decreasing slope; & (IV) in
which a maximum is reached & the curve decreases. The non-linearity in region (I) is due to the
elastic closing of cracks, & unloading during regions (I) or (II) is essentially elastic & produces little
hysteresis. Region (III) begins with the initiation of dilatant volume increase & non-linearity due to
microcrack growth &
frictional sliding on microcrack surfaces.
The onset of (III) is dependent on the
amount of hydrostatic stress, since
normal stress across crack surfaces
increases resistance to
frictioiial sliding & inhibits
microcrack growth.
In region IV, the slope
decreases for the case
of strain softening, & it
increases for strain hardening.
 Pruebas de Compresión Triaxial
Efecto de Presión de Confinamiento en Fortaleza y Ductilidad
The deformation curve, expressed for a given rock as a variation of differential yield stress (o1 - o3),
vs. confining pressure (o3), has demonstrated a different behaviour for different types of rocks.
Testing was done by grouping the rocks into two categories, Type 1 where large permanent strain
can occur before fracturing, and Type 2 where permanent deformation occurs in the post-yield
region.

T.D. van Golf-Racht: Fundamentals of Fractured

Reservoir Engineering, 1982.
 Comportamiento Quebradizo a Dúctil de Muestras de
Roca con Presión de Confinamiento Efectiva Creciente
This figure illustrates the transition from brittle fracture to ductile deformation with increasing
confining pressure. At a small confining pressure, longitudinal spilitting occurs: at higher confining
pressure, standard shear fractures form. At high confining pressure, the rock cylinder deforms
ductively into a smooth barrel shape.

Increasing Effective Confining Pressure

Axial Spliting Shear Fracture Compaction

T.D. van Golf-Racht: Fundamentals of Fractured
Reservoir Engineering, 1982. after Griggs and Handin, 1960
Efecto de Presión de Poro en Fortaleza y Ductilidad
Pore-Fluid Pressure is probably one of the most important factors in the deformation of rocks.
Without fluid most deformation would not take place. Increasing pore-fluid pressure will lower the
strength & reduce a rocks ductility. Since pore fluid pressure acts in all directions it actually
counteracts the force of confining pressure. Resulting pressure is called the effective pressure.
 Efecto de Temperatura en Fortaleza y
Ductilidad
The increment in temperature is followed by a reduction in yield & ultimate strength
and a increase in ductility. The temperature effect also seemed to be more sensitive in
carbonate rocks than in silicate
rocks.
 Efecto del Ritmo de Deformación en Fortaleza y
Ductilidad

At a given strain rate an increase in temperature or at a given temperature a decrease

in strain rate lowers the transition confining pressure in all tests.
 Curvas de Deformación con Arrastre Dependiente
del Tiempo con Carga Fija Aplicada
A creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a specimen & observing the increase in
strain (or extension) with time. A typical extension- time curve is shown in this Figure. Three regions
can be readily identified on the curve: Primary Creep - creep proceeds at a diminishing rate due to
work hardening of the material. Secondary Creep - creep proceeds at a constant rate because a
balance is achieved between the work
hardening & annealing (thermal softening)
Processes. In terms of dislocation theory,
dislocations are being generated
continuously in the primary stage of Brittle Failure
creep. With increasing time,
more & more dislocations are
present & they produce increasing
interference with each.
Tertiary Creep-creep rate increases
due to necking of the specimen
& the associated increase in
local stress. Failure occurs at
the end.
 Resumen de Fortaleza y Ductilidad T. van Golf-Racht: Fundamentals of
Fractured Reservoir Engineering, 1982.

de Rocas Sedimentarias Comunes

A rock becomes permanently deformed when it is subjected to differential stress that exceeds its
strength under the conditions of deformation. Broadly defined, strength is the resistance a material
offers to fracture or flow. Ductility is the ability of a rock to flow without fracturing or faulting. In
general, it can be stated that by increasing the confining pressure & the temperature but decreasing
the strain rate, an increment in ductility will result. Quartzite & dolomite never become as ductile in
the same environment as limestone. The degree of cementation in sandstones is somewhere
between limestones &
dolomites. In fig, the
change in ductility is
associated with the
burial depth by using
normal pressure
(due to overburden)
gradients & normal
temperature
gradients. Therefore,
the difference in
ductility is negligible
at a low depth, but
at a depth of several
thousand feet an
impressive differentiation
will result. The variations
in ductility could substantially
influence the number of fractures when the rock is buried at a given depth.
Contraste en Deformación Quebradiza y Dúctil
para Dolomita y Caliza

LMS

DOL

LMS
 Problema de Escala
Some of the more important problems in rock mechanics involve the calculation of the stresses and
displacements around subsurface cavities & excavations. On a macroscopic scale, calculation of
the stresses & displacements around boreholes & tunnels is of paramount importance to petroleum,
mining, & civil engineers. On a microscopic scale, the calculation of stresses around small voids &
cracks in a rock is a necessary first step in the development of micromechanically based theories of
rock deformation & failure. As there is no intrinsic
“size effect” in classical linear elasticity, or in the
classical theories of plastic or viscoelastic behavior,
the deformation of both engineering-scale excavations
& microscale cracks & pores is governed by the same
equations.
There is a Problem of Scale when Modeling
Deformation & Fluid Flow in Naturally Fractured Rock
Mass, because we need to decide wich a
Representative Elementary Volume, mainly because
there are fractures at different scales.
Comportamiento Mecánico de la Roca Depende
de la Interacción entre

Parámetros Ambientales Propiedades Intrínsicas

Confining Pressure Composition

Pore Pressure Grain Size

Temperature Porosity

Time (Strain Rate) Permeability

Differential Stress Size of Body

Pore Fluid Composition Bedding Thickness

Pre-existing Mechanical
Discontinuities
Fortaleza a la Fractura y Módulo Elástico se Incrementan
con el Incremento del Contenido de Cuarzo

Effect of mineral
composition on the
strength of core sample
od Devonian Antrim
shale. Composition is
defined by the abundance
of brittle minerals present
(quartz, feldespar, &
dolomite)

R.A. Nelson: Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, Gulf

Professional Publishing, 2001.
 Sandstone Fracture Strength
and Young's Modulus Increase with

Decreasing Porosity

Decreasing Grain Size

STRESS

Increasing Quartz - Feldspar Content

Decreasing Shale - Clay Content

Increasing Cementation (Type)

STRAIN
 Carbonate Rock Fracture Strength
and Young's Modulus Increase with

Decreasing Porosity

Decreasing Grain Size

STRESS

Increasing Dolomite Content

Decreasing Limestone Content

Decreasing Shale - Clay Content

Increasing Cementation (Type)

STRAIN
 Tenacidad a la Fractura
Fracture toughness is a property which describes the ability of a material to resist
fracture, & is one of the most important properties of any material for many design
applications. The linear-elastic fracture toughness of a material is determined from
the stress intensity factor at which a thin crack in the material begins to grow. Plastic-
elastic fracture toughness is a measurement of the energy required to grow a thin
crack. Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance
to brittle fracture when a crack is present. A material with high fracture toughness
may undergo ductile fracture as opposed to brittle fracture. Brittle fracture is
characteristic of materials
with low fracture toughness.
Estratigrafía Mecánica es un método
geomecánico para predecir el desarrollo de la
fractura en el subsuelo a partir de propiedades
mecánicas y comportamiento de deformación de la
roca.

Roca con una menor tenacidad a la fractura fallará

primero con deformación creciente.
 Estratigrafía Mecánica
In general it can be stated that by increasing the confining pressure & the temperature
but decreasing the strain rate, an increment in ductility will result. Quartzite & dolomite
never become as ductile in the same environment as limestone. The degree of
cementation in sandstones is somewhere between limestones & dolomites. The
change in ductility is associated with the burial depth by using normal pressure (due to
overburden) gradients & normal temperature
gradients. Therefore, the difference in ductility
is negligible at a low depth, but at a depth of
several thousand feet an impressive
differentiation will result.
The variations in ductility could substantially
influence the number of fractures when the
rock is buried at a given depth.

T. van Golf-Racht: Fundamentals of

Fractured Reservoir Engineering, 1982.
Intensidad de Fractura es Controlada por Estratigrafía Mecánica en
Litología de Carbonatos en el Anticlinal de Teton, Montana
Several authors have pointed out the relationship between fracture spacing-or density-
and lithology. This observation is characteristically related by authors to the strength or
ductility of the rocks involved. In general, rocks with a high percentage of brittle
constituents will have closer-spaced
Low Fracture
fractures than those with a lower Toughness
percentage. (This, of course, assumes
similar stress & environmental conditions
for the two rocks.).

Histogram showing relative tectonic

fracture intensity as a function of
lithology (mineral composition& grain
size).

High Fracture
Toughness

R.A. Nelson: Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured

Reservoirs, Gulf Professional Publishing, 2001.
 Fractura Vertical de
Extensión Regional en
Arenisca Quebradiza
Termina en una Capa Límite
de Arcilla Dúctil
Example of fracture in MWX core that
terminates at lithology contrast.

J. Lorenz, et.al.: Fracture Characteristics and Reservoir Behavior of

Stress-Sensitive Fracture Systems in Flat-Lying Lenticular Formations,
JPT1989
 Estratigrafía Mecánica Afecta el Comportamiento
de Deformación y el Desarrollo de Fracturas
Within 600 ft [183 m) of available core through two sands, 37 separate discontinuities
were found. Where a natural fracture was cored in conjunction with a discontinuity, the
fracture commonly terminates at the interface.

Sandstone
Brittle Deformation

Shale
Ductile Deformation
J. Lorenz, et.al.: Fracture Characteristics and
Reservoir Behavior of Stress-Sensitive Fracture
Systems in Flat-Lying Lenticular Formations,
JPT1989
 Estratigrafía Mecánica Controla el Desarrollo
de Fracturas en la Formación Monterey
Carbonate beds interlayered with mudstone units. We can observe the presence of
fractures in the carbonate beds & few fractures in the mudstones units.

Gabriel Gutierrez-Alonso & Michael R.

Gross: Geometry of inverted faults and
related folds in the Monterey Formation:
implications for the structural evolution of
the southern Santa Maria basin,
California, Journal of Structural Geology,
Vol. 19, No. 10, pp. 1303 to 1321, 1997
 Arquitectura de Fractura en Rocas Estratificadas está
Influenciada por Estratigrafía Mecánica y el Espesor de la Capa
Stratigraphic layering often provides a mechanical anisotropy that controls the distribution &
geometry of fractures in sedimentary rocks. Bed boundaries may inhibit fracture growth, resulting in
fracture tips residing at discrete stratigraphic interfaces. For the specific case of interbedded
sedimentary rocks of contrasting lithologies, there are two distinct groups of opening-mode
fractures, based on their relative dimensions: fractures confined to individual beds (i.e., joints if
unmineralized) & fractures that span multiple beds, herein referred to as throughgoing fractures.
This combination results in a fracture architecture commonly arranged in a multiscale hierarchy,
with bed-confined fractures nested within the larger throughgoing fractures.

(Gross, 2011)
 Estratigrafía Mecánica Controla el Modo de
Falla en la Formación Monterey (from Gross, 1995)
The dependence of failure mode on lithology in the Monterey Formation is manifested by markedly
different brittle deformation mechanisms in adjacent units: faulting in mudstone & mode I veining in
dolostone. Though magnitude of along-strike strain is identical for both layers, large faults account
for the bulk of extension in the mudstone while microscopic mode I veins make an important
contribution to the dolostone strain.
Mechanical controls on the
brittle deformation process
may explain this difference,
with scale playing an important
role in the dolostone whereas
stratigraphic distance between
adjacent opal-CT layers
exerts an influence on the
extension process in the
mudstone. Bed thicknesses
typically fall within a range of
5-100 cm, resulting in a
heterogeneous thin-medium
bedded rock mass where style of
deformation is a function of mechanical stratigraphy. In addition, fracture partitioning occurs in the
carbonaceous marl, whereby opening mode veins developed in limestone units. Thin carbonate
A is Mudstone
& siliceous beds within B is Shale
mudstone mechanical units areC is Porcelanite
offset across these normal faults, serving as excellent marker horizons for measuring displacement
 Estratigrafía Mecánica Controla el Comportamiento
Quebradizo – Dúctil y el Modo de Falla
The failure mode of a brittle rock changes on the application of confining pressure
because usually under unconfined compression a rock tends to deform elastically until
failure occurs abruptly. With moderate amount of confining pressure, longitudinal
fracturing is suppressed and failure occurs along a clearly defined plane of fracture. At
very high confining pressure rock becomes fully ductile.

Axial Spliting Shear Fracture Compaction

Extension Fractures
Joints
 Estratigrafía Mecánica y el Espesor Mecánico de la
Capa Controlan el Espaciamiento de Juntas

FSI = 1.09 FSI = 2.41

The thinnest mechanical layers have the smallest median spacing values,
whereas the thicker mechanical beds have a very large spread in median spacing.
Estratigrafía Mecánica y el Espesor de la Capa Controlan
la Densidad de Fracturas en Yacimientos de Carbonatos

Dolomite
E = 92 GPa

Limestone
E = 18 GPa
E= deformation modulus in Giga Pascales
 Modelo Generalizado de un Yacimiento Carbonatado
Porosity (%) Km (md) Em (GPa) K (md)

22 - 27 2-6 18 10

4 Dolomite (m = 3) 0.005 92 1200 +

22 - 27 2-6 18 10

Matrix
4 Dolomite (m = 3) porosity 0.005 92 1200 +
=3%

22 - 27 2-6 18 10
Limestone

Matrix permeability Deformation modulus Fracture permeability

Estratigrafía Mecánica Controla la Intensidad de Fracturamiento y el
Flujo en el Yacimiento

Fractured Dolomite Фm = 3% Km = 0.005 mD Kfr = 1200 mD

Limestone
Фm = 22 - 27%
Km = 2 - 6 mD
Kfr = 10 mD

Fault Fracture Zone Wellbore

Not to Scale or Dimensions

 Modelo del Yacimiento Lisburne
The Lisburne Group is a thick sequence of carbonate rocks. The Lisburne development area is
located within the boundaries of the Prudhoe Bay Unit. The Lisburne is subdivided into the Wahoo &
the Alapah formations. Four major elements form the Wahoo reservoir in the Lisburne field: (1)
depositional layering & stratification, (2) multiple stages of porosity formation, (3) the subunconformity
alteration zone (SAZ), & (4) major faults & megafractures. Megafractures are tectonic faults observed
in core, but below seismic resolution. The reservoir consists of pay layers, with a variety of pore types,
separated by nonpay layers with little or no permeability. The extent & continuity of pay layers vary
depending on pay cutoff due to the low permeability of all lithologies. There is a tortuous flow path
through these elements. The first step is cross flow within pay layers to high-permeability streaks,
usually found in dolomites. Pay layers then drain into faults & megafractures, & subsequently flow
upward to the SAZ & laterally
into the wellbore. Flow paths
vary across the field depending
on the manner of porosity
formation, fracturing, & the
presence or absence of the
SAZ.

Bed
Confined
Fractures

J. Jameson: Models of Porosity

Formation and Their Impact on
Reservoir Description, Lisburne Field,
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska 1, AAPG
Bulletin, V. 78, No. 11 (Nov. 1994)
Estratigrafía Mecánica
puede ser desarrollada
usando Propiedades
Mecánicas del Registro
Sónico
Velocidades de las Ondas de Compresión y de Cizalla están
relacionadas a Propiedades Dinámicas Elásticas de la Roca
Dynamic Young’s modulus was calculated Dynamic Poisson ratio is
using

where Edyn = dynamic Young’s modulus (GPa), rho = density (g / cm3);

Vs = Shear wave velocity (m/s); Vp = Compressional-wave velocity (m/s).
 Módulos Dinámicos son más grandes que los
Módulos Estáticos

Dynamic moduli of rock are those calculated from the elastic- wave velocity & density. The static
moduli are those directly measured in a deformational experiment.
The static & dynamic moduli of the same rock may significantly differ from each other. The main
reason is likely to be the difference in the deformation (strain) amplitude between the dynamic &
static experiments.
In the dynamic wave propagation experiment the strain is about 10-7 while static strain may reach
10-2.
 El Módulo Elástico de la Arcilla – Buen Indicador de Comportamiento?
Incremento del Módulo Elástico puede Indicar que la Roca sea más Quebradiza
Plot of the dynamic Young’s Modulus vs static Young’s Modulus for clastics, prospective shales &
non-prospective shales. As shown on this fig, the prospective shales have a dynamic-to-static
Young’s modulus correlation constistent with the clastic rocks tested. The non-prospective shales
are a group of tests conducted on various “true shales” that presented various drilling problems in
several basins in the Mid-Continent & South Texas. These shales were characterized as having
very high clay content & generally exhibited visible laminations to the naked eye. Also note that
there are very few tests in prospective shales that have a Young’s Modulus less than 3 x106 psi or
in non-prospective shales with
a Young’s Modulus in excess
of 3 x106 psi.
 Fracture
Comparación Visual de GR GR intensity

con la Intensidad de
Fracturamiento BHI

Possible link between low values of

GR and high fracture intensities.

Lower values of GR correspond to lower

shale/clay content in sandstone which have
higher E and lower fracture toughness

Tectonic fractures occur only in clean

limestone units, for which the volume of
shale is less than 20% Tight-Gas
Sandstones
 2.2 Fractura y Rompimiento de la Roca
•  Tipos de Fracturas

•  Proceso de Rompimiento en Roca Porosa

•  Criterio de Rompimiento de Mohr-Coulomb

•  Transición Frágil / Dúctil (Dilatación / Compactación)

•  Historias Posibles de Deformación Geológica para el

Inicio y Desarrollo de Fracturas

•  Deformación de la Roca del Yacimiento durante

Producción (Trayectoria de Esfuerzos del Yacimiento con
el Decremento de Presión de Poro)
Teufel & Rhett introduced the term ‘‘stress path’’ to quantify the actual stress
changes that take place in the reservoir during pressure depletion.
L. Teufel & D.W. Rhett: Geomechanical Evidence for Shear Failure of
Chalk During Production of the Ekofisk Field, SPE 22755, 1991.
 Tipos de Fracturas
Sin importar la escala, el fracturamiento está
definido como el proceso que involucra al
menos pérdida momentánea de cohesión,
habilidad para resistir esfuerzos diferenciales,
separación en 2 o más partes, y la liberación
de enería de deformación elástica almacenada
(Griggs & Handin, 1960). En general hay 2
tipos básicos de fractura:
•  Fractura de Extensión, caracterizada por la separación normal a la superficie de
falla, la cual está generalmente orientada normal al esfuerzo principal mínimo;
estas son llamadas fracturas de tensión si el esfuerzo mínimo principal es de
tensión.
•  Fractura de Cizalla (Shear Fracture), en la cual el desplazamiento relativo es
paralelo a la superficie de fractura, la cual es generalmente inclinada a un ángulo
de menos de 450 al esfuerzo principal máximo compresivol.
Ambas superficies de fracturas contienen el esfuerzo principal intermedio.
Orientaciones de las fracturas de extensión y cizalla relativas a las direcciones de los
esfuerzos principales.
Extension Fracture Shear Fracture

Sandstone cores are from vertical well

Arrows indicate fracture movement direction.
 Tipos de Fracturas en Pruebas Triaxial

Types of Fractures:
•  Shear fracture in extension test (least principal stress is vertical)
•  Extension fracture in extension test
•  Shear fracture in compression test (Greatest principal stress is
vertical)
•  Extension or axial splitting fracture in compression test
 Modos de Fracturamiento

Material science defines three modes

of fracture propagation or growth in
solid media. They are defined by
different combination of loading
configuration and fracture propagation
direction

•  Mode I
Fracture propagation is brought about by a tensile stress acting
perpendicular to the fracture plane and the propagation direction.
•  Mode II
Fracture propagation is brought about by shear stresses acting within the
fracture plane and parallel to the propagation direction.
•  Mode III
Fracture propagation involves shear stresses acting within the fracture plane
but perpendicular to the propagation direction.
 Modelo de Microfracturas para Fallas de Cizalla en un Material
Quebradizo-Elástico

•  Material with random cracks

•  Under load the most favorably oriented cracks and the longest cracks begin to
propagate in the direction of the maximum compressive stress

•  As the load increases, shorter and less favorably oriented cracks begin to grow

•  At higher loads, crack interaction & coalescence takes place, which leads to
failure.
 Proceso de Falla de Cizalla en la Roca
Precursive microfracturing in laboratory rock
samples prior to throughgoing shear fracture
of material.
Upper diagrams show contoured
microfracture intensity.
Middle diagram shows the loading
conditions of the test with time.
Bottom diagrams show microfracture maps
of the sample(s) for the correlative portions
above the loading curve (Hallbauer et al,
1973).
With a triaxial cell, in region AB of the stress–strain
curve, the first visible structural damage appears as
elongated microcracks having their axes oriented
parallel (within ±10◦) to the direction of maximum
compressive stress (i.e., axially). The cracks were
distributed throughout the sample, but were
concentrated in the center. Toward the end of region
BC, the number of microcracks increased drastically,
& the cracks began to coalesce along a plane located
in the central region of the specimen. At the point C of maximum axial stress, the microcracks begin
to link up to form a macroscopic fracture “plane.” Finally, in region CD, the fracture plane has
extended through the entire specimen, & shear displacement begins to occur across the 2 faces of
rock.
Microfracturas en Arenisca
Historia de Deformación y la
Evolución de la Zona de
Proceso Durante la Fractura
en Material Quebradizo

Diagrammatic stress-shortening curve and

associated regions of deformation.
In region 1 pre-existing cracks and pores not
previously closed by application of confining
pressure are closed further until stabilized.
The load bearing framework of the rock deforms essentially elastically in
Region 2. The boundary between Regions 2 and 3 marks the onset of
stable crack initiation and growth as internal stress concentrations exceed
the local fracture strength of favorably oriented cracks. In Region 4 the
abundance of microfractures progressively increases; they tend to
concentrate along the path of eventual macroscopic shear fracture or fault.
The boundary between Regions 4 and 5, the post-failure region, is the
ultimate strength of the rock. After faulting has occurred, frictional sliding
predominates (after Brace, 1971).
 Curva de Esfuerzo/Deformación y Proceso Asociado a Falla en Material Quebradizo
The deformational history of an experimentally deformed brittle or semibrittle rock can be
characterized by 7 regions. Although details of this history vary with rock type (composition), texture
& fabric, certain generalizations are possible as follows: In region 1, preexisting cracks & pores not
previously closed by application of confining pressure are closed further until they are stabilized.
The load-bearing framework of the rock deforms essentially elastically in region 2. The boundary
between regions 2 & 3 marks the onset of stable crack initiation & growth as internal stress
concentrations exceed the local fracture strength of favorably oriented elements. Throughout
regions 3 & 4 in crystalline rocks, most of the INTACT FAULTED
intragranular microfractures are nearly parallel
or are inclined at small angles to the greatest 1 2 3, 4 5 6 7
principal compressive stress (load axis)

DIFFERENTIAL STRESS
across the boundaries of the specimen.
In sandstones, extension or tensile
microfractures initiate at & propagate
along lines connecting stress DISPLACEMENT ALONG FAULT
concentrations developed at grain
contacts. At this stage, microfractures
occur & they tend to form throughout a
homogeneously loaded specimen. The FAULT LOCKED BY FRICTION
boundary between regions 3 & 4 is best FAULT GROWTH
detected by the stress-volumetric strain
CRACK GROWTH
curve as it becomes vertical & assumes a
negative slope. In region 4 the abundance of ELASTIC
microfractures progressively increases; they CRACK AND PORE CLOSING
tend to concentrate along the path of the
eventual macroscopic shear fracture or fault. AXIAL SHORTENING
 Curvas de Esfuerzo/Deformación en Compresión Triaxial
The process of shear fracturing in compression, schematic plot of differential stress vs axial
extension, lateral (radial) & volumetric extension for a characteristic shear fracture experiments witn
a cylindrical sample. An incremental increase in the compressive axial stress causes an
incremental increase in the volume. Eventually, the lateral strains become sufficiently negative that
the total volumetric strain decreases. Different populations of cracks close & grow at different stress
states depending on their orientation & aspect ratio. The extent of each of the 3 defined phases
depends on the rheological properties of the rock & crack closure & crack growth occur more like as
a probability distribution rather
than as unique stress values.

Volume
increases
Fracture
Onset of
Dilatancy

Volume
decreases
Elastic

Set Strain
Microfracturas Tectónicas en Núcleo de
Arenisca de Baja Porosidad
 Tendencia de Microfracturas Tectónicas es Normal a
la Dirección Lenta de la Anisotropía de Velocidad

Slow Vp

Fracture strikes in oriented MWX core. The Multiwell Experiment (MWX), funded by the
US DOE, was an applied-research field test located in the Rulison field. At the time there
were 12 wells in the field, with 640-acre spacing.
 Anisotropía de Velocidad está Controlada por la
Orientación de Microfracturas Tectónicas
Ultrasonic wave velocities in rock are reduced significantly by the presence of microfracks.
In general these microfracks are not randomly orientated and the rock displays an elastic
anisotropy determined by the shape & content of the cracks & by the crack orientation.

Normal to
Microcracks
Criterio de Falla de Mohr-Coulomb
Esfuerzo Efectivo
τ = τ 0 + µ (σ N − PP )
donde

τ = Esfuerzo de cizalla en la falla

τ0 = Fortaleza Cohesiva de Cizalla
µ = Coeficiente fricción interna
σN = Esfuerzo Normal
PP = Presión de Poro
 Criterio de Falla de Mohr-Coulomb & Cícurlo de Mohr
mostrando el Estado de Esfuerzos a la Falla
Mohr–Coulomb theory is a model describing the response of brittle materials to shear stress as well as normal
stress. Most of the materials somehow follow this rule in at least a portion of their shear failure envelope.
Generally the theory applies to materials for which the compressive strength far exceeds the tensile strength. It is
used to define shear strength of rocks at different effective stresses. Coulomb's friction hypothesis is used to
determine the combination of shear & normal stress that will cause a fracture of the material. Mohr's circle is used
to determine which principal stresses that will produce this combination of shear & normal stress, & the angle of
the plane in which this will occur. According to the principle of normality the stress introduced at failure will be
perpendicular to the line describing the fracture condition. A single experiment will produce a circle that describes
the normal & shear stress for the plane of
failure at the instant of failure. A number of = shear strength
similar experiments are carried out at different
confining pressures to create a series of similar
data points. The location of these points defines
a failure envelope. The envelope defines a
α = axial from σ1 to fracture plane
region of Mohr space where rock is stable - in no
danger of failure. Outside the envelope the rock
fails. Mohr–Coulomb failure
criterion represents the linear Tension (<0) Compression (>0)
envelope that is obtained from a Stable domain
plot of the shear strength of a material Unstable domain
vs the applied normal stress.
This relation is expressed intern cohesion=
as τ = σn tan (ϕ) + τo, where
τ is the shear strength, σn is the =rock friction
normal stress, τo is the angle 2α
intercept of the failure Tensile Mean =normal
Envelope with the τ axis, Strength Stress stress
& tan (ϕ) is the slope of the failure envelope. Confining Pressure Axial Load at Failure
 Construcción del Círculo de Mohr
Consider the normal stress & shear stress acting on a plane whose unit normal direction is rotated
from the x direction by an angle θ. Now imagine that we are using the principal coordinate system,
in which the shear stresses are zero & the normal stresses are the two principal normal stresses.
We thereby arrive at the following equations that give the normal & shear stresses on a plane
whose outward unit normal vector is rotated by θ from the first principal direction. Where Θ is the
angle between maximum principal stress & normal stress = 90-α
Círculo de Mohr para el Estado de Esfuerzos
Hidrostático
 Círculo de Mohr 3D para el Estado de Esfuerzos
Triaxial
Mohr ́s Circle is a 2D graphical representation of the state of stress at a point that:
- illustrates principal stresses & maximum shear stresses as well as stress transformations.
- It is a useful tool to rapidly grasp the relation between stresses for a given state of stress.
Mohr’s circle can be also be used in 3D. From this diagram the normal & shear tractions acting on
any plane can be found in terms of the maximum, intermediate, & minimum stresses.
Consider the system of Cartesian axes
linked to the principal directions of the
stress tensor at an arbitrary point P of a
continuous medium. Feasible region must
be the intersection of three semi-annuli
Every point of the feasible region in the
Mohr’s space, corresponds to the stress Feasible
state on a certain plane at the considered region
point
 Envolvente de Fallla de Mohr-Coulomb Determinada de
Series de Pruebas de Laboratorio de Compresión Triaxiales
con Presión de Confinamiento Creciente
At increasing confining pressure, we need increased differential stress (s1-s3) for failure.
The increase of differential stress is shown by an change in the Mohr circle diameter.
Three conventional consolidated undrained triaxial compression (CUTC) tests are carried out on
rock samples. The CUTC tests are conducted at three different confining pressures. These results
are used to plot the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, from which the effective shear strength
parameters are
determined.

α
α

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

Historias Posibles de Deformación
Geológica para el Inicio de Fractura

A.  Incremento del Esfuerzo Máximo

Efectivo

B. Decremento del Esfuerzo Mínimo

Efectivo
Consider an interlayered sandstone-shale sequence in which
overburden stress is the maximum compressive stress.
Because sandstone can support a larger differential stress
than shales, the minimum principal stress is smaller in the Stress in
sandstone than in shale, & a smaller Pp is required to cause sandstone
in shale
hydrofracturing in sandstone than in shale (Fig. B) = overburden
C. Incremento de Presión de Poro Local y
Decremento del Estado de Esfuerzos
Efectivos
Influence of Pp on rock failure: (C) assuming total stresses
are independent of pore pressure; (c) influence of P p / h
coupling on overpressure-related rock failure. Cases (b) and
(c) assume normal fault regime ( v > H > h ), with h / P p
=0.7, and vertical stress unaffected by changes in pore
pressure. h ' is effective minimum horizontal stress ( h −P
p ) and v ' is effective vertical stress ( v −P p ).
D. Combinaciones de A, B, y C.
 Comportamiento Quebradizo a Dúctil de Muestras de
Roca con Incremento de la Presión Confinante Efectiva
This figure illustrates the transition from brittle fracture to ductile deformation with increasing
confining pressure. At a small confining pressure, longitudinal spilitting occurs: at higher confining
pressure, standard shear fractures form. At high confining pressure, the rock cylinder deforms
ductively into a smooth barrel shape. Thus we can account for the failure of rocks over a broad
range of pressure only by means of a composite failure criterion.

Increasing Effective Confining Pressure

Axial Spliting Shear Fracture Compaction

after Griggs and Handin, 1960

 Pruebas de Compresión Triaxial
Efecto de Presión Confinante en Transición Quebradiza–Dúctil
Mechanical results of triaxial loading tests have been plotted on this graph of true axial strain vs differential stress.
The stress versus strain patterns are similar & are characterized by an initial phase of rapid hardening, shown by
the upward concave shape of the stress versus strain curve, followed by a phase of linear elastic deformation till
the yielding stress is attained. Loading of the samples beyond this point results in a departure from elastic
behavior till failure occurs. The strain-softening (or drop in stress) upon failure decreases when rocks are
deformed under higher confining pressures.
The brittle strength itself also increases at
higher confining pressure, because it
becomes more difficult for micro cracks to
open & propagate. Graph shows the
Differential stress vs the axial strain for
several triaxial compression experiments
at a fixed pore pressure & with confining
pressures maintained at different values.
The differential stress attained a peak,
beyond which strain softening was
observed & the stress progressively
dropped to a residual level. The peak
stress shows a positive correlation
with effective pressure, which is typical
of Mohr-Coulomb type of brittle failure.
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope for Shear
Failure of Berea Sandstone
The failure of rocks occurs when the matrix stresses reach a critical level; hence, the failure
envelope represents a relationship between the “effective” stress levels. Therefore, the knowledge
of such a characteristic can also be used to put some limits on the allowable variation of the
reservoir pore pressure during production. Indeed, a change in pore pressure corresponds to a
translation of the pertinent Mohr circle along the normal stress axis. This figure shows experimental
results for intact rock failure expressed as Mohr circles & also compared to shear stress at peak
strength resolved along
the fault plane produced vs
resolved normal stress. Some
of the results for Berea
sandstone in
extension &
shortening expressed as Mohr circles at failure.
Also shown are
resolved normal &
shear stresses at the
point of failure on
the fault planes
that formed. The
Mohr envelope is shown. To
obtain the failure envelope
of a particular rock type, a
series of triaxial tests should be performed under
different confining pressures until failure
of the specimen occurs for each condition.
 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Envelope for Brittle
Ductile Transition of Berea Sandstone
What happens with higher confining pressures: At very high confining pressures, Coulomb theory is
not valid. With increasing confining pressure, rocks behave in a less brittle fashion. This is
apparent in our stress/strain curves, where at higher confining pressures there is a departure from
the linear relations between stress & strain. Analogous to stress/strain, the linear Coulomb
relations between fracture strength & confining pressure breaks down at higher confining pressures
– the rock becomes weaker

Von Mises ductile failure criterion. This criterion implies

that ductile deformation begins at a critical shear stress,
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion the yield stress, which is independent of the confining
Brittle Failure Ductile Deformation
Shear fracture pressure.
In the brittle
Brittle shear Ductile transition
fracture according
to the Coulomb
criterion
 Hydrostatic & Triaxial-Stress Compression Tests Define
Stress Field for Elastic to Brittle-Ductile Deformation of Rock
for Mohr-Coulomb with Endcap Criterion
Effect of increasing confining pressure: - Rocks change from brittle to ductile behavior, Ductile
response dominant beyond the hydrostatic yield stress for endcap. -Strength of rock increases with
increasing confining pressure. The endcap represents the boundary between elastic (inside) &
plastic (outside) behavior.

Ductile Brittle

Hydrostatic Yield Stress

For Endcap
Mohr-Coulomb
Shear Failure
 Stress Field for Elastic to Brittle-Ductile Deformation
Behavior of Rock can be Defined by Mohr-Coulomb Failure
Envelope with Endcap
The behavior at the endcap can be seen in the chalk type curves for the field, showing the decrease in porosity
with increasing effective overburden stress. The chalk initially behaves quasi-elastically, with a small porosity
decrease. When the material crosses the endcap, the porosity declines more rapidly. The initial endcap location is
porosity-dependent, with lower-porosity chalks having a larger initial elastic region.The cap plasticity model is
used for geological materials that exhibit pressure dependent yield. The yield surface includes 2 main segments:
a shear failure surface, which provides dominantly shearing flow, & a “cap”, which intersects the equivalent
pressure stress axis.
The cap serves 2 main
purposes: it bounds the yield surface in
hydrostatic compression,
thus providing an Inelastic
With increasing stress,
hardening mechanism
inelastic deformation
to represent plastic
becomes more important. A
compaction, & it helps
yield stress is often picked
to control volume
as the onset of nonlinear
dilatancy when the
stress/strain behavior in lab
material yields in shear
tests & interpreted as an
by providing softening
increase in the activity of
as a function of the
inelastic mechanisms.
inelastic volume
increase created as the material
yields on shear failure &
transition yield surfaces. The model uses
associated flow in the cap region & nonassociated flow in the
shear failure & transition
regions.
 Brittle-Shear Failure and Ductile Yield
Strength Increase with Decreasing Porosity
Failure envelopes with end caps constructed from the previously described stress-path tests on chalk with 40%,
35% and 30% porosity are shown. Lower porosity chalk is stronger. The cohesive strength & the angle of internal
friction of the shear failure envelope increase with decreasing porosity. The end caps correspond to yield in
confined compression & indicate the departure from linear elastic-strain behavior & the onset of non-recoverable,
plastic strain in the rock. The intersection of the end cap with the normal axis is the stress at which yield occurs
under hydrostatic stress. The shape of the end cap & its intersection with the brittle failure envelope are only
approximate. The intersection of the end cap with the brittle failure envelope approximates the transition between
brittle, strain softening (i.e., dilatant behavior) & ductile, strain hardening (i.e., pore collapse compaction) behavior.
Pore collapse compaction of a
L. Teufel & D.W. Rhett: Geomechanical
given chalk can be viewed as an Evidence for Shear Failure of Chalk During
evolving process. As chalk Production of the Ekofisk Field, SPE 22755,
compacts, there is a progressive 1991.
decrease in porosity & a
corresponding increase in rock
strength that can be represented
as an expansion of the failure
surface. The area enclosed by the
cap-stress envelope decreases Elastic
with increasing porosity.
showed that during cataclastic flow Elastic
the yield envelope expands as a
function of decreasing porosity, in
qualitative agreement with a Elastic
plasticity model that uses porosity
as the hardening parameter.
 Reservoir Stress Path
The term stress path quantifies the actual stress changes that take place in the reservoir during pressure depletion.
Also note that stress path here describes a constant ratio of change in stress state, which implies that different
stress paths do not approach a common point in stress space. The term describes the constant ratio of change in
effective minimum (horizontal) stress to effective maximum (vertical) stress from initial reservoir conditions

Reservoir stress path is the change in the effective

stress state that occurs in a reservoir during pore
pressure depletion.

Reservoir stress path is defined as

R = ΔσHmin/ΔσV
which describe the evolution of the stress state in the reservoir during production.
from initial reservoir effective stress conditions.
This parameter describes the development of stress anisotropy. Lower values correspond to lower
changes in horizontal effective stress than in vertical effective stress, or in other words, to an
increase in stress anisotropy. However, stress anisotropy can only increase if the vertical effective
stress increases, or more specifically providing stress arching does not occur .

H. Ruistuen, et.al.: Influence of Reservoir Stress Path on Deformation &

Permeability of Weakly Cemented Sandstone Reservoirs, SPEREE, 1999.
Rock Deformation for Possible Reservoir Stress Paths can be
Defined by Routine Laboratory Compression Tests
Rock bulk volume & pore volume compressibility are key parameters needed for an accurate understanding of the
formation deformation response to pore pressure changes in rocks. They can have a critical impact on both the
economics & containment risks associated with fluid withdrawal or injection operations, particularly in the
petroleum industry (where, e.g., reservoir compaction & subsidence impacts can be many millions of US$). It has
been established that rock properties, including compressibilities, are often stress-path dependent. The uniaxial-
strain (zero-lateral-strain) stress path is often considered the most representative stress path for many petroleum-
related recovery processes, as it normally approximates the underground boundary conditions thought to be active
during hydrocarbon recovery or fluid injection disposal operations. Figure illustrates the deformation differences
between hydrostatic, deviatoric, &
uniaxial-strain compression
on a homogeneous &
Isotropic material. The
uniaxial-strain compressibility
can vary over several orders
of magnitude, & in addition it
can be constant or highly
variable with stress, all
depending on the
character of the material, which highlights the importance of accurately determining
the compressibility.
 Horizontal Stresses Due to Gravitational Loading
Uniaxial Strain Boundary Condition
An estimate of the reservoir stress path can then be made knowing Poisson’s ratio
Potential Change in In Situ Stress State for Different Stress
Paths with Reservoir Depletion of the Ekofisk Field

Reservoir Stress Paths with 4000 psi

Stress and Initial Pore Pressure Depletion
Pore Pressure Reservoir
(psi) Stress State Isotropic Uniaxial Strain Triaxial Stress
R = 1.0 R = 0.5 R=0

SV 9000 9000 9000 9000

SHmin 8000 8000 6000 4000

PP 7000 3000 3000 3000

σV 2000 6000 6000 6000

σHmin 1000 5000 3000 1000

∆σ 1000 1000 3000 5000

 Reservoir Stress Paths During Production
The changes in the reservoir stress state resulting from depletion along stress paths of R= 0, 0.5, &
1 are illustrated in this plot of effective minimum horizontal stress versus effective overburden
(vertical) stress. Stress path for isotropic loading, uniaxial strain, & triaxial strain are shown. The
stress path concept is useful for an approximate description of the stress changes that occur in
response to depletion. Reservoir engineers usually assume that reservoirs are subjected to a
uniaxial strain boundary condition i.e., no lateral displacement.

L. Teufel & H. Farrell:

Control of Fractured
Reservoir
Permeability by
Spatial and
Temporal' Variations
in Stress Magnitude
and Orientation, SPE
26437, 1993.
R=0
Triaxial Stress .
 Conventional View of Reservoir Dynamics
During Production:
Isotropic Loading Causes Pore-Collapse Compaction
Change in reservoir pore pressure due to hydrocarbon production promotes changes not only in the
effective stress, but also in the total stress distribution acting on the reservoir & the surrounding
rock. If the total stress remains constant, the change in effective stress in the reservoir is isotropic,
& the stress path is horizontal. In other words, in a simplified 2D representation of the stress state,
the Mohr circle would simply translate with no change in size.

Initial Stress State:

…σV = 2000 psi
…σHmin= 1000 psi
…Δσ = 1000 psi Elastic

Elastic

Elastic Δσ = 1000 psi

 Conventional View of Reservoir Dynamics
During Production:
Uniaxial Strain Loading Causes Pore-Collapse Compaction
The behavior at the endcap can be seen in the chalk type curves for the field, showing the
decrease in porosity with increasing effective overburden stress. The chalk initially behaves quasi-
elastically, with a small porosity decrease. When the material crosses the endcap, the porosity
declines more rapidly. The initial endcap location is porosity-dependent, with lower-porosity chalks
having a larger
initial elastic region.
Chalk behavior
depends on its
stress state. At low Initial Stress
confining & shear State:
stresses, chalk is
σV = 2000
elastic, & a small Elastic
psi
decrease in
formation pressure σHmin= 1000
induces only a psi
small elastic strain. Δσ = 1000 Δσ = 3000 psi
However, a large psi
decrease in
formation pressure
causes inelastic
deformation &
substantial strain.
 Unconventional View of Reservoir Dynamics
During Production:
Triaxial Stress Loading Causes Brittle Fracturing of Chalk
The effect of increasing water saturation is to move the endcap toward a lower stress state,
decreasing the size of the elastic region with a minimal change in the stress condition. This is an
unstable condition, so the chalk compacts as the endcap moves to accommodate the current stress
condition.

Stress Path, R = 0

Initial Stress
State:
σV = 2000
psi Triaxial Stress, R = 0
σHmin= 1000 Δσ = 5000 psi
psi
Δσ = 1000
psi
Hydrostatic, R = 1
Δσ = 1000 psi

σv σv
 In Situ Stress State Changes with
Pore Pressure Drawdown
The effect of pore pressure drawdown on the total minimum horizontal in situ stress, SHmin, is shown in Fig. Total
minimum stress has decreased linearly with pore pressure drawdown. The change in minimum horizontal stress is
about 80 percent of the net change in pore pressure. Magnitudes of minimum horizontal stresses vary spatially
across the field as a function of position on the structure. The lowest magnitudes of minimum stress are on the
crest of the structure and the highest magnitudes are on the outer north & south flanks. As the pore pressure was
drawn down over the crestal area of the field from about 45 MPa in 1975 to 25 MPa in 1990, the total minimum-
horizontal stresses decreased from
about 51 MPa to 35 MPa,
respectively. At present, in wells on
the outer north & south flanks, which
have pore pressures of about 25 MPa,
the total minimum-horizontal stresses
range from 39 to 41 Mpa.
Initial minimum-horizontal
stresses before the start of production
are estimated, from linear-regression
extrapolation, to have ranged from
about 52 Mpa on the crest to 58 MPa
on the outer flanks of the structure.
Total overburden stress ranged from
61 Mpa on the crest to 65 MPa on
the outer flanks.

L. Teufel and D.W. Rhett: Geomechanical Evidence for Shear Failure

of Chalk During Production of the Ekofisk Field, SPE 22755, 1991.
Difference in Principal Effective Stresses Increases
with Pore Pressure Drawdown
 Reservoir Stress Paths During Production
Plot of effective minimum horizontal stress, oHmin, vs effective vertical stress, ov, during primary
production. For this plot the total vertical stress in the reservoir is assumed to be constant during
the production history of the reservoir & equal to the total stress exerted by the weight of the
overburden. Accordingly, an incremental reduction in pore pressure corresponds directly to an
incremental increase in effective vertical stress of the same magnitude. The ratio of effective
minimum horizontal stress to effective overburden stress varies spatially across the field with the
lowest ratios on the crest & the highest ratios on the outer flanks of the structure. In general, the
incremental change in effective minimum horizontal stress with an incremental increase in effective
overburden stress is nearly
constant over the entire
reservoir. Using a linear regression
analysis, the ratio of change
in effective minimum horizontal
stress to change in effective
overburden stress, R, is
approximately 0.20 for Ekofisk
field. Hence, with pore pressure
drawdown the effective minimum
horizontal stress has increased
at a much slower rate than the
effective vertical stress.
R=0
Triaxial Stress.

L. Teufel & D.W. Rhett: Geomechanical

Evidence for Shear Failure of Chalk During
Production of the Ekofisk Field, SPE
22755, 1991.
 Geomechanical Analysis of Ekofisk Reservoir
During Production:
Increasing Shear Stress Causes Fracturing of Chalk
Previous work by Teufel & Rhett demonstrated that shear failure has occurred during compaction of
high porosity chalk in the Ekofisk reservoirs as shear stress increased with pore pressure drawdown.
Fig is a Mohr diagram showing the stress history of the reservoir during production as the pore
pressure is drawn down, & failure envelopes for 40%, 35%, & 30% porosity chalk determined in
laboratory compression tests. Laboratory data show that the lower porosity chalk is stronger.
The smaller Mohr circle
represents the initial stress state
prior to production when
The pore pressure was
Initial Stress
48.3 MPa, & the
bigger Mohr circle State:
represents the σV =
effective stress state 2000 psi
after the pore pressure σHmin= 1000 Δσ = 4200 psi
has been reduced psi
by 24.3 MPa. The Δσ =
deviatoric or shear 1000 psi
stress after drawdown is
sufficient to cause shear failure
of chalk with porosities of
34% or higher.
L. Teufel & D.W. Rhett: Failure of Chalk During
Waterflooding of the Ekofisk Field, SPE 24911, 1992.
 Increasing Deviatoric Stress and Shear Stress with
Lower Stress Path during Pore Pressure Drawdown
Can Cause Shear Failure
The deformation of rock happens because of the stresses from various directions, & can be divided into two parts,
deviatoric & non-deviatoric. Non-deviatoric stresses (σmean) are compressions equally applied in all directions,
that is, a hydrostatic state of stress. Deviatoric stresses (σdev) are the normal & shear stresses that remain after
subtracting a hydrostatic stress, equal to the mean normal stress, from each normal stress component. Deviatoric
stress produces distortion & destruction of rocks while non-deviatoric stresses generally do not. In the triaxial test,
the initial pressuring is
non-deviatoric,
subsequently; both R
deviatoric & non-
deviatoric stresses are
raised simultaneously.
Applying deviatoric
stress produces
different results. With Ekofisk
initial application of the
deviatoric stress,
fissures & some pores Triaxial Uniaxial Strain
begin to close, Stress
producing an inelastic,
concave-upward stress
-strain section. With R
lower stress path during
Hydrostatic - Isotropic
pore pressure drawdown
can cause shear failure.