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CÁTEDRA DE FOTOINTERPRETACIÓN
1-Definición
Obras puntuales: la construcción ocupa una superficie pequeña, por ejemplo un edificio
Obras lineales: tiene predominancia en sentido longitudinal. Es el caso de las vías de
comunicación
Obras areales: ocupan una gran superficie, como las represas y sus lagos de embalse.
Cualquiera de las obras antes mencionadas, está sometida a agentes externos
(exógenos) e internos (endógenos), los primeros se relacionan con la atmósfera la biota
los suelos y la hidrología superficial y los segundos a las acciones vinculadas con la
geodinámica cortical y a las rocas y las estructuras geológicas sobre los cuales se
asienta la construcción.
Pero una obra, no está aislada, sino que se encuentra inserta en una zona que se puede
denominar “entorno” o “situación”.
Este entorno, entendido generalmente como el espacio geográfico, no solamente
considera las características geográficas, sino además, las condiciones bióticas, sociales,
etc. Este conjunto de elementos, son analizados al momento de emprender una obra
originando las externalidades: es decir elementos y factores que no constituyen la obra en
sí misma pero influyen en la relación beneficio/costo.
En esta materia, veremos, la utilidad de las fotografías aéreas e imágenes satelitales para
el reconocimiento tanto del sitio como de la situación. Son numerosas las razones de su
uso, entre otras:
Los sensores son los elementos que captan los datos provenientes de la superficie
terrestre. Según el procedimiento utilizado, se los denomina pasivos o activos.
Los pasivos, son los que se limitan a recoger la energía reflejada o emitida por la
superficie, y los activos, recogen energía generada por el mismo sensor (radares).
Cuando la energía incidente llega al sensor puede ocurrir que imprima directamente una
película o que digitalice la información.
El primer caso, es el de las fotografías aéreas, que mediante un proceso de revelación da
como resultado una representación, la cual depende de la excitación, pero también del
sensor y del proceso de revelado. Durante el proceso de revelado se pueden modificar los
tonos y los contrastes y cuando finalmente se imprime el positivo es posible también
variar la escala
El segundo caso, es cuando el sensor digitaliza la información recibida (fotografías
digitales e imágenes satelitales). Esa información que llega se convierte en una matriz de
datos. Dicha matriz es un archivo que permite un posterior tratamiento digital o
visualizarse en la pantalla de una computadora e imprimirse en papel, donde recién se
genera una imagen. Una vez en papel, la impresión es como una fotografía.
Asimismo, las fotografías comunes se pueden escanear y en la computadora, mediante
programas de procesamiento de imágenes, se pueden modificar aumentando el contraste,
el brillo, etc. y por supuesto esto es muy fácil en las fotografías digitales.
4- El espectro electromagnético
Se trata de una serie continua de radiaciones electromagnéticas, ordenadas según la
longitud de onda (λ) y la frecuencia (f). Las mismas guardan una relación inversa
expresada por la siguiente expresión: f/λ = C, donde C es la velocidad de la luz
Espectro electromagnético.
Fuente: CONAE: Conocimientos básicos sobre teleobservación satélites NOAA.
ROJO 723-647μm
NARANJA 647-585μm
AMARILLO 585-575μm
VERDE 575-492μm
AZUL 492-455μm
INDIGO 455-424μm
VIOLETA 424-397μm
Interpretación visual:
La finalidad de la interpretación visual, es interpretar la realidad del paisaje de la superficie
terrestre. Aquí es importante definir tres conceptos: Interpretar, Identificar y Paisaje.
Paisaje: Existen diferentes acepciones del término paisaje, según la disciplina que lo
defina (geografía, ecología, arquitectura, etc.), pero todas las definiciones tiene en
común, lo siguiente: “Es una unidad constituida en un espacio con características
morfológicas y funcionales similares en función de una escala y una situación o
localización”.
Identificar: Según la RAE: Reconocer si una persona o cosa es la misma que se supone o
se busca.
Interpretar: Explicar acciones, dichos o sucesos que pueden ser entendidos de diferentes
modos.
Es importante, entonces, tener en cuenta la diferencia entre identificar e interpretar.
De aquí, que generalmente, se identifica o reconoce algo que es previamente conocido.
En cambio, se interpreta algo identificado, explicándolo con la posibilidad de más de un
modo.
Desde la percepción, un objeto es entendido como una unidad y puede ser identificado si
se reconoce que pertenece a cierto conjunto. La variabilidad de los objetos dentro de un
conjunto, implica la necesidad de realizar una abstracción que dará un “modelo”
determinado.
Tomando como ejemplo a una laguna representada por cierta superficie de la fotografía.
Si se enseña dicha fotografía a un grupo de personas, habrá quienes de inmediato
identifiquen una laguna. Otros verán una laguna con sus bordes cubiertos de plantas y
otros verán simplemente una mancha en la fotografía. Esto da una idea del complejo
proceso que es la identificación e interpretación de una imagen, donde influyen:
- El nivel de conocimiento del observador: de los objetos y de las características de las
imágenes.
- Los mecanismos sicológicos intervinientes en el proceso.
- Lectura: facilidad de identificación a través del uso de claves.
-Análisis: utiliza diversos criterios de identificación llegando a conclusiones cuali o
cuantitativas a partir de las características de las imágenes y el uso de instrumental
- Interpretación: A partir de la identificación, el análisis y de informaciones de otro orden
(documentos, observaciones en el terreno), se enuncia una hipótesis basada en
correlaciones entre los aspectos fotográficos y las propiedades que caracterizan los
objetos
Claves de Interpretación:
Una clave para la interpretación de las imágenes, es definida como “material de referencia
destinado a facilitar una identificación y determinación rápidas y seguras del significado de
objetos por el fotointérprete” (Manual dof Photographic Interpretation, American Society of
Photogrammetry, 1960).
Las claves poseen diferentes características: alcance, nivel técnico, presentación, entre
otras. Por ejemplo: una clave puede ser:
-regional o puntual, dependiendo del área donde puede ser utilizada,
-temática: colección de claves destinadas a la identificación de una categoría de objetos
determinada,
-técnica: preparada para uso específico de fotointérpretes especializados, etc.
Contenidos de la clave:
Pertinent
Mapping Unit General County Slope/Landform Applicable Applicable DOQQ
Name Location Elevation Features Comparisons Geology/Soils Signature
1101 =
California Bay -
Madrone - Most common Generally More mesic than
Coast Live Oak west of the Northwest to type 1221, more
- (Black Oak - Napa Valley, Northeast low to xeric than mixed Generally a
Big Leaf Maple) Local on mesic upper slopes hardwood- dark
NFD-Super slopes east of Up to neutral to concave - Douglas-fir smooth
Alliance Napa valley 2000' mesic settings stands signature
Mappable
stands not
observed on Areas of Annual Steep, often Similar to
field recon - Steep Mid & Upper Snowfall; rocky poorly 1101 but
1122 = Canyon Possibly in R.L. Slopes trending adjacent to pine; developed more
Oak Alliance Stevenson SP >2000' neutral higher elevations soils texture
Highly
Tends to form textured
1123 = units that appear often
Eucalyptus Floodplain - non-natural in yielding
Alliance Napa Valley < 500' Disturbance shape shadows
Small
crowns;
1124 = Tanoak Local near 1500- Adjacent to light
Alliance Angwin 2000' Redwood stands signature
Prof. John E. Estes. History of Aerial Photographic Interpretation Remote Sensing Research Unit.
Department of Geography. University of California. Santa Barbara, California 93106. USA, en
http://userpages.umbc.edu/~tbenja1/umbc7/santabar/vol1/lec1/1lecture.html
Dr. John E. Estes, and the project, The Remote Sensing Core Curriculum.
Important dates in the chronological history of photography, aerial photographic interpretation, and
remote sensing:
Circa 300 BCE - Greece, Aristotle philosophizing at some length about the nature of light,
envisions light as a quality and not as an actual substance; as it was thought of by many at the
time. He observed that some objects have the potential for transpa rency but this state is only
rendered actual by the presence of light. He then defined light as the act of, or energy of, a
transparent body as such.
10th Century - Al Hazan of Basra credited with the explanation of the principle of the camera
obscura.
1666 - Sir Isaac Newton, while experimenting with a prism, found that he could disperse light into a
spectrum of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Utilizing a second prism, he found
that he could recombine the colors into white light.
1802 - Thomas Young puts forth the basic concepts of the Young-Von Helmholtz theory of color
vision: Three separate sets of cones in the retina of the eye, one attuned to red, one to blue, and
one to green.
1827 - Joseph Nicephore Niepce takes the first picture of nature. (Exposure time was 8 hours,
emulsion was bitumen of Jedea.)
1829 - Joseph Nicephore Niepce and Louis M. Daguere signed their partnership agreement
(Nicephore Niepce had been working on Heliography, or sun drawing; Daguerre on dioramas,
which he constructed with the aid of a camera obscura.)
1839 - Daguerre announces the invention of Daguerrotype (Niepce had died). Daguerre had
discovered that mercury vapors could bring out an image on a silver plate and that sodicum
thiosulfate ("hypo") could fix the image and make it permanent.
1839 - William Henry Fox Talbot describes a system of imaging on silver chloride paper using a
fixative solution of sodium chloride. Talbot later found that the latent image could be developed in a
solution of gallic acid, and he was teh first person to employ a negative/positive process "Calotype"
laying the groundwork for modern photography.
1830s - Invention of the stereoscope by the Germans. The device was used during the Victorian
era for amusement.
1855 - Scottish physicist James Clark Maxwell, postulates the color additive theory for the
production of color photographs.
1858 - First known aerial photograph is taken from a captive balloon from an altitude of 1,200 feet
over Paris by Gaspar Felix Tournachon Nadar.
1861 - With the help of photographer Thomas Sutton, Maxwell demonstrates his techniques using
a bow of multicolored ribbon. (Red filter - sulfo-cyanice of iron, blue filter - ammoniacal sulfate of
copper, green filter - copper chloride, a fourth filter of lemon-colored glass was also used.)
1860s - Use of aerial observations from captive balloons in American War. Balloons used to map
forest in 1862 not aerial photo though.
1870s - Pictures taken from greater heights, 33,000-34,000 feet, from free balloons.
1873 - Herman Vogel found that by soaking silver halide emulsions (which are naturally sensitive
to only blue light) in various dyes, he could extend their sensitivity to longer and longer
wavelengths, paving the way for photography in the near infrared.
1879 - S.P. Langley begins work to find a superior radiation detector.
1887 - Germans began experiments with photography for forestry.
1899 - George Eastman produced a nitrocellulose-based film which retained the clarity of the glass
plates which had been used to that time.
1903 - Julius Neubronne patents breast mounted camera for pigeons.
1906 - Albert Maul takes first aerial photograph using a rocket propelled by compressed air which
rose to a height of 2,600 feet and took pictures and then parachuted the camera back to earth.
1906 - G.R. Lawrence who had been experimenting with cameras for some time (some of which
weighed more than 1,000 lbs.) which were hoisted into the air with the aid of balloon-kites and
associated controls, takes pictures of San Francisco earthquake and f ire damage from an altitude
of some 600 meters. Many people have thought that these photos were taken from airplanes.
Lawrence's camera alone weighed more than the Wright Brothers plane and its pilot combined.
1909 - Wilbur Wright takes first aerial photograph from an airplane of Centrocelli, Italy. WWI
produced a boost in the use of aerial photography, but after the war, enthusiasm wanted.
1914 - Lt. Lawes, British Flying Service, first takes airplane over enemy territory.
1915 - Cameras especially built for aerial use are being produced. Lt. Col. J.T.C. More Brabazon
designed and produced the first practical aerial camera in collaboration with Thornton Pickard Ltd.
1918 - By this time in WWI, French aerial units were developing and printing as many as 10,000
photographs each night, during periods of intense activity. During the Meuse-Argonne offensive,
56,000 prints of aerial photograpy were made and delivered to A merican Expeditionary Forces in
four days.
1914-1919 - WWI produces boost in the use of aerial photography, but after war interest wanes.
1919 - Canadian Forestry Mapping Program begins.
1919 - Hoffman first to sense from an aircraft in thermal IR. First books: Lee 1922; Joerg 1923
(urban); Platt & Johnson 1927 (archaeology).
1924 - Mannes and Godousky patent the first of their work on multi-layer film which led to the
marketing of Kodachrome in 1935.
1931 - Stevens development of an IR sensitive film (B&W).
1934 - American Society of Photogrammetry founded. Photogrammetric Engineering is first
published. This journal of the American Society of Photogrammetry was later renamed
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. The Society is now named the Ame rican
Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
1936 - Captain Albert W. Stevens takes the first photograph of the actual curvature of the earth -
taken from a free balloon at an altitude of 72,000 feet.
1920s-1930s - Interest in the peaceful uses of aerial photography increases (ISDA, USAF, TVA).
WWII brought about more sophisticated techniques in API.
1941-1945 - WWII brings about the development of more sophisticated techniques in aerial
photographic interpretation (API). American, British and Germans all produce promising TIR
devices.
1942 - Kodak patents first false color IR sensitive film.
1946 - First space photographs from V-2 rockets.
1950s - Advances in sensor technology move into multi-spectral range.
1954 - Westinghouse develops first side-looking airborne radar system.
1954 - U-2 takes first flight.
1956 - Lu Meuser makes first TIR motion picture employing an AN/AAS-4, a devise for air to
ground strip mapping ("...features and vehicles move like an old keystone cops movie.")
1960 - U-2 is "shot down" over Sverdlovsk, USSR.
1960 - TIROS 1 launched as first meteorological satellite.
1960s - U.S. begins collection of intelligence photography from Earth orbiting satellites, CORONA
and KH programs.
1962 - Zaitor and Tsuprun construct prototype nine lens multispectral camera permitting nine
different film-filter combinations. ITEK employs camera to explore the potential value of
multispectral photography.
1964 - SR-71 shown to the press in the Presidential campaign between Goldwater and LBJ.
Late 1960s - Gemini and Apollo Space photography.
1968 - Hemphill describes first use of laser for airborne sensing.
1972 - Launch of the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1). This system is later
renamed Landsat-1. ERTS carries a return beam vidicon (RBV) and a multispectral scanner
(MSS).
1972 - Photography from Sky Lab precursor of manned space station whos first element launch is
currently scheduled for 1998.
1975 - Launch of Landsat 2.
1978 - Launch of Landsat 3 (March 5).
1978 - Launch and failure of Seasat. First civil SAR satellite.
1978 - Launch of Nimbus 7 (Coastal Zone Color Scanner).
1978 - Launch of NOAA 6 (aka TIROS-N), first satellite to carry the advanced very high resolution
radiometer (AVHRR) on board.
1981 - Launch of SIR-A (Space Imaging Radar - A).
1982 - Launch of Landsat 4 (Thematic Mapper and MSS).
1984 - Launch of SIR-B.
1984 - Launch of Landsat 5.
1985 - Landsat Commercial contract awarded to EOSAT. Vendor takes over operation of the
satellites and rights to Landsat data.
1986 - Launch of SPOT-1, French Earth Resources Satellite (Systeme Probatoire de la
Observation de la Terre.
1988 - Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) launched.
1990 - Launch of SPOT-2.
1991 - Launch of ERS-1, European Radar Satellite, primarily designed for oceanographic
applications.
1991 - Second Indian Remote Sensing Satellite launched.
1992 - JERS, Japanese Earth Resources Satellite launched with L-band radar and visible and
infrared radiance/reflectance recording devices on-board.
1992 - Land Remote Sensing Act of 1992 brings Landsat back under U.S. Government control.
EOSAT retains data rights to some Landsat data for up to ten years from acquisition.
1993 - Launch of SIR-C.
1993 - Launch of SPOT-3.
1994 - Landsat 6 fails to achieve orbit.
1995 - Third Indian Remote Sensing Satellite launched.
1995 - Canada launches RADARSAT.
1995 - Early CORONA and KH satellite data are declassified by an Executive Order signed by
President Clinton on 23 February. This order authorizes the declassification of intelligence satellite
photography acquired in the 1960s.
1995 - Launch of ERS-2.
1995 - First indication that a new class of intelligence satellite is being developed appears in the
press. The new satellite code name 8x is said to be a major upgrade of the KH-12 spy satellite.
The satellite which may weigh as much as twenty tons wil l be able to acquire "intricately detailed
images of an area as large as 1,000 square miles of the Earth's surface...with roughly the same
precision as existing satellites," according to an article in the September 28 Los Angeles Times.
The Time article goes on to say that the current generation of photographic satellites photograph
areas about 10 miles by 10 miles (100 square miles) typically showing details as small as six
inches.
1997 - Proposed launch date of SeaWiFs, replacement for the coastal zone color scanner.
1997 - Proposed launch of SPOT-4.
1998 - Proposed first launch of the Earth Observing System's (EOS) AM-1 series on a Polar
Orbiting Platform (POP).
1998 - Proposed launch date for Landsat-7.
2000 - Proposed launch date of EOS PM-1 series on POP.