Está en la página 1de 136

En el mbito de la msica, el microtonalismo es la msica que utiliza microtonos (los

intervalos musicales menores que un semitono). En la msica tradicional occidental, una


octava se divide en 12 semitonos iguales. En el microtonalismo se utilizan ms notas,
llamadas microtonos. El msico estadounidense Charles Ives defina a los microtonos de
manera humorstica como las notas entre las teclas del piano.
Muchos tericos contemporneos tratan de organizar la divisin de microtonos de tal manera
que se puedan relacionar meldicamente y armnicamente tal como los tonos utilizados en
el sistema dodecafnico. Segn algunos compositores, el microtono abrira nuevas puertas y
horizontes en el mundo de la msica contempornea.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Historia
o 1.1Musiclogos
o 1.2Msicos microtonales
2Instrumentos microtonales
3Msica experimental
4Teora
5Escalas microtonales y macrotonales
o 5.1Antiguas
o 5.2Occidentales
6Referencias
7Enlaces externos

Historia[editar]
La visin actual acerca del microtonalismo es que ha existido desde la antigedad en las
msicas no occidentales (india, rabe), en la msica griega (sistema enarmnico), en
la msica medieval (aunque esta afirmacin est sujeta a controversia), y en la msica
folclrica de algunas regiones europeas, aunque ms como accidente o teora, que como
prctica consciente.
Entre los antecedentes ms remotos que ahora se conocen, se menciona a Nicol
Vicentino y Vicente Lusitano, que a principios del periodo barroco (siglo XVI) polemizaron
acerca de revivir el sistema cromtico y enharmnico griego (basado en una divisin de la
escala en 31 partes, y no en 12 partes, como en el actual sistema tonal).
En el siglo XVII Christian Huygens propuso la divisin de la octava en 31 partes iguales
(sistema griego). El cannigo y fsico William Holder propuso dividirla en 53
sonidos. Chevpropuso una escala de 50 sonidos. Estos sistemas pretendan un
temperamento musical ms cercano a la teora acstica, sin embargo no fueron llevados a la
prctica.
Uno de los primeros autores en la historia en llevar a la prctica el microtonalismo, basado en
una teora que puede escribir microtonalismo en intervalos de 16avos, 32avos, 64avos y hasta
128avos de tono, fue Julin Carrillo quien en su experimento de 1895 opt por los 16avos de
tono aumentando a 96 sonidos por octava, actualmente su teora ya cumple 100 aos de ser
formulada y no ha tenido el xito del temperamento de 12, ni mucho menos un inters
acadmico de las escuelas y conservatorios que por lo general lo consideran un fracaso. Otro
es Alois Hba que fue el creador del sistema tonal basado en la utilizacin de cuartos y sextos
de tono de la msica occidental, desde el 1924 hasta el 1943 construy instrumentos
especiales y Compuso un nuevo lenguaje microtonal de un gran poder expresivo.

Musiclogos[editar]
Durante aos, los tericos del microtonalismo y de las afinaciones han trabajado y expuesto
sus investigaciones, y aunque la mayor parte de la msica contempornea sigue utilizando
un sistema temperado de 12 notas por octava, existen multitud de escalas tonales alternativas,
ms o menos depuradas, desde las basadas en nmeros primos, las basadas en los nmeros
de Fibonacci hasta Teoras basadas en la fsica y matemticas.

Msicos microtonales[editar]
A nivel terico y practico, con muchas composiciones experimentales se menciona a los
msicos:

1. Richard Heinrich Stein (Alemania, 1882-1942), quien construy un pequeo piano y un


clarinete para cuartos de tono y compuso dos piezas para violonchelo y piano en
cuartos de tono (1906).
2. Willi von Moellendorf (Alemania): construy un pequeo armonio de cuartos de tono y
compuso unas cuantas piezas en cuartos de tono.
3. Joerg Mager (Alemania): compuso algunos estudios en cuartos de tono).
4. Alois Hba (Checoslovaco): (Vizovice, 1893-Praga, 1973) Compositor y terico
musical checoslovaco. Defensor del microtonalismo, hizo construir instrumentos
especiales y compuso segn las reglas establecidas en su obra Nuevas reglas
armnicas del sistema diatnico y cromtico sobre terceras, cuartas, sextas y
duodcimas de tono (1927).1
5. Ivan A. Wyschnegradsky (Rusia, 18931979): En 1932 public un libro titulado
"Manuel dharmonie quarts de ton". Hizo construir un piano en cuartos de tono que
tena tres teclados.
6. Ferruccio Busoni (Italia): hizo algunos experimentos infructuosos en la adaptacin de
un piano de tercios de tono, y para no comprometer los medios tonos propuso una
serie doble de tercios de tono (es decir, sextos de tono).
7. Hans Barth, que compuso un Concierto para piano en cuartos de tono y
cuerdas (1930).
8. Julin Carrillo (Mxico 1875-1965) Construy 16 pianos, arpas, flautas, guitarras y
cellos capaces de generar cuartos, octavos y hasta dieciseisavos de tono. Grab en
Pars obras en cuartos y octavos de tono, ofreci conciertos en Nueva York, Filadelfia,
Paris y Mxico adems de desarrollar la Teora del Sonido 13.
9. Grard Grisey, junto con Tristan Murail fundaron el movimiento espectral francs, el
cual fue caraterizado por la generacin de verticalidades que derivan de intervalos del
espectro armnico natural del sonido, el cual contiene alturas microtonales que se
estrechan siempre mas a partir del dcimo armnico en adelante.
10. Valeri Brainin (1948), 29-escala.
11. Francisco Guerrero (Espaa 1951-1997), quizs el ms importante compositor espaol
de la segunda mitad del Siglo XX, trabaj con sistemas en los cuales la abundancia
de alturas microtonales deriva de complejas frmulas matemticas y concepciones
fractales de los gestos sonoros.
12. Charles Antonio Loli Antequera (Per 1975) basado en Inducciones matemticas, serie
de armnicos, y la octava pitagrica, resumi escalas en relacin a la armona para
sistemas microtonales de divisiones en partes iguales de la octava con
aproximaciones a la quinta de armnicos y su escritura en el
"Pentadecagrama"(sistema de 15 lneas paralelas en grupos de 5 para una escala
tonal de 17notas). Puso en prctica los sistemas microtonales mediante software de
msica.Su primera composicin microtonal fue realizado en EL Vienna con un sistema
de 20 sonidos por octava llamado "Bidecafonico", actualmente desarrolla la
aplicacinde de su propuesta terica con instrumentos microtonales en 17edo y
29edo. www.microtonalismo.com
13. Javier Torres Maldonado (Mxico 1968) ha retomado algunas de las ideas propuestas
por Grisey llevndolas, en algunas de sus obras, a momentos de consonancia y
disonancia espectral que dependen de la sobreposicin de fragmentos de espectros
construidos sobre diferentes fundamentales, as como de otros sistemas que superan
el origen espectral de estos conceptos, como la contraccin inarmnica o diferentes
tcnicas combinatorias de intervalos ms pequeos que el semitono cromtico.
14. Walter Mack (Argentina 1975) basado en frmulas matemticas cre escalas para
mltiples sistemas microtonales. Cre un instrumento en un sistema de tercios de
tonos, y un instrumento que combina el sistema de 12 notas con el de 18 notas.
15. Trey Spruance (California 1969).
16. Armando Nava Loya (Mxico 1957) Difusor de la teora musical llamada Sonido 13 con
el instrumento musical llamado "Arpa Microintervlica, nico instrumento en el mundo
capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas.
17. King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard (Australia, 2017) Banda de rock psicodlico que
empez a explorar en este sonido con una coleccin de 5 discos.

Instrumentos microtonales[editar]

La Moodswinger, una ctara elctrica con un tercer puenteadicional, Yuri Landman, 2006.

Para el surgimiento de instrumentos microtonales sirvieron de impulso algunos


instrumentos electroacsticos de los aos 1920 que salan del temperamento de 12 sonidos.
Algunos ejemplos de instrumentos microtonales son:

las Ondas Martenot (utilizadas posteriormente por Olivier Messiaen e Ivn


Wischnegradsky, entre otros),
el trautonium (utilizado por Paul Hindemith),
la ondolina,
el teremn,
la Moodswinger, de Yuri Landman,
el Arpa microintervlica, inventada por el mexicano Oscar Vargas Leal, nico instrumento
en el mundo capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas,
la dinarra, una guitarra dinmica microtonal, inventada por el uruguayo Eduardo Sbat-
Garibaldi,
la tetarra, guitarra microtonal inventada por el ecuatoriano Lucho Enrquez.
el trombn
Todos los instrumentos de cuerda que no estn divididos por trastes son capaces de
microtonalismo.

Msica experimental[editar]
Algunos msicos utilizaron los nuevos intervalos como enriquecimiento casual de la
composicin ms que como nuevos sistemas musicales, como el rumano George
Enescu(1881-1955) y el hngaro Bela Brtok (1881-1945). Pero el inters estaba tan presente
que en 1922 Alois Hba asisti a un Congreso Internacional de Compositores de Cuartos de
Tono y al ao siguiente daba clases de cuartos de tono en el conservatorio de Praga. Julin
Carrillo publica su Teora microtonal llamada "Sonido 13" en Nueva York hacia el ao 1916.
Posteriormente grab varias composiciones en Cuartos, Octavos y Dieciseisavos de Tono en
Pars, despus de varios conciertos realizados desde 1925. En el Per, el Compositor
nasqueo Miguel Oblitas Bustamante (1964), ha empleado microtonos en su Sinfona "Las
Pampas de Nasca" (1984), escrita para cantantes solistas, Coro, Antaras de cermica, Banda
militar y Orquesta Sinfnica.

Teora[editar]
A principios del siglo XX, los msicos empezaron a estudiar la posibilidad de ampliar la riqueza
del temperamento de doce sonidos empleando tercios y cuartos de tono, y este mismo inters
los llev a estudiar la msica india, rabe, eslovaca, rumana, hngara, as como a estudiar a
esos tericos del pasado para integrar a la msica occidental los nuevos intervalos.
Evidentemente el inters de los msicos del siglo XX y los de siglos anteriores era diferente:

En la antigedad, los intervalos surgan como el reflejo de un sistema diatnico


transportado a diversas alturas, o de las 53 comas de Pitgoras.
En el siglo XX los intervalos surgan de la divisin intencional de la octava no en 12
semitonos, sino en 18 tercios de tono, o 24 cuartos de tono (incluso unos aos despus se
inst a dividir la escala en 17, 19, 20, 22, 27 o cualquier nmero de partes
llamadas microtonos).
La bsqueda fue ardua, pues los nuevos intervalos requeran

una notacin diferente,


instrumentos temperados (como el piano o la guitarra) que los produjeran y sirvieran de
gua a los no temperados (como violines y violonchelos) para la afinacin exacta,
nuevas reglas de armona y contrapunto y
la revisin de los fundamentos tericos del sistema de doce sonidos.
Los msicos que se ocuparon del asunto fueron muchos, algunos se conformaron con
especulaciones tericas, otros con unos cuantos ejercicios en instrumentos adaptados para tal
fin, y unos cuantos llevaron al lmite sus intentos construyendo nuevos instrumentos, creando
una nueva teora musical para microintervalos, componiendo una buena cantidad de obras y
presentndolas en conciertos.

Escalas microtonales y macrotonales[editar]


Antiguas[editar]
Algunas escalas tradicionales que no utilizan 12 semitonos por octava:
Escala javanesa Slendro tradicional, de 5 tonos.
Escala siamesa tradicional, de 7 tonos.
Raga Shruti, de 22 tonos (India).
Escala tailandesa tradicional, de 8 tonos.
Escala Nasca investigada por Miguel Oblitas Bustamante.
Lu, de 12 notas (en la Era Han, China).
Escala Persa de 17 tonos.
Escala Iraq Enarmnica de 8 tonos.
Occidentales[editar]
Estas son algunas de las escalas desarrolladas por importantes tericos o msicos:

Kimberger I, Kimberger II y Kimberger III (Johann Philipp Kirnberger), que son


temperamentos histricos parientes del mesotnico.
Sistema Euler Genos o Euler-Fokker Genera / Escala Octony (Leonhard Euler).
Escala modal de 9 tonos (Max Mreaux).
Escala de 29 tonos (Valeri Brainin).
Escala de 43 tonos (Harry Partch).
Escalas de Ervin M. Wilson:
Hexany, de 6 tonos.
Eikosany, de 20 tonos.
Dekatesserany, de 14 tonos.
Escala de 53 tonos (Larry Hanson).
Escala de 96 tonos, "Sonido 13" (Julin Carrillo).
Escala de 19 tonos (Joseph Yasser).
Escala de 23 tonos (Yuri Landman, Moodswinger).
Escalas prximas a quintas mltiplos de 12, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41, 53, propuesta terica de -
"Armona microtonal inductiva alfa edo" (Charles Loli).

Charles Edward Ives (Danbury, 20 de octubre de 1874 Nueva York, 19 de mayo de 1954)
fue un compositor estadounidense de msica clsica, reconocido como uno de los primeros de
trascendencia internacional.
La msica de Ives fue prcticamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras
permanecieron sin tocarse durante muchos aos. Con el tiempo, Ives llegara a ser
considerado como uno de los American Originals, un compositor que adopt un estilo
americano nico, con tonadas folclricas estadounidenses tejidas a largo de todas sus
composiciones, y una inquieta bsqueda por las posibilidades musicales. Sus obras ms
conocidas son La pregunta sin respuesta para orquesta y Sonata "Concord" para piano.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Biografa
2La msica de Ives
3Recepcin
4Lista de obras selectas
5Vase tambin
6Referencias
7Bibliografa
8Enlaces externos

Biografa[editar]
Sus padres fueron George Ives, un director de banda del Ejrcito de los Estados
Unidos durante la guerra civil estadounidense, y Mollie. Una experiencia significativa para
Charles durante su infancia fue el asistir a las festividades locales, en las que por las calles de
su ciudad la banda de su padre y otras bandas tocaban simultneamente, hecho recogido en
su composicin Three Places in New England, entre otras. Las nicas lecciones musicales
que recibi de su padre tambin tuvieron una gran importancia; George Ives tena una visin
muy abierta respecto de la teora musical, y animaba a su hijo a experimentar
en armonizacionesbitonales y politonales. De modo que Charles frecuentemente poda cantar
una meloda en una tonalidad, mientras su padre lo acompaaba en otra. Fue de la mano de
su padre que Charles tambin conoci la msica de Stephen Foster.1 Ives lleg a
ser organista de iglesia a los 14 aos y escribi varios himnos y canciones para los servicios
eclesiales, entre ellos sus Variations on "America" (Variaciones sobre "America").2
Ives se traslad a New Haven en 1893, gradundose en la Escuela Hopkins. Luego, en
septiembre de 1894, acudi a la Universidad de Yale, para estudiar con Horatio Parker. Aqu
compuso en un estilo coral semejante al de su maestro, escribiendo msica religiosa e incluso
en 1896 hizo una cancin para la campaa presidencial de William McKinley.3 El 4 de
noviembre de 1894 el padre de Charles muri, lo que signific un duro golpe para el
compositor, que haba idealizado a su padre, y de quien en cierta manera recogi la semilla de
la experimentacin musical comenzada por l.2 Ives emprendi el curso estndar en Yale,
llevando una extensa nmina de cursos, entre ellos griego, latn, matemticas y literatura. Fue
miembro de Delta Kappa Epsilon y de Wolf's Head, y presidente del Ivy Committee.3 Sus
obras Calcium Light Night y Yale-Princeton Football Game muestran la influencia que tuvo el
college en sus composiciones. Su Sinfona n. 1 la escribi como su tesis principal bajo la
supervisin de Parker.3

Ives alrededor de 1899.

En 1898, despus de su graduacin en Yale, acept un puesto de $5 semanales


como actuario en la Mutual Life Insurance Company de Nueva York, y se traslad a un
apartamento de soltero con varios amigos. Continu su trabajo como organista de iglesia
hasta 1906. En 1899 se cambi de empleo a la agencia Charles H. Raymond & Co., donde
permaneci hasta 1906. En 1907, despus de la quiebra de Raymond & Co., junto a su amigo
Julian W. Myrick formaron su propia agencia de seguros Ives & Co., que posteriormente se
convertira en Ives & Myrick, donde permaneci hasta su retiro.4 En su tiempo libre compona
y, hasta su matrimonio, trabaj como organista en Danbury y New Haven adems de
en Bloomfield, Nueva Jersey y Nueva York.3 En 1907, Ives sufri el primero de varios "ataques
cardiacos" (como l y su familia los consideraron) que tendra en los aos siguientes. Estos
ataques pueden haber sido ms de origen psicolgico que fsico. Al recuperarse de su ataque
de 1907, Ives entr en uno de los periodos ms creativos de su vida como compositor.
Despus de casarse con Harmony Twitchell en 1908,4 se trasladaron a su propio apartamento
en Nueva York. Tuvo un remarcable xito en su carrera como asegurador, y continu siendo
un prolfico compositor hasta que sufri otro de sus varios ataques al corazn en 1918,
despus del cual compuso muy poco, escribiendo su ltima obra, la cancin Sunrise, en
agosto de 1926.4 En 1922, Ives public sus 114 Songs que reflejan toda la amplitud de su
obra como compositor -- contiene canciones artsticas, canciones que compuso durante
su adolescencia y juventud, y canciones muy disonantes como The Majority.4
De acuerdo con su esposa, un da a inicios de 1927, mientras bajaba las escaleras de su casa
con lgrimas en los ojos, le dijo que ya no poda componer ms, "ya nada me suena bien". Ha
habido numerosas y avanzadas teoras para comprender el silencio de sus ltimos aos, que
parecen tan misteriosos como las ltimas dcadas de la vida de otro compositor,
el finlands Jean Sibelius, quien tambin dej de componer alrededor por el mismo tiempo. Si
bien Ives dej de componer, y fue cada vez ms afectado por sus problemas de salud,
continu revisando y refinando sus obras anteriores, adems de planificar los estrenos de su
msica.4 Despus de continuar sus problemas de salud, entre ellos la diabetes, en 1930 se
retir de su negocio de seguros, lo que le dio ms tiempo para dedicarse a su obra musical,
pero no fue capaz de componer nueva msica. Durantes los aos 1940 revis su Sonata
Concord, publicndola junto al volumen de prosas, Essays Before a Sonata en 1947.5
Ives muri en 1954 en Nueva York.

La msica de Ives[editar]
Ives fue educado en Yale, y su Sinfona n. 1 muestra su acogimiento a las frmulas
acadmicas requeridas para escribir en forma Sonata a fines del siglo XIX, as como un fulgor
iconoclasta, con un segundo tema que implica un direccin armnica distinta. Su padre era
director de banda, y como sucedi con Hector Berlioz, Ives tena una fascinacin por la msica
al aire libre y por la instrumentacin. Sus tentativas de fundir estos dos pilares musicales, y su
devocin por Beethoven, fijaran la direccin de su vida musical.
Ives public una gran coleccin de sus canciones, muchas de las cuales tenan
partes piansticas que recogen varios de los movimientos modernistas que se iniciaban
en Europa, entre ellos la bitonalidad y la pantonalidad. l era un dotado pianista, capaz
de improvisar en una gran variedad de estilos, incluyendo los que entonces eran
absolutamente nuevos. Aunque ahora es mejor conocido por su msica orquestal, compuso
dos cuartetos de cuerda y varias obras de msica de cmara. Su trabajo como organista lo
llev a escribir Variaciones sobre "Amrica" en 1891, que estrenara en un recital de
celebracin por el 4 de julio. Esta obra toma la meloda del himno nacional del Reino
Unido God Save the Queen, para una serie de variaciones bastante estndares pero
ingeniosas. Una de las variaciones es al estilo de una polonesa mientras que otra, agregada
aos despus de terminada la composicin original de la obra, es probablemente el primer uso
de la bitonalidad de Ives. William Schuman hizo un arreglo para orquesta de esta obra
en 1964 (vase [1]).
Ives compuso dos sinfonas, pero fue con The Unanswered Question (La pregunta sin
respuesta, 1908), escrita para la combinacin muy inusual de trompeta,
cuatro flautas y cuarteto de cuerda, que cre un maduro mundo sonoro que se convertira en
su estilo personal. Las cuerdas (ubicadas fuera de escena) tocan muy suavemente una
msica como de coral a lo largo de la obra, mientras que la trompeta (colocada detrs del
auditorio) toca varias veces un breve motivo que Ives describi como "la Eterna Pregunta de la
Existencia". Cada vez que la trompeta pregunta, recibe la respuesta de un estridente ataque
de las flautas (en escena), menos en la ltima, por ello el ttulo. La obra es tpica de Ives
yuxtapone varios elementos dispares, que aparecen conducidos por una narrativa de la que
nunca terminamos de estar conscientes, y es muy misteriosa. Posteriormente escribi una
versin orquestal que se convertira en una de sus obras ms populares.6
Obras como The Unanswered Question estuvieron ciertamente influidas por los
escritores trascendentalistas de Nueva Inglaterra, Ralph Waldo Emerson y Henry David
Thoreau.4 stos tuvieron una influencia muy importante para Ives, como lo reconoci en
su Sonata para piano n. 2: Concord, Mass., 184060 (190915), que describi como una
"impresin del espritu del trascendentalismo que est asociada en las mentes de muchos
con Concord, Mass., hace ms de medio siglo... recogidas en las imgenes impresionistas de
Emerson y Thoreau, un esbozo de los Alcotts, y un scherzo que supuestamente ha de reflejar
una ligera cualidad que a menudo se encuentra en el lado fantstico de Hawthorne."
La sonata es posiblemente la obra para piano solo ms conocida de Ives (aunque debera
observarse que tiene partes opcionales para viola y flauta). Rtmicamente y armnicamente,
es tpicamente aventurada, y demuestra el cario de Ives por las citas en varios momentos
aparece el motivo inicial de la Sinfona n. 5 de Beethoven. Tambin contiene algunos de los
ejemplos ms asombrosos de experimentalismo de Ives: en el segundo movimiento, ordena al
pianista que use una barra de madera de 14 pulgadas (37.5 cm) para producir un
gran clster.
Quizs la obra orquestal ms destacable de Ives sea su Sinfona n. 4 (191016). La lista de
fuerzas requerida para interpretar slo esta obra es extraordinaria; adems de una
inmensa orquesta sinfnica, la obra requiere una gran seccin de percusin, dos pianos (uno
afinado a un cuarto de tono del otro), un rgano, un grupo adicional de cuerdas a la distancia,
un gran coro, tres saxofones opcionales y finalmente un "rgano etreo" (no est muy claro a
qu se refera Ives con l, pero generalmente son usados un theremn o un sintetizador). El
programa de la obra recuerda al de The Unanswered Question Ives dijo que la obra es "una
pregunta que indaga sobre el 'Qu' y el 'Por qu' que el espritu humano pide de la vida". El
uso de la cita es tambin frecuente, y no se queda corta en efectos novedosos. Por ejemplo,
en el segundo movimiento, un tremolando es tocado por toda la orquesta. En el movimiento
final, hay una suerte de "lucha musical" entre sonidos discordantes y la msica tonal ms
tradicional. Eventualmente entra un coro sin palabras, el modo se hace ms calmado, y la
obra termina tranquilamente con la percusin sola tocando.
La sinfona no fue interpretada por completo hasta 1965, casi 50 aos despus de haber sido
terminada, 11 aos despus de la muerte del compositor.
Ives abandonara el material para su inconclusa Sinfona del Universo, que fue incapaz de unir
en vida pese a dos dcadas de trabajo. Esto se debi tanto a sus problemas de salud como a
su cambiante concepcin de la obra. Ha habido varios intentos de terminarla o realizar una
versin interpretable. Sin embargo, ninguna ha encontrado el modo de recibir una
interpretacin general.7 La sinfona toma las ideas de la Sinfona n. 4 pero en un nivel ms
elevado, con complejos ritmos cruzados, difciles capas de disonancias y combinaciones
inusuales de instrumentos.
Entre las obras de cmara de Ives est el Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2, donde las partes estn a
menudo escritas en los extremos del contrapunto, desde angulosas disonancias en el
movimiento titulado "Arguments" a lo trascendentalmente lento. Este rango por los extremos
es frecuente en la msica de Ives el fragor y la disonancia machacadoras con la quietud
lrica y conducido en una relacin de secciones que se van deslizando dentro y fuera de s
unas con otras. El idioma de Ives, como el de Mahler, emplea lneas meldicas bastante
independientes. Se considera difcil de tocar debido a que muchas de las tpicas seales para
los intrpretes no estn presentes. Esta obra tuvo una clara influencia sobre el Cuarteto de
cuerda n. 2 de Elliott Carter, que es similarmente una conversacin teatral a 4 voces.

Recepcin[editar]
La msica de Ives fue largamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras se
mantuvieron sin tocar por muchos aos. Su tendencia a la experimentacin y su uso cada vez
mayor de la disonancia no fue tomado a bien en el ambiente musical de su poca. Las
dificultades para ejecutar las complejidades rtmicas en sus principales obras orquestales las
convirtieron en desafos intimidantes incluso dcadas despus de haber sido compuestas.
Una de las palabras ms mordaces que se podra usar para describir la msica desde el punto
de vista de Ives es "bonita", y su famoso comentario "Usen sus odos como gente!" (use your
ears like men!) parece indicar que no se preocupaba por la recepcin de su msica. Sin
embargo, por el contrario, Ives estuvo interesado por la recepcin del pblico, pero en sus
propios trminos.
Entre los tempranos partidarios de su msica estuvieron Henry Cowell y Elliott Carter. Invitado
por Cowell a participar en su peridico New Music, un substancial nmero de partituras de
Ives fueron publicadas en el diario, pero durante alrededor de 40 aos tuvo pocas
interpretaciones que no pudo acordar o repetir, generalmente con Nicolas
Slonimskycomo director de orquesta.5
Su oscuridad empez a levantarse un poco por los aos 1940, cuando conoci a Lou
Harrison, un fan de su msica que comenz a editarla y a promoverla. Harrison dirigi muy
notablemente el estreno de la Sinfona n. 3 (1904) en 1946.8 Al ao siguiente, por esta obra
Ives obtuvo el Premio Pulitzer. Sin embargo, Ives se deshizo del premio monetario (la mitad se
lo dio a Harrison), diciendo que "los premios son para los chiquillos, y yo ya estoy grande"
(prizes are for boys, and I'm all grown up). Leopold Stokowski consigui no mucho despus
la Sinfona n. 4, y la consider como "el corazn del problema de Ives".
Por esta poca, Ives tambin fue promovido por Bernard Herrmann que trabajaba entonces
como director en la CBS, y que en 1940 se convirti en el director principal de la Orquesta
Sinfnica de la CBS. Mientras estuvo ah, fue defensor de la msica de Charles Ives.
El reconocimiento de la msica de Ives ha mejorado. Encontrara alabanzas de Arnold
Schoenberg, quien lo consider un monumento a la integridad artstica (vase Citas debajo), y
de la Escuela de Nueva York de William Schuman. En el presente, Michael Tilson Thomas es
un entusiasta exponente de las sinfonas de Ives como lo es el musiclogo Jan Swafford. La
obra de Ives es regularmente programada en Europa. Ives tambin ha inspirado a pintores,
notablemente a Eduardo Paolozzi quien titul una de sus colecciones de impresiones por
los aos 1970 Calcium Light Night, y cada una de ellas fue nombrada con una obra de Ives,
(entre ellas Central Park in the Dark).
Al mismo tiempo, Ives no est con sus crticos. Mucha gente an encuentra su msica
rimbombante y pomposa. Otras la encuentran, bastante extrao, tmida debido a que el sonido
fundamental de la msica tradicional europea an est presente en sus obras. El que fuese
una vez su partidario Elliott Carter ha considerado a la obra de Ives incompleta.

Lista de obras selectas[editar]


Nota: Debido a que Ives realiz con frecuencia distintas versiones de una misma obra, y
debido a que su obra fue generalmente ignorada durante su vida, a menudo es difcil colocar
una datacin exacta a sus composiciones. Los aos ofrecidos aqu son a veces las ms
probables. Hay incluso quienes especulan que Ives cambi intencionalmente las fechas de
sus propias obras, para indicar que eran ms tempranas o ms tardas de lo que originalmente
fueron.

Variaciones sobre "America" para rgano (1891)


Cuarteto de cuerda n. 1, "From the Salvation Army" (1896)
Sinfona n. 1 en Re menor (189698)
Sinfona n. 2 (18971901)
Sinfona n. 3, "The Camp Meeting" (190104)
Central Park in the Dark para orquesta de cmara (18981907)
The Unanswered Question para grupo de cmara (1908)
Sonata para violn n. 1 (190308)
Sonata para piano n. 1 (190209)
Sonata para violn n. 2 (190210)
Robert Browning Overture (1911)
A Symphony: New England Holidays (190413)
Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2 (190713)
Tro para piano (c190910, rev. c191415)
Set Orquestal n. 1: Three Places in New England (190321)
Sonata para violn n. 3 (1914)
Sonata para piano n. 2, "Concord, Mass., 184060" (190915) (revisada muchas veces
por Ives)
Set Orquestal n. 2 (191215)
Sonata para violn n. 4 "Children's Day at the Camp Meeting" (191215)
Sinfona n. 4 (191016)
Universe symphony (inconclusa, 191116, trabaj en la sinfona hasta su muerte en 1954)
114 Songs (compuestas en varios aos entre 1887 y 1921, publicadas en 1922.)
Tres piezas en cuartos de tono para piano (192324)
Old Home Days (para banda/ensamble, arreglos de Jonathan Elkus)

Ervin Wilson (June 11, 1928 December 8, 2016[1]) was a Mexican/American (dual
citizen) music theorist.

Contents
[hide]

1Early life
2Works
3Musicians influenced by Wilson
4References
5External links

Early life[edit]
Ervin Wilson was born in a remote area of northwest Chihuahua, Mexico, where he lived until
the age of fifteen. His mother taught him to play the reed organ and to read musical notation.
He began to compose at an early age, but immediately discovered that some of the sounds he
was hearing mentally could not be reproduced by the conventional intervals of the organ. As a
teenager he began to read books on Indian music, developing an interest in concepts of raga.
While he was in the Air Force in Japan, a chance meeting with a total stranger introduced him
to musical harmonics, which changed the course of his life and work. Influenced by the work
of Joseph Yasser, Wilson began to think of the musical scale as a living processlike a crystal
or plant. He has been mentor to many composers and instrument builders.

Works[edit]
Despite his avoidance of academia, Wilson has been influential on those interested
in microtonal music and just intonation, especially in the areas of scale, keyboard, and notation
design. Among his developments are Moments of Symmetry,[2][3] Combination Product
Sets,[4] Golden Horograms, scales based on recurrence relations (scales of "Mt. Meru"), and
mapping scales to the generalized keyboard. He cites Augusto Novaro and Joseph Yasser as
influences. Wilson built instruments and explored the resources of 31 and 41 equal divisions of
the octave. He supported the work of Harry Partch, helped build the Quadrangularis
Reversum,[5] and provided diagrams for Partch's book Genesis of a Music.
The goal of his research with scales is to make them musically accessible to the composer and
the listener. "I sculpt in the architecture of the scale. Other people come along and animate
it." [6]

Musicians influenced by Wilson[edit]


Warren Burt
Gary David
Kraig Grady[6]
Terumi Narushima
Rod Poole
Glen Prior
Paul Rapoport
Emil Richards
Marcus Satellite
Greg Schiemer
Ron Sword
Stephen James Taylor[7]
Daniel James Wolf
A p-limit rational number q can by definition be factored into primes of size less than or equal to p,
giving
q=2e23e35e5pep
where the exponents are integers (positive, negative, or zero.) This is often written in ket
vector (wp) notation as
|e2e3e5ep
in which case it is called a monzo, where the name refers to the enthusiastic advocacy of Joe
Monzo.

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|e2e3ep=|e2|+|e3|log23++|ep|log2p

which is a vector space norm; hence we may embed the p-limit monzos into a normed vector I
space of dimension n = (p) via a map M:monzos I. The monzos under this embedding now
define a lattice, which is a discrete subgroup spanning the finite dimensional real normed vector
space I. If we change coordinates by multiplying values in the coordinate belonging to the prime k
by log2(k), then the norm becomes the standard L1 norm. This vector space is Tenney interval
space, and the transformed coordinates with the standard L1 norm form the standard basis for
Tenney space. It should be noted that while monzos correspond uniquely to positive real numbers
(always rational numbers in the case of monzos), vectors in Tenney space do not. For instance,
while |1 0> represents 2, so does |0 log3(2)>.

Because of the mathematical advantages of Euclidean norms, a Euclidean norm is often placed on
the vectors in interval space instead of an L1 norm, in which case we have Tenney-Euclidean
interval space instead of Tenney interval space. Explicitly, if we take the monzo |e2 e3 ... ep> then
the Tenney-Euclidean norm, or TE norm, of it is
e22+(e3log23)2++(eplog2p)2
and if the coordinates are the weighted interval space coordinates, then the TE norm is
the standard Euclidean, or L2, norm.

Alternate Definition:
Given a rational number q, we can rewrite it in monzo form by the following definition:
q=|v2(q)v3(q)v5(q)vp(q)

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|v2(q)v3(q)vp(q)=|v2(q)|+|v3(q)|log23++|vp(q)|log2p

Where vp(q) is the p-adic valuation of q.

Example:
The 5-limit interval 16/15 factors as 2^4 3^(-1) 5^(-1), so it has a monzo representation of |4 -1 -1>.
In weighted coordinates, that becomes |4 -log2(3) -log2(5)>, approximately |4 -1.585 -2.322>.
The TE norm is therefore
(42+log2(3)2+log2(5)2)23.9034.889.

see also Fractional monzos, Vals and Tuning Space...

Vals and Tuning Space


Editar 4 47

Deutsch -

Definition | Vals and Monzos | Example

Definition
A val "maps" just intonation to a certain number of steps in a chain of generators; by putting vals
together we can define the mapping of a regular temperament and thereby define the temperament.
A val is written in the form <a1 a2 a3 ... ak|, where the numbers a1 a2 a3 ... are the number of steps
along the chain that the first k primes are mapped to. This can be generalized so that a1 a2 a3 ...
represent the number of steps any JI basis is mapped to, whereas a JI basis for a just intonation
subgroup is an independent collection of just intonation intervals, meaning that no one of them is a
product of the rest.

A rank r temperament has r generators, and thus is defined by r vals. In the usual coordinates for
the p-limit, the set of generators are the first k prime numbers and the set of vals for a p-limit
temperament gives you the coordinates for each prime harmonic in the p-limit. For example, all 5-
limit rank-1 temperaments, or equal temperaments, will be defined by a val <a b c|, where a is the
number of generators it takes to reach the 2nd harmonic (2/1), b is the number of generators to
reach the 3rd harmonic (3/1), and c is the number of generators it takes to reach the 5th harmonic
(5/1). All 5-limit rank-2 temperaments are defined by two vals: |<a1 b1 c1|, <a2 b2 c2|>. Now, we
locate the 2nd harmonic (2/1) with the 2-dimensional coordinates (a1, a2), sometimes written as |a1
a2>, meaning go up a1 of the first generator, and up a2 of the 2nd generator, to reach 2/1.
Similarly, the 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic will be reached by |b1 b2> and |c1 c2> respectively.

As an example, consider meantone temperament, where 81/80 vanishes. Meantone can be


considered a 5-limit rank-2 temperament, defined by the two-val mapping |<1 1 0|, <0 1 4|>. This
tells us just about everything we need to know about how the 5-limit is mapped in meantone: since
2/1 is mapped |1 0>, that tells us that the first generator is a 2/1, and since 3/1 is mapped to |1 1>,
that tells us that the 2nd generator is a 3/2; then, since 5/1 is mapped to |0 4>, aka four 3/2s up,
that tells us that 81/64 (which is (3/2)^4) equals 5/1 (which is 80/64). Since 81/64 is equated with
80/64 here, that tells us that 81/80 is tempered out! Thus it is possible to derive from the mapping
the approximate size of the two generators, the commas that are tempered out, and roughly the
complexity of the temperament (the number of notes of the temperament we need to reach all the
prime harmonics in the p-limit). This makes the val an extremely compact and useful bit of notation
for describing regular temperaments, since we can readily find where all of the primes are mapped
along the temperament's chain of generators essentially at a glance.

Whenever one of the generators of a temperament is a 2/1 the key information is carried by the
other vals, assuming octave equivalence (i.e. 3/1=3/2=6/1 etc). Thus the essential character of 5-
limit meantone is defined by a single val (the one for the 3/2 generator), written <0 1 4|.

Defintion for mathematicians


The p-limit monzos M form a free abelian group, or -module, of finite rank pi(p), which is the
number of primes up to and including p. The dual -module M* is isomorphic to M, but not in a
canonical way. Hence it, the group (Z-module) of vals, is also a free abelian group of rank pi(p).
Just as monzos are often written as kets, vals are typically written as bras. Vals are
homomorphisms from a subgroup of finite rank of *, the abelian group of the positive rational
numbers under multiplication, to the integers . The number theorist Yves Hellegouarch seems to
have been the first to write about them, under the name "degrees".

Vals and Monzos


If V is a val and M is a monzo of the same rank, then the angle bracket <V|M>, which can also be
written V(M), is the result of applying the homomorphism V to M. For example, if V = <12 19 28 34|
and M = |-5 2 2 -1> then <V|M> equals 12*(-5) + 19*2 + 28*2 - 34 = 0

This tells us that in septimal 12 equal, represented by V, the interval 225/224, represented by M, is
mapped to 0, which represents 1. Hence, 225/224 vanishes in septimal 12 equal; it is in
the kernel of V. One should note in particular that the coordinates of V represent where the
successive primes 2, 3, 5 and 7 are mapped.

By embedding the monzos into a suitable vector space, norms may be placed on the monzos in
various ways, turning them into lattices in a vector space. Given a vector space norm on a space of
ket vectors, the dual vector space norm on the space of bra vectors is defined as the least quantity
||V|| making

|<V|M>| ||V|| ||M||

to be always true. The dual of the L1 norm is the Linfty norm, and the dual space of Tenney interval
space is Tenney tuning space. The embedding of monzos into a real normed vector space
automatically induces a dual embedding of vals into a corresponding normed vector space, tuning
space, in which vals are lattice points. The dual norm to the L2 norm is the L2 norm, and the dual
space to Tenney-Euclidean interval space is Tenney-Euclidean tuning space. The Euclidean norm
on a val v is given by

\displaystyle
||v|| = \sqrt{\left({\frac{v_2}{log_2(2)}\right)^2 + \left({\frac{v_3}{log_2(3)}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{v_5}{log_2(5)}\righ
t)^2 + ... + \left(\frac{v_p}{log_2(p)}\right)^2
%original was ||v|| = sqrt(v2^2 + (v3/log2(3))^2 + ... + (vp/log2(p))^2)

It useful to renormalize to the RMS (root mean square) instead, which requires dividing the above
by sqrt(n), where n = pi(p) is the number of primes up to p. This is the TE, or Tenney-Euclidean,
norm.

It should be noted that despite the name, only vectors in a small region of tuning space can
reasonably be considered to be tunings. These are the points in tuning space close to the JI point,
or JIP, which in weighted coordinates is <1 1 1 ... 1|. It has the property that if M is a monzo in
weighted coordinates, then <JIP|M>, or JIP(M) if you prefer, is exactly the log base two of the
interval M represents, hence the name. In unweighted coordinates, JIP = <1 log2(3) ... log2(p)|, and
applied to a monzo this gives the log base two of the corresponding interval.

Example
The rank-1 7-limit patent val corresponding to 31edo is <31 49 72 87|. This tells us that 31 steps
reaches the 2, approximately 49 the 3, 72 the 5, and 87 the 7. In weighted coordinates, it becomes

3149log2(3)72log2(5)87log2(7)

which is approximately <31.000 30.916 31.009 30.990|. The standard Euclidean norm would then
be the square root of the sum of squares of this vector, which is approximately sqrt(3838.694), or
61.957. To use the RMS we divide that by sqrt(4)=2, giving 30.976 for the TE norm. Note that the
TE norm for this val is approximately 31.

Periodic scale
Editar 0 51

Table of Contents
Definition

Rotations

Classes

Scale properties

Constant Structure

Propriety

Epimorphism

Myhill's property

Distributional evenness

Convexity

Maximal evenness

Numerical properties

See also
Definition
A periodic scale may be defined in mathematical language as a type of quasiperiodic function from
the integers to musical intervals; the integers in this case formalize the notion of "scale degrees."
Musical intervals may be written either additively or multiplicatively, and we will assume an additive
notation is used, and that intervals are given by positive or negative real numbers with values in
cents. In this case, a periodic scale s has a nonzero quasiperiod P and repetition
interval O satisfying the following conditions

(1) s[0]=0

(2) s[i+P]=s[i]+O

Scales written in the widely used Scala format are implicitly assumed to be periodic, with the
repetition interval equal to the last scale entry, and the period equal to the number of notes (on the
second line) of the scale. Informally, a periodic scale could be defined as the kind of scale a Scala
.scl file is intended to denote. Of course, since arbitrarily high and low pitches go beyond the range
of human hearing, this definition is a mathematical idealization, but it is much simpler to adopt the
idealization than to worry about that. Neither Scala nor the above definition assumes that the scales
are monotonically strictly increasing, but this condition, giving a monotone periodic scale, is often
important to add:

(3) i<j implies s[i]<s[j]

Rotations
By a rotation or mode of a periodic scale s is meant a scale r such that r[i] = s[i + N] - s[N],
where N is a fixed integer. Since s[i + P] - s[P] = s[i] there are only a finite number of rotations,
equal to the number of notes of the scale reduced to the range of the interval of equivalence, 0 s[i]
< O, which entails 0 i < P.

Classes
We may define an important function class(i) on the integers which gives the generic intervals of a
periodic scale. This is defined by s[j] - s[i] is in class(k) if j - i = k. Since s is quasiperiodic, class(nP)
consists only of {nO}, but the rest define sets of numbers in terms of which we can define some
important scale properties.

Scale properties
Constant Structure
If interval classes are disjoint, then the scale is a constant structure. In other words, constant
structure (a term coined by Erv Wilson) means that ij implies class(i) class(j) = . In academic
music theory, this is called the partitioning property.

Propriety
If s is monotone, and if i j implies every element in class(i) is less than or equal to every element
in class(j), then s is (Rothenberg) proper. If i < j implies every element in class(i) is strictly less than
every element in class(j), then s is strictly proper. In academic music theory circles, strict propriety is
most often called coherence. Note that strict propriety implies constant structure.

The set {s[i] | i} generates a group G, the group of the scale; this is a free, finitely generated
subgroup of the reals . The rank of the scale is the rank of G.

Epimorphism
If there exists a homomorphism h: G so that h(s[i]) = i, then s is weakly epimorphic with the
homomorphism h. If s is monotone and weakly epimorphic, it is epimorphic. An important special
case is where G is a JI group and h is a val. Epimorphic scales in this restricted sense were
apparently first considered by Yves Hellegouarch. The name comes from the fact that h is an
epimorphism onto .

Myhill's property
A monotone scale in which every class but classes nP have exactly two elements has Myhill's
property. If every such class has exactly three elements, it has the trivalence property. Myhill's
property is synonymous with strict MOS, though some authors prefer to identify MOS itself with
Myhill's property.

Distributional evenness
A monotone scale in which every class comes in exactly n elements is n-distributionally even, or n-
DE. If n=2, then we can simply say that it is distributionally even. Distributional evenness is also
synonymous with MOS, though some authors prefer a stricter definition of MOS identifying it with
Myhill's property.

Convexity
The scale is convex if every convex combination of notes, meaning every -linear combination of
scale notes, is a scale note. If the quasiperiod P is normalized so as to be positive and minimal, this
is equivalent to the condition that the equivalence classes of the notes modulo the repetition
interval O is a -polytope in the lattice defined by a basis for G mod O.

Maximal evenness
Maximally even scales of n notes in m edo are any mode of the sequence ME(n, m) = [floor(i*m/n) |
i=1..n], where the "floor" function rounds down to the nearest integer.

Numerical properties
Scale diversity
Lumma stability
See also
Scale properties simplified

Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].
And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:

1. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
2. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.
For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

1. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

1. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1


local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

1. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

1. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

1. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

1. convergent list for z

local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

1. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

1. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

1. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

1. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

1. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

1. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

1. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

1. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

1. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

1. inverse ? function
local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].

And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:
1. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
2. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.

For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

1. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

1. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

1. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

1. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

1. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

1. convergent list for z


local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

1. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

1. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

1. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

1. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

1. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

1. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

1. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

1. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

1. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

1. inverse ? function

local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

En el mbito de la msica, el microtonalismo es la msica que utiliza microtonos (los


intervalos musicales menores que un semitono). En la msica tradicional occidental, una
octava se divide en 12 semitonos iguales. En el microtonalismo se utilizan ms notas,
llamadas microtonos. El msico estadounidense Charles Ives defina a los microtonos de
manera humorstica como las notas entre las teclas del piano.
Muchos tericos contemporneos tratan de organizar la divisin de microtonos de tal manera
que se puedan relacionar meldicamente y armnicamente tal como los tonos utilizados en
el sistema dodecafnico. Segn algunos compositores, el microtono abrira nuevas puertas y
horizontes en el mundo de la msica contempornea.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Historia
o 1.1Musiclogos
o 1.2Msicos microtonales
2Instrumentos microtonales
3Msica experimental
4Teora
5Escalas microtonales y macrotonales
o 5.1Antiguas
o 5.2Occidentales
6Referencias
7Enlaces externos

Historia[editar]
La visin actual acerca del microtonalismo es que ha existido desde la antigedad en las
msicas no occidentales (india, rabe), en la msica griega (sistema enarmnico), en
la msica medieval (aunque esta afirmacin est sujeta a controversia), y en la msica
folclrica de algunas regiones europeas, aunque ms como accidente o teora, que como
prctica consciente.
Entre los antecedentes ms remotos que ahora se conocen, se menciona a Nicol
Vicentino y Vicente Lusitano, que a principios del periodo barroco (siglo XVI) polemizaron
acerca de revivir el sistema cromtico y enharmnico griego (basado en una divisin de la
escala en 31 partes, y no en 12 partes, como en el actual sistema tonal).
En el siglo XVII Christian Huygens propuso la divisin de la octava en 31 partes iguales
(sistema griego). El cannigo y fsico William Holder propuso dividirla en 53
sonidos. Chevpropuso una escala de 50 sonidos. Estos sistemas pretendan un
temperamento musical ms cercano a la teora acstica, sin embargo no fueron llevados a la
prctica.
Uno de los primeros autores en la historia en llevar a la prctica el microtonalismo, basado en
una teora que puede escribir microtonalismo en intervalos de 16avos, 32avos, 64avos y hasta
128avos de tono, fue Julin Carrillo quien en su experimento de 1895 opt por los 16avos de
tono aumentando a 96 sonidos por octava, actualmente su teora ya cumple 100 aos de ser
formulada y no ha tenido el xito del temperamento de 12, ni mucho menos un inters
acadmico de las escuelas y conservatorios que por lo general lo consideran un fracaso. Otro
es Alois Hba que fue el creador del sistema tonal basado en la utilizacin de cuartos y sextos
de tono de la msica occidental, desde el 1924 hasta el 1943 construy instrumentos
especiales y Compuso un nuevo lenguaje microtonal de un gran poder expresivo.

Musiclogos[editar]
Durante aos, los tericos del microtonalismo y de las afinaciones han trabajado y expuesto
sus investigaciones, y aunque la mayor parte de la msica contempornea sigue utilizando
un sistema temperado de 12 notas por octava, existen multitud de escalas tonales alternativas,
ms o menos depuradas, desde las basadas en nmeros primos, las basadas en los nmeros
de Fibonacci hasta Teoras basadas en la fsica y matemticas.
Msicos microtonales[editar]
A nivel terico y practico, con muchas composiciones experimentales se menciona a los
msicos:

18. Richard Heinrich Stein (Alemania, 1882-1942), quien construy un pequeo piano y un
clarinete para cuartos de tono y compuso dos piezas para violonchelo y piano en
cuartos de tono (1906).
19. Willi von Moellendorf (Alemania): construy un pequeo armonio de cuartos de tono y
compuso unas cuantas piezas en cuartos de tono.
20. Joerg Mager (Alemania): compuso algunos estudios en cuartos de tono).
21. Alois Hba (Checoslovaco): (Vizovice, 1893-Praga, 1973) Compositor y terico
musical checoslovaco. Defensor del microtonalismo, hizo construir instrumentos
especiales y compuso segn las reglas establecidas en su obra Nuevas reglas
armnicas del sistema diatnico y cromtico sobre terceras, cuartas, sextas y
duodcimas de tono (1927).1
22. Ivan A. Wyschnegradsky (Rusia, 18931979): En 1932 public un libro titulado
"Manuel dharmonie quarts de ton". Hizo construir un piano en cuartos de tono que
tena tres teclados.
23. Ferruccio Busoni (Italia): hizo algunos experimentos infructuosos en la adaptacin de
un piano de tercios de tono, y para no comprometer los medios tonos propuso una
serie doble de tercios de tono (es decir, sextos de tono).
24. Hans Barth, que compuso un Concierto para piano en cuartos de tono y
cuerdas (1930).
25. Julin Carrillo (Mxico 1875-1965) Construy 16 pianos, arpas, flautas, guitarras y
cellos capaces de generar cuartos, octavos y hasta dieciseisavos de tono. Grab en
Pars obras en cuartos y octavos de tono, ofreci conciertos en Nueva York, Filadelfia,
Paris y Mxico adems de desarrollar la Teora del Sonido 13.
26. Grard Grisey, junto con Tristan Murail fundaron el movimiento espectral francs, el
cual fue caraterizado por la generacin de verticalidades que derivan de intervalos del
espectro armnico natural del sonido, el cual contiene alturas microtonales que se
estrechan siempre mas a partir del dcimo armnico en adelante.
27. Valeri Brainin (1948), 29-escala.
28. Francisco Guerrero (Espaa 1951-1997), quizs el ms importante compositor espaol
de la segunda mitad del Siglo XX, trabaj con sistemas en los cuales la abundancia
de alturas microtonales deriva de complejas frmulas matemticas y concepciones
fractales de los gestos sonoros.
29. Charles Antonio Loli Antequera (Per 1975) basado en Inducciones matemticas, serie
de armnicos, y la octava pitagrica, resumi escalas en relacin a la armona para
sistemas microtonales de divisiones en partes iguales de la octava con
aproximaciones a la quinta de armnicos y su escritura en el
"Pentadecagrama"(sistema de 15 lneas paralelas en grupos de 5 para una escala
tonal de 17notas). Puso en prctica los sistemas microtonales mediante software de
msica.Su primera composicin microtonal fue realizado en EL Vienna con un sistema
de 20 sonidos por octava llamado "Bidecafonico", actualmente desarrolla la
aplicacinde de su propuesta terica con instrumentos microtonales en 17edo y
29edo. www.microtonalismo.com
30. Javier Torres Maldonado (Mxico 1968) ha retomado algunas de las ideas propuestas
por Grisey llevndolas, en algunas de sus obras, a momentos de consonancia y
disonancia espectral que dependen de la sobreposicin de fragmentos de espectros
construidos sobre diferentes fundamentales, as como de otros sistemas que superan
el origen espectral de estos conceptos, como la contraccin inarmnica o diferentes
tcnicas combinatorias de intervalos ms pequeos que el semitono cromtico.
31. Walter Mack (Argentina 1975) basado en frmulas matemticas cre escalas para
mltiples sistemas microtonales. Cre un instrumento en un sistema de tercios de
tonos, y un instrumento que combina el sistema de 12 notas con el de 18 notas.
32. Trey Spruance (California 1969).
33. Armando Nava Loya (Mxico 1957) Difusor de la teora musical llamada Sonido 13 con
el instrumento musical llamado "Arpa Microintervlica, nico instrumento en el mundo
capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas.
34. King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard (Australia, 2017) Banda de rock psicodlico que
empez a explorar en este sonido con una coleccin de 5 discos.

Instrumentos microtonales[editar]

La Moodswinger, una ctara elctrica con un tercer puenteadicional, Yuri Landman, 2006.

Para el surgimiento de instrumentos microtonales sirvieron de impulso algunos


instrumentos electroacsticos de los aos 1920 que salan del temperamento de 12 sonidos.
Algunos ejemplos de instrumentos microtonales son:

las Ondas Martenot (utilizadas posteriormente por Olivier Messiaen e Ivn


Wischnegradsky, entre otros),
el trautonium (utilizado por Paul Hindemith),
la ondolina,
el teremn,
la Moodswinger, de Yuri Landman,
el Arpa microintervlica, inventada por el mexicano Oscar Vargas Leal, nico instrumento
en el mundo capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas,
la dinarra, una guitarra dinmica microtonal, inventada por el uruguayo Eduardo Sbat-
Garibaldi,
la tetarra, guitarra microtonal inventada por el ecuatoriano Lucho Enrquez.
el trombn
Todos los instrumentos de cuerda que no estn divididos por trastes son capaces de
microtonalismo.

Msica experimental[editar]
Algunos msicos utilizaron los nuevos intervalos como enriquecimiento casual de la
composicin ms que como nuevos sistemas musicales, como el rumano George
Enescu(1881-1955) y el hngaro Bela Brtok (1881-1945). Pero el inters estaba tan presente
que en 1922 Alois Hba asisti a un Congreso Internacional de Compositores de Cuartos de
Tono y al ao siguiente daba clases de cuartos de tono en el conservatorio de Praga. Julin
Carrillo publica su Teora microtonal llamada "Sonido 13" en Nueva York hacia el ao 1916.
Posteriormente grab varias composiciones en Cuartos, Octavos y Dieciseisavos de Tono en
Pars, despus de varios conciertos realizados desde 1925. En el Per, el Compositor
nasqueo Miguel Oblitas Bustamante (1964), ha empleado microtonos en su Sinfona "Las
Pampas de Nasca" (1984), escrita para cantantes solistas, Coro, Antaras de cermica, Banda
militar y Orquesta Sinfnica.

Teora[editar]
A principios del siglo XX, los msicos empezaron a estudiar la posibilidad de ampliar la riqueza
del temperamento de doce sonidos empleando tercios y cuartos de tono, y este mismo inters
los llev a estudiar la msica india, rabe, eslovaca, rumana, hngara, as como a estudiar a
esos tericos del pasado para integrar a la msica occidental los nuevos intervalos.
Evidentemente el inters de los msicos del siglo XX y los de siglos anteriores era diferente:

En la antigedad, los intervalos surgan como el reflejo de un sistema diatnico


transportado a diversas alturas, o de las 53 comas de Pitgoras.
En el siglo XX los intervalos surgan de la divisin intencional de la octava no en 12
semitonos, sino en 18 tercios de tono, o 24 cuartos de tono (incluso unos aos despus se
inst a dividir la escala en 17, 19, 20, 22, 27 o cualquier nmero de partes
llamadas microtonos).
La bsqueda fue ardua, pues los nuevos intervalos requeran

una notacin diferente,


instrumentos temperados (como el piano o la guitarra) que los produjeran y sirvieran de
gua a los no temperados (como violines y violonchelos) para la afinacin exacta,
nuevas reglas de armona y contrapunto y
la revisin de los fundamentos tericos del sistema de doce sonidos.
Los msicos que se ocuparon del asunto fueron muchos, algunos se conformaron con
especulaciones tericas, otros con unos cuantos ejercicios en instrumentos adaptados para tal
fin, y unos cuantos llevaron al lmite sus intentos construyendo nuevos instrumentos, creando
una nueva teora musical para microintervalos, componiendo una buena cantidad de obras y
presentndolas en conciertos.

Escalas microtonales y macrotonales[editar]


Antiguas[editar]
Algunas escalas tradicionales que no utilizan 12 semitonos por octava:

Escala javanesa Slendro tradicional, de 5 tonos.


Escala siamesa tradicional, de 7 tonos.
Raga Shruti, de 22 tonos (India).
Escala tailandesa tradicional, de 8 tonos.
Escala Nasca investigada por Miguel Oblitas Bustamante.
Lu, de 12 notas (en la Era Han, China).
Escala Persa de 17 tonos.
Escala Iraq Enarmnica de 8 tonos.
Occidentales[editar]
Estas son algunas de las escalas desarrolladas por importantes tericos o msicos:

Kimberger I, Kimberger II y Kimberger III (Johann Philipp Kirnberger), que son


temperamentos histricos parientes del mesotnico.
Sistema Euler Genos o Euler-Fokker Genera / Escala Octony (Leonhard Euler).
Escala modal de 9 tonos (Max Mreaux).
Escala de 29 tonos (Valeri Brainin).
Escala de 43 tonos (Harry Partch).
Escalas de Ervin M. Wilson:
Hexany, de 6 tonos.
Eikosany, de 20 tonos.
Dekatesserany, de 14 tonos.
Escala de 53 tonos (Larry Hanson).
Escala de 96 tonos, "Sonido 13" (Julin Carrillo).
Escala de 19 tonos (Joseph Yasser).
Escala de 23 tonos (Yuri Landman, Moodswinger).
Escalas prximas a quintas mltiplos de 12, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41, 53, propuesta terica de -
"Armona microtonal inductiva alfa edo" (Charles Loli).

Charles Edward Ives (Danbury, 20 de octubre de 1874 Nueva York, 19 de mayo de 1954)
fue un compositor estadounidense de msica clsica, reconocido como uno de los primeros de
trascendencia internacional.
La msica de Ives fue prcticamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras
permanecieron sin tocarse durante muchos aos. Con el tiempo, Ives llegara a ser
considerado como uno de los American Originals, un compositor que adopt un estilo
americano nico, con tonadas folclricas estadounidenses tejidas a largo de todas sus
composiciones, y una inquieta bsqueda por las posibilidades musicales. Sus obras ms
conocidas son La pregunta sin respuesta para orquesta y Sonata "Concord" para piano.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Biografa
2La msica de Ives
3Recepcin
4Lista de obras selectas
5Vase tambin
6Referencias
7Bibliografa
8Enlaces externos

Biografa[editar]
Sus padres fueron George Ives, un director de banda del Ejrcito de los Estados
Unidos durante la guerra civil estadounidense, y Mollie. Una experiencia significativa para
Charles durante su infancia fue el asistir a las festividades locales, en las que por las calles de
su ciudad la banda de su padre y otras bandas tocaban simultneamente, hecho recogido en
su composicin Three Places in New England, entre otras. Las nicas lecciones musicales
que recibi de su padre tambin tuvieron una gran importancia; George Ives tena una visin
muy abierta respecto de la teora musical, y animaba a su hijo a experimentar
en armonizacionesbitonales y politonales. De modo que Charles frecuentemente poda cantar
una meloda en una tonalidad, mientras su padre lo acompaaba en otra. Fue de la mano de
su padre que Charles tambin conoci la msica de Stephen Foster.1 Ives lleg a
ser organista de iglesia a los 14 aos y escribi varios himnos y canciones para los servicios
eclesiales, entre ellos sus Variations on "America" (Variaciones sobre "America").2
Ives se traslad a New Haven en 1893, gradundose en la Escuela Hopkins. Luego, en
septiembre de 1894, acudi a la Universidad de Yale, para estudiar con Horatio Parker. Aqu
compuso en un estilo coral semejante al de su maestro, escribiendo msica religiosa e incluso
en 1896 hizo una cancin para la campaa presidencial de William McKinley.3 El 4 de
noviembre de 1894 el padre de Charles muri, lo que signific un duro golpe para el
compositor, que haba idealizado a su padre, y de quien en cierta manera recogi la semilla de
la experimentacin musical comenzada por l.2 Ives emprendi el curso estndar en Yale,
llevando una extensa nmina de cursos, entre ellos griego, latn, matemticas y literatura. Fue
miembro de Delta Kappa Epsilon y de Wolf's Head, y presidente del Ivy Committee.3 Sus
obras Calcium Light Night y Yale-Princeton Football Game muestran la influencia que tuvo el
college en sus composiciones. Su Sinfona n. 1 la escribi como su tesis principal bajo la
supervisin de Parker.3

Ives alrededor de 1899.

En 1898, despus de su graduacin en Yale, acept un puesto de $5 semanales


como actuario en la Mutual Life Insurance Company de Nueva York, y se traslad a un
apartamento de soltero con varios amigos. Continu su trabajo como organista de iglesia
hasta 1906. En 1899 se cambi de empleo a la agencia Charles H. Raymond & Co., donde
permaneci hasta 1906. En 1907, despus de la quiebra de Raymond & Co., junto a su amigo
Julian W. Myrick formaron su propia agencia de seguros Ives & Co., que posteriormente se
convertira en Ives & Myrick, donde permaneci hasta su retiro.4 En su tiempo libre compona
y, hasta su matrimonio, trabaj como organista en Danbury y New Haven adems de
en Bloomfield, Nueva Jersey y Nueva York.3 En 1907, Ives sufri el primero de varios "ataques
cardiacos" (como l y su familia los consideraron) que tendra en los aos siguientes. Estos
ataques pueden haber sido ms de origen psicolgico que fsico. Al recuperarse de su ataque
de 1907, Ives entr en uno de los periodos ms creativos de su vida como compositor.
Despus de casarse con Harmony Twitchell en 1908,4 se trasladaron a su propio apartamento
en Nueva York. Tuvo un remarcable xito en su carrera como asegurador, y continu siendo
un prolfico compositor hasta que sufri otro de sus varios ataques al corazn en 1918,
despus del cual compuso muy poco, escribiendo su ltima obra, la cancin Sunrise, en
agosto de 1926.4 En 1922, Ives public sus 114 Songs que reflejan toda la amplitud de su
obra como compositor -- contiene canciones artsticas, canciones que compuso durante
su adolescencia y juventud, y canciones muy disonantes como The Majority.4
De acuerdo con su esposa, un da a inicios de 1927, mientras bajaba las escaleras de su casa
con lgrimas en los ojos, le dijo que ya no poda componer ms, "ya nada me suena bien". Ha
habido numerosas y avanzadas teoras para comprender el silencio de sus ltimos aos, que
parecen tan misteriosos como las ltimas dcadas de la vida de otro compositor,
el finlands Jean Sibelius, quien tambin dej de componer alrededor por el mismo tiempo. Si
bien Ives dej de componer, y fue cada vez ms afectado por sus problemas de salud,
continu revisando y refinando sus obras anteriores, adems de planificar los estrenos de su
msica.4 Despus de continuar sus problemas de salud, entre ellos la diabetes, en 1930 se
retir de su negocio de seguros, lo que le dio ms tiempo para dedicarse a su obra musical,
pero no fue capaz de componer nueva msica. Durantes los aos 1940 revis su Sonata
Concord, publicndola junto al volumen de prosas, Essays Before a Sonata en 1947.5
Ives muri en 1954 en Nueva York.

La msica de Ives[editar]
Ives fue educado en Yale, y su Sinfona n. 1 muestra su acogimiento a las frmulas
acadmicas requeridas para escribir en forma Sonata a fines del siglo XIX, as como un fulgor
iconoclasta, con un segundo tema que implica un direccin armnica distinta. Su padre era
director de banda, y como sucedi con Hector Berlioz, Ives tena una fascinacin por la msica
al aire libre y por la instrumentacin. Sus tentativas de fundir estos dos pilares musicales, y su
devocin por Beethoven, fijaran la direccin de su vida musical.
Ives public una gran coleccin de sus canciones, muchas de las cuales tenan
partes piansticas que recogen varios de los movimientos modernistas que se iniciaban
en Europa, entre ellos la bitonalidad y la pantonalidad. l era un dotado pianista, capaz
de improvisar en una gran variedad de estilos, incluyendo los que entonces eran
absolutamente nuevos. Aunque ahora es mejor conocido por su msica orquestal, compuso
dos cuartetos de cuerda y varias obras de msica de cmara. Su trabajo como organista lo
llev a escribir Variaciones sobre "Amrica" en 1891, que estrenara en un recital de
celebracin por el 4 de julio. Esta obra toma la meloda del himno nacional del Reino
Unido God Save the Queen, para una serie de variaciones bastante estndares pero
ingeniosas. Una de las variaciones es al estilo de una polonesa mientras que otra, agregada
aos despus de terminada la composicin original de la obra, es probablemente el primer uso
de la bitonalidad de Ives. William Schuman hizo un arreglo para orquesta de esta obra
en 1964 (vase [1]).
Ives compuso dos sinfonas, pero fue con The Unanswered Question (La pregunta sin
respuesta, 1908), escrita para la combinacin muy inusual de trompeta,
cuatro flautas y cuarteto de cuerda, que cre un maduro mundo sonoro que se convertira en
su estilo personal. Las cuerdas (ubicadas fuera de escena) tocan muy suavemente una
msica como de coral a lo largo de la obra, mientras que la trompeta (colocada detrs del
auditorio) toca varias veces un breve motivo que Ives describi como "la Eterna Pregunta de la
Existencia". Cada vez que la trompeta pregunta, recibe la respuesta de un estridente ataque
de las flautas (en escena), menos en la ltima, por ello el ttulo. La obra es tpica de Ives
yuxtapone varios elementos dispares, que aparecen conducidos por una narrativa de la que
nunca terminamos de estar conscientes, y es muy misteriosa. Posteriormente escribi una
versin orquestal que se convertira en una de sus obras ms populares.6
Obras como The Unanswered Question estuvieron ciertamente influidas por los
escritores trascendentalistas de Nueva Inglaterra, Ralph Waldo Emerson y Henry David
Thoreau.4 stos tuvieron una influencia muy importante para Ives, como lo reconoci en
su Sonata para piano n. 2: Concord, Mass., 184060 (190915), que describi como una
"impresin del espritu del trascendentalismo que est asociada en las mentes de muchos
con Concord, Mass., hace ms de medio siglo... recogidas en las imgenes impresionistas de
Emerson y Thoreau, un esbozo de los Alcotts, y un scherzo que supuestamente ha de reflejar
una ligera cualidad que a menudo se encuentra en el lado fantstico de Hawthorne."
La sonata es posiblemente la obra para piano solo ms conocida de Ives (aunque debera
observarse que tiene partes opcionales para viola y flauta). Rtmicamente y armnicamente,
es tpicamente aventurada, y demuestra el cario de Ives por las citas en varios momentos
aparece el motivo inicial de la Sinfona n. 5 de Beethoven. Tambin contiene algunos de los
ejemplos ms asombrosos de experimentalismo de Ives: en el segundo movimiento, ordena al
pianista que use una barra de madera de 14 pulgadas (37.5 cm) para producir un
gran clster.
Quizs la obra orquestal ms destacable de Ives sea su Sinfona n. 4 (191016). La lista de
fuerzas requerida para interpretar slo esta obra es extraordinaria; adems de una
inmensa orquesta sinfnica, la obra requiere una gran seccin de percusin, dos pianos (uno
afinado a un cuarto de tono del otro), un rgano, un grupo adicional de cuerdas a la distancia,
un gran coro, tres saxofones opcionales y finalmente un "rgano etreo" (no est muy claro a
qu se refera Ives con l, pero generalmente son usados un theremn o un sintetizador). El
programa de la obra recuerda al de The Unanswered Question Ives dijo que la obra es "una
pregunta que indaga sobre el 'Qu' y el 'Por qu' que el espritu humano pide de la vida". El
uso de la cita es tambin frecuente, y no se queda corta en efectos novedosos. Por ejemplo,
en el segundo movimiento, un tremolando es tocado por toda la orquesta. En el movimiento
final, hay una suerte de "lucha musical" entre sonidos discordantes y la msica tonal ms
tradicional. Eventualmente entra un coro sin palabras, el modo se hace ms calmado, y la
obra termina tranquilamente con la percusin sola tocando.
La sinfona no fue interpretada por completo hasta 1965, casi 50 aos despus de haber sido
terminada, 11 aos despus de la muerte del compositor.
Ives abandonara el material para su inconclusa Sinfona del Universo, que fue incapaz de unir
en vida pese a dos dcadas de trabajo. Esto se debi tanto a sus problemas de salud como a
su cambiante concepcin de la obra. Ha habido varios intentos de terminarla o realizar una
versin interpretable. Sin embargo, ninguna ha encontrado el modo de recibir una
interpretacin general.7 La sinfona toma las ideas de la Sinfona n. 4 pero en un nivel ms
elevado, con complejos ritmos cruzados, difciles capas de disonancias y combinaciones
inusuales de instrumentos.
Entre las obras de cmara de Ives est el Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2, donde las partes estn a
menudo escritas en los extremos del contrapunto, desde angulosas disonancias en el
movimiento titulado "Arguments" a lo trascendentalmente lento. Este rango por los extremos
es frecuente en la msica de Ives el fragor y la disonancia machacadoras con la quietud
lrica y conducido en una relacin de secciones que se van deslizando dentro y fuera de s
unas con otras. El idioma de Ives, como el de Mahler, emplea lneas meldicas bastante
independientes. Se considera difcil de tocar debido a que muchas de las tpicas seales para
los intrpretes no estn presentes. Esta obra tuvo una clara influencia sobre el Cuarteto de
cuerda n. 2 de Elliott Carter, que es similarmente una conversacin teatral a 4 voces.
Recepcin[editar]
La msica de Ives fue largamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras se
mantuvieron sin tocar por muchos aos. Su tendencia a la experimentacin y su uso cada vez
mayor de la disonancia no fue tomado a bien en el ambiente musical de su poca. Las
dificultades para ejecutar las complejidades rtmicas en sus principales obras orquestales las
convirtieron en desafos intimidantes incluso dcadas despus de haber sido compuestas.
Una de las palabras ms mordaces que se podra usar para describir la msica desde el punto
de vista de Ives es "bonita", y su famoso comentario "Usen sus odos como gente!" (use your
ears like men!) parece indicar que no se preocupaba por la recepcin de su msica. Sin
embargo, por el contrario, Ives estuvo interesado por la recepcin del pblico, pero en sus
propios trminos.
Entre los tempranos partidarios de su msica estuvieron Henry Cowell y Elliott Carter. Invitado
por Cowell a participar en su peridico New Music, un substancial nmero de partituras de
Ives fueron publicadas en el diario, pero durante alrededor de 40 aos tuvo pocas
interpretaciones que no pudo acordar o repetir, generalmente con Nicolas
Slonimskycomo director de orquesta.5
Su oscuridad empez a levantarse un poco por los aos 1940, cuando conoci a Lou
Harrison, un fan de su msica que comenz a editarla y a promoverla. Harrison dirigi muy
notablemente el estreno de la Sinfona n. 3 (1904) en 1946.8 Al ao siguiente, por esta obra
Ives obtuvo el Premio Pulitzer. Sin embargo, Ives se deshizo del premio monetario (la mitad se
lo dio a Harrison), diciendo que "los premios son para los chiquillos, y yo ya estoy grande"
(prizes are for boys, and I'm all grown up). Leopold Stokowski consigui no mucho despus
la Sinfona n. 4, y la consider como "el corazn del problema de Ives".
Por esta poca, Ives tambin fue promovido por Bernard Herrmann que trabajaba entonces
como director en la CBS, y que en 1940 se convirti en el director principal de la Orquesta
Sinfnica de la CBS. Mientras estuvo ah, fue defensor de la msica de Charles Ives.
El reconocimiento de la msica de Ives ha mejorado. Encontrara alabanzas de Arnold
Schoenberg, quien lo consider un monumento a la integridad artstica (vase Citas debajo), y
de la Escuela de Nueva York de William Schuman. En el presente, Michael Tilson Thomas es
un entusiasta exponente de las sinfonas de Ives como lo es el musiclogo Jan Swafford. La
obra de Ives es regularmente programada en Europa. Ives tambin ha inspirado a pintores,
notablemente a Eduardo Paolozzi quien titul una de sus colecciones de impresiones por
los aos 1970 Calcium Light Night, y cada una de ellas fue nombrada con una obra de Ives,
(entre ellas Central Park in the Dark).
Al mismo tiempo, Ives no est con sus crticos. Mucha gente an encuentra su msica
rimbombante y pomposa. Otras la encuentran, bastante extrao, tmida debido a que el sonido
fundamental de la msica tradicional europea an est presente en sus obras. El que fuese
una vez su partidario Elliott Carter ha considerado a la obra de Ives incompleta.

Lista de obras selectas[editar]


Nota: Debido a que Ives realiz con frecuencia distintas versiones de una misma obra, y
debido a que su obra fue generalmente ignorada durante su vida, a menudo es difcil colocar
una datacin exacta a sus composiciones. Los aos ofrecidos aqu son a veces las ms
probables. Hay incluso quienes especulan que Ives cambi intencionalmente las fechas de
sus propias obras, para indicar que eran ms tempranas o ms tardas de lo que originalmente
fueron.

Variaciones sobre "America" para rgano (1891)


Cuarteto de cuerda n. 1, "From the Salvation Army" (1896)
Sinfona n. 1 en Re menor (189698)
Sinfona n. 2 (18971901)
Sinfona n. 3, "The Camp Meeting" (190104)
Central Park in the Dark para orquesta de cmara (18981907)
The Unanswered Question para grupo de cmara (1908)
Sonata para violn n. 1 (190308)
Sonata para piano n. 1 (190209)
Sonata para violn n. 2 (190210)
Robert Browning Overture (1911)
A Symphony: New England Holidays (190413)
Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2 (190713)
Tro para piano (c190910, rev. c191415)
Set Orquestal n. 1: Three Places in New England (190321)
Sonata para violn n. 3 (1914)
Sonata para piano n. 2, "Concord, Mass., 184060" (190915) (revisada muchas veces
por Ives)
Set Orquestal n. 2 (191215)
Sonata para violn n. 4 "Children's Day at the Camp Meeting" (191215)
Sinfona n. 4 (191016)
Universe symphony (inconclusa, 191116, trabaj en la sinfona hasta su muerte en 1954)
114 Songs (compuestas en varios aos entre 1887 y 1921, publicadas en 1922.)
Tres piezas en cuartos de tono para piano (192324)
Old Home Days (para banda/ensamble, arreglos de Jonathan Elkus)

Ervin Wilson (June 11, 1928 December 8, 2016[1]) was a Mexican/American (dual
citizen) music theorist.

Contents
[hide]

1Early life
2Works
3Musicians influenced by Wilson
4References
5External links

Early life[edit]
Ervin Wilson was born in a remote area of northwest Chihuahua, Mexico, where he lived until
the age of fifteen. His mother taught him to play the reed organ and to read musical notation.
He began to compose at an early age, but immediately discovered that some of the sounds he
was hearing mentally could not be reproduced by the conventional intervals of the organ. As a
teenager he began to read books on Indian music, developing an interest in concepts of raga.
While he was in the Air Force in Japan, a chance meeting with a total stranger introduced him
to musical harmonics, which changed the course of his life and work. Influenced by the work
of Joseph Yasser, Wilson began to think of the musical scale as a living processlike a crystal
or plant. He has been mentor to many composers and instrument builders.
Works[edit]
Despite his avoidance of academia, Wilson has been influential on those interested
in microtonal music and just intonation, especially in the areas of scale, keyboard, and notation
design. Among his developments are Moments of Symmetry,[2][3] Combination Product
Sets,[4] Golden Horograms, scales based on recurrence relations (scales of "Mt. Meru"), and
mapping scales to the generalized keyboard. He cites Augusto Novaro and Joseph Yasser as
influences. Wilson built instruments and explored the resources of 31 and 41 equal divisions of
the octave. He supported the work of Harry Partch, helped build the Quadrangularis
Reversum,[5] and provided diagrams for Partch's book Genesis of a Music.
The goal of his research with scales is to make them musically accessible to the composer and
the listener. "I sculpt in the architecture of the scale. Other people come along and animate
it." [6]

Musicians influenced by Wilson[edit]


Warren Burt
Gary David
Kraig Grady[6]
Terumi Narushima
Rod Poole
Glen Prior
Paul Rapoport
Emil Richards
Marcus Satellite
Greg Schiemer
Ron Sword
Stephen James Taylor[7]
Daniel James Wolf

A p-limit rational number q can by definition be factored into primes of size less than or equal to p,
giving
q=2e23e35e5pep
where the exponents are integers (positive, negative, or zero.) This is often written in ket
vector (wp) notation as
|e2e3e5ep
in which case it is called a monzo, where the name refers to the enthusiastic advocacy of Joe
Monzo.

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|e2e3ep=|e2|+|e3|log23++|ep|log2p

which is a vector space norm; hence we may embed the p-limit monzos into a normed vector I
space of dimension n = (p) via a map M:monzos I. The monzos under this embedding now
define a lattice, which is a discrete subgroup spanning the finite dimensional real normed vector
space I. If we change coordinates by multiplying values in the coordinate belonging to the prime k
by log2(k), then the norm becomes the standard L1 norm. This vector space is Tenney interval
space, and the transformed coordinates with the standard L1 norm form the standard basis for
Tenney space. It should be noted that while monzos correspond uniquely to positive real numbers
(always rational numbers in the case of monzos), vectors in Tenney space do not. For instance,
while |1 0> represents 2, so does |0 log3(2)>.

Because of the mathematical advantages of Euclidean norms, a Euclidean norm is often placed on
the vectors in interval space instead of an L1 norm, in which case we have Tenney-Euclidean
interval space instead of Tenney interval space. Explicitly, if we take the monzo |e2 e3 ... ep> then
the Tenney-Euclidean norm, or TE norm, of it is
e22+(e3log23)2++(eplog2p)2
and if the coordinates are the weighted interval space coordinates, then the TE norm is
the standard Euclidean, or L2, norm.

Alternate Definition:
Given a rational number q, we can rewrite it in monzo form by the following definition:
q=|v2(q)v3(q)v5(q)vp(q)

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|v2(q)v3(q)vp(q)=|v2(q)|+|v3(q)|log23++|vp(q)|log2p

Where vp(q) is the p-adic valuation of q.

Example:
The 5-limit interval 16/15 factors as 2^4 3^(-1) 5^(-1), so it has a monzo representation of |4 -1 -1>.
In weighted coordinates, that becomes |4 -log2(3) -log2(5)>, approximately |4 -1.585 -2.322>.
The TE norm is therefore
(42+log2(3)2+log2(5)2)23.9034.889.

see also Fractional monzos, Vals and Tuning Space...


Vals and Tuning Space
Editar 4 47

Deutsch -

Definition | Vals and Monzos | Example

Definition
A val "maps" just intonation to a certain number of steps in a chain of generators; by putting vals
together we can define the mapping of a regular temperament and thereby define the temperament.
A val is written in the form <a1 a2 a3 ... ak|, where the numbers a1 a2 a3 ... are the number of steps
along the chain that the first k primes are mapped to. This can be generalized so that a1 a2 a3 ...
represent the number of steps any JI basis is mapped to, whereas a JI basis for a just intonation
subgroup is an independent collection of just intonation intervals, meaning that no one of them is a
product of the rest.

A rank r temperament has r generators, and thus is defined by r vals. In the usual coordinates for
the p-limit, the set of generators are the first k prime numbers and the set of vals for a p-limit
temperament gives you the coordinates for each prime harmonic in the p-limit. For example, all 5-
limit rank-1 temperaments, or equal temperaments, will be defined by a val <a b c|, where a is the
number of generators it takes to reach the 2nd harmonic (2/1), b is the number of generators to
reach the 3rd harmonic (3/1), and c is the number of generators it takes to reach the 5th harmonic
(5/1). All 5-limit rank-2 temperaments are defined by two vals: |<a1 b1 c1|, <a2 b2 c2|>. Now, we
locate the 2nd harmonic (2/1) with the 2-dimensional coordinates (a1, a2), sometimes written as |a1
a2>, meaning go up a1 of the first generator, and up a2 of the 2nd generator, to reach 2/1.
Similarly, the 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic will be reached by |b1 b2> and |c1 c2> respectively.

As an example, consider meantone temperament, where 81/80 vanishes. Meantone can be


considered a 5-limit rank-2 temperament, defined by the two-val mapping |<1 1 0|, <0 1 4|>. This
tells us just about everything we need to know about how the 5-limit is mapped in meantone: since
2/1 is mapped |1 0>, that tells us that the first generator is a 2/1, and since 3/1 is mapped to |1 1>,
that tells us that the 2nd generator is a 3/2; then, since 5/1 is mapped to |0 4>, aka four 3/2s up,
that tells us that 81/64 (which is (3/2)^4) equals 5/1 (which is 80/64). Since 81/64 is equated with
80/64 here, that tells us that 81/80 is tempered out! Thus it is possible to derive from the mapping
the approximate size of the two generators, the commas that are tempered out, and roughly the
complexity of the temperament (the number of notes of the temperament we need to reach all the
prime harmonics in the p-limit). This makes the val an extremely compact and useful bit of notation
for describing regular temperaments, since we can readily find where all of the primes are mapped
along the temperament's chain of generators essentially at a glance.

Whenever one of the generators of a temperament is a 2/1 the key information is carried by the
other vals, assuming octave equivalence (i.e. 3/1=3/2=6/1 etc). Thus the essential character of 5-
limit meantone is defined by a single val (the one for the 3/2 generator), written <0 1 4|.

Defintion for mathematicians


The p-limit monzos M form a free abelian group, or -module, of finite rank pi(p), which is the
number of primes up to and including p. The dual -module M* is isomorphic to M, but not in a
canonical way. Hence it, the group (Z-module) of vals, is also a free abelian group of rank pi(p).
Just as monzos are often written as kets, vals are typically written as bras. Vals are
homomorphisms from a subgroup of finite rank of *, the abelian group of the positive rational
numbers under multiplication, to the integers . The number theorist Yves Hellegouarch seems to
have been the first to write about them, under the name "degrees".

Vals and Monzos


If V is a val and M is a monzo of the same rank, then the angle bracket <V|M>, which can also be
written V(M), is the result of applying the homomorphism V to M. For example, if V = <12 19 28 34|
and M = |-5 2 2 -1> then <V|M> equals 12*(-5) + 19*2 + 28*2 - 34 = 0

This tells us that in septimal 12 equal, represented by V, the interval 225/224, represented by M, is
mapped to 0, which represents 1. Hence, 225/224 vanishes in septimal 12 equal; it is in
the kernel of V. One should note in particular that the coordinates of V represent where the
successive primes 2, 3, 5 and 7 are mapped.

By embedding the monzos into a suitable vector space, norms may be placed on the monzos in
various ways, turning them into lattices in a vector space. Given a vector space norm on a space of
ket vectors, the dual vector space norm on the space of bra vectors is defined as the least quantity
||V|| making

|<V|M>| ||V|| ||M||

to be always true. The dual of the L1 norm is the Linfty norm, and the dual space of Tenney interval
space is Tenney tuning space. The embedding of monzos into a real normed vector space
automatically induces a dual embedding of vals into a corresponding normed vector space, tuning
space, in which vals are lattice points. The dual norm to the L2 norm is the L2 norm, and the dual
space to Tenney-Euclidean interval space is Tenney-Euclidean tuning space. The Euclidean norm
on a val v is given by

\displaystyle
||v|| = \sqrt{\left({\frac{v_2}{log_2(2)}\right)^2 + \left({\frac{v_3}{log_2(3)}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{v_5}{log_2(5)}\righ
t)^2 + ... + \left(\frac{v_p}{log_2(p)}\right)^2
%original was ||v|| = sqrt(v2^2 + (v3/log2(3))^2 + ... + (vp/log2(p))^2)

It useful to renormalize to the RMS (root mean square) instead, which requires dividing the above
by sqrt(n), where n = pi(p) is the number of primes up to p. This is the TE, or Tenney-Euclidean,
norm.

It should be noted that despite the name, only vectors in a small region of tuning space can
reasonably be considered to be tunings. These are the points in tuning space close to the JI point,
or JIP, which in weighted coordinates is <1 1 1 ... 1|. It has the property that if M is a monzo in
weighted coordinates, then <JIP|M>, or JIP(M) if you prefer, is exactly the log base two of the
interval M represents, hence the name. In unweighted coordinates, JIP = <1 log2(3) ... log2(p)|, and
applied to a monzo this gives the log base two of the corresponding interval.
Example
The rank-1 7-limit patent val corresponding to 31edo is <31 49 72 87|. This tells us that 31 steps
reaches the 2, approximately 49 the 3, 72 the 5, and 87 the 7. In weighted coordinates, it becomes

3149log2(3)72log2(5)87log2(7)

which is approximately <31.000 30.916 31.009 30.990|. The standard Euclidean norm would then
be the square root of the sum of squares of this vector, which is approximately sqrt(3838.694), or
61.957. To use the RMS we divide that by sqrt(4)=2, giving 30.976 for the TE norm. Note that the
TE norm for this val is approximately 31.

Periodic scale
Editar 0 51

Table of Contents
Definition

Rotations

Classes

Scale properties

Constant Structure

Propriety

Epimorphism

Myhill's property

Distributional evenness

Convexity

Maximal evenness

Numerical properties

See also

Definition
A periodic scale may be defined in mathematical language as a type of quasiperiodic function from
the integers to musical intervals; the integers in this case formalize the notion of "scale degrees."
Musical intervals may be written either additively or multiplicatively, and we will assume an additive
notation is used, and that intervals are given by positive or negative real numbers with values in
cents. In this case, a periodic scale s has a nonzero quasiperiod P and repetition
interval O satisfying the following conditions

(1) s[0]=0

(2) s[i+P]=s[i]+O

Scales written in the widely used Scala format are implicitly assumed to be periodic, with the
repetition interval equal to the last scale entry, and the period equal to the number of notes (on the
second line) of the scale. Informally, a periodic scale could be defined as the kind of scale a Scala
.scl file is intended to denote. Of course, since arbitrarily high and low pitches go beyond the range
of human hearing, this definition is a mathematical idealization, but it is much simpler to adopt the
idealization than to worry about that. Neither Scala nor the above definition assumes that the scales
are monotonically strictly increasing, but this condition, giving a monotone periodic scale, is often
important to add:

(3) i<j implies s[i]<s[j]

Rotations
By a rotation or mode of a periodic scale s is meant a scale r such that r[i] = s[i + N] - s[N],
where N is a fixed integer. Since s[i + P] - s[P] = s[i] there are only a finite number of rotations,
equal to the number of notes of the scale reduced to the range of the interval of equivalence, 0 s[i]
< O, which entails 0 i < P.

Classes
We may define an important function class(i) on the integers which gives the generic intervals of a
periodic scale. This is defined by s[j] - s[i] is in class(k) if j - i = k. Since s is quasiperiodic, class(nP)
consists only of {nO}, but the rest define sets of numbers in terms of which we can define some
important scale properties.

Scale properties
Constant Structure
If interval classes are disjoint, then the scale is a constant structure. In other words, constant
structure (a term coined by Erv Wilson) means that ij implies class(i) class(j) = . In academic
music theory, this is called the partitioning property.

Propriety
If s is monotone, and if i j implies every element in class(i) is less than or equal to every element
in class(j), then s is (Rothenberg) proper. If i < j implies every element in class(i) is strictly less than
every element in class(j), then s is strictly proper. In academic music theory circles, strict propriety is
most often called coherence. Note that strict propriety implies constant structure.

The set {s[i] | i} generates a group G, the group of the scale; this is a free, finitely generated
subgroup of the reals . The rank of the scale is the rank of G.
Epimorphism
If there exists a homomorphism h: G so that h(s[i]) = i, then s is weakly epimorphic with the
homomorphism h. If s is monotone and weakly epimorphic, it is epimorphic. An important special
case is where G is a JI group and h is a val. Epimorphic scales in this restricted sense were
apparently first considered by Yves Hellegouarch. The name comes from the fact that h is an
epimorphism onto .

Myhill's property
A monotone scale in which every class but classes nP have exactly two elements has Myhill's
property. If every such class has exactly three elements, it has the trivalence property. Myhill's
property is synonymous with strict MOS, though some authors prefer to identify MOS itself with
Myhill's property.

Distributional evenness
A monotone scale in which every class comes in exactly n elements is n-distributionally even, or n-
DE. If n=2, then we can simply say that it is distributionally even. Distributional evenness is also
synonymous with MOS, though some authors prefer a stricter definition of MOS identifying it with
Myhill's property.

Convexity
The scale is convex if every convex combination of notes, meaning every -linear combination of
scale notes, is a scale note. If the quasiperiod P is normalized so as to be positive and minimal, this
is equivalent to the condition that the equivalence classes of the notes modulo the repetition
interval O is a -polytope in the lattice defined by a basis for G mod O.

Maximal evenness
Maximally even scales of n notes in m edo are any mode of the sequence ME(n, m) = [floor(i*m/n) |
i=1..n], where the "floor" function rounds down to the nearest integer.

Numerical properties
Scale diversity
Lumma stability

See also
Scale properties simplified
Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].
And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:

3. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
4. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.
For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

2. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

2. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1


local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

2. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

2. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

2. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

2. convergent list for z

local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

2. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

2. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

2. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

2. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

2. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

2. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

2. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

2. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

2. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

2. inverse ? function
local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].

And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:
3. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
4. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.

For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

2. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

2. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

2. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

2. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

2. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

2. convergent list for z


local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

2. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

2. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

2. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

2. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

2. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

2. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

2. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

2. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

2. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

2. inverse ? function

local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

En el mbito de la msica, el microtonalismo es la msica que utiliza microtonos (los


intervalos musicales menores que un semitono). En la msica tradicional occidental, una
octava se divide en 12 semitonos iguales. En el microtonalismo se utilizan ms notas,
llamadas microtonos. El msico estadounidense Charles Ives defina a los microtonos de
manera humorstica como las notas entre las teclas del piano.
Muchos tericos contemporneos tratan de organizar la divisin de microtonos de tal manera
que se puedan relacionar meldicamente y armnicamente tal como los tonos utilizados en
el sistema dodecafnico. Segn algunos compositores, el microtono abrira nuevas puertas y
horizontes en el mundo de la msica contempornea.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Historia
o 1.1Musiclogos
o 1.2Msicos microtonales
2Instrumentos microtonales
3Msica experimental
4Teora
5Escalas microtonales y macrotonales
o 5.1Antiguas
o 5.2Occidentales
6Referencias
7Enlaces externos

Historia[editar]
La visin actual acerca del microtonalismo es que ha existido desde la antigedad en las
msicas no occidentales (india, rabe), en la msica griega (sistema enarmnico), en
la msica medieval (aunque esta afirmacin est sujeta a controversia), y en la msica
folclrica de algunas regiones europeas, aunque ms como accidente o teora, que como
prctica consciente.
Entre los antecedentes ms remotos que ahora se conocen, se menciona a Nicol
Vicentino y Vicente Lusitano, que a principios del periodo barroco (siglo XVI) polemizaron
acerca de revivir el sistema cromtico y enharmnico griego (basado en una divisin de la
escala en 31 partes, y no en 12 partes, como en el actual sistema tonal).
En el siglo XVII Christian Huygens propuso la divisin de la octava en 31 partes iguales
(sistema griego). El cannigo y fsico William Holder propuso dividirla en 53
sonidos. Chevpropuso una escala de 50 sonidos. Estos sistemas pretendan un
temperamento musical ms cercano a la teora acstica, sin embargo no fueron llevados a la
prctica.
Uno de los primeros autores en la historia en llevar a la prctica el microtonalismo, basado en
una teora que puede escribir microtonalismo en intervalos de 16avos, 32avos, 64avos y hasta
128avos de tono, fue Julin Carrillo quien en su experimento de 1895 opt por los 16avos de
tono aumentando a 96 sonidos por octava, actualmente su teora ya cumple 100 aos de ser
formulada y no ha tenido el xito del temperamento de 12, ni mucho menos un inters
acadmico de las escuelas y conservatorios que por lo general lo consideran un fracaso. Otro
es Alois Hba que fue el creador del sistema tonal basado en la utilizacin de cuartos y sextos
de tono de la msica occidental, desde el 1924 hasta el 1943 construy instrumentos
especiales y Compuso un nuevo lenguaje microtonal de un gran poder expresivo.

Musiclogos[editar]
Durante aos, los tericos del microtonalismo y de las afinaciones han trabajado y expuesto
sus investigaciones, y aunque la mayor parte de la msica contempornea sigue utilizando
un sistema temperado de 12 notas por octava, existen multitud de escalas tonales alternativas,
ms o menos depuradas, desde las basadas en nmeros primos, las basadas en los nmeros
de Fibonacci hasta Teoras basadas en la fsica y matemticas.

Msicos microtonales[editar]
A nivel terico y practico, con muchas composiciones experimentales se menciona a los
msicos:

35. Richard Heinrich Stein (Alemania, 1882-1942), quien construy un pequeo piano y un
clarinete para cuartos de tono y compuso dos piezas para violonchelo y piano en
cuartos de tono (1906).
36. Willi von Moellendorf (Alemania): construy un pequeo armonio de cuartos de tono y
compuso unas cuantas piezas en cuartos de tono.
37. Joerg Mager (Alemania): compuso algunos estudios en cuartos de tono).
38. Alois Hba (Checoslovaco): (Vizovice, 1893-Praga, 1973) Compositor y terico
musical checoslovaco. Defensor del microtonalismo, hizo construir instrumentos
especiales y compuso segn las reglas establecidas en su obra Nuevas reglas
armnicas del sistema diatnico y cromtico sobre terceras, cuartas, sextas y
duodcimas de tono (1927).1
39. Ivan A. Wyschnegradsky (Rusia, 18931979): En 1932 public un libro titulado
"Manuel dharmonie quarts de ton". Hizo construir un piano en cuartos de tono que
tena tres teclados.
40. Ferruccio Busoni (Italia): hizo algunos experimentos infructuosos en la adaptacin de
un piano de tercios de tono, y para no comprometer los medios tonos propuso una
serie doble de tercios de tono (es decir, sextos de tono).
41. Hans Barth, que compuso un Concierto para piano en cuartos de tono y
cuerdas (1930).
42. Julin Carrillo (Mxico 1875-1965) Construy 16 pianos, arpas, flautas, guitarras y
cellos capaces de generar cuartos, octavos y hasta dieciseisavos de tono. Grab en
Pars obras en cuartos y octavos de tono, ofreci conciertos en Nueva York, Filadelfia,
Paris y Mxico adems de desarrollar la Teora del Sonido 13.
43. Grard Grisey, junto con Tristan Murail fundaron el movimiento espectral francs, el
cual fue caraterizado por la generacin de verticalidades que derivan de intervalos del
espectro armnico natural del sonido, el cual contiene alturas microtonales que se
estrechan siempre mas a partir del dcimo armnico en adelante.
44. Valeri Brainin (1948), 29-escala.
45. Francisco Guerrero (Espaa 1951-1997), quizs el ms importante compositor espaol
de la segunda mitad del Siglo XX, trabaj con sistemas en los cuales la abundancia
de alturas microtonales deriva de complejas frmulas matemticas y concepciones
fractales de los gestos sonoros.
46. Charles Antonio Loli Antequera (Per 1975) basado en Inducciones matemticas, serie
de armnicos, y la octava pitagrica, resumi escalas en relacin a la armona para
sistemas microtonales de divisiones en partes iguales de la octava con
aproximaciones a la quinta de armnicos y su escritura en el
"Pentadecagrama"(sistema de 15 lneas paralelas en grupos de 5 para una escala
tonal de 17notas). Puso en prctica los sistemas microtonales mediante software de
msica.Su primera composicin microtonal fue realizado en EL Vienna con un sistema
de 20 sonidos por octava llamado "Bidecafonico", actualmente desarrolla la
aplicacinde de su propuesta terica con instrumentos microtonales en 17edo y
29edo. www.microtonalismo.com
47. Javier Torres Maldonado (Mxico 1968) ha retomado algunas de las ideas propuestas
por Grisey llevndolas, en algunas de sus obras, a momentos de consonancia y
disonancia espectral que dependen de la sobreposicin de fragmentos de espectros
construidos sobre diferentes fundamentales, as como de otros sistemas que superan
el origen espectral de estos conceptos, como la contraccin inarmnica o diferentes
tcnicas combinatorias de intervalos ms pequeos que el semitono cromtico.
48. Walter Mack (Argentina 1975) basado en frmulas matemticas cre escalas para
mltiples sistemas microtonales. Cre un instrumento en un sistema de tercios de
tonos, y un instrumento que combina el sistema de 12 notas con el de 18 notas.
49. Trey Spruance (California 1969).
50. Armando Nava Loya (Mxico 1957) Difusor de la teora musical llamada Sonido 13 con
el instrumento musical llamado "Arpa Microintervlica, nico instrumento en el mundo
capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas.
51. King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard (Australia, 2017) Banda de rock psicodlico que
empez a explorar en este sonido con una coleccin de 5 discos.

Instrumentos microtonales[editar]

La Moodswinger, una ctara elctrica con un tercer puenteadicional, Yuri Landman, 2006.

Para el surgimiento de instrumentos microtonales sirvieron de impulso algunos


instrumentos electroacsticos de los aos 1920 que salan del temperamento de 12 sonidos.
Algunos ejemplos de instrumentos microtonales son:

las Ondas Martenot (utilizadas posteriormente por Olivier Messiaen e Ivn


Wischnegradsky, entre otros),
el trautonium (utilizado por Paul Hindemith),
la ondolina,
el teremn,
la Moodswinger, de Yuri Landman,
el Arpa microintervlica, inventada por el mexicano Oscar Vargas Leal, nico instrumento
en el mundo capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas,
la dinarra, una guitarra dinmica microtonal, inventada por el uruguayo Eduardo Sbat-
Garibaldi,
la tetarra, guitarra microtonal inventada por el ecuatoriano Lucho Enrquez.
el trombn
Todos los instrumentos de cuerda que no estn divididos por trastes son capaces de
microtonalismo.

Msica experimental[editar]
Algunos msicos utilizaron los nuevos intervalos como enriquecimiento casual de la
composicin ms que como nuevos sistemas musicales, como el rumano George
Enescu(1881-1955) y el hngaro Bela Brtok (1881-1945). Pero el inters estaba tan presente
que en 1922 Alois Hba asisti a un Congreso Internacional de Compositores de Cuartos de
Tono y al ao siguiente daba clases de cuartos de tono en el conservatorio de Praga. Julin
Carrillo publica su Teora microtonal llamada "Sonido 13" en Nueva York hacia el ao 1916.
Posteriormente grab varias composiciones en Cuartos, Octavos y Dieciseisavos de Tono en
Pars, despus de varios conciertos realizados desde 1925. En el Per, el Compositor
nasqueo Miguel Oblitas Bustamante (1964), ha empleado microtonos en su Sinfona "Las
Pampas de Nasca" (1984), escrita para cantantes solistas, Coro, Antaras de cermica, Banda
militar y Orquesta Sinfnica.

Teora[editar]
A principios del siglo XX, los msicos empezaron a estudiar la posibilidad de ampliar la riqueza
del temperamento de doce sonidos empleando tercios y cuartos de tono, y este mismo inters
los llev a estudiar la msica india, rabe, eslovaca, rumana, hngara, as como a estudiar a
esos tericos del pasado para integrar a la msica occidental los nuevos intervalos.
Evidentemente el inters de los msicos del siglo XX y los de siglos anteriores era diferente:

En la antigedad, los intervalos surgan como el reflejo de un sistema diatnico


transportado a diversas alturas, o de las 53 comas de Pitgoras.
En el siglo XX los intervalos surgan de la divisin intencional de la octava no en 12
semitonos, sino en 18 tercios de tono, o 24 cuartos de tono (incluso unos aos despus se
inst a dividir la escala en 17, 19, 20, 22, 27 o cualquier nmero de partes
llamadas microtonos).
La bsqueda fue ardua, pues los nuevos intervalos requeran

una notacin diferente,


instrumentos temperados (como el piano o la guitarra) que los produjeran y sirvieran de
gua a los no temperados (como violines y violonchelos) para la afinacin exacta,
nuevas reglas de armona y contrapunto y
la revisin de los fundamentos tericos del sistema de doce sonidos.
Los msicos que se ocuparon del asunto fueron muchos, algunos se conformaron con
especulaciones tericas, otros con unos cuantos ejercicios en instrumentos adaptados para tal
fin, y unos cuantos llevaron al lmite sus intentos construyendo nuevos instrumentos, creando
una nueva teora musical para microintervalos, componiendo una buena cantidad de obras y
presentndolas en conciertos.

Escalas microtonales y macrotonales[editar]


Antiguas[editar]
Algunas escalas tradicionales que no utilizan 12 semitonos por octava:

Escala javanesa Slendro tradicional, de 5 tonos.


Escala siamesa tradicional, de 7 tonos.
Raga Shruti, de 22 tonos (India).
Escala tailandesa tradicional, de 8 tonos.
Escala Nasca investigada por Miguel Oblitas Bustamante.
Lu, de 12 notas (en la Era Han, China).
Escala Persa de 17 tonos.
Escala Iraq Enarmnica de 8 tonos.
Occidentales[editar]
Estas son algunas de las escalas desarrolladas por importantes tericos o msicos:

Kimberger I, Kimberger II y Kimberger III (Johann Philipp Kirnberger), que son


temperamentos histricos parientes del mesotnico.
Sistema Euler Genos o Euler-Fokker Genera / Escala Octony (Leonhard Euler).
Escala modal de 9 tonos (Max Mreaux).
Escala de 29 tonos (Valeri Brainin).
Escala de 43 tonos (Harry Partch).
Escalas de Ervin M. Wilson:
Hexany, de 6 tonos.
Eikosany, de 20 tonos.
Dekatesserany, de 14 tonos.
Escala de 53 tonos (Larry Hanson).
Escala de 96 tonos, "Sonido 13" (Julin Carrillo).
Escala de 19 tonos (Joseph Yasser).
Escala de 23 tonos (Yuri Landman, Moodswinger).
Escalas prximas a quintas mltiplos de 12, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41, 53, propuesta terica de -
"Armona microtonal inductiva alfa edo" (Charles Loli).

Charles Edward Ives (Danbury, 20 de octubre de 1874 Nueva York, 19 de mayo de 1954)
fue un compositor estadounidense de msica clsica, reconocido como uno de los primeros de
trascendencia internacional.
La msica de Ives fue prcticamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras
permanecieron sin tocarse durante muchos aos. Con el tiempo, Ives llegara a ser
considerado como uno de los American Originals, un compositor que adopt un estilo
americano nico, con tonadas folclricas estadounidenses tejidas a largo de todas sus
composiciones, y una inquieta bsqueda por las posibilidades musicales. Sus obras ms
conocidas son La pregunta sin respuesta para orquesta y Sonata "Concord" para piano.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Biografa
2La msica de Ives
3Recepcin
4Lista de obras selectas
5Vase tambin
6Referencias
7Bibliografa
8Enlaces externos

Biografa[editar]
Sus padres fueron George Ives, un director de banda del Ejrcito de los Estados
Unidos durante la guerra civil estadounidense, y Mollie. Una experiencia significativa para
Charles durante su infancia fue el asistir a las festividades locales, en las que por las calles de
su ciudad la banda de su padre y otras bandas tocaban simultneamente, hecho recogido en
su composicin Three Places in New England, entre otras. Las nicas lecciones musicales
que recibi de su padre tambin tuvieron una gran importancia; George Ives tena una visin
muy abierta respecto de la teora musical, y animaba a su hijo a experimentar
en armonizacionesbitonales y politonales. De modo que Charles frecuentemente poda cantar
una meloda en una tonalidad, mientras su padre lo acompaaba en otra. Fue de la mano de
su padre que Charles tambin conoci la msica de Stephen Foster.1 Ives lleg a
ser organista de iglesia a los 14 aos y escribi varios himnos y canciones para los servicios
eclesiales, entre ellos sus Variations on "America" (Variaciones sobre "America").2
Ives se traslad a New Haven en 1893, gradundose en la Escuela Hopkins. Luego, en
septiembre de 1894, acudi a la Universidad de Yale, para estudiar con Horatio Parker. Aqu
compuso en un estilo coral semejante al de su maestro, escribiendo msica religiosa e incluso
en 1896 hizo una cancin para la campaa presidencial de William McKinley.3 El 4 de
noviembre de 1894 el padre de Charles muri, lo que signific un duro golpe para el
compositor, que haba idealizado a su padre, y de quien en cierta manera recogi la semilla de
la experimentacin musical comenzada por l.2 Ives emprendi el curso estndar en Yale,
llevando una extensa nmina de cursos, entre ellos griego, latn, matemticas y literatura. Fue
miembro de Delta Kappa Epsilon y de Wolf's Head, y presidente del Ivy Committee.3 Sus
obras Calcium Light Night y Yale-Princeton Football Game muestran la influencia que tuvo el
college en sus composiciones. Su Sinfona n. 1 la escribi como su tesis principal bajo la
supervisin de Parker.3

Ives alrededor de 1899.

En 1898, despus de su graduacin en Yale, acept un puesto de $5 semanales


como actuario en la Mutual Life Insurance Company de Nueva York, y se traslad a un
apartamento de soltero con varios amigos. Continu su trabajo como organista de iglesia
hasta 1906. En 1899 se cambi de empleo a la agencia Charles H. Raymond & Co., donde
permaneci hasta 1906. En 1907, despus de la quiebra de Raymond & Co., junto a su amigo
Julian W. Myrick formaron su propia agencia de seguros Ives & Co., que posteriormente se
convertira en Ives & Myrick, donde permaneci hasta su retiro.4 En su tiempo libre compona
y, hasta su matrimonio, trabaj como organista en Danbury y New Haven adems de
en Bloomfield, Nueva Jersey y Nueva York.3 En 1907, Ives sufri el primero de varios "ataques
cardiacos" (como l y su familia los consideraron) que tendra en los aos siguientes. Estos
ataques pueden haber sido ms de origen psicolgico que fsico. Al recuperarse de su ataque
de 1907, Ives entr en uno de los periodos ms creativos de su vida como compositor.
Despus de casarse con Harmony Twitchell en 1908,4 se trasladaron a su propio apartamento
en Nueva York. Tuvo un remarcable xito en su carrera como asegurador, y continu siendo
un prolfico compositor hasta que sufri otro de sus varios ataques al corazn en 1918,
despus del cual compuso muy poco, escribiendo su ltima obra, la cancin Sunrise, en
agosto de 1926.4 En 1922, Ives public sus 114 Songs que reflejan toda la amplitud de su
obra como compositor -- contiene canciones artsticas, canciones que compuso durante
su adolescencia y juventud, y canciones muy disonantes como The Majority.4
De acuerdo con su esposa, un da a inicios de 1927, mientras bajaba las escaleras de su casa
con lgrimas en los ojos, le dijo que ya no poda componer ms, "ya nada me suena bien". Ha
habido numerosas y avanzadas teoras para comprender el silencio de sus ltimos aos, que
parecen tan misteriosos como las ltimas dcadas de la vida de otro compositor,
el finlands Jean Sibelius, quien tambin dej de componer alrededor por el mismo tiempo. Si
bien Ives dej de componer, y fue cada vez ms afectado por sus problemas de salud,
continu revisando y refinando sus obras anteriores, adems de planificar los estrenos de su
msica.4 Despus de continuar sus problemas de salud, entre ellos la diabetes, en 1930 se
retir de su negocio de seguros, lo que le dio ms tiempo para dedicarse a su obra musical,
pero no fue capaz de componer nueva msica. Durantes los aos 1940 revis su Sonata
Concord, publicndola junto al volumen de prosas, Essays Before a Sonata en 1947.5
Ives muri en 1954 en Nueva York.

La msica de Ives[editar]
Ives fue educado en Yale, y su Sinfona n. 1 muestra su acogimiento a las frmulas
acadmicas requeridas para escribir en forma Sonata a fines del siglo XIX, as como un fulgor
iconoclasta, con un segundo tema que implica un direccin armnica distinta. Su padre era
director de banda, y como sucedi con Hector Berlioz, Ives tena una fascinacin por la msica
al aire libre y por la instrumentacin. Sus tentativas de fundir estos dos pilares musicales, y su
devocin por Beethoven, fijaran la direccin de su vida musical.
Ives public una gran coleccin de sus canciones, muchas de las cuales tenan
partes piansticas que recogen varios de los movimientos modernistas que se iniciaban
en Europa, entre ellos la bitonalidad y la pantonalidad. l era un dotado pianista, capaz
de improvisar en una gran variedad de estilos, incluyendo los que entonces eran
absolutamente nuevos. Aunque ahora es mejor conocido por su msica orquestal, compuso
dos cuartetos de cuerda y varias obras de msica de cmara. Su trabajo como organista lo
llev a escribir Variaciones sobre "Amrica" en 1891, que estrenara en un recital de
celebracin por el 4 de julio. Esta obra toma la meloda del himno nacional del Reino
Unido God Save the Queen, para una serie de variaciones bastante estndares pero
ingeniosas. Una de las variaciones es al estilo de una polonesa mientras que otra, agregada
aos despus de terminada la composicin original de la obra, es probablemente el primer uso
de la bitonalidad de Ives. William Schuman hizo un arreglo para orquesta de esta obra
en 1964 (vase [1]).
Ives compuso dos sinfonas, pero fue con The Unanswered Question (La pregunta sin
respuesta, 1908), escrita para la combinacin muy inusual de trompeta,
cuatro flautas y cuarteto de cuerda, que cre un maduro mundo sonoro que se convertira en
su estilo personal. Las cuerdas (ubicadas fuera de escena) tocan muy suavemente una
msica como de coral a lo largo de la obra, mientras que la trompeta (colocada detrs del
auditorio) toca varias veces un breve motivo que Ives describi como "la Eterna Pregunta de la
Existencia". Cada vez que la trompeta pregunta, recibe la respuesta de un estridente ataque
de las flautas (en escena), menos en la ltima, por ello el ttulo. La obra es tpica de Ives
yuxtapone varios elementos dispares, que aparecen conducidos por una narrativa de la que
nunca terminamos de estar conscientes, y es muy misteriosa. Posteriormente escribi una
versin orquestal que se convertira en una de sus obras ms populares.6
Obras como The Unanswered Question estuvieron ciertamente influidas por los
escritores trascendentalistas de Nueva Inglaterra, Ralph Waldo Emerson y Henry David
Thoreau.4 stos tuvieron una influencia muy importante para Ives, como lo reconoci en
su Sonata para piano n. 2: Concord, Mass., 184060 (190915), que describi como una
"impresin del espritu del trascendentalismo que est asociada en las mentes de muchos
con Concord, Mass., hace ms de medio siglo... recogidas en las imgenes impresionistas de
Emerson y Thoreau, un esbozo de los Alcotts, y un scherzo que supuestamente ha de reflejar
una ligera cualidad que a menudo se encuentra en el lado fantstico de Hawthorne."
La sonata es posiblemente la obra para piano solo ms conocida de Ives (aunque debera
observarse que tiene partes opcionales para viola y flauta). Rtmicamente y armnicamente,
es tpicamente aventurada, y demuestra el cario de Ives por las citas en varios momentos
aparece el motivo inicial de la Sinfona n. 5 de Beethoven. Tambin contiene algunos de los
ejemplos ms asombrosos de experimentalismo de Ives: en el segundo movimiento, ordena al
pianista que use una barra de madera de 14 pulgadas (37.5 cm) para producir un
gran clster.
Quizs la obra orquestal ms destacable de Ives sea su Sinfona n. 4 (191016). La lista de
fuerzas requerida para interpretar slo esta obra es extraordinaria; adems de una
inmensa orquesta sinfnica, la obra requiere una gran seccin de percusin, dos pianos (uno
afinado a un cuarto de tono del otro), un rgano, un grupo adicional de cuerdas a la distancia,
un gran coro, tres saxofones opcionales y finalmente un "rgano etreo" (no est muy claro a
qu se refera Ives con l, pero generalmente son usados un theremn o un sintetizador). El
programa de la obra recuerda al de The Unanswered Question Ives dijo que la obra es "una
pregunta que indaga sobre el 'Qu' y el 'Por qu' que el espritu humano pide de la vida". El
uso de la cita es tambin frecuente, y no se queda corta en efectos novedosos. Por ejemplo,
en el segundo movimiento, un tremolando es tocado por toda la orquesta. En el movimiento
final, hay una suerte de "lucha musical" entre sonidos discordantes y la msica tonal ms
tradicional. Eventualmente entra un coro sin palabras, el modo se hace ms calmado, y la
obra termina tranquilamente con la percusin sola tocando.
La sinfona no fue interpretada por completo hasta 1965, casi 50 aos despus de haber sido
terminada, 11 aos despus de la muerte del compositor.
Ives abandonara el material para su inconclusa Sinfona del Universo, que fue incapaz de unir
en vida pese a dos dcadas de trabajo. Esto se debi tanto a sus problemas de salud como a
su cambiante concepcin de la obra. Ha habido varios intentos de terminarla o realizar una
versin interpretable. Sin embargo, ninguna ha encontrado el modo de recibir una
interpretacin general.7 La sinfona toma las ideas de la Sinfona n. 4 pero en un nivel ms
elevado, con complejos ritmos cruzados, difciles capas de disonancias y combinaciones
inusuales de instrumentos.
Entre las obras de cmara de Ives est el Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2, donde las partes estn a
menudo escritas en los extremos del contrapunto, desde angulosas disonancias en el
movimiento titulado "Arguments" a lo trascendentalmente lento. Este rango por los extremos
es frecuente en la msica de Ives el fragor y la disonancia machacadoras con la quietud
lrica y conducido en una relacin de secciones que se van deslizando dentro y fuera de s
unas con otras. El idioma de Ives, como el de Mahler, emplea lneas meldicas bastante
independientes. Se considera difcil de tocar debido a que muchas de las tpicas seales para
los intrpretes no estn presentes. Esta obra tuvo una clara influencia sobre el Cuarteto de
cuerda n. 2 de Elliott Carter, que es similarmente una conversacin teatral a 4 voces.
Recepcin[editar]
La msica de Ives fue largamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras se
mantuvieron sin tocar por muchos aos. Su tendencia a la experimentacin y su uso cada vez
mayor de la disonancia no fue tomado a bien en el ambiente musical de su poca. Las
dificultades para ejecutar las complejidades rtmicas en sus principales obras orquestales las
convirtieron en desafos intimidantes incluso dcadas despus de haber sido compuestas.
Una de las palabras ms mordaces que se podra usar para describir la msica desde el punto
de vista de Ives es "bonita", y su famoso comentario "Usen sus odos como gente!" (use your
ears like men!) parece indicar que no se preocupaba por la recepcin de su msica. Sin
embargo, por el contrario, Ives estuvo interesado por la recepcin del pblico, pero en sus
propios trminos.
Entre los tempranos partidarios de su msica estuvieron Henry Cowell y Elliott Carter. Invitado
por Cowell a participar en su peridico New Music, un substancial nmero de partituras de
Ives fueron publicadas en el diario, pero durante alrededor de 40 aos tuvo pocas
interpretaciones que no pudo acordar o repetir, generalmente con Nicolas
Slonimskycomo director de orquesta.5
Su oscuridad empez a levantarse un poco por los aos 1940, cuando conoci a Lou
Harrison, un fan de su msica que comenz a editarla y a promoverla. Harrison dirigi muy
notablemente el estreno de la Sinfona n. 3 (1904) en 1946.8 Al ao siguiente, por esta obra
Ives obtuvo el Premio Pulitzer. Sin embargo, Ives se deshizo del premio monetario (la mitad se
lo dio a Harrison), diciendo que "los premios son para los chiquillos, y yo ya estoy grande"
(prizes are for boys, and I'm all grown up). Leopold Stokowski consigui no mucho despus
la Sinfona n. 4, y la consider como "el corazn del problema de Ives".
Por esta poca, Ives tambin fue promovido por Bernard Herrmann que trabajaba entonces
como director en la CBS, y que en 1940 se convirti en el director principal de la Orquesta
Sinfnica de la CBS. Mientras estuvo ah, fue defensor de la msica de Charles Ives.
El reconocimiento de la msica de Ives ha mejorado. Encontrara alabanzas de Arnold
Schoenberg, quien lo consider un monumento a la integridad artstica (vase Citas debajo), y
de la Escuela de Nueva York de William Schuman. En el presente, Michael Tilson Thomas es
un entusiasta exponente de las sinfonas de Ives como lo es el musiclogo Jan Swafford. La
obra de Ives es regularmente programada en Europa. Ives tambin ha inspirado a pintores,
notablemente a Eduardo Paolozzi quien titul una de sus colecciones de impresiones por
los aos 1970 Calcium Light Night, y cada una de ellas fue nombrada con una obra de Ives,
(entre ellas Central Park in the Dark).
Al mismo tiempo, Ives no est con sus crticos. Mucha gente an encuentra su msica
rimbombante y pomposa. Otras la encuentran, bastante extrao, tmida debido a que el sonido
fundamental de la msica tradicional europea an est presente en sus obras. El que fuese
una vez su partidario Elliott Carter ha considerado a la obra de Ives incompleta.

Lista de obras selectas[editar]


Nota: Debido a que Ives realiz con frecuencia distintas versiones de una misma obra, y
debido a que su obra fue generalmente ignorada durante su vida, a menudo es difcil colocar
una datacin exacta a sus composiciones. Los aos ofrecidos aqu son a veces las ms
probables. Hay incluso quienes especulan que Ives cambi intencionalmente las fechas de
sus propias obras, para indicar que eran ms tempranas o ms tardas de lo que originalmente
fueron.

Variaciones sobre "America" para rgano (1891)


Cuarteto de cuerda n. 1, "From the Salvation Army" (1896)
Sinfona n. 1 en Re menor (189698)
Sinfona n. 2 (18971901)
Sinfona n. 3, "The Camp Meeting" (190104)
Central Park in the Dark para orquesta de cmara (18981907)
The Unanswered Question para grupo de cmara (1908)
Sonata para violn n. 1 (190308)
Sonata para piano n. 1 (190209)
Sonata para violn n. 2 (190210)
Robert Browning Overture (1911)
A Symphony: New England Holidays (190413)
Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2 (190713)
Tro para piano (c190910, rev. c191415)
Set Orquestal n. 1: Three Places in New England (190321)
Sonata para violn n. 3 (1914)
Sonata para piano n. 2, "Concord, Mass., 184060" (190915) (revisada muchas veces
por Ives)
Set Orquestal n. 2 (191215)
Sonata para violn n. 4 "Children's Day at the Camp Meeting" (191215)
Sinfona n. 4 (191016)
Universe symphony (inconclusa, 191116, trabaj en la sinfona hasta su muerte en 1954)
114 Songs (compuestas en varios aos entre 1887 y 1921, publicadas en 1922.)
Tres piezas en cuartos de tono para piano (192324)
Old Home Days (para banda/ensamble, arreglos de Jonathan Elkus)

Ervin Wilson (June 11, 1928 December 8, 2016[1]) was a Mexican/American (dual
citizen) music theorist.

Contents
[hide]

1Early life
2Works
3Musicians influenced by Wilson
4References
5External links

Early life[edit]
Ervin Wilson was born in a remote area of northwest Chihuahua, Mexico, where he lived until
the age of fifteen. His mother taught him to play the reed organ and to read musical notation.
He began to compose at an early age, but immediately discovered that some of the sounds he
was hearing mentally could not be reproduced by the conventional intervals of the organ. As a
teenager he began to read books on Indian music, developing an interest in concepts of raga.
While he was in the Air Force in Japan, a chance meeting with a total stranger introduced him
to musical harmonics, which changed the course of his life and work. Influenced by the work
of Joseph Yasser, Wilson began to think of the musical scale as a living processlike a crystal
or plant. He has been mentor to many composers and instrument builders.
Works[edit]
Despite his avoidance of academia, Wilson has been influential on those interested
in microtonal music and just intonation, especially in the areas of scale, keyboard, and notation
design. Among his developments are Moments of Symmetry,[2][3] Combination Product
Sets,[4] Golden Horograms, scales based on recurrence relations (scales of "Mt. Meru"), and
mapping scales to the generalized keyboard. He cites Augusto Novaro and Joseph Yasser as
influences. Wilson built instruments and explored the resources of 31 and 41 equal divisions of
the octave. He supported the work of Harry Partch, helped build the Quadrangularis
Reversum,[5] and provided diagrams for Partch's book Genesis of a Music.
The goal of his research with scales is to make them musically accessible to the composer and
the listener. "I sculpt in the architecture of the scale. Other people come along and animate
it." [6]

Musicians influenced by Wilson[edit]


Warren Burt
Gary David
Kraig Grady[6]
Terumi Narushima
Rod Poole
Glen Prior
Paul Rapoport
Emil Richards
Marcus Satellite
Greg Schiemer
Ron Sword
Stephen James Taylor[7]
Daniel James Wolf

A p-limit rational number q can by definition be factored into primes of size less than or equal to p,
giving
q=2e23e35e5pep
where the exponents are integers (positive, negative, or zero.) This is often written in ket
vector (wp) notation as
|e2e3e5ep
in which case it is called a monzo, where the name refers to the enthusiastic advocacy of Joe
Monzo.

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|e2e3ep=|e2|+|e3|log23++|ep|log2p

which is a vector space norm; hence we may embed the p-limit monzos into a normed vector I
space of dimension n = (p) via a map M:monzos I. The monzos under this embedding now
define a lattice, which is a discrete subgroup spanning the finite dimensional real normed vector
space I. If we change coordinates by multiplying values in the coordinate belonging to the prime k
by log2(k), then the norm becomes the standard L1 norm. This vector space is Tenney interval
space, and the transformed coordinates with the standard L1 norm form the standard basis for
Tenney space. It should be noted that while monzos correspond uniquely to positive real numbers
(always rational numbers in the case of monzos), vectors in Tenney space do not. For instance,
while |1 0> represents 2, so does |0 log3(2)>.

Because of the mathematical advantages of Euclidean norms, a Euclidean norm is often placed on
the vectors in interval space instead of an L1 norm, in which case we have Tenney-Euclidean
interval space instead of Tenney interval space. Explicitly, if we take the monzo |e2 e3 ... ep> then
the Tenney-Euclidean norm, or TE norm, of it is
e22+(e3log23)2++(eplog2p)2
and if the coordinates are the weighted interval space coordinates, then the TE norm is
the standard Euclidean, or L2, norm.

Alternate Definition:
Given a rational number q, we can rewrite it in monzo form by the following definition:
q=|v2(q)v3(q)v5(q)vp(q)

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|v2(q)v3(q)vp(q)=|v2(q)|+|v3(q)|log23++|vp(q)|log2p

Where vp(q) is the p-adic valuation of q.

Example:
The 5-limit interval 16/15 factors as 2^4 3^(-1) 5^(-1), so it has a monzo representation of |4 -1 -1>.
In weighted coordinates, that becomes |4 -log2(3) -log2(5)>, approximately |4 -1.585 -2.322>.
The TE norm is therefore
(42+log2(3)2+log2(5)2)23.9034.889.

see also Fractional monzos, Vals and Tuning Space...


Vals and Tuning Space
Editar 4 47

Deutsch -

Definition | Vals and Monzos | Example

Definition
A val "maps" just intonation to a certain number of steps in a chain of generators; by putting vals
together we can define the mapping of a regular temperament and thereby define the temperament.
A val is written in the form <a1 a2 a3 ... ak|, where the numbers a1 a2 a3 ... are the number of steps
along the chain that the first k primes are mapped to. This can be generalized so that a1 a2 a3 ...
represent the number of steps any JI basis is mapped to, whereas a JI basis for a just intonation
subgroup is an independent collection of just intonation intervals, meaning that no one of them is a
product of the rest.

A rank r temperament has r generators, and thus is defined by r vals. In the usual coordinates for
the p-limit, the set of generators are the first k prime numbers and the set of vals for a p-limit
temperament gives you the coordinates for each prime harmonic in the p-limit. For example, all 5-
limit rank-1 temperaments, or equal temperaments, will be defined by a val <a b c|, where a is the
number of generators it takes to reach the 2nd harmonic (2/1), b is the number of generators to
reach the 3rd harmonic (3/1), and c is the number of generators it takes to reach the 5th harmonic
(5/1). All 5-limit rank-2 temperaments are defined by two vals: |<a1 b1 c1|, <a2 b2 c2|>. Now, we
locate the 2nd harmonic (2/1) with the 2-dimensional coordinates (a1, a2), sometimes written as |a1
a2>, meaning go up a1 of the first generator, and up a2 of the 2nd generator, to reach 2/1.
Similarly, the 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic will be reached by |b1 b2> and |c1 c2> respectively.

As an example, consider meantone temperament, where 81/80 vanishes. Meantone can be


considered a 5-limit rank-2 temperament, defined by the two-val mapping |<1 1 0|, <0 1 4|>. This
tells us just about everything we need to know about how the 5-limit is mapped in meantone: since
2/1 is mapped |1 0>, that tells us that the first generator is a 2/1, and since 3/1 is mapped to |1 1>,
that tells us that the 2nd generator is a 3/2; then, since 5/1 is mapped to |0 4>, aka four 3/2s up,
that tells us that 81/64 (which is (3/2)^4) equals 5/1 (which is 80/64). Since 81/64 is equated with
80/64 here, that tells us that 81/80 is tempered out! Thus it is possible to derive from the mapping
the approximate size of the two generators, the commas that are tempered out, and roughly the
complexity of the temperament (the number of notes of the temperament we need to reach all the
prime harmonics in the p-limit). This makes the val an extremely compact and useful bit of notation
for describing regular temperaments, since we can readily find where all of the primes are mapped
along the temperament's chain of generators essentially at a glance.

Whenever one of the generators of a temperament is a 2/1 the key information is carried by the
other vals, assuming octave equivalence (i.e. 3/1=3/2=6/1 etc). Thus the essential character of 5-
limit meantone is defined by a single val (the one for the 3/2 generator), written <0 1 4|.

Defintion for mathematicians


The p-limit monzos M form a free abelian group, or -module, of finite rank pi(p), which is the
number of primes up to and including p. The dual -module M* is isomorphic to M, but not in a
canonical way. Hence it, the group (Z-module) of vals, is also a free abelian group of rank pi(p).
Just as monzos are often written as kets, vals are typically written as bras. Vals are
homomorphisms from a subgroup of finite rank of *, the abelian group of the positive rational
numbers under multiplication, to the integers . The number theorist Yves Hellegouarch seems to
have been the first to write about them, under the name "degrees".

Vals and Monzos


If V is a val and M is a monzo of the same rank, then the angle bracket <V|M>, which can also be
written V(M), is the result of applying the homomorphism V to M. For example, if V = <12 19 28 34|
and M = |-5 2 2 -1> then <V|M> equals 12*(-5) + 19*2 + 28*2 - 34 = 0

This tells us that in septimal 12 equal, represented by V, the interval 225/224, represented by M, is
mapped to 0, which represents 1. Hence, 225/224 vanishes in septimal 12 equal; it is in
the kernel of V. One should note in particular that the coordinates of V represent where the
successive primes 2, 3, 5 and 7 are mapped.

By embedding the monzos into a suitable vector space, norms may be placed on the monzos in
various ways, turning them into lattices in a vector space. Given a vector space norm on a space of
ket vectors, the dual vector space norm on the space of bra vectors is defined as the least quantity
||V|| making

|<V|M>| ||V|| ||M||

to be always true. The dual of the L1 norm is the Linfty norm, and the dual space of Tenney interval
space is Tenney tuning space. The embedding of monzos into a real normed vector space
automatically induces a dual embedding of vals into a corresponding normed vector space, tuning
space, in which vals are lattice points. The dual norm to the L2 norm is the L2 norm, and the dual
space to Tenney-Euclidean interval space is Tenney-Euclidean tuning space. The Euclidean norm
on a val v is given by

\displaystyle
||v|| = \sqrt{\left({\frac{v_2}{log_2(2)}\right)^2 + \left({\frac{v_3}{log_2(3)}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{v_5}{log_2(5)}\righ
t)^2 + ... + \left(\frac{v_p}{log_2(p)}\right)^2
%original was ||v|| = sqrt(v2^2 + (v3/log2(3))^2 + ... + (vp/log2(p))^2)

It useful to renormalize to the RMS (root mean square) instead, which requires dividing the above
by sqrt(n), where n = pi(p) is the number of primes up to p. This is the TE, or Tenney-Euclidean,
norm.

It should be noted that despite the name, only vectors in a small region of tuning space can
reasonably be considered to be tunings. These are the points in tuning space close to the JI point,
or JIP, which in weighted coordinates is <1 1 1 ... 1|. It has the property that if M is a monzo in
weighted coordinates, then <JIP|M>, or JIP(M) if you prefer, is exactly the log base two of the
interval M represents, hence the name. In unweighted coordinates, JIP = <1 log2(3) ... log2(p)|, and
applied to a monzo this gives the log base two of the corresponding interval.
Example
The rank-1 7-limit patent val corresponding to 31edo is <31 49 72 87|. This tells us that 31 steps
reaches the 2, approximately 49 the 3, 72 the 5, and 87 the 7. In weighted coordinates, it becomes

3149log2(3)72log2(5)87log2(7)

which is approximately <31.000 30.916 31.009 30.990|. The standard Euclidean norm would then
be the square root of the sum of squares of this vector, which is approximately sqrt(3838.694), or
61.957. To use the RMS we divide that by sqrt(4)=2, giving 30.976 for the TE norm. Note that the
TE norm for this val is approximately 31.

Periodic scale
Editar 0 51

Table of Contents
Definition

Rotations

Classes

Scale properties

Constant Structure

Propriety

Epimorphism

Myhill's property

Distributional evenness

Convexity

Maximal evenness

Numerical properties

See also

Definition
A periodic scale may be defined in mathematical language as a type of quasiperiodic function from
the integers to musical intervals; the integers in this case formalize the notion of "scale degrees."
Musical intervals may be written either additively or multiplicatively, and we will assume an additive
notation is used, and that intervals are given by positive or negative real numbers with values in
cents. In this case, a periodic scale s has a nonzero quasiperiod P and repetition
interval O satisfying the following conditions

(1) s[0]=0

(2) s[i+P]=s[i]+O

Scales written in the widely used Scala format are implicitly assumed to be periodic, with the
repetition interval equal to the last scale entry, and the period equal to the number of notes (on the
second line) of the scale. Informally, a periodic scale could be defined as the kind of scale a Scala
.scl file is intended to denote. Of course, since arbitrarily high and low pitches go beyond the range
of human hearing, this definition is a mathematical idealization, but it is much simpler to adopt the
idealization than to worry about that. Neither Scala nor the above definition assumes that the scales
are monotonically strictly increasing, but this condition, giving a monotone periodic scale, is often
important to add:

(3) i<j implies s[i]<s[j]

Rotations
By a rotation or mode of a periodic scale s is meant a scale r such that r[i] = s[i + N] - s[N],
where N is a fixed integer. Since s[i + P] - s[P] = s[i] there are only a finite number of rotations,
equal to the number of notes of the scale reduced to the range of the interval of equivalence, 0 s[i]
< O, which entails 0 i < P.

Classes
We may define an important function class(i) on the integers which gives the generic intervals of a
periodic scale. This is defined by s[j] - s[i] is in class(k) if j - i = k. Since s is quasiperiodic, class(nP)
consists only of {nO}, but the rest define sets of numbers in terms of which we can define some
important scale properties.

Scale properties
Constant Structure
If interval classes are disjoint, then the scale is a constant structure. In other words, constant
structure (a term coined by Erv Wilson) means that ij implies class(i) class(j) = . In academic
music theory, this is called the partitioning property.

Propriety
If s is monotone, and if i j implies every element in class(i) is less than or equal to every element
in class(j), then s is (Rothenberg) proper. If i < j implies every element in class(i) is strictly less than
every element in class(j), then s is strictly proper. In academic music theory circles, strict propriety is
most often called coherence. Note that strict propriety implies constant structure.

The set {s[i] | i} generates a group G, the group of the scale; this is a free, finitely generated
subgroup of the reals . The rank of the scale is the rank of G.
Epimorphism
If there exists a homomorphism h: G so that h(s[i]) = i, then s is weakly epimorphic with the
homomorphism h. If s is monotone and weakly epimorphic, it is epimorphic. An important special
case is where G is a JI group and h is a val. Epimorphic scales in this restricted sense were
apparently first considered by Yves Hellegouarch. The name comes from the fact that h is an
epimorphism onto .

Myhill's property
A monotone scale in which every class but classes nP have exactly two elements has Myhill's
property. If every such class has exactly three elements, it has the trivalence property. Myhill's
property is synonymous with strict MOS, though some authors prefer to identify MOS itself with
Myhill's property.

Distributional evenness
A monotone scale in which every class comes in exactly n elements is n-distributionally even, or n-
DE. If n=2, then we can simply say that it is distributionally even. Distributional evenness is also
synonymous with MOS, though some authors prefer a stricter definition of MOS identifying it with
Myhill's property.

Convexity
The scale is convex if every convex combination of notes, meaning every -linear combination of
scale notes, is a scale note. If the quasiperiod P is normalized so as to be positive and minimal, this
is equivalent to the condition that the equivalence classes of the notes modulo the repetition
interval O is a -polytope in the lattice defined by a basis for G mod O.

Maximal evenness
Maximally even scales of n notes in m edo are any mode of the sequence ME(n, m) = [floor(i*m/n) |
i=1..n], where the "floor" function rounds down to the nearest integer.

Numerical properties
Scale diversity
Lumma stability

See also
Scale properties simplified
Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].
And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:

5. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
6. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.
For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

3. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

3. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1


local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

3. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

3. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

3. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

3. convergent list for z

local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

3. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

3. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

3. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

3. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

3. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

3. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

3. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

3. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

3. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

3. inverse ? function
local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].

And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:
5. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
6. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.

For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

3. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

3. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

3. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

3. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

3. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

3. convergent list for z


local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

3. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

3. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

3. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

3. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

3. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

3. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

3. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

3. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

3. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

3. inverse ? function

local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

En el mbito de la msica, el microtonalismo es la msica que utiliza microtonos (los


intervalos musicales menores que un semitono). En la msica tradicional occidental, una
octava se divide en 12 semitonos iguales. En el microtonalismo se utilizan ms notas,
llamadas microtonos. El msico estadounidense Charles Ives defina a los microtonos de
manera humorstica como las notas entre las teclas del piano.
Muchos tericos contemporneos tratan de organizar la divisin de microtonos de tal manera
que se puedan relacionar meldicamente y armnicamente tal como los tonos utilizados en
el sistema dodecafnico. Segn algunos compositores, el microtono abrira nuevas puertas y
horizontes en el mundo de la msica contempornea.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Historia
o 1.1Musiclogos
o 1.2Msicos microtonales
2Instrumentos microtonales
3Msica experimental
4Teora
5Escalas microtonales y macrotonales
o 5.1Antiguas
o 5.2Occidentales
6Referencias
7Enlaces externos

Historia[editar]
La visin actual acerca del microtonalismo es que ha existido desde la antigedad en las
msicas no occidentales (india, rabe), en la msica griega (sistema enarmnico), en
la msica medieval (aunque esta afirmacin est sujeta a controversia), y en la msica
folclrica de algunas regiones europeas, aunque ms como accidente o teora, que como
prctica consciente.
Entre los antecedentes ms remotos que ahora se conocen, se menciona a Nicol
Vicentino y Vicente Lusitano, que a principios del periodo barroco (siglo XVI) polemizaron
acerca de revivir el sistema cromtico y enharmnico griego (basado en una divisin de la
escala en 31 partes, y no en 12 partes, como en el actual sistema tonal).
En el siglo XVII Christian Huygens propuso la divisin de la octava en 31 partes iguales
(sistema griego). El cannigo y fsico William Holder propuso dividirla en 53
sonidos. Chevpropuso una escala de 50 sonidos. Estos sistemas pretendan un
temperamento musical ms cercano a la teora acstica, sin embargo no fueron llevados a la
prctica.
Uno de los primeros autores en la historia en llevar a la prctica el microtonalismo, basado en
una teora que puede escribir microtonalismo en intervalos de 16avos, 32avos, 64avos y hasta
128avos de tono, fue Julin Carrillo quien en su experimento de 1895 opt por los 16avos de
tono aumentando a 96 sonidos por octava, actualmente su teora ya cumple 100 aos de ser
formulada y no ha tenido el xito del temperamento de 12, ni mucho menos un inters
acadmico de las escuelas y conservatorios que por lo general lo consideran un fracaso. Otro
es Alois Hba que fue el creador del sistema tonal basado en la utilizacin de cuartos y sextos
de tono de la msica occidental, desde el 1924 hasta el 1943 construy instrumentos
especiales y Compuso un nuevo lenguaje microtonal de un gran poder expresivo.

Musiclogos[editar]
Durante aos, los tericos del microtonalismo y de las afinaciones han trabajado y expuesto
sus investigaciones, y aunque la mayor parte de la msica contempornea sigue utilizando
un sistema temperado de 12 notas por octava, existen multitud de escalas tonales alternativas,
ms o menos depuradas, desde las basadas en nmeros primos, las basadas en los nmeros
de Fibonacci hasta Teoras basadas en la fsica y matemticas.

Msicos microtonales[editar]
A nivel terico y practico, con muchas composiciones experimentales se menciona a los
msicos:

52. Richard Heinrich Stein (Alemania, 1882-1942), quien construy un pequeo piano y un
clarinete para cuartos de tono y compuso dos piezas para violonchelo y piano en
cuartos de tono (1906).
53. Willi von Moellendorf (Alemania): construy un pequeo armonio de cuartos de tono y
compuso unas cuantas piezas en cuartos de tono.
54. Joerg Mager (Alemania): compuso algunos estudios en cuartos de tono).
55. Alois Hba (Checoslovaco): (Vizovice, 1893-Praga, 1973) Compositor y terico
musical checoslovaco. Defensor del microtonalismo, hizo construir instrumentos
especiales y compuso segn las reglas establecidas en su obra Nuevas reglas
armnicas del sistema diatnico y cromtico sobre terceras, cuartas, sextas y
duodcimas de tono (1927).1
56. Ivan A. Wyschnegradsky (Rusia, 18931979): En 1932 public un libro titulado
"Manuel dharmonie quarts de ton". Hizo construir un piano en cuartos de tono que
tena tres teclados.
57. Ferruccio Busoni (Italia): hizo algunos experimentos infructuosos en la adaptacin de
un piano de tercios de tono, y para no comprometer los medios tonos propuso una
serie doble de tercios de tono (es decir, sextos de tono).
58. Hans Barth, que compuso un Concierto para piano en cuartos de tono y
cuerdas (1930).
59. Julin Carrillo (Mxico 1875-1965) Construy 16 pianos, arpas, flautas, guitarras y
cellos capaces de generar cuartos, octavos y hasta dieciseisavos de tono. Grab en
Pars obras en cuartos y octavos de tono, ofreci conciertos en Nueva York, Filadelfia,
Paris y Mxico adems de desarrollar la Teora del Sonido 13.
60. Grard Grisey, junto con Tristan Murail fundaron el movimiento espectral francs, el
cual fue caraterizado por la generacin de verticalidades que derivan de intervalos del
espectro armnico natural del sonido, el cual contiene alturas microtonales que se
estrechan siempre mas a partir del dcimo armnico en adelante.
61. Valeri Brainin (1948), 29-escala.
62. Francisco Guerrero (Espaa 1951-1997), quizs el ms importante compositor espaol
de la segunda mitad del Siglo XX, trabaj con sistemas en los cuales la abundancia
de alturas microtonales deriva de complejas frmulas matemticas y concepciones
fractales de los gestos sonoros.
63. Charles Antonio Loli Antequera (Per 1975) basado en Inducciones matemticas, serie
de armnicos, y la octava pitagrica, resumi escalas en relacin a la armona para
sistemas microtonales de divisiones en partes iguales de la octava con
aproximaciones a la quinta de armnicos y su escritura en el
"Pentadecagrama"(sistema de 15 lneas paralelas en grupos de 5 para una escala
tonal de 17notas). Puso en prctica los sistemas microtonales mediante software de
msica.Su primera composicin microtonal fue realizado en EL Vienna con un sistema
de 20 sonidos por octava llamado "Bidecafonico", actualmente desarrolla la
aplicacinde de su propuesta terica con instrumentos microtonales en 17edo y
29edo. www.microtonalismo.com
64. Javier Torres Maldonado (Mxico 1968) ha retomado algunas de las ideas propuestas
por Grisey llevndolas, en algunas de sus obras, a momentos de consonancia y
disonancia espectral que dependen de la sobreposicin de fragmentos de espectros
construidos sobre diferentes fundamentales, as como de otros sistemas que superan
el origen espectral de estos conceptos, como la contraccin inarmnica o diferentes
tcnicas combinatorias de intervalos ms pequeos que el semitono cromtico.
65. Walter Mack (Argentina 1975) basado en frmulas matemticas cre escalas para
mltiples sistemas microtonales. Cre un instrumento en un sistema de tercios de
tonos, y un instrumento que combina el sistema de 12 notas con el de 18 notas.
66. Trey Spruance (California 1969).
67. Armando Nava Loya (Mxico 1957) Difusor de la teora musical llamada Sonido 13 con
el instrumento musical llamado "Arpa Microintervlica, nico instrumento en el mundo
capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas.
68. King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard (Australia, 2017) Banda de rock psicodlico que
empez a explorar en este sonido con una coleccin de 5 discos.

Instrumentos microtonales[editar]

La Moodswinger, una ctara elctrica con un tercer puenteadicional, Yuri Landman, 2006.

Para el surgimiento de instrumentos microtonales sirvieron de impulso algunos


instrumentos electroacsticos de los aos 1920 que salan del temperamento de 12 sonidos.
Algunos ejemplos de instrumentos microtonales son:

las Ondas Martenot (utilizadas posteriormente por Olivier Messiaen e Ivn


Wischnegradsky, entre otros),
el trautonium (utilizado por Paul Hindemith),
la ondolina,
el teremn,
la Moodswinger, de Yuri Landman,
el Arpa microintervlica, inventada por el mexicano Oscar Vargas Leal, nico instrumento
en el mundo capaz de producir 909 sonidos en nueve llamadas octavas,
la dinarra, una guitarra dinmica microtonal, inventada por el uruguayo Eduardo Sbat-
Garibaldi,
la tetarra, guitarra microtonal inventada por el ecuatoriano Lucho Enrquez.
el trombn
Todos los instrumentos de cuerda que no estn divididos por trastes son capaces de
microtonalismo.

Msica experimental[editar]
Algunos msicos utilizaron los nuevos intervalos como enriquecimiento casual de la
composicin ms que como nuevos sistemas musicales, como el rumano George
Enescu(1881-1955) y el hngaro Bela Brtok (1881-1945). Pero el inters estaba tan presente
que en 1922 Alois Hba asisti a un Congreso Internacional de Compositores de Cuartos de
Tono y al ao siguiente daba clases de cuartos de tono en el conservatorio de Praga. Julin
Carrillo publica su Teora microtonal llamada "Sonido 13" en Nueva York hacia el ao 1916.
Posteriormente grab varias composiciones en Cuartos, Octavos y Dieciseisavos de Tono en
Pars, despus de varios conciertos realizados desde 1925. En el Per, el Compositor
nasqueo Miguel Oblitas Bustamante (1964), ha empleado microtonos en su Sinfona "Las
Pampas de Nasca" (1984), escrita para cantantes solistas, Coro, Antaras de cermica, Banda
militar y Orquesta Sinfnica.

Teora[editar]
A principios del siglo XX, los msicos empezaron a estudiar la posibilidad de ampliar la riqueza
del temperamento de doce sonidos empleando tercios y cuartos de tono, y este mismo inters
los llev a estudiar la msica india, rabe, eslovaca, rumana, hngara, as como a estudiar a
esos tericos del pasado para integrar a la msica occidental los nuevos intervalos.
Evidentemente el inters de los msicos del siglo XX y los de siglos anteriores era diferente:

En la antigedad, los intervalos surgan como el reflejo de un sistema diatnico


transportado a diversas alturas, o de las 53 comas de Pitgoras.
En el siglo XX los intervalos surgan de la divisin intencional de la octava no en 12
semitonos, sino en 18 tercios de tono, o 24 cuartos de tono (incluso unos aos despus se
inst a dividir la escala en 17, 19, 20, 22, 27 o cualquier nmero de partes
llamadas microtonos).
La bsqueda fue ardua, pues los nuevos intervalos requeran

una notacin diferente,


instrumentos temperados (como el piano o la guitarra) que los produjeran y sirvieran de
gua a los no temperados (como violines y violonchelos) para la afinacin exacta,
nuevas reglas de armona y contrapunto y
la revisin de los fundamentos tericos del sistema de doce sonidos.
Los msicos que se ocuparon del asunto fueron muchos, algunos se conformaron con
especulaciones tericas, otros con unos cuantos ejercicios en instrumentos adaptados para tal
fin, y unos cuantos llevaron al lmite sus intentos construyendo nuevos instrumentos, creando
una nueva teora musical para microintervalos, componiendo una buena cantidad de obras y
presentndolas en conciertos.

Escalas microtonales y macrotonales[editar]


Antiguas[editar]
Algunas escalas tradicionales que no utilizan 12 semitonos por octava:

Escala javanesa Slendro tradicional, de 5 tonos.


Escala siamesa tradicional, de 7 tonos.
Raga Shruti, de 22 tonos (India).
Escala tailandesa tradicional, de 8 tonos.
Escala Nasca investigada por Miguel Oblitas Bustamante.
Lu, de 12 notas (en la Era Han, China).
Escala Persa de 17 tonos.
Escala Iraq Enarmnica de 8 tonos.
Occidentales[editar]
Estas son algunas de las escalas desarrolladas por importantes tericos o msicos:

Kimberger I, Kimberger II y Kimberger III (Johann Philipp Kirnberger), que son


temperamentos histricos parientes del mesotnico.
Sistema Euler Genos o Euler-Fokker Genera / Escala Octony (Leonhard Euler).
Escala modal de 9 tonos (Max Mreaux).
Escala de 29 tonos (Valeri Brainin).
Escala de 43 tonos (Harry Partch).
Escalas de Ervin M. Wilson:
Hexany, de 6 tonos.
Eikosany, de 20 tonos.
Dekatesserany, de 14 tonos.
Escala de 53 tonos (Larry Hanson).
Escala de 96 tonos, "Sonido 13" (Julin Carrillo).
Escala de 19 tonos (Joseph Yasser).
Escala de 23 tonos (Yuri Landman, Moodswinger).
Escalas prximas a quintas mltiplos de 12, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41, 53, propuesta terica de -
"Armona microtonal inductiva alfa edo" (Charles Loli).

Charles Edward Ives (Danbury, 20 de octubre de 1874 Nueva York, 19 de mayo de 1954)
fue un compositor estadounidense de msica clsica, reconocido como uno de los primeros de
trascendencia internacional.
La msica de Ives fue prcticamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras
permanecieron sin tocarse durante muchos aos. Con el tiempo, Ives llegara a ser
considerado como uno de los American Originals, un compositor que adopt un estilo
americano nico, con tonadas folclricas estadounidenses tejidas a largo de todas sus
composiciones, y una inquieta bsqueda por las posibilidades musicales. Sus obras ms
conocidas son La pregunta sin respuesta para orquesta y Sonata "Concord" para piano.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Biografa
2La msica de Ives
3Recepcin
4Lista de obras selectas
5Vase tambin
6Referencias
7Bibliografa
8Enlaces externos

Biografa[editar]
Sus padres fueron George Ives, un director de banda del Ejrcito de los Estados
Unidos durante la guerra civil estadounidense, y Mollie. Una experiencia significativa para
Charles durante su infancia fue el asistir a las festividades locales, en las que por las calles de
su ciudad la banda de su padre y otras bandas tocaban simultneamente, hecho recogido en
su composicin Three Places in New England, entre otras. Las nicas lecciones musicales
que recibi de su padre tambin tuvieron una gran importancia; George Ives tena una visin
muy abierta respecto de la teora musical, y animaba a su hijo a experimentar
en armonizacionesbitonales y politonales. De modo que Charles frecuentemente poda cantar
una meloda en una tonalidad, mientras su padre lo acompaaba en otra. Fue de la mano de
su padre que Charles tambin conoci la msica de Stephen Foster.1 Ives lleg a
ser organista de iglesia a los 14 aos y escribi varios himnos y canciones para los servicios
eclesiales, entre ellos sus Variations on "America" (Variaciones sobre "America").2
Ives se traslad a New Haven en 1893, gradundose en la Escuela Hopkins. Luego, en
septiembre de 1894, acudi a la Universidad de Yale, para estudiar con Horatio Parker. Aqu
compuso en un estilo coral semejante al de su maestro, escribiendo msica religiosa e incluso
en 1896 hizo una cancin para la campaa presidencial de William McKinley.3 El 4 de
noviembre de 1894 el padre de Charles muri, lo que signific un duro golpe para el
compositor, que haba idealizado a su padre, y de quien en cierta manera recogi la semilla de
la experimentacin musical comenzada por l.2 Ives emprendi el curso estndar en Yale,
llevando una extensa nmina de cursos, entre ellos griego, latn, matemticas y literatura. Fue
miembro de Delta Kappa Epsilon y de Wolf's Head, y presidente del Ivy Committee.3 Sus
obras Calcium Light Night y Yale-Princeton Football Game muestran la influencia que tuvo el
college en sus composiciones. Su Sinfona n. 1 la escribi como su tesis principal bajo la
supervisin de Parker.3

Ives alrededor de 1899.

En 1898, despus de su graduacin en Yale, acept un puesto de $5 semanales


como actuario en la Mutual Life Insurance Company de Nueva York, y se traslad a un
apartamento de soltero con varios amigos. Continu su trabajo como organista de iglesia
hasta 1906. En 1899 se cambi de empleo a la agencia Charles H. Raymond & Co., donde
permaneci hasta 1906. En 1907, despus de la quiebra de Raymond & Co., junto a su amigo
Julian W. Myrick formaron su propia agencia de seguros Ives & Co., que posteriormente se
convertira en Ives & Myrick, donde permaneci hasta su retiro.4 En su tiempo libre compona
y, hasta su matrimonio, trabaj como organista en Danbury y New Haven adems de
en Bloomfield, Nueva Jersey y Nueva York.3 En 1907, Ives sufri el primero de varios "ataques
cardiacos" (como l y su familia los consideraron) que tendra en los aos siguientes. Estos
ataques pueden haber sido ms de origen psicolgico que fsico. Al recuperarse de su ataque
de 1907, Ives entr en uno de los periodos ms creativos de su vida como compositor.
Despus de casarse con Harmony Twitchell en 1908,4 se trasladaron a su propio apartamento
en Nueva York. Tuvo un remarcable xito en su carrera como asegurador, y continu siendo
un prolfico compositor hasta que sufri otro de sus varios ataques al corazn en 1918,
despus del cual compuso muy poco, escribiendo su ltima obra, la cancin Sunrise, en
agosto de 1926.4 En 1922, Ives public sus 114 Songs que reflejan toda la amplitud de su
obra como compositor -- contiene canciones artsticas, canciones que compuso durante
su adolescencia y juventud, y canciones muy disonantes como The Majority.4
De acuerdo con su esposa, un da a inicios de 1927, mientras bajaba las escaleras de su casa
con lgrimas en los ojos, le dijo que ya no poda componer ms, "ya nada me suena bien". Ha
habido numerosas y avanzadas teoras para comprender el silencio de sus ltimos aos, que
parecen tan misteriosos como las ltimas dcadas de la vida de otro compositor,
el finlands Jean Sibelius, quien tambin dej de componer alrededor por el mismo tiempo. Si
bien Ives dej de componer, y fue cada vez ms afectado por sus problemas de salud,
continu revisando y refinando sus obras anteriores, adems de planificar los estrenos de su
msica.4 Despus de continuar sus problemas de salud, entre ellos la diabetes, en 1930 se
retir de su negocio de seguros, lo que le dio ms tiempo para dedicarse a su obra musical,
pero no fue capaz de componer nueva msica. Durantes los aos 1940 revis su Sonata
Concord, publicndola junto al volumen de prosas, Essays Before a Sonata en 1947.5
Ives muri en 1954 en Nueva York.

La msica de Ives[editar]
Ives fue educado en Yale, y su Sinfona n. 1 muestra su acogimiento a las frmulas
acadmicas requeridas para escribir en forma Sonata a fines del siglo XIX, as como un fulgor
iconoclasta, con un segundo tema que implica un direccin armnica distinta. Su padre era
director de banda, y como sucedi con Hector Berlioz, Ives tena una fascinacin por la msica
al aire libre y por la instrumentacin. Sus tentativas de fundir estos dos pilares musicales, y su
devocin por Beethoven, fijaran la direccin de su vida musical.
Ives public una gran coleccin de sus canciones, muchas de las cuales tenan
partes piansticas que recogen varios de los movimientos modernistas que se iniciaban
en Europa, entre ellos la bitonalidad y la pantonalidad. l era un dotado pianista, capaz
de improvisar en una gran variedad de estilos, incluyendo los que entonces eran
absolutamente nuevos. Aunque ahora es mejor conocido por su msica orquestal, compuso
dos cuartetos de cuerda y varias obras de msica de cmara. Su trabajo como organista lo
llev a escribir Variaciones sobre "Amrica" en 1891, que estrenara en un recital de
celebracin por el 4 de julio. Esta obra toma la meloda del himno nacional del Reino
Unido God Save the Queen, para una serie de variaciones bastante estndares pero
ingeniosas. Una de las variaciones es al estilo de una polonesa mientras que otra, agregada
aos despus de terminada la composicin original de la obra, es probablemente el primer uso
de la bitonalidad de Ives. William Schuman hizo un arreglo para orquesta de esta obra
en 1964 (vase [1]).
Ives compuso dos sinfonas, pero fue con The Unanswered Question (La pregunta sin
respuesta, 1908), escrita para la combinacin muy inusual de trompeta,
cuatro flautas y cuarteto de cuerda, que cre un maduro mundo sonoro que se convertira en
su estilo personal. Las cuerdas (ubicadas fuera de escena) tocan muy suavemente una
msica como de coral a lo largo de la obra, mientras que la trompeta (colocada detrs del
auditorio) toca varias veces un breve motivo que Ives describi como "la Eterna Pregunta de la
Existencia". Cada vez que la trompeta pregunta, recibe la respuesta de un estridente ataque
de las flautas (en escena), menos en la ltima, por ello el ttulo. La obra es tpica de Ives
yuxtapone varios elementos dispares, que aparecen conducidos por una narrativa de la que
nunca terminamos de estar conscientes, y es muy misteriosa. Posteriormente escribi una
versin orquestal que se convertira en una de sus obras ms populares.6
Obras como The Unanswered Question estuvieron ciertamente influidas por los
escritores trascendentalistas de Nueva Inglaterra, Ralph Waldo Emerson y Henry David
Thoreau.4 stos tuvieron una influencia muy importante para Ives, como lo reconoci en
su Sonata para piano n. 2: Concord, Mass., 184060 (190915), que describi como una
"impresin del espritu del trascendentalismo que est asociada en las mentes de muchos
con Concord, Mass., hace ms de medio siglo... recogidas en las imgenes impresionistas de
Emerson y Thoreau, un esbozo de los Alcotts, y un scherzo que supuestamente ha de reflejar
una ligera cualidad que a menudo se encuentra en el lado fantstico de Hawthorne."
La sonata es posiblemente la obra para piano solo ms conocida de Ives (aunque debera
observarse que tiene partes opcionales para viola y flauta). Rtmicamente y armnicamente,
es tpicamente aventurada, y demuestra el cario de Ives por las citas en varios momentos
aparece el motivo inicial de la Sinfona n. 5 de Beethoven. Tambin contiene algunos de los
ejemplos ms asombrosos de experimentalismo de Ives: en el segundo movimiento, ordena al
pianista que use una barra de madera de 14 pulgadas (37.5 cm) para producir un
gran clster.
Quizs la obra orquestal ms destacable de Ives sea su Sinfona n. 4 (191016). La lista de
fuerzas requerida para interpretar slo esta obra es extraordinaria; adems de una
inmensa orquesta sinfnica, la obra requiere una gran seccin de percusin, dos pianos (uno
afinado a un cuarto de tono del otro), un rgano, un grupo adicional de cuerdas a la distancia,
un gran coro, tres saxofones opcionales y finalmente un "rgano etreo" (no est muy claro a
qu se refera Ives con l, pero generalmente son usados un theremn o un sintetizador). El
programa de la obra recuerda al de The Unanswered Question Ives dijo que la obra es "una
pregunta que indaga sobre el 'Qu' y el 'Por qu' que el espritu humano pide de la vida". El
uso de la cita es tambin frecuente, y no se queda corta en efectos novedosos. Por ejemplo,
en el segundo movimiento, un tremolando es tocado por toda la orquesta. En el movimiento
final, hay una suerte de "lucha musical" entre sonidos discordantes y la msica tonal ms
tradicional. Eventualmente entra un coro sin palabras, el modo se hace ms calmado, y la
obra termina tranquilamente con la percusin sola tocando.
La sinfona no fue interpretada por completo hasta 1965, casi 50 aos despus de haber sido
terminada, 11 aos despus de la muerte del compositor.
Ives abandonara el material para su inconclusa Sinfona del Universo, que fue incapaz de unir
en vida pese a dos dcadas de trabajo. Esto se debi tanto a sus problemas de salud como a
su cambiante concepcin de la obra. Ha habido varios intentos de terminarla o realizar una
versin interpretable. Sin embargo, ninguna ha encontrado el modo de recibir una
interpretacin general.7 La sinfona toma las ideas de la Sinfona n. 4 pero en un nivel ms
elevado, con complejos ritmos cruzados, difciles capas de disonancias y combinaciones
inusuales de instrumentos.
Entre las obras de cmara de Ives est el Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2, donde las partes estn a
menudo escritas en los extremos del contrapunto, desde angulosas disonancias en el
movimiento titulado "Arguments" a lo trascendentalmente lento. Este rango por los extremos
es frecuente en la msica de Ives el fragor y la disonancia machacadoras con la quietud
lrica y conducido en una relacin de secciones que se van deslizando dentro y fuera de s
unas con otras. El idioma de Ives, como el de Mahler, emplea lneas meldicas bastante
independientes. Se considera difcil de tocar debido a que muchas de las tpicas seales para
los intrpretes no estn presentes. Esta obra tuvo una clara influencia sobre el Cuarteto de
cuerda n. 2 de Elliott Carter, que es similarmente una conversacin teatral a 4 voces.
Recepcin[editar]
La msica de Ives fue largamente ignorada durante su vida, y muchas de sus obras se
mantuvieron sin tocar por muchos aos. Su tendencia a la experimentacin y su uso cada vez
mayor de la disonancia no fue tomado a bien en el ambiente musical de su poca. Las
dificultades para ejecutar las complejidades rtmicas en sus principales obras orquestales las
convirtieron en desafos intimidantes incluso dcadas despus de haber sido compuestas.
Una de las palabras ms mordaces que se podra usar para describir la msica desde el punto
de vista de Ives es "bonita", y su famoso comentario "Usen sus odos como gente!" (use your
ears like men!) parece indicar que no se preocupaba por la recepcin de su msica. Sin
embargo, por el contrario, Ives estuvo interesado por la recepcin del pblico, pero en sus
propios trminos.
Entre los tempranos partidarios de su msica estuvieron Henry Cowell y Elliott Carter. Invitado
por Cowell a participar en su peridico New Music, un substancial nmero de partituras de
Ives fueron publicadas en el diario, pero durante alrededor de 40 aos tuvo pocas
interpretaciones que no pudo acordar o repetir, generalmente con Nicolas
Slonimskycomo director de orquesta.5
Su oscuridad empez a levantarse un poco por los aos 1940, cuando conoci a Lou
Harrison, un fan de su msica que comenz a editarla y a promoverla. Harrison dirigi muy
notablemente el estreno de la Sinfona n. 3 (1904) en 1946.8 Al ao siguiente, por esta obra
Ives obtuvo el Premio Pulitzer. Sin embargo, Ives se deshizo del premio monetario (la mitad se
lo dio a Harrison), diciendo que "los premios son para los chiquillos, y yo ya estoy grande"
(prizes are for boys, and I'm all grown up). Leopold Stokowski consigui no mucho despus
la Sinfona n. 4, y la consider como "el corazn del problema de Ives".
Por esta poca, Ives tambin fue promovido por Bernard Herrmann que trabajaba entonces
como director en la CBS, y que en 1940 se convirti en el director principal de la Orquesta
Sinfnica de la CBS. Mientras estuvo ah, fue defensor de la msica de Charles Ives.
El reconocimiento de la msica de Ives ha mejorado. Encontrara alabanzas de Arnold
Schoenberg, quien lo consider un monumento a la integridad artstica (vase Citas debajo), y
de la Escuela de Nueva York de William Schuman. En el presente, Michael Tilson Thomas es
un entusiasta exponente de las sinfonas de Ives como lo es el musiclogo Jan Swafford. La
obra de Ives es regularmente programada en Europa. Ives tambin ha inspirado a pintores,
notablemente a Eduardo Paolozzi quien titul una de sus colecciones de impresiones por
los aos 1970 Calcium Light Night, y cada una de ellas fue nombrada con una obra de Ives,
(entre ellas Central Park in the Dark).
Al mismo tiempo, Ives no est con sus crticos. Mucha gente an encuentra su msica
rimbombante y pomposa. Otras la encuentran, bastante extrao, tmida debido a que el sonido
fundamental de la msica tradicional europea an est presente en sus obras. El que fuese
una vez su partidario Elliott Carter ha considerado a la obra de Ives incompleta.

Lista de obras selectas[editar]


Nota: Debido a que Ives realiz con frecuencia distintas versiones de una misma obra, y
debido a que su obra fue generalmente ignorada durante su vida, a menudo es difcil colocar
una datacin exacta a sus composiciones. Los aos ofrecidos aqu son a veces las ms
probables. Hay incluso quienes especulan que Ives cambi intencionalmente las fechas de
sus propias obras, para indicar que eran ms tempranas o ms tardas de lo que originalmente
fueron.

Variaciones sobre "America" para rgano (1891)


Cuarteto de cuerda n. 1, "From the Salvation Army" (1896)
Sinfona n. 1 en Re menor (189698)
Sinfona n. 2 (18971901)
Sinfona n. 3, "The Camp Meeting" (190104)
Central Park in the Dark para orquesta de cmara (18981907)
The Unanswered Question para grupo de cmara (1908)
Sonata para violn n. 1 (190308)
Sonata para piano n. 1 (190209)
Sonata para violn n. 2 (190210)
Robert Browning Overture (1911)
A Symphony: New England Holidays (190413)
Cuarteto de cuerda n. 2 (190713)
Tro para piano (c190910, rev. c191415)
Set Orquestal n. 1: Three Places in New England (190321)
Sonata para violn n. 3 (1914)
Sonata para piano n. 2, "Concord, Mass., 184060" (190915) (revisada muchas veces
por Ives)
Set Orquestal n. 2 (191215)
Sonata para violn n. 4 "Children's Day at the Camp Meeting" (191215)
Sinfona n. 4 (191016)
Universe symphony (inconclusa, 191116, trabaj en la sinfona hasta su muerte en 1954)
114 Songs (compuestas en varios aos entre 1887 y 1921, publicadas en 1922.)
Tres piezas en cuartos de tono para piano (192324)
Old Home Days (para banda/ensamble, arreglos de Jonathan Elkus)

Ervin Wilson (June 11, 1928 December 8, 2016[1]) was a Mexican/American (dual
citizen) music theorist.

Contents
[hide]

1Early life
2Works
3Musicians influenced by Wilson
4References
5External links

Early life[edit]
Ervin Wilson was born in a remote area of northwest Chihuahua, Mexico, where he lived until
the age of fifteen. His mother taught him to play the reed organ and to read musical notation.
He began to compose at an early age, but immediately discovered that some of the sounds he
was hearing mentally could not be reproduced by the conventional intervals of the organ. As a
teenager he began to read books on Indian music, developing an interest in concepts of raga.
While he was in the Air Force in Japan, a chance meeting with a total stranger introduced him
to musical harmonics, which changed the course of his life and work. Influenced by the work
of Joseph Yasser, Wilson began to think of the musical scale as a living processlike a crystal
or plant. He has been mentor to many composers and instrument builders.
Works[edit]
Despite his avoidance of academia, Wilson has been influential on those interested
in microtonal music and just intonation, especially in the areas of scale, keyboard, and notation
design. Among his developments are Moments of Symmetry,[2][3] Combination Product
Sets,[4] Golden Horograms, scales based on recurrence relations (scales of "Mt. Meru"), and
mapping scales to the generalized keyboard. He cites Augusto Novaro and Joseph Yasser as
influences. Wilson built instruments and explored the resources of 31 and 41 equal divisions of
the octave. He supported the work of Harry Partch, helped build the Quadrangularis
Reversum,[5] and provided diagrams for Partch's book Genesis of a Music.
The goal of his research with scales is to make them musically accessible to the composer and
the listener. "I sculpt in the architecture of the scale. Other people come along and animate
it." [6]

Musicians influenced by Wilson[edit]


Warren Burt
Gary David
Kraig Grady[6]
Terumi Narushima
Rod Poole
Glen Prior
Paul Rapoport
Emil Richards
Marcus Satellite
Greg Schiemer
Ron Sword
Stephen James Taylor[7]
Daniel James Wolf

A p-limit rational number q can by definition be factored into primes of size less than or equal to p,
giving
q=2e23e35e5pep
where the exponents are integers (positive, negative, or zero.) This is often written in ket
vector (wp) notation as
|e2e3e5ep
in which case it is called a monzo, where the name refers to the enthusiastic advocacy of Joe
Monzo.

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|e2e3ep=|e2|+|e3|log23++|ep|log2p

which is a vector space norm; hence we may embed the p-limit monzos into a normed vector I
space of dimension n = (p) via a map M:monzos I. The monzos under this embedding now
define a lattice, which is a discrete subgroup spanning the finite dimensional real normed vector
space I. If we change coordinates by multiplying values in the coordinate belonging to the prime k
by log2(k), then the norm becomes the standard L1 norm. This vector space is Tenney interval
space, and the transformed coordinates with the standard L1 norm form the standard basis for
Tenney space. It should be noted that while monzos correspond uniquely to positive real numbers
(always rational numbers in the case of monzos), vectors in Tenney space do not. For instance,
while |1 0> represents 2, so does |0 log3(2)>.

Because of the mathematical advantages of Euclidean norms, a Euclidean norm is often placed on
the vectors in interval space instead of an L1 norm, in which case we have Tenney-Euclidean
interval space instead of Tenney interval space. Explicitly, if we take the monzo |e2 e3 ... ep> then
the Tenney-Euclidean norm, or TE norm, of it is
e22+(e3log23)2++(eplog2p)2
and if the coordinates are the weighted interval space coordinates, then the TE norm is
the standard Euclidean, or L2, norm.

Alternate Definition:
Given a rational number q, we can rewrite it in monzo form by the following definition:
q=|v2(q)v3(q)v5(q)vp(q)

The Tenney height of this monzo is given by


|v2(q)v3(q)vp(q)=|v2(q)|+|v3(q)|log23++|vp(q)|log2p

Where vp(q) is the p-adic valuation of q.

Example:
The 5-limit interval 16/15 factors as 2^4 3^(-1) 5^(-1), so it has a monzo representation of |4 -1 -1>.
In weighted coordinates, that becomes |4 -log2(3) -log2(5)>, approximately |4 -1.585 -2.322>.
The TE norm is therefore
(42+log2(3)2+log2(5)2)23.9034.889.

see also Fractional monzos, Vals and Tuning Space...


Vals and Tuning Space
Editar 4 47

Deutsch -

Definition | Vals and Monzos | Example

Definition
A val "maps" just intonation to a certain number of steps in a chain of generators; by putting vals
together we can define the mapping of a regular temperament and thereby define the temperament.
A val is written in the form <a1 a2 a3 ... ak|, where the numbers a1 a2 a3 ... are the number of steps
along the chain that the first k primes are mapped to. This can be generalized so that a1 a2 a3 ...
represent the number of steps any JI basis is mapped to, whereas a JI basis for a just intonation
subgroup is an independent collection of just intonation intervals, meaning that no one of them is a
product of the rest.

A rank r temperament has r generators, and thus is defined by r vals. In the usual coordinates for
the p-limit, the set of generators are the first k prime numbers and the set of vals for a p-limit
temperament gives you the coordinates for each prime harmonic in the p-limit. For example, all 5-
limit rank-1 temperaments, or equal temperaments, will be defined by a val <a b c|, where a is the
number of generators it takes to reach the 2nd harmonic (2/1), b is the number of generators to
reach the 3rd harmonic (3/1), and c is the number of generators it takes to reach the 5th harmonic
(5/1). All 5-limit rank-2 temperaments are defined by two vals: |<a1 b1 c1|, <a2 b2 c2|>. Now, we
locate the 2nd harmonic (2/1) with the 2-dimensional coordinates (a1, a2), sometimes written as |a1
a2>, meaning go up a1 of the first generator, and up a2 of the 2nd generator, to reach 2/1.
Similarly, the 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic will be reached by |b1 b2> and |c1 c2> respectively.

As an example, consider meantone temperament, where 81/80 vanishes. Meantone can be


considered a 5-limit rank-2 temperament, defined by the two-val mapping |<1 1 0|, <0 1 4|>. This
tells us just about everything we need to know about how the 5-limit is mapped in meantone: since
2/1 is mapped |1 0>, that tells us that the first generator is a 2/1, and since 3/1 is mapped to |1 1>,
that tells us that the 2nd generator is a 3/2; then, since 5/1 is mapped to |0 4>, aka four 3/2s up,
that tells us that 81/64 (which is (3/2)^4) equals 5/1 (which is 80/64). Since 81/64 is equated with
80/64 here, that tells us that 81/80 is tempered out! Thus it is possible to derive from the mapping
the approximate size of the two generators, the commas that are tempered out, and roughly the
complexity of the temperament (the number of notes of the temperament we need to reach all the
prime harmonics in the p-limit). This makes the val an extremely compact and useful bit of notation
for describing regular temperaments, since we can readily find where all of the primes are mapped
along the temperament's chain of generators essentially at a glance.

Whenever one of the generators of a temperament is a 2/1 the key information is carried by the
other vals, assuming octave equivalence (i.e. 3/1=3/2=6/1 etc). Thus the essential character of 5-
limit meantone is defined by a single val (the one for the 3/2 generator), written <0 1 4|.

Defintion for mathematicians


The p-limit monzos M form a free abelian group, or -module, of finite rank pi(p), which is the
number of primes up to and including p. The dual -module M* is isomorphic to M, but not in a
canonical way. Hence it, the group (Z-module) of vals, is also a free abelian group of rank pi(p).
Just as monzos are often written as kets, vals are typically written as bras. Vals are
homomorphisms from a subgroup of finite rank of *, the abelian group of the positive rational
numbers under multiplication, to the integers . The number theorist Yves Hellegouarch seems to
have been the first to write about them, under the name "degrees".

Vals and Monzos


If V is a val and M is a monzo of the same rank, then the angle bracket <V|M>, which can also be
written V(M), is the result of applying the homomorphism V to M. For example, if V = <12 19 28 34|
and M = |-5 2 2 -1> then <V|M> equals 12*(-5) + 19*2 + 28*2 - 34 = 0

This tells us that in septimal 12 equal, represented by V, the interval 225/224, represented by M, is
mapped to 0, which represents 1. Hence, 225/224 vanishes in septimal 12 equal; it is in
the kernel of V. One should note in particular that the coordinates of V represent where the
successive primes 2, 3, 5 and 7 are mapped.

By embedding the monzos into a suitable vector space, norms may be placed on the monzos in
various ways, turning them into lattices in a vector space. Given a vector space norm on a space of
ket vectors, the dual vector space norm on the space of bra vectors is defined as the least quantity
||V|| making

|<V|M>| ||V|| ||M||

to be always true. The dual of the L1 norm is the Linfty norm, and the dual space of Tenney interval
space is Tenney tuning space. The embedding of monzos into a real normed vector space
automatically induces a dual embedding of vals into a corresponding normed vector space, tuning
space, in which vals are lattice points. The dual norm to the L2 norm is the L2 norm, and the dual
space to Tenney-Euclidean interval space is Tenney-Euclidean tuning space. The Euclidean norm
on a val v is given by

\displaystyle
||v|| = \sqrt{\left({\frac{v_2}{log_2(2)}\right)^2 + \left({\frac{v_3}{log_2(3)}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{v_5}{log_2(5)}\righ
t)^2 + ... + \left(\frac{v_p}{log_2(p)}\right)^2
%original was ||v|| = sqrt(v2^2 + (v3/log2(3))^2 + ... + (vp/log2(p))^2)

It useful to renormalize to the RMS (root mean square) instead, which requires dividing the above
by sqrt(n), where n = pi(p) is the number of primes up to p. This is the TE, or Tenney-Euclidean,
norm.

It should be noted that despite the name, only vectors in a small region of tuning space can
reasonably be considered to be tunings. These are the points in tuning space close to the JI point,
or JIP, which in weighted coordinates is <1 1 1 ... 1|. It has the property that if M is a monzo in
weighted coordinates, then <JIP|M>, or JIP(M) if you prefer, is exactly the log base two of the
interval M represents, hence the name. In unweighted coordinates, JIP = <1 log2(3) ... log2(p)|, and
applied to a monzo this gives the log base two of the corresponding interval.
Example
The rank-1 7-limit patent val corresponding to 31edo is <31 49 72 87|. This tells us that 31 steps
reaches the 2, approximately 49 the 3, 72 the 5, and 87 the 7. In weighted coordinates, it becomes

3149log2(3)72log2(5)87log2(7)

which is approximately <31.000 30.916 31.009 30.990|. The standard Euclidean norm would then
be the square root of the sum of squares of this vector, which is approximately sqrt(3838.694), or
61.957. To use the RMS we divide that by sqrt(4)=2, giving 30.976 for the TE norm. Note that the
TE norm for this val is approximately 31.

Periodic scale
Editar 0 51

Table of Contents
Definition

Rotations

Classes

Scale properties

Constant Structure

Propriety

Epimorphism

Myhill's property

Distributional evenness

Convexity

Maximal evenness

Numerical properties

See also

Definition
A periodic scale may be defined in mathematical language as a type of quasiperiodic function from
the integers to musical intervals; the integers in this case formalize the notion of "scale degrees."
Musical intervals may be written either additively or multiplicatively, and we will assume an additive
notation is used, and that intervals are given by positive or negative real numbers with values in
cents. In this case, a periodic scale s has a nonzero quasiperiod P and repetition
interval O satisfying the following conditions

(1) s[0]=0

(2) s[i+P]=s[i]+O

Scales written in the widely used Scala format are implicitly assumed to be periodic, with the
repetition interval equal to the last scale entry, and the period equal to the number of notes (on the
second line) of the scale. Informally, a periodic scale could be defined as the kind of scale a Scala
.scl file is intended to denote. Of course, since arbitrarily high and low pitches go beyond the range
of human hearing, this definition is a mathematical idealization, but it is much simpler to adopt the
idealization than to worry about that. Neither Scala nor the above definition assumes that the scales
are monotonically strictly increasing, but this condition, giving a monotone periodic scale, is often
important to add:

(3) i<j implies s[i]<s[j]

Rotations
By a rotation or mode of a periodic scale s is meant a scale r such that r[i] = s[i + N] - s[N],
where N is a fixed integer. Since s[i + P] - s[P] = s[i] there are only a finite number of rotations,
equal to the number of notes of the scale reduced to the range of the interval of equivalence, 0 s[i]
< O, which entails 0 i < P.

Classes
We may define an important function class(i) on the integers which gives the generic intervals of a
periodic scale. This is defined by s[j] - s[i] is in class(k) if j - i = k. Since s is quasiperiodic, class(nP)
consists only of {nO}, but the rest define sets of numbers in terms of which we can define some
important scale properties.

Scale properties
Constant Structure
If interval classes are disjoint, then the scale is a constant structure. In other words, constant
structure (a term coined by Erv Wilson) means that ij implies class(i) class(j) = . In academic
music theory, this is called the partitioning property.

Propriety
If s is monotone, and if i j implies every element in class(i) is less than or equal to every element
in class(j), then s is (Rothenberg) proper. If i < j implies every element in class(i) is strictly less than
every element in class(j), then s is strictly proper. In academic music theory circles, strict propriety is
most often called coherence. Note that strict propriety implies constant structure.

The set {s[i] | i} generates a group G, the group of the scale; this is a free, finitely generated
subgroup of the reals . The rank of the scale is the rank of G.
Epimorphism
If there exists a homomorphism h: G so that h(s[i]) = i, then s is weakly epimorphic with the
homomorphism h. If s is monotone and weakly epimorphic, it is epimorphic. An important special
case is where G is a JI group and h is a val. Epimorphic scales in this restricted sense were
apparently first considered by Yves Hellegouarch. The name comes from the fact that h is an
epimorphism onto .

Myhill's property
A monotone scale in which every class but classes nP have exactly two elements has Myhill's
property. If every such class has exactly three elements, it has the trivalence property. Myhill's
property is synonymous with strict MOS, though some authors prefer to identify MOS itself with
Myhill's property.

Distributional evenness
A monotone scale in which every class comes in exactly n elements is n-distributionally even, or n-
DE. If n=2, then we can simply say that it is distributionally even. Distributional evenness is also
synonymous with MOS, though some authors prefer a stricter definition of MOS identifying it with
Myhill's property.

Convexity
The scale is convex if every convex combination of notes, meaning every -linear combination of
scale notes, is a scale note. If the quasiperiod P is normalized so as to be positive and minimal, this
is equivalent to the condition that the equivalence classes of the notes modulo the repetition
interval O is a -polytope in the lattice defined by a basis for G mod O.

Maximal evenness
Maximally even scales of n notes in m edo are any mode of the sequence ME(n, m) = [floor(i*m/n) |
i=1..n], where the "floor" function rounds down to the nearest integer.

Numerical properties
Scale diversity
Lumma stability

See also
Scale properties simplified
Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].
And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:

7. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
8. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.
For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

4. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

4. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1


local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

4. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

4. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

4. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

4. convergent list for z

local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

4. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

4. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

4. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

4. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

4. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

4. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

4. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

4. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

4. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

4. inverse ? function
local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

Mathematics of MOS
Editar 0 5

Mathematical Definition of MOS | Mathematical Properties of MOS | Visualizing MOS: Generator


Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies | Classification of MOS | Algorithms

Mathematical Definition of MOS


An MOS specifically consists of:

1. A period "P" (of any size but most commonly the octave or a 1/N fraction of an octave)
2. A generator "g" (of any size, for example 700 cents in 12 equal temperament) which is added
repeatedly to make a chain of scale steps, starting from the unison or 0 cents scale step, and then
reducing to within the period
3. No more than two sizes of scale steps (Large and small, often written "L" and "s")
4. Where each number of scale steps, or generic interval, within the scale occurs in no more than
two different sizes, and in exactly two if the interval is not a multiple of the period except in such
cases as an ET.
5. The unison or starting point of the scale is then allowed to be transferred to any scale degree--all
the modes of an MOS are legal.

Condition Four is Myhill's property where, as a periodic scale, the scale has every generic interval
aside from the initial unison interval and intervals some number of periods from it having exactly two
specific intervals. Another characterization of when a generated scale is a MOS is that the number
of scale steps is the denominator of a convergent or semiconvergent of the ratio g/P of the
generator and the period.

These conditions entail that the generated scale has exactly two sizes of steps when sorted into
ascending order of size, and usually that latter condition suffices to define a MOS. However, when
the generator is a rational fraction of the period and the number of steps is more than half of the
total possible, a generated scale can have only two sizes of steps and the pseudo-Myhill property,
meaning that not all non-unison classes have only two specific intervals.

Mathematical Properties of MOS


Let us represent the period as 1. This would be the logarithm base 2 of 2 if the period is an octave,
or in general we can measure intervals by the log base P when P is the period. Suppose the
fractions a/b and c/d are a Farey pair, meaning that a/b < c/d and bc - ad = 1. If g = (1-t)(a/b) + t(c/d)
for 0 t 1, then when t = 0, the scale generated by g will consist of an equal division of 1
(representing P) into steps of size 1/b, and when t = 1 into steps of size 1/d. In between, when t =
b/(b + d), we obtain a generator equal to the mediant (a + c)/(b + d) and which will divide the period
into b+d equal steps. For all other values a/b < g < c/d we obtain two different sizes of steps, the
small steps s, and the large steps L, with the total number of steps b+d, and these scales are the
MOS associated to the Farey pair. When g is between a/b and (a + c)/(b + d) there will be b large
steps and d small steps, and when it is between (a + c)/(b + d) and c/d, d large steps and b small
ones.

While all the scales constructed by generators g with a/b < g < c/d with the exception of the mediant
which gives an equal temperament are MOS, not all the scales are proper in the sense of
Rothenberg. The range of propriety for MOS is (2a + c)/(2b + d) g (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), where MOS
coming from a Farey pair (a/b, c/d) are proper when in this range, and improper (unless the MOS
has only one small step) when out of it. If (2a + c)/(2b + d) < g < (a + 2c)/(b + 2d), then the scales
are strictly proper. Hence the diatonic scale in 12et, with generator 7/12, is proper but not strictly
proper since starting from the pair (1/2, 3/5) we find the range of propriety for these seven-note
MOS to be [5/9, 7/12].

Given a generator g, we can find MOS for g with period 1 by means of the semiconvergents to g. A
pair of successive semiconvergents have the property that they define a Farey pair, and when g is
contained in the pair, that is, a/b < g < c/d, we have defined a MOS for g with b+d as the number of
notes in the MOS, with b notes of one size and d of the other.

For example, suppose we want MOS for 1/4-comma meantone. The generator will then be
log2(5)/4, which has semiconvergents 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 7/12, 11/19, 18/31, 29/50, 47/81, 65/112...
If we settle on 31 as a good size for our MOS, we see 18/31 is the mediant between the Farey pair
11/19 and 7/12, for which the range of strict propriety is 29/50 < x < 25/43. Since g is in that range
and not equal to 18/31, we will get a strictly proper MOS.

Visualizing MOS: Generator Chains, Pitch Space, and Hierarchies


As MOS Scales are generated by repeated iterations of a single interval, the generator, it is useful
to visualize a contiguous "generator chain" that organizes the scale. For example, if the generator is
some kind of perfect fifth, then the generator chain is a chain of fifths: FCGDAEB. We know that
adjacent tones in the chain are a perfect fifth apart (possibly with octave-displacement), eg. F to C,
and that tones two spaces away are some kind of second or ninth apart, eg. F to G. It is clear from
the chain that B to F is *not* a perfect fifth, but must be something else (unless the chain closes to
form a circle, as would be the case in 7edo). The generator chain shows us that every interval of the
MOS scale represents a move on the generator chain some number of generators up or down.

Another common way to view the tones of an MOS scale is as points in logarithmic pitch space,
with larger gaps between points representing larger intervals and smaller gaps between points
representing smaller intervals. Then we see that our scale has large steps and small steps and
intervals that are composed of some stackings of large and small steps. It is not obvious, looking at
the generator chain or looking at the tones in pitch space, what the relationship is. Indeed, it is
different for different MOS scales -- an "L" will not always represent the same number of generators
up or down when we move to a different scale.

Since the generator chain and logarithmic pitch space are both 1-dimensional, it may be helpful to
graph them together in 2 dimensions. Here is a diagram for sensi[8], an octatonic 3L 5s MOS scale
with a generator of about 444. The x-axis shows the generator chain and the y-axis shows the
nine tones (eight plus octave) in logarithmic pitch space. You can see that the vertical lines are
evenly-spaced (since every generator is the same), while the horizontal lines have large and small
gaps, representing the large and small steps of sensi[8].

And another way to visualize MOS scales is hierarchically. Every MOS scale with 3 or more tones:
7. contains at least one MOS scale with fewer tones (and in fact, more than one instance of it), and
8. is contained (more than once) in either
1. an MOS scale with more tones, or
2. an equal scale (when L:s = 2:1).

Below is a diagram showing four MOS scales in logarithmic pitch space generated by
7\37edo (approx. 227). Each contains the ones above it and is contained by the ones below it.
There are additional MOS scales that would appear above the first line with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tones,
but they have been omitted. The bottom line is a case where L:s=2:1, which means that there are
no more MOS scales to be had -- the next stopping point is at a complete chromatic scale of 37edo.

For more images showing the hierarchical arrangement of MOS scales, see MOS scales of
17edo, 31edo MOS scales, MOS Scales of 37edo, and MOS Scales of 127edo.

Classification of MOS
Since MOS scales always consist of some number of large steps and some number of small steps,
they can be classified simply by the number of large steps and the number of small steps, in the
form #L#s--e.g., the diatonic scale can be described as 5L2s (5 large steps and 2 small steps) or
simply [5, 2]. It is typical to ignore the period when specifying MOS scales and instead use the
number of large and small steps that make up the interval of equivalence (typically assumed to be
the octave--a frequency ratio of 2/1--unless otherwise specified). For instance, the diminished scale
in 12-TET is typically classified as 4L4s rather than 1L1s, since there are 4 large and 4 small steps
that make up an octave.

Alternatively, we could give a mediant for a Farey pair associated to the MOS, where this mediant is
less than any generator for the MOS. In other words, we use the right hand part of the Farey pair
interval, which means we must replace g with 1-g and use the complementary pair if g is in the left
hand side. This method is rarely used in discussions, however.

The two systems are equivalent; in the Algorithms section you will find code for routines starting
from the mediant and going to the Ls pair (the "Ls" routine) and for starting from an Ls pair and
going to the mediant (the "medi" routine.) The Ls routine uses modular inverses, whereas the medi
routine uses continued fractions.

If the period is assumed to be 2^(1/n) for some integer n, we can give instead the total number of
large and small steps in the octave, instead of just the period, and this is commonly done. In this
case, GCD(L, s) gives the number of periods in an octave.

Classification via the ? function


Yet another way of classifying MOS is via Minkowski's ? function. Here ?(x) is a continuous
increasing function from the real numbers to the real numbers which has some peculiar properties,
one being that it sends rational numbers to dyadic rationals. Hence if q is a rational number 0 < q <
1 in use in the mediant system of classifying MOS, r = ?(q) = A/2^n will be a dyadic rational number
which can also be used. Note that the ? function is invertible, and it and its inverse function, the Box
function, have code given for them in the algorithms section at the bottom of the article.

The integer n in the denominator of r (with A assumed to be odd) is the order (or n+1 is, according
to some sources) of q in the Stern-Brocot tree. The two neighboring numbers of order n+1, which
define the range of propriety, can also be expressed in terms of the ? and Box functions as Box(r -
2^(-n-1) and Box(r + 2^(-n-1)). If r represents a MOS, the range of possible values for a generator of
the MOS will be Box(r) < g < Box(r + 2^(-n)), and the proper generators will be Box(r) < g < Box(r +
2^(-n-1)). So, for example, the MOS denoted by 3/2048 will be between Box(3/2048) and
Box(4/2048), which means that 2/21 < g < 1/10, and will be proper if 2/21 < g < 3/31. Hence 7/72, a
generator for miracle temperament, will define a MOS but it will not be proper since 7/72 > 3/31 =
Box(3/2048 + 1/4096)).

MOS in equal temperaments


In an equal temperament, all intervals are integer multiples of a smallest unit. If the equal
temperament is N-EDO and the period is an octave, the sizes of the large and small steps will be
p/N and q/N, with p > q. We then have L(p/N) + s(q/N) = 1, which on multiplying through by N gives
us

Lp + sq = N.

which is a linear diophantine equation. Solving this by standard methods, and requiring L and s to
be positive, gives us the [L, s] pair for the MOS. If some other quantity of equal steps gives the
period, we may make the appropriate adjustment.

Blackwood R constant
In the context of the "recognizable diatonic" scales deriving from the Farey pair [1/2, 3/5] Easley
Blackwood Jr. defined a characterizing constant R which we may generalize to any MOS as follows.
If a/b < g < c/d is a generator with the given Farey pair, take the ratio of relative errors R = (bg -
a)/(c - dg). Since this is a ratio of positive numbers, it is positive. As g tends towards a/b it tends to
zero, and as g goes to c/d R goes to infinity. When g equals (a + c)/(b + d) it takes the value 1, and
the range of propriety is 1/2 <= R <= 2.

When R is less than 1, it represents the ratio in (logarithmic) size between the smaller and the
larger step. When it is greater than 1, it is larger/smaller. By replacing g with 1 - g if necessary, we
can reduce always to the case where R>1 (or R<1 if we prefer.)

Algorithms
Below is some Maple code for various mathematical routines having to do with MOS. If you have
access to Maple, you can of course copy and run these programs. Even if you do not, since Maple
code makes better pseudocode than most languages or computer algebra packages afford, it can
be used as pseudocode. For that purpose, it will be helpful to know that "modp(x, n)" means
reducing x mod the integer n to 0, 1, ..., n-1 not only when x is an integer, but also when it is a
rational number with denominator prime to n. In that case, p/q mod n = r means p = qr mod n.

log2 := proc(x)

4. logarithm base 2

evalf(ln(x)/ln(2)) end:

nextfarey := proc(q, n)

4. next in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q >= (n-1)/n then RETURN(1) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n + 1/a, b);
r := modp(1/b, s);
r/s end:

prevfarey := proc(q, n)

4. previous in row n of Farey sequence from q, 0 <= q <= 1

local a, b, r, s;
if q=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
if n=0 then RETURN(0) fi;
a := numer(q);
b := denom(q);
s := n - modp(n - 1/a, b);
r := modp(-1/b, s);
r/s end:

fareypair := proc(q)

4. Farey pair with q as its mediant

local n;
n := denom(q);
[prevfarey(q, n), nextfarey(q, n)] end:

mediant := proc(u, v)

4. mediant of two rational numbers u and v

(numer(u) + numer(v))/(denom(u) + denom(v)) end:

convergents := proc(z)

4. convergent list for z


local q;
convert(z,confrac,'q');
q end:

exlist := proc(l)

4. expansion of a convergent list to semiconvergents

local i, j, s, d;
if nops(l)<3 then RETURN(l) fi;
d[1] := l[1];
d[2] := l[2];
s := 3;
for i from 3 to nops(l)-1 do
for j from 1 to (numer(l[i])-numer(l[i-2]))/numer(l[i-1]) do
d[s] :=
(j*numer(l[i-1])+numer(l[i-2]))/(j*denom(l[i-1])+denom(l[i-2]));
s := s+1 od od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

semiconvergents := proc(z)

4. semiconvergent list for z

exlist(convergents(z)) end:

penult := proc(q)

4. penultimate convergent to q

local i, u;
u := convergents(q);
if nops(u)=1 then RETURN(u[1]) fi;
for i from 1 to nops(u) do
if u[i]=q then RETURN(u[i-1]) fi od;
end:

Ls := proc(q)

4. large-small steps from mediant q

local u;
u := fareypair(q);
[denom(u[2]), denom(u[1])] end:

medi := proc(u)

4. mediant from Large-small steps

local q, r;
if u[2]=1 then RETURN(1/(u[1]+1)) fi;
r := igcd(u[1], u[2]);
if r>1 then RETURN(medi([u[1]/r, u[2]/r])) fi;
q := penult(u[1]/u[2]);
if q > u[1]/u[2] then RETURN((numer(q)+denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2])) fi;
(u[1]+u[2]-numer(q)-denom(q))/(u[1]+u[2]) end:

Lsgen := proc(g, n)

4. given generator g and scale size n determines large-small steps

local q, u, w;
q := round(n*g)/n;
w := n/denom(q);
u := fareypair(q);
if g<u[1] or g>u[2] or g=q then RETURN('false') fi;
if g<q then RETURN([w*denom(u[1]), w*denom(u[2])]) fi;
[w*denom(u[2]), w*denom(u[1])] end:

revlist := proc(l)

4. reverse of list

local i, v, e;
e := nops(l);
for i from 1 to e do
v[i] := l[e-i+1] od;
convert(convert(v,array),list) end:

invcon := proc(l)

4. inverse continued fraction

local d, i, h, k;
h[-2] := 0;
h[-1] := 1;
k[-2] := 1;
k[-1] := 0;
for i from 0 to nops(l)-1 do
h[i] := l[i+1]*h[i-1] + h[i-2];
k[i] := l[i+1]*k[i-1] + k[i-2];
d[i+1] := h[i]/k[i] od;
convert(convert(d, array), list) end:

quest := proc(x)

4. Minkowski ? function

local i, j, d, l, s, t;
l := convert(x, confrac);
d := nops(l);
s := l[1];
for i from 2 to d do
t := 1;
for j from 2 to i do
t := t - l[j] od;
s := s + (-1)^i * 2^t od;
if type(x, float) then s := evalf(s) fi;
s end:

Box := proc(x)

4. inverse ? function

local d, e, i, n, w, y;
if type(x, integer) then RETURN(x) fi;
y := x-floor(x);
if y = 1/8 then RETURN(floor(x)+1/4) fi;
w := round(log2(10)*Digits)-5;
n := round(2^w * y);
i :=0;
while n>0 do
i := i+1;
if modp(n,2)=0 then
d[i] := padic[ordp](n, 2);
n := n/2^d[i];
else
d[i] := padic[ordp](n+1, 2);
n := (n-2^d[i]+1)/2^d[i] fi od;
e := convert(convert(d, array), list);
e := subsop(1=NULL,e);
w := ceil(-log2(y));
e := [op(e), w];
e := [op(e), floor(x)];
e := revlist(e);
n := invcon(e);
w := n[nops(n)];
if type(x, rational) and modp(denom(x), 2)=0 then RETURN(w) fi;
evalf(w) end:

También podría gustarte