32l Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm.

l0, 200l, 32l-336

Icononia, Sociedad y Territorio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336.
Islamic ideology and its formative
influence on education in
contemporary Iran
HOSSEIN CODAZCAR
`
Abstract
Despire rhe iiuiculous claims on rhe uemise o ieligion in human be-
ings` eveiyuay lie in rhe shiunk mouein woilu, irs conrinuous anu
signiicanr iole has been consiueiable in oiming new social oims co-
iiesponuenr ro Islamic iequiiemenrs since Islamic ievolurion o l99.
The unueniable iole o Islamic iueology, howevei, has alieauy been
pioveu by rhe Consrirurional Revolurion (l905-l9ll), narionalizarion
movemenr (l95l-l952), rhe upiising o l963 anu inally rhe appea-
iance o Islamic Revolurion (l98-l99) arei all arremprs maue un-
uei rhe Pahlavi uynasry rowaius moueinizarion, wesreinisarion anu
seculaiisarion o rhe counriy uuiing lasr cenruiy.
The main aim is ro exploie rhe inluence o iueas anu values on rhe
uevelopmenr o social sriucruies anu piocesses. In oiuei ro examine
rhe uegiee ro which rhese iuearional acrois inluenceu Iianian posr-
ievolurionaiy euucarional sysrem, I conuucreu rwo ieluwoiks in a iu-
ial aiea o Noirh Wesrein Iian baseu on erhnogiaphic sruuy o ieli-
gion anu eveiyuay lie in l995-l996. The ocus o rhis papei will be
rhe sruuy o changes rhar have occuiieu in school cuiiicula since l99.
Accoiuing ro inuings, rhe eecrs o rhe Islamic Revolurion on cuiii-
cula anu rexrbooks iepiesenr a pairiculai inreiesring compiomise ber-
ween aspecrs o riauirion anu aspecrs o moueiniry.
Keywords. Islam, euucarion, conrempoiaiy Iian, iueology anu values.
Resumen
Il principal objetito de este articulo es explorar la injluencia de las
ideas y los talores reliiosos en el desarrollo de las estructuras y los
procesos sociales ocurridos en Iran a partir de la retolucin islanica de
1979. Con el propsito de exaninar el rado en que estos jactores ideo-
licos ban injluido en el sistena educatito del Iran posretolucionario,
llet a cabo dos periodos de trabajo de canpo en una zona rural del
noroccidente de Iran, ennarcados en un estudio etnorajico sobre la
reliin y la tida cotidiana durante 1995 y 199. Iste articulo bace
njasis en el estudio de los canbios ocurridos en el curriculun escolar a
partir de 1979. De acuerdo con los ballazos, el ejecto de la Retolucin
Islanica en el curriculun y en los libros de texto representa un conpro-
niso interesante entre aspectos tradicionales y aspectos nodernos.
Pa/abras c/aue: Islan, educacin, Iran contenporaneo, ideoloia y ta-
lores.
` The Univeisiry o Tabiiz, Iin. Coiieo-e. Couazgai_rabiizu.ac.ii
322
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
1. Introduction
The ocus o rhis papei will be on rhe changes rhar have occuiieu
in school cuiiicula since l99. The uominanr rheme iunning
rhiough rhe papei will be rhe iueological piessuie ro make cuiii-
cula conoim wirh rhe new Islamic philosophy o euucarion. Be-
oie rhis rheme can be analyseu, howevei, ir is necessaiy ro give a
veiy biie accounr o rhe ieseaich merhous employeu in rhe co-
llecrion o inoimarion abour Iianian schools.
Mosr o rhe inoimarion on which rhe ollowing analysis o
cuiiiculai changes is baseu was collecreu in a iuial aiea o Noirh
Wesrein Iian baseu on an erhnogiaphic sruuy o ieligion anu eveiy-
uay lie in l995-l996. Alrhough I useu erhnogiaphic merhous in
oiuei ro capruie rhe meaning o eveiyuay human acriviries anu
auequarely unueisranu social piocesses, I also uiew upon ques-
rionnaiies, inreiviews, lie hisroiies, anu uocumenrs abour rhe
changes rhar hau occuiieu ovei rhe pievious rwenry yeais.
2. Textbooks and Curricua
The insrirurion o euucarion is baseu on srare policies anu supei-
vision ovei whar is raughr, who is raughr, anu who reaches borh
males anu emales. In mosr mouein socieries, euucarional poli-
cies aie uesigneu ro culrivare rhose human iesouices which go-
veinmenrs ueem necessaiy oi uesiiable. In conriasr ro rhe euuca-
rional policies o mosr uevelopeu anu ueveloping counriies, which
concenriare on riaining woikeis, Iianian euucarional policy pla-
ceu moie emphasis on rhe neeu oi riaining ieligiously commir-
reu, socially iesponsible anu airhul men anu women who su-
ppoir rhe Islamic goveinmenr.
Alrhough, because o rhe Islamic Revolurion o l99, rhe
srare-pioviueu rexrbooks weie alreieu in some ways, speciically
in rhe aiea o humaniries, rhese changes weie rhe same oi borh
giils anu boys. Alrhough rhe changes in cuiiiculum anu rexrbo-
oks aie supposeu ro be scienriic in some aspecrs, nobouy can
ignoie rhe piocess o poliricisarion anu Islamisarion o rhe whole
cuiiiculum, which has been going on since l99.
Arei rhe ievolurion, ma|oi changes occuiieu in rhe aieas
o Humaniries anu Social Economics, wirh some couises arriac-
ring moie arrenrion rhan orheis. The couises o hisroiy, philoso-
phy, Aiabic lireiaruie, Islamic euucarion, anu ro some exrenr rhe
couises o geogiaphy anu Peisian lireiaruie weie consiueieu rhe
323 Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
mosr suirable ielus wirhin which rhe polirical iueology o rhe
Islamic Republic coulu be culrivareu. I give you some examples.
2.1 History courses
In hisroiy couises arei rhe ievolurion, rhe sruuy o pie-Islamic
Iian was ieplaceu wirh rhe hisroiy o Islam, alrhough a biie his-
roiy o rhe Piopher hau been raughr uuiing rhe pie-ievolurionaiy
peiiou. Moieovei, rhe couise o conrempoiaiy hisroiy was raug-
hr complerely uieienrly in rhe Pahlavi peiiou. Iuirheimoie,
because o rhe ievolurion, rhe size o rhe hisroiy rexrbook inciea-
seu by abour one-rhiiu, anu is being incieaseu uirhei each yeai.
In auuirion ro rhe inciease o rhe hisroiy rexrbook`s size, rhe rime
allocareu ro rhe couise has also been incieaseu. Accoiuing ro my
inoimanrs, in rhe posr-ievolurionaiy euucarional sysrem, reaching
anu leaining hisroiy became one o rhe mosr impoiranr sub|ecrs
o all rhe acauemic bianches. This may have happeneu uue ro rhe
speciic arrenrion which rhe Qui`an pays ro rhe iole o hisroiy as
rhe main iesouice oi leaining iom rhe are o pasr communiries
anu riibes.
2.2 Pbi/osopby
The cuiiiculum o philosophy oi humaniries sruuenrs in rhe pie-
senr euucarional sysrem o Iian is moie geneiic rhan ir was beoie
rhe ievolurion (see Siasi l95 anu Abu-ralibi l994; anu Appen-
dix). This ieeis ro human knowleuge oi iueas abour whar is rhe
place o human beings in rhe woilu anu whar is valuable in lie in
rhe view o Islam, oi o rhose ancienr Cieek philosopheis nor
consiueieu inconsisrenr wirh Islam. This is in conriasr ro philoso-
phy couises raughr in rhe Wesr, which renu ro ask olu quesrions
by means o new pioceuuies ielareu ro iecenr social phenomena.
Rarhei, rhe philosophy couise in mouein Iian is uesigneu ro ies-
roie rhe `piiue o Iianian inrellecrualism` (which exisreu oi cen-
ruiies) by peiperuaring rhe Islamic philosophical uisciplines (bik-
nat-e eslani) (see Rahman l982. 35; l04-9). A pie-ievolurionaiy
philosophy rexrbook, which only conraineu uiscussions o Wes-
rein philosophy, was ieplaceu by rwo uieienr books enrirleu
Ibilosopby anu Acquaintance vitb Islanic Ibilosopby. The 59-
page rexrbook o philosophy oi rhiiu yeai sruuenrs o humani-
ries conrains ropics ielareu ro rhe meaning anu rhe iealm o phi-
losophy, anu rhe iueas o rhe eaily philosopheis Sociares, Plaro
324
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
anu Aiisrorle. The l56-page rexrbook `Acquainrance Wirh Isla-
mic Philosophy`, which is given exclusively ro Yeai-rwelve sru-
uenrs o humaniries, is similai in conrenr ro rheology.
2.3 Arabic /iterature
Aiabic lireiaruie, apair iom rhe couise o English Lireiaruie as a
Wesrein symbol, ieceiveu special arrenrion as a sacieu phenome-
non arei rhe Islamic Revolurion o l99. Leaining Aiabic Lire-
iaruie was iequiieu o humaniries sruuenrs beoie rhe ievolurion
because o irs speciic inluence on Peisian lireiaruie in posr-Is-
lam Iian, bur in rhe posr-ievolurionaiy euucarional sysrem o Iian,
because Aiabic was rhe language o ievelarion anu rhe Qui`an, ir
became a manuaroiy couise in all sub|ecrs oi all yeais iom rhe
guiuance level ro rhe enu o high school (see Khazaei l9l; Rea`ar
l993; anu Appendix). Alrhough rhe Islamic Republic useu rhe
Consrirurion ro ger all Iianians ro leain Aiabic, rhe euucarional
sysrem was roo weak ro pur rhis inro piacrice. Howevei, rhe use
o Aiabic reims in auminisriarive lerreis, anu reaching Aiabic li-
reiaruie in riauirional ieligious schools as well as rhe mouein
schools weie raken as signs o incieaseu ieligiosiry. The impoi-
rance o Aiabic is being incieaseu by rhe aurhoiiries yeai by yeai
so rhar rhe rexrbook`s size has uoubleu anu rwo houis pei week
have been auueu ro rhe Aiabic lireiaruie scheuule ar high school
since l993.
2.4 Re/igious education
The giearesr changes in rexrbooks piobably occuiieu in rhe sub-
|ecr o Religious Euucarion. The pie-ievolurionaiy rirle o Reli-
gious Euucarion was changeu ro Islamic Euucarion arei rhe Isla-
mic ievolurion, excepr in yeai-rwelve (oi yeai-oui o rhe
high-school) which kepr irs olu rirle unril abour l990. Howevei,
rhe conrenrs weie Islamic uuiing borh iegimes (see Shoai l968;
Sauar l993; anu Appendix). Besiues rhe uiamaric changes in rhe
conrenr o rhe rexrbooks, almosr all pie-ievolurionaiy ieligious
euucarion reacheis weie ieplaceu by new reacheis, iom any sub-
|ecr o sruuy, who weie loyal ro rhe Islamic values. Since ieligious
euucarion en|oyeu less impoirance rhan couises o air anu hanu-
wiiring uuiing rhe Shah`s peiiou, whichevei reacheis coulu nor
reach rhe main couises weie appoinreu ro reach ieligious euuca-
rion even i rhey hau no ieligious belies. Arei rhe ievolurion,
325 Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
howevei, ieligious euucarion was raken moie seiiously ar schools.
Accoiuing ro a reachei o Islamic Euucarion, while moial issues
oimeu rhe bulk o ieligious reachings beoie rhe ievolurion, posr-
ievolurionaiy Islamic euucarion rexrbooks conraineu rhe Islamic
woilu view anu iueology ro piorecr rhe young ievolurionaiy
geneiarion iom borh Wesrein anu Easrein iueologies, especially
Maixism, uue ro rhe high level o acriviry o uieienr lerisr gioups
in rhe eaily yeais o rhe ievolurion.
2.S lxtra-curricu/a actiuities
One o rhe euucarional aieas which became veiy acrive in a uie-
ienr way was Onur-e-tarbiati (exria-cuiiicula acriviries). This
aiea`s acriviry uuiing rhe ieign o rhe Shah was iesriicreu ro rhe
esrablishmenr o moining ceiemonies (assemblies) ar schools anu
rhe iegisriarion o some sruuenrs as rhe Coips Sruuenrs Danesb-
anuzan-e Iisb-aban who arrenueu uemonsriarions on public
holiuays uuiing rhe Shah`s iegime anu who uealr wirh airisric
|obs such as painring, hanuwiiring, poeriy anu icrional wiiring.
Arei rhe Islamic ievolurion o l99, rhe insrirurion expanueu irs
acriviry ro esrablishing Islamic ievolurionaiy values in schools,
anu was evenrually changeu ro Moial Euucarion. Howevei, ir
ieraineu irs rirle o onur-e tarbiati. Apair iom iniriaring moi-
ning ceiemonies in which Qui`anic veises weie ieau insreau o a
song oi rhe Shah, Moial Euucarion calleu sruuenrs ro arrenu noon
piayeis ar school wirh a cleigyman who hau been appoinreu by
rhe local euucarion Aurhoiiry (LEA) as an Inan-e janaat. Com-
peririons ro iecire rhe Qui`an, Nah|o`l-balagheh (rhe collecrion
o Imam Ali`s lerreis anu speeches) anu ro sing ievolurionaiy songs
weie auueu ro rhose o calligiaphy, painring, rhearie, book iea-
uing, poeriy anu sroiy wiiring. Ar rhe guiuance level, Moial Euu-
carion hau enreieu rhe yeai-six narional cuiiiculum, ieplacing
English lireiaruie arei l986-8, anu ir beneireu iom having a
oimal rexrbook in all yeais o rhe guiuance level iom l988-89
onwaius. Irs rimerable oi yeai-six was rwo houis pei week, anu
oi rhe orhei rwo guiuance-level yeais was one houi pei week.
Theie was no sysremaric cuiiiculum ro reach pupils, anu rhe les-
sons weie mosrly episremological in rhe iisr yeais arei l986-
8; bur now mosr lessons have moial aspecrs.
326
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
2.6 Geograpby course
As oi rhe couise on Ceogiaphy, alrhough some reacheis o rhe
sub|ecr rolu me rhar mosr changes in rhis aiea arei rhe ievolurion
weie because o new scienriic inuings, changes have been rowaius
moie human geogiaphy rhan physical, incluuing geomoiphology
anu climarology. Howevei, nobouy can ignoie rhe impacr o rhe
iuling polirical iueology on rhe rexrbooks` rirles anu rheii con-
renrs. Arei rhe ievolurion, a rexrbook calleu Tbe Georapby oj
Muslin Countries was auueu ro rhe narional rexrbooks ar high
school level. Howevei, rhis rexrbook was eliminareu iom rhe
narional rexrbooks pioviueu oi rhe New Sysrem o euucarion in
l992, anu anorhei rexrbook calleu Iolitical and Icononic Geo-
rapby ieplaceu ir. A secrion on polirical geogiaphy was auueu
oi rhe New Sysrem, in oiuei ro amiliaiize rhe sruuenrs wirh
polirics. Moieovei, anorhei rexrbook calleu Tbe Georapby oj
Continents was omirreu iom rhe seiies o rexrbooks pioviueu
oi rhe New Sysrem o euucarion by rhe goveinmenr, while rhe
rexrbook o General Georapby was almosr unalreieu. Concei-
ning rhe Georapby oj Iran rexrbook, rhe secrion on Naruial
Ceogiaphy iemaineu almosr rhe same, while a secrion on Hu-
man Ceogiaphy was complerely changeu arei rhe ievolurion.
2.7 Persian /iterature
In rhe ielu o Peisian Lireiaruie, rhe biggesr change arei rhe
ievolurion was in rhe acauemic sub|ecrs o Humaniries anu Social
Economy, wheie rheie weie incieases in rhe size o rexrbooks
anu scheuule, anu changes in rhe conrenr o rhe rexrbooks (see
BPET l96; BPET l99l; anu Appendix). Accoiuing ro a reachei
o Peisian lireiaruie, rhe rimerable oi Humaniries anu Social
Economy sub|ecrs incieaseu iom oui houis pei week beoie rhe
ievolurion ro six houis, oi yeais one ro rhiee, anu ro eighr houis
oi yeai-rwelve arei rhe ievolurion. The rimerable scheuule ie-
maineu rhe same, oui houis pei week, oi rhe acauemic bian-
ches o Expeiimenral Sciences (ulun-e tajrobi) anu Marh-Physics
(riazi-jizik), anu rhe changes in conrenr weie negligible. Howe-
vei, as was suggesreu ro me by some reacheis o Peisian lireiaru-
ie, rhe rime uevoreu ro lireiaruie was ieuuceu iom six ro oui
houis pei week oi yeais one ro rhiee, oi a while, by esrablishing
rhe vocarional piogiamme o `Taih-e Kau` in l982.
32 Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
In rhe opinion o rhe reacheis o Peisian lireiaruie, rhe con-
renr o posr-ievolurionaiy rexrbooks was rorally uieienr iom
pie-ievolurionaiy ones. One o rhem believeu rhar rhe lireiaruie
in rhe Shah`s peiiou imposeu blinu obeuience ro rhe Wesr in sru-
uenrs` biains in any possible way, anu rhar rhe sruuenrs rhoughr
rhar `rheie was anorhei woilu in rhe Wesr ro which rhey shoulu
have access`. He mainraineu rhar `in rhe lireiaruie o rhe rexrbook
o rhe vbite Retolution, rhe Shah appeaieu as rhe maniesrarion
o Cou`s will`. Bur arei rhe l99 ievolurion, in his view, lireiaru-
ie was piesenreu in Islamic oim. `Sruuenrs unueisroou rhar rhe-
ie weie sel-maue anu honouiable people in rhe counriy who
coulu inluence rhe counriy`s are, as became cleai in rhe Wai`,
he saiu ro me. He implicirly aumirreu rhar uaily polirical issues
aecr Peisian lireiaruie. `since nowauays rhe issue o culruial in-
vasion (tabajon-e jarbani) is an impoiranr one, eveiyrhing in
sociery is ieauy ro conrenu againsr ir, incluuing rhe rexrbooks in
geneial anu pairiculaily rhiough rhe mass meuia anu |ouinals`.
2.8 Humanities and socia/ sciences
Among couises on humaniries anu social sciences, some weie
changeu less rhan orheis menrioneu above, in reims o rimerable
scheuule, rhe size o rexrbooks oi rheii conrenrs. The impacr o
ieligious anu polirical iueology on rhe conrenr o social sciences
oi sociology rexrbooks was giearei rhan on orhei couises (see
Nezami-Taleshi l98; Ta|gaiam anu Qanui l99; anu Appendix).
Ioi insrance, rhe rime allorreu ro sociology since rhe ievolurion
has been uiamarically ieuuceu iom rhiireen houis pei week oi
all yeais ar high school unril l992-93, ro |usr oui houis unuei
rhe New Sysrem o euucarion. Moieovei, rhe pie-ievolurionaiy
rexrbook rirle o Socioloy changeu ro Social Sciences oi all rexr-
books, oi all sruuenrs in humaniries as well as in Social Econo-
mic sub|ecrs, excepr rhe yeai-rwelve rexrbook, which kepr rhe
rirle o Socioloy. The same happeneu in rhe uepairmenrs o so-
ciology ar all univeisiries in posr-ievolurionaiy Iian.
2.9 lconomics
Regaiuing Economics, ir shoulu be noreu rhar rhe oui pie-ievo-
lurionaiy acauemic sub|ecrs o sruuy o Social Economics (eqte-
sad-e ejtenaei), Humaniries (ulun-e ensani), Expeiimenral Scien-
ces anu Marh-Physics conrinueu arei rhe ievolurion unril abour
328
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
l993. Arei rhar uare, rhe iisr rwo sub|ecrs weie combineu ro
oim a sepaiare acauemic sub|ecr o Lireiaruie anu Humaniries
which, in rhe view o my inoimanrs, was moie abour humaniries
rhan economics. In rhe same way, rhe eailiei rexrbooks o Islanic
Icononics anu Icononic Groutb and Detelopnent in yeai-rwel-
ve weie ieplaceu by |usr one rexrbook calleu `Iianian Economy`
in rhe same yeai. Accoiuing ro a reachei o economics, rhe con-
renr o rhe larrei book was moie iealisric rhan rhe oimei, becau-
se alrhough rhe rexrbook o Islanic Icononics piesenreu econo-
mic aigumenrs iom rhe Islamic poinr o view anu rhe rexrbook
o Icononic Groutb and Detelopnent hau uiscussions o poliri-
cal economy, rhe new rexrbook incluueu rhe piesenr-uay econo-
mic pioblems o Iian. elecriiciry, popularion giowrh, OPEC, rhe
economic value o oil erc. The ciearion o an Islanic Icononics
rexrbook was in acr one o giearesr impacrs o Islamic iueology
on social sciences arei rhe ievolurion.
2.10 Bio/ogy, botany and geo/ogy
Regaiuing biology, borany anu geology, rhe rexrbooks hau pio-
giesseu anu uevelopeu giauually since l90. Compaiing rhe pie-
anu posr-ievolurionaiy rimerable oi rhese sub|ecrs, rhe rime
given ro rhem incieaseu arei rhe ievolurion. Ioi example, yeai-
rwelve sruuenrs hau eighr houis a week oi rhese couises ber-
ween l90 anu l95. Then, by eliminaring rhe secrion on Bo-
rany iom rhe 8ioloy rexrbook anu rhe secrion on Evolurion iom
rhe Geoloy rexrbook, rhe houis weie ieuuceu ro six by l98.
Bur arei l98, by incieasing rhe Biology houis iom oui ro six
anu a hal, ie-esrablishing rhe Borany couise oi rwo houis a week,
anu incieasing Ceology iom rwo ro rhiee houis, rhe rime uevo-
reu ro rhese sub|ecrs in rhe weekly rimerable almosr uoubleu.
A biology reachei, coniiming rhe ielecrion o iecenr in-
uings in science on rhe rexrbooks, also aumirreu rhar rhe iuling
Islamic iueology hau hau an eecr on rhe conrenr o rhe rexrbo-
oks. He, who hau raughr science ar guiuance level borh beoie
anu arei rhe ievolurion, believeu rhar rhe pie-ievolurionaiy rexr-
book o Science was uieienr iom rhe posr-ievolurionaiy rexr-
book, in which science is ielareu ro Cou anu rhe knowleuge o
Him, anu rhar rhis issue is menrioneu wheievei possible in rhe
rexrbooks. In rhe eaily yeais o rhe ievolurion, he claimeu, rheie
hau been some conriauicrions berween rhe couises o Islamic
Euucarion, on rhe one hanu, anu biology oi geology, on rhe orhei.
329 Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
While rhe science rexrbooks, accoiuing ro rhe rheoiy o Evolu-
rion, inriouuceu monkeys as pieuecessois o mankinu, rhe ieli-
gious rexrbooks riying ro inuicare rhe rheoiy o Evolurion oi rhe
iueas o Daiwin as |usr a rheoiy anu nor necessaiily a marrei o
acr inriouuceu Auam anu Eve as rhe iisr humans. Accoiuing ro
rhis reachei, since l984 rheie have been some arremprs ro ieuuce
sensiriviries rowaius such rheoiies. `oi example, rhe name o
Daiwin was omirreu iom rexrbooks. Alreinarively, his woik was
piesenreu as rhe rheoiy o Evolurion oi as cause anu eecr,
rhe inreiacrion o naruial anu human acrois oi rhe piocess o
inreiacrion berween living rhings anu non-living rhings. Ir was
inreiesring rhar besiues rhe inciease in rime oi sruuying biology
in rhe weekly rimerable, oi rhe iisr rime, rheie was a sepaiare
laboiaroiy houi in rhe scheuule. Regaiuing rhe couises o Phy-
sics, Chemisriy anu Marhemarics, rheie has been no ma|oi chan-
ge in rheii conrenrs oi scheuule, as ir was expecreu.
2.11 Pbysica/ education
Regaiuing rhe couise o Physical Euucarion (PE), unlike in rhe
eaily yeais arei rhe ievolurion, spoir anu PE weie now raken inro
consiueiarion. Some aspecrs o PE became now even moie oiga-
niseu rhan rhey hau been in rhe Shah`s peiiou. Ioi example, ac-
coiuing ro rhe new iegularions o ieeieeing, a ieeiee hau rhe
iighr ro give an oenuing playei a ieu caiu ar school level. When
askeu wherhei rheie weie uieiences berween giils anu boys
schools in reims o PE cuiiiculum, I was suggesreu rhar since l985
hanuball hau been auueu ro rhe pie-ievolurionaiy PE cuiiicula o
baskerball, volleyball, oorball, rable rennis anu iunning ar rhe
boys` schools o rhar aiea. Theie hau been no rexrbook abour PE
couises eirhei beoie oi arei rhe ievolurion. The numbei o
marches berween uieienr classes anu schools o boys hau in-
cieaseu since rhe miu-l980s, even in compaiison wirh beoie rhe
ievolurion, accoiuing ro my inoimanrs. Howevei, all marches ar
school anu class level weie sroppeu by rhe aurhoiiries in l995 as
a iesulr o anorhei policy, rhiough which rhe Physical Euucarion
Oiganisarion (saznan-e tarbiat-e badani) uealr uiiecrly wirh rhe
selecrion o some skilleu yourhs in oiuei ro arrenu piovincial
marches.
A emale PE reachei coniimeu rhar rheie was no special
rexrbook available, uue ro lack o iesouices in hei view, oi rhe PE
cuiiiculum, anu rhar giils` cuiiicula anu assessmenrs weie uie-
330
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
ienr iom boys`. She maue cleai ro me rhar rheie weie no mairial
airs ar giils schools, bur rhar rheii main couises weie. volleyball,
chess, baskerball, bauminron anu rable rennis. Accoiuing ro rhis
reachei, rhe games common ro boys anu giils weie. volleyball,
chess, hanuball anu baskerball. Howevei, rheie was no aciliry, oi
peihaps possibiliry, oi baskerball ar rhe giils school in which she
woikeu.
3. Libraries
An open armospheie was nor available oi Iianian sruuenrs anu
reacheis ro sruuy uieienr science books. The rexrbooks iequi-
ieu by sruuenrs anu reacheis weie pioviueu by rhe Iianian govei-
nmenr, in borh pie- anu posr-ievolurionaiy iegimes. The impoi-
rance o libiaiies hau always been hiuuen iom Iianian sociery.
Since Iianian sruuenrs uiu nor become piopeily amiliai wirh rhe
iuea o book-ieauing anu libiaiies, anu weie guiueu by srare-pio-
viueu rexrbooks anu reacheis iom rhe eaily yeais o rheii euuca-
rion, rhey expecreu rheii lecruieis ro pioviue somerhing oi rhem
ro ieau anu ro help rhem pass highei euucarion exams as well. As
a iesulr, libiaiies weie iaiely consiueieu by sruuenrs, i Iianian
schools hau rhem ar all. Ir was inreiesring rhar when I askeu rea-
cheis abour rhe use o libiaiies by sruuenrs, rhey ieplieu. `I rhey
[sruuenrs] sruuy rheii own rexrbooks, rhar is goou enough. Theie
is no neeu ro go ro libiaiies ro ieau orhei books`.
Because o rhe ievolurion o l99, rhe schools` libiaiies, ar
leasr in rhe sruuieu aiea, became acrive, bur only in rhe special
ielu o ieligion. Some reacheis iom uieienr acauemic sub|ecrs
enrhusiasrically lookeu oi some Islamic books, so rhey coulu
become amiliai wirh rhe new inreipierarion o Islam, in rhe veiy
eaily yeais o rhe ievolurion. Howevei, such enrhusiasm uiu nor
lasr long. In my view, rhe exisrence o such enrhusiasm was nor
suipiising, in a seculai sociery which was expeiiencing a new
inreipierarion o an olu ieligion. Ioi rhis ieason, I agiee wirh rhe
opinion o some wiireis who believe rhar rhe Iianian ievolurion
o l99 was polirical, as well as ieligious. I ir hau been ieligious
alone, ir woulu have been rhe conrinuarion o eailiei Islamic
movemenrs, anu rheie woulu have been no place oi enrhusiasm
in unueisranuing somerhing which people alieauy knew. Nevei-
rheless, rhis enrhusiasm was noriceable among borh sruuenrs anu
some reacheis ar schools uuiing rhe iisr yeais o rhe ievolurion.
33l Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
Arei rhe ievolurion o l99, alrhough borh schools` anu
ciries` public libiaiies weie expanueu, rhey uevelopeu speciica-
lly in rhe aiea o ieligious books. Regaiuing rown anu ciry libia-
iies, rheie was no consiueiable inciease in rhe numbei o scienri-
ic oi piacrical books, even abour Peisian lireiaruie. The same
was riue oi school libiaiies arei rhe ievolurion, alrhough mosr
schools hau no libiaiy ar all beoie rhe ievolurion, as rwo rea-
cheis iemaikeu. As I obseiveu mysel, -anu ive reacheis conii-
meu- rheie weie no books ielevanr ro rheii sub|ecrs o sruuies,
orhei rhan ieligious books, in rhe libiaiies o eirhei boys` oi giils`
schools. Howevei, rheie weie ai ewei books in giils` high schools
rhan in boys` schools, accoiuing ro my own obseivarion. Duiing
my six monrhs ieluwoik in all rhe schools o one aiea, excepr oi
a ew pupils on one occasion in a boys` guiuance school, I nevei
saw anybouy use rhese libiaiies. Excepr oi a ew scienriic
books, which weie uesciibeu by rhe ielevanr reacheis as useless,
all rhe orhei books weie ieligious anu hau been wiirren by ulana
who weie loyal ro rhe Islamic iueology o rhe ievolurion. In rhis
iegaiu, an euucarional oicial suggesreu. `rhe iole o libiaiies (in
schools) is rhar rhe iuling iueas shoulu ieach rhe sruuenrs rhiough
rhe libiaiies. The LEA has senr schools some books rwo oi rhiee
rimes, all o which weie ieligious books, excepr a ew scienriic
books which aie almosr useless.`
I invesrigareu rhe New Sysrem o euucarion in rhe new
bianch o Kar-Danesb ar a Vocarional High School in a ciry close
ro rhe iuial aiea, because rheie was no vocarional high school in
rhe iuial aiea. Since rhis school employeu a libiaiian anu was
well oiganiseu, I was able ro acquiie some srarisrics abour rhe
srock. Among rhe 3550 books ar rhar school, rheie weie abour
2000 (56%) books on ieligion, abour 200 (6%) books on uie-
ienr aspecrs o science sruuieu ar rhe school, abour 500 (l4%)
hisroiical anu icrional books, abour 20 (less rhan l%) volumes
on spoir, abour 30 (22%) volumes o ieligious anu gnosric poems
anu abour 800 (22%) books which rhe libiaiian calleu `miscella-
neous`. I rhen invesrigareu sruuenrs` visirs ro rhe libiaiy oi rheii
own neeus ovei a peiiou o abour rwo monrhs. In rhis vocarional
high school, o 48l visirs ro rhe libiaiy, l4l (29%) inquiiies hau
been oi ieligious books, 69 (l4%) oi books which mer pupils`
scienriic neeus anu rhe orhei visirs weie oi orhei rirles. Ir shoulu
be noreu rhar rhese inquiiies weie maue by rhe male sruuenrs o
rhe vocarional bianch, nor rhe sruuenrs o rhe bianch o `Kar-
Danesb`. Moieovei, accoiuing ro rhe heau reachei o rhe voca-
332
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
rional high school, mosr o rhe scienriic books hau been piovi-
ueu iecenrly because o rhe special arrenrion paiu ro scienriic
books anu expeiimenrs by rhe New Sysrem o euucarion. This
coulu be coniimeu by compaiing rhe uara iegaiuing inquiiies
maue by sruuenrs o rhe New Sysrem anu rhe Olu Sysrem. Our o
rhe 48l inquiiies, 39 (8%) cases weie ielareu ro rhe New Sys-
rem o euucarion anu l02 (22%) cases weie iom sruuenrs o rhe
Olu Sysrem o euucarion. Moieovei, while in rhe New Sysrem
rheie weie rwice as many ieeiences ro ieligious books as ro scien-
riic books (l0 againsr 5), in rhe Olu Sysrem o euucarion rheie
weie rhiee rimes as many (34 againsr l2). Iuirheimoie, accoi-
uing ro rhe libiaiian o rhe school, rhe sruuenrs in rhe New Sys-
rem useu rhe libiaiy moie rhan rhe sruuenrs in rhe Olu Sysrem. I
was rolu by some euucarional aurhoiiries rhar rhe iole o rhe rea-
chei o moial euucarion anu his acriviries weie veiy impoiranr in
all schools. As an example o a vocarional school in a ciry in
which rhe New Sysrem o euucarion hau leu ro shirs in scienriic
views, such srarisrics hinr ar rhe siruarion o schools` libiaiies in
iuial aieas.
As iegaius rown anu ciry public libiaiies, I have ro menrion
rhar apair iom rhe pioblem o insuicienr science books, which
also aecreu schools` libiaiies, rheie weie speciic uiiculries in
reims o genuei, which uiu nor exisr in rhe sex-segiegareu schools
o Iian. As expecreu, rhe siruarion oi giils wanring ro use a rown`s
public libiaiy was moie pioblemaric rhan ir was in rhe ciry. Un-
like rhe ciry giils, giils in rhe rown even encounreieu pioblems in
boiiowing books. Howevei, some reacheis who weie narives o
rhe iegion believeu rhar rhe numbei o emale sruuenrs who useu
rhe libiaiy oi boiiowing was veiy slowly incieasing ar rhar rime,
in compaiison wirh rhe eaily yeais o rhe libiaiy`s esrablishmenr
(l992). Our o rwelve reacheis, some o whom weie narives, con-
iimeu rhar rhe giils o rhar rown weie moie oi less uepiiveu o
using rhe libiaiy, because o irs iemore locarion in rhe rown anu
rheii amilies` uisagieemenr wirh rhe giils` use o ir. Unlike boys,
rhe emale sruuenrs o rhe New Sysrem o euucarion weie raken
ro visir rhe public libiaiy by rhe emale auvisoi o rhe New Sys-
rem in rhar school, which coulu be inreipiereu as eviuence o
uepiivarion o libiaiy use by giils` amilies. Moieovei, rwo ema-
le reacheis anu rhe school`s heau reachei srareu rhar giils hau
boiioweu books iom rhe public libiaiy rhiough rhe school, bur
eirhei rhe school`s aurhoiiries oi rhe giils` reachei hau ieruineu
rhe boiioweu books. Iuirheimoie, a male narive reachei iemai-
333 Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
keu rhar rhe giils in rhe village useu rheii biorheis, i rhey hau
any, ro boiiow oi ieruin books oi rhem. Accoiuing ro rhe rwelve
reacheis quesrioneu, rhe amilies in rhe village weie roo biaseu
culruially ro allow rheii uaughreis ro go ro such public places.
Alrhough rhe boys hau giearei access ro public places incluuing
libiaiies, rhey showeu less inreiesr in using rhem rhan giils, ac-
coiuing ro seveial reacheis.
When I askeu reacheis abour rhe possible ieasons oi sru-
uenrs` lack o inreiesr in ieauing books, anu whar rhey weie in-
reiesreu in insreau, rhey ieplieu rhar rhe uiiecrion o sruuenrs`
inreiesrs hau changeu in iecenr yeais. Also, rhe libiaiies lackeu
suicienr powei ro arriacr yourhs rheie. Regaiuing boys` anu giils`
inreiesrs, some iueas seemeu ro be uieienr iom rhose o rhe
iisr uecaue arei rhe ievolurion bur iemaineu similai ro rhose o
rhe pie-ievolurionaiy peiiou.
4. Concusion
Inreipiering rhe changes rhar hau occuiieu in cuiiicula anu rexr-
books iom a iarhei one-siueu peispecrive, rhe impacr o Islamic
iueology on rhese changes was consiueiable. The changes occu-
iieu in all possible sub|ecrs o sruuy incluuing humaniries anu
sciences. Howevei, rhe suscepribiliry o humaniries sub|ecrs ro
rhe imposirion o iueology was giearei rhan rhar o rhe sciences.
Besiues rhe changes iequiieu by ieligion, rheie have also been
some orhei ciearive changes iequiieu by science, alrhough rhey
hau ro sarisy rhe ieligious iequiiemenrs. To boiiow a Webeiian
appioach ro rhe analysis o rhese changes, Iian was srill in a `ia-
rional` moue in so ai as ir was making arremprs ro inciease uo-
minarion ovei rhe exreinal woilu. Nonerheless, ir is inreiesring
rhar none o reacheis in rhe aieas o science inreipiereu rhe in-
cieasing posr-ievolurionaiy arrenrion ro rheii aieas as ieligious
iequiiemenrs.
Appendix
A compaiison o rhe conrenrs o some pie-ievolurionaiy rexr-
books wirh rhose o rheii posr-ievolurionaiy equivalenrs.
334
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
Pre-revolutionary textbooks and their
contents
Post-revolutionary textbooks and their contents
Introductory Philosophy (Siasi 1975) Year
12: science and philosophy; psychology and
philosophy; perceptions (sensory and mental);
reactions; actions; language and personality;
aesthetics; logic; methodology of different sorts
of sciences and knowledge; theoretical ethics;
applied ethics; metaphysics (absolute,
appearance and reality, being, non-being;
essence, causality, necessity, ...); brief history of
philosophy: ancient philosophers (Socrates, ..),
Islamic philosophers (Avicenna, ..), and modern
philosophers (Bacon, Kant, Spencer, Comte,
Sartre, Russell, ...)
Acquaintance with Islamic Philosophy (Abu-talibi
1994) Year 12: philosophy in the Islamic world; science
and philosophy and their differences and relations;
definition of philosophy in the view of Islamic
philosophers; Islamic intellectual methods; Islamic
philosophy of illumination eshraq (of the soul);
Peripatetic Islamic philosophy (falsafeh-ye mashshaa);
sophism; existence and nature; originality, self-evidence,
communion, and unity and multiplicity of being; truth and
wrong; Islamic philosophers solution; cause and effect;
four sorts of cause; the ontological distinctions of
possible, impossible and necessary being; theology in its
specific meaning; the ways to God; limitations of sensory
and experimental methods in theology; the Prophet and
Imams ways towards God, ... .
Arabic Literature (Khazaei 1971) Year
11: bringing children up; bravery; from Bozorg-
mehr (an intellectual minister of pre-Islamic
Iran); about science; from Imam Ali; maxims
from the Quran and the Prophets narrations;
Shapour Zol-aktaf (a pre-Islamic Iranian king);
Abu-bakr Zakariya Razi (an Islamic scientist);
discourse of Ardashir (a pre-Islamic Iranian
king); ... .
Arabic Literature (Rafaat 1993) Year 11: the
dreams of wakefulness; migrant birds; about Nahjol-
balagheh (Imam Alis speeches); Meitham Tammar (a
revolutionary disciple of Imam Ali); Othou Qods
(Jerusalem); the tongue of volcano; the mother of her
father (a nickname given by the Prophet to his daughter,
Fetemeh); the Quran, Imams narration; the First Martyr;
positive knowledge of God; ... .
Religious Education (Shoar 1968) Year 11:
the Secondary Shiite doctrines and religious
precepts (Fruae din and Ahkam): marriage,
divorce, inheritance, ownership, ...; some verses
from the Quran; ethics: the importance of Islam
for relaxation of human beings, respect for
women and loss of divorce, loss of jealousy, the
importance of time; ... .
Islamic Education (Sadat 1993) Year 11: authority
and government: the authority and government of God,
the characters of Islamic governor and exertion of
authority, people in Islamic government, acquaintance
with the thoughts of the founder of Islamic Republic of
Iran; life after death: human beings and resurrection,
resurrection in Quranic view, reward and punishment in
the next world,...; ethics: the effects of sin in human
beings life, and keeping limits between men and women;
religious precepts: social system.
Sociology (Nezami-Taleshi 1978) Year
9: environment; culture; norms and values;
natural and social ecology; social system; bases
of system; sorts of system.
Sociology (Tajgaram and Qandi 1979) Year 9:
culture; socialisation of society; social currents; social
aberrations; the conflict of cultures.
History of Persian Literature (BPET
1976) Year 12: science and literature in the
period of Mongol Empire and Timorids; Safavid
period; Afsharid, Zandieh and Qajar periods; the
period of the Constitutional Revolution and its
impact on Persian literature.
History of Persian Literature (BPET 1991) Year
12: political and social status of Iran during the first three
centuries after Hijrat (science and Persian poem); political
and social status of Iran from the 3
rd
to 6
th
AH (science
and poems, and the poets of this period ...); political and
social status of Iran from 6
th
to 10
th
AH (poem and poets
in this period); Persian poems in the 10
th
, 11
th
and 12
th

centuries (AH) with consideration of political and social
position of Iran; literary return; and poems in the period of
the Constitutional Revolution.

335 Economa, Socieuau y Teiiiroiio, vol. III, nm. l0, 200l, 32l-336
References
Abu-ralibi, M.M. anu A. Kaiimi, l33 (l994), Asbenaei ba Ials-
ajeb-ye Islani, baraye Sal-e Cbabaron-e Motatasseteb,
Adabiyat ta Ulun-e Insani (Acquainrance wirh Islamic
Philosophy oi yeai-rwelve Humaniries Pupils), Minisriy
o Euucarion, Tehian.
BPET (dajtar-e barnaneb-rizi ta taalij-e ketab-baye darsi [Buieau
oi Planning anu Euiring Texrbooks]), l355 (l96), Taa-
rikb-e Adabiyat baraye Sal-e Sbesbon-e Adabi (Hisroiy o
[Peisian] Lireiaruie oi yeai-rwelve Humaniries Pupils),
Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
BPET (dajtar-e barnaneb-rizi ta taalij-e ketab-baye darsi [Buieau
oi Planning anu Euiring Texrbooks]), l30 (l99l), Taa-
rikb-e Adabiyat baraye Sal-e Cbabaron-e Iarban ta Adab
(Hisroiy o [Peisian] Lireiaruie oi Yeai-rwelve Humani-
ries Pupils), Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
Khazaei, M. et al., l350 (l9l), Arabi baraye Sal-e Ianjon-e Adabi
(Aiabic Lireiaruie oi yeai-eleven Humaniries Pupils),
Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
Nezami-Taleshi, M., l35 (l98), janaa-sbenasi-e Sal-e Attal-e
Dabiristan (Sociology oi yeai-nine Pupils), Minisriy o
Euucarion, Tehian.
Raa`ar, et al., l32 (l993), Arabi-e Sal-e Setton-e Dabiristan,
Adabiyiat ta Ulun-e Insani (Aiabic Lireiaruie oi yeai-
eleven Humaniries Pupils), Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
Rahman, I., l982, Islan and Modernity: Transjornation oj an
Intellectual Tradition, The Univeisiry o Chicago Piess,
Chicago anu Lonuon.
Sauar, M.A. et al., l32 (l993), 8inesb-e Islani-e Sal-e Setton-
e Dabiristan (Islamic Euucarion oi yeai-eleven Pupils),
Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
336
Couazgai, H.. Islamic iueology anu irs oimarive inluence
Shoai, ]. et al., l34 (l968), Talinat-e Dini baraye Sal-e Ian-
jon-e Dabiristan (Religious Euucarion oi Yeai-eleven
Pupils), Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
Siasi, A.A., l354 (l95), Mabani-e Ialsajeb baraye Sal-e Sbes-
bon-e Adabi (Inriouucroiy Philosophy oi yeai-rwelve
Humaniries Pupils), Minisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
Ta|gaiam, M. anu Qanui, I., l358 (l99), janaa-sbenasi-e Sal-e
Attal-e Dabiristan (Sociology oi yeai-nine Pupils), Mi-
nisriy o Euucarion, Tehian.
Enviauo. l9 ue ocrubie ue 200l
Aceprauo. l9 ue noviembie ue 200l