,WNKQ %UCT

Cayo Julio Csar

NCVP (BJVT *VMJVT $BFTBS=PQVC ?

4QOC +VCNKC  FG LWNKQ FG  C %=PQVC ?  KDFGO

 FG OCT\Q FG  C % HWG WP NFGT OKNKVCT [ RQNVKEQ FG
NC GTC VCTFQTTGRWDNKECPC

OCFQ 8GTEKPIVQTKZ 5WU EQPSWKUVCU GZVGPFKGTQP GN FQOK

PKQ TQOCPQ UQDTG NQU VGTTKVQTKQU SWG JQ[ KPVGITCP (TCPEKC
$NIKEC *QNCPFC [ RCTVG FG #NGOCPKC (WG GN RTKOGT IG
PGTCN TQOCPQ GP RGPGVTCT GP NQU KPGZRNQTCFQU VGTTKVQTKQU
FG $TKVCPKC [ )GTOCPKC

0CEKFQ GP GN UGPQ FG NC HFOT +VMJB GP WPC HCOKNKC RCVTKEKC

FG GUECUC HQTVWPC GUVWXQ GORCTGPVCFQ EQP CNIWPQU FG NQU
JQODTGU OU KPW[GPVGU FG UW RQEC EQOQ UW VQ %C[Q
/CTKQ SWKGP KPWKTC FG OCPGTC FGVGTOKPCPVG GP UW EC
TTGTC RQNVKEC 'P  C % C NQU  CQU GN RQRWNCT %KPPC
NQ PQODT BNFO EJBMJT ECTIQ TGNKIKQUQ FGN SWG HWG TG
NGXCFQ RQT 5KNC EQP SWKGP VWXQ EQPKEVQU C ECWUC FG UW
OCVTKOQPKQ EQP NC JKLC FG %KPPC 6TCU GUECRCT FG OQTKT C
OCPQU FG NQU UKECTKQU FGN FKEVCFQT HWG RGTFQPCFQ ITCEKCU
C NC KPVGTEGUKP FG NQU RCTKGPVGU FG UW OCFTG=? 6TCUNCFC
FQ C #UKC EQODCVK GP /KVKNGPG EQOQ MFHBUVT FG /CTEQ
/KPWEKQ 6GTOQ 8QNXK C 4QOC C NC OWGTVG FG 5KNC GP
 C % GLGTEKGPFQ RQT WP VKGORQ NC CDQICEC 'P  C
% UWEGFK C UW VQ )C[Q #WTGNKQ %QVC EQOQ RQPVEG
[ RTQPVQ GPVT GP TGNCEKP EQP NQU EPUWNGU 2QORG[Q [
%TCUQ EW[C COKUVCF NG RGTOKVKTC NCP\CT UW RTQRKC ECTTG
TC RQNVKEC=? 'P  C % %UCT UKTXK EQOQ EWGUVQT GP
NC RTQXKPEKC FG *KURCPKC [ EQOQ GFKN EWTWN GP 4QOC &W
TCPVG GN FGUGORGQ FG GUC OCIKUVTCVWTC QHTGEK WPQU GU
RGEVEWNQU SWG HWGTQP TGEQTFCFQU FWTCPVG OWEJQ VKGORQ
RQT GN RWGDNQ

/KGPVTCU %UCT VGTOKPCDC FG QTICPK\CT NC GUVTWEVWTC CF

OKPKUVTCVKXC FG NC PWGXC RTQXKPEKC SWG JCDC CPGZKQPCFQ
C NC 4GRDNKEC UWU GPGOKIQU RQNVKEQU VTCVCDCP GP 4QOC
FG FGURQLCTNG FG UW GLTEKVQ [ ECTIQ WVKNK\CPFQ GN 5GPCFQ
GP GN SWG GTCP OC[QTC %UCT C UCDKGPFCU FG SWG UK GP
VTCDC GP NC ECRKVCN UGTC LW\ICFQ [ GZKNKCFQ KPVGPV RTG
UGPVCTUG CN EQPUWNCFQ JO BCTFOUJB C NQ SWG NC OC[QTC FG
NQU UGPCFQTGU UG PGICTQP 'UVG [ QVTQU HCEVQTGU NG KORWN
UCTQP C FGUCCT NCU TFGPGU UGPCVQTKCNGU [ RTQVCIQPK\CT GN
HCOQUQ ETWEG FGN 3VCJDO FQPFG CN RCTGEGT RTQPWPEK NC
KPOQTVCN HTCUG l"MFB JBDUB FTU|
NC UWGTVG GUV GEJCFC KPK
EKCPFQ CU WP EQPKEVQ EQPQEKFQ EQOQ NC 4FHVOEB (VFSSB
$JWJM EF MB 3FQCMJDB EF 3PNB GP GN SWG UG GPHTGPV C NQU
PQUJNBUFT=PQVC ? SWG GUVCDCP NKFGTCFQU RQT UW XKGLQ CNKCFQ
2QORG[Q 5WU XKEVQTKCU GP NCU DCVCNNCU FG (CTUCNKC 6CRUQ
[ /WPFC UQDTG NQU EQPUGTXCFQTGU NG JKEKGTQP GN COQ FG
NC 4GRDNKEC 'N JGEJQ FG SWG GUVWXKGTC GP IWGTTC EQP
NC OKVCF FGN OWPFQ TQOCPQ PQ GXKV SWG UG GPHTGPVCTC C
(CTPCEGU ++ GP <GNC [ C NQU GPGOKIQU FG %NGQRCVTC 8++ GP
#NGLCPFTC # UW TGITGUQ C 4QOC UG JK\Q PQODTCT EPUWN
[ EJDUBUPS QFSQFUVVT FKEVCFQT XKVCNKEKQ G KPKEK WPC
=PQVC ?
'P  C % HWG GNGIKFQ QSBFUPS VSCBOVT
CN QDVGPGT
OU XQVQU SWG GN TGUVQ FG ECPFKFCVQU C NC RTGVWTC 'UG OKU UGTKG FG TGHQTOCU GEQPOKECU WTDCPUVKECU [ CFOKPKUVTC
VKXCU
OQ CQ OWTK 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 2Q 1POUJGFY .B
YJNVT FGUKIPCFQ FWTCPVG NC FKEVCFWTC FG 5KNC [ GP NCU # RGUCT FG SWG DCLQ UW IQDKGTPQ NC 4GRDNKEC GZRGTKOGP
GNGEEKQPGU EGNGDTCFCU RCTC UWUVKVWKTNG XGPEK %UCT #N V WP DTGXG RGTKQFQ FG ITCP RTQURGTKFCF CNIWPQU UGPC
VTOKPQ FG UW RTGVWTC UKTXK EQOQ RTQRTGVQT GP *KURCPKC FQTGU XKGTQP C %UCT EQOQ WP VKTCPQ SWG CODKEKQPCDC
FQPFG ECRKVCPG WPC DTGXG ECORCC EQPVTC NQU NWUKVCPQU TGUVCWTCT NC OQPCTSWC %QP GN QDLGVKXQ FG GNKOKPCT NC
'P  C % HWG GNGIKFQ EPUWN ITCEKCU CN CRQ[Q FG UWU COGPC\C SWG UWRQPC GN FKEVCFQT WP ITWRQ FG UGPCFQTGU
FQU CNKCFQU RQNVKEQU 2QORG[Q [ %TCUQ NQU JQODTGU EQP HQTOCFQ RQT CNIWPQU FG UWU JQODTGU FG EQPCP\C EQOQ
NQU SWG %UCT HQTO GN NNCOCFQ 1SJNFS 5SJVOWJSBUP 5W $TWVQ [ %CUKQ [ CPVKIWQU NWICTVGPKGPVGU EQOQ 6TGDQPKQ
EQNGIC FWTCPVG GN EQPUWNCFQ $DWNQ UG TGVKT C P FG GP [ &EKOQ $TWVQ WTFKGTQP WPC EQPURKTCEKP EQP GN P FG
VQTRGEGT NC NCDQT FG %UCT SWG UKP GODCTIQ NQIT UCECT GNKOKPCTNQ &KEJQ EQORNQV EWNOKP EWCPFQ GP NQU JEVT
CFGNCPVG WPC UGTKG FG OGFKFCU NGICNGU GPVTG NCU SWG FGUVC EF NBS[P NQU EQPURKTCFQTGU CUGUKPCTQP C %UCT GP GN 5G
EC WPC NG[ CITCTKC SWG TGIWNCDC GN TGRCTVQ FG VKGTTCU GPVTG PCFQ 5W OWGTVG RTQXQE GN GUVCNNKFQ FG QVTC IWGTTC EKXKN
NQU UQNFCFQU XGVGTCPQU
GP NC SWG NQU RCTVKFCTKQU FGN TIKOGP FG %UCT #PVQPKQ
6TCU UW EQPUWNCFQ HWG FGUKIPCFQ RTQEPUWN FG NCU RTQXKP 1EVCXKQ [ .RKFQ FGTTQVCTQP GP NC FQDNG #BUBMMB EF 'J
EKCU FG )CNKC 6TCPUCNRKPC +NKTKC [ )CNKC %KUCNRKPC GUVC N MJQPT C UWU CUGUKPQU NKFGTCFQU RQT $TWVQ [ %CUKQ #N VT
OKPQ FGN EQPKEVQ 1EVCXKQ #PVQPKQ [ .RKFQ HQTOCTQP
VKOC VTCU NC OWGTVG FG UW IQDGTPCFQT %NGT 5W IQDKGTPQ
UG ECTCEVGTK\ RQT WPC RQNVKEC OW[ CITGUKXC EQP NC SWG GN 5GIWPFQ 6TKWPXKTCVQ [ UG TGRCTVKGTQP NQU VGTTKVQTKQU FG
NC 4GRDNKEC CWPSWG WPC XG\ CRCTVCFQ .RKFQ PCNOGP
UQOGVK C RTEVKECOGPVG NC VQVCNKFCF FG NQU RWGDNQU EGN
VCU GP XCTKCU ECORCCU 'UVG EQPKEVQ EQPQEKFQ EQOQ VG XQNXGTCP C GPHTGPVCTUG GP #EEKQ FQPFG 1EVCXKQ JGTG
FGTQ FG %UCT XGPEK C /CTEQ #PVQPKQ
NC (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT PCNK\ EWCPFQ GN IGPGTCN TGRW
DNKECPQ XGPEK GP NC #BUBMMB EF "MFTJB C NQU NVKOQU HQ #N OCTIGP FG UW ECTTGTC RQNVKEC [ OKNKVCT %UCT FGUVCE
EQU FG QRQUKEKP GPECDG\CFQU RQT WP LGHG CTXGTPQ NNC EQOQ QTCFQT [ GUETKVQT 4GFCEV CN OGPQU WP VTCVCFQ FG


 #*0(3"'"

CUVTQPQOC QVTQ CEGTEC FG NC TGNKIKP TGRWDNKECPC TQOC

PC [ WP GUVWFKQ UQDTG GN NCVP PKPIWPQ FG NQU EWCNGU JC
UQDTGXKXKFQ JCUVC PWGUVTQU FCU .CU PKECU QDTCU SWG UG
EQPUGTXCP UQP UWU $PNFOUBSJPT EF MB (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT
[ UWU $PNFOUBSJPT EF MB (VFSSB $JWJM 5G EQPQEG GN FGUC
TTQNNQ FG UW ECTTGTC EQOQ OKNKVCT [ ITCP RCTVG FG UW XKFC
C VTCXU FG UWU RTQRKCU QDTCU [ FG NQU GUETKVQU FG CWVQTGU
EQOQ 5WGVQPKQ 2NWVCTEQ 8GNG[Q 2CVTEWNQ Q 'WVTQRKQ

1
1.1

Biografa
Primeros aos

%UCT PCEK GP 4QOC GN  FG LWNKQ FGN CQ  C %

PQ QDUVCPVG UW HGEJC FG PCEKOKGPVQ PQ JC UKFQ GUVCDNGEKFC
EQP ENCTKFCF [ RWFQ JCDGTUG UKVWCFQ GP CNIP RWPVQ GPVTG
NQU CQU  [  C %=? 2GTVGPGEK C WPC IGPU RCVTKEKC
NC +VMJB SWG UGIP NC NG[GPFC UG TGOQPVCDC JCUVC
+WNQ JKLQ FGN RTPEKRG VTQ[CPQ 'PGCU [ PKGVQ FG NC FKQUC
8GPWU (WG GN RTQRKQ %UCT SWKP GUVCDNGEK NC TGNCEKP
GPVTG +WNQ [ UW HCOKNKC FWTCPVG GN FKUEWTUQ SWG RTQPWPEK
GP GN HWPGTCN FG UW VC ,WNKC GURQUC FG )C[Q /CTKQ=? %QP
NQU CQU GP GN CRQIGQ FG UW RQFGT %UCT KPKEKCTC GP 4Q
OC NC EQPUVTWEEKP FG WP VGORNQ FGFKECFQ C UW UWRWGUVC
CPVGRCUCFC 7FOVT (FOFUSJY 'N RCVTQPOKEQ $TBS RCTGEG
SWG RWGFG RTQXGPKT FG NC RCNCDTC NCVKPC DBFTBSJFT EW[Q
UKIPKECFQ GU DBCFMMFSB P CBSCB %QPVTCTKCOGPVG C NQ
UQUVGPKFQ RQT CNIWPQU CWVQTGU NC RCNCDTC EGUTGC PQ VKGPG
PCFC SWG XGT EQP %UCT PK UVG PCEK RQT OGFKQ FG GUC
EKTWIC=?

"MVNOPT SPNBOPT DPO TV QFEBHPHP .VTFP 1VTILJO .PTD

5W RCFTG NNCOCFQ CN KIWCN SWG N )C[Q ,WNKQ %UCT HWG

WP RQNVKEQ RQEQ KPW[GPVG SWG NNGI C NC RTGVWTC=? 5W
CUEGPUQ C VTCXU FGN DVSTVT IPOPSVN UG XKQ KPVGTTWORKFQ
CN OQTKT GP ECORCC 5W OCFTG NNCOCFC #WTGNKC GTC WPC
PQDNG RNGDG[C RGTVGPGEKGPVG C WPC TCOC FG NC HFOT "V
SFMJJ NQU "VSFMJJ $PUUBF HCOKNKC KPVGITCPVG FG NC PQDNG\C
RNGDG[C FG TCPIQ UGPCVQTKCN EQP ITCP TKSWG\C G KPWGPEKC
'N JKUVQTKCFQT 6EKVQ NC EQORCTC EQP %QTPGNKC OCFTG FG
NQU )TCEQU DCUPFQUG GP UW KPVGNKIGPEKC NC RWTG\C FG UWU
EQUVWODTGU [ NC PQDNG\C FG UW ECTEVGT=?
'N JGEJQ FG SWG NQU +VMJP $TBSFT RGTVGPGEKGPVGU CN RQ
FGTQUQ RCVTKEKCFQ TGRWDNKECPQ PQ QDVWXKGTCP ECTIQU KO
RQTVCPVGU FWTCPVG GN RGTKQFQ TGRWDNKECPQ UG GZRNKEC RQT
UW HCNVC FG HQTVWPC GP EQORCTCEKP EQP NC CTKUVQETCEKC TQ
OCPC FG NC RQEC FG JGEJQ %UCT ETGEK GP WPQ FG NQU
DCTTKQU OU RQDTGU FG NC EKWFCF NC 5WDWTC

PKEQ JKLQ XCTP FGN OCVTKOQPKQ FG UWU RCFTGU UW KPHCP

EKC VTCPUEWTTK GP WP CODKGPVG GUGPEKCNOGPVG HGOGPKPQ
GPVTG UW OCFTG [ UWU FQU JGTOCPCU #N KIWCN SWG C VQFQU
NQU LXGPGU PQDNGU [ RCVTKEKQU FG NC RQEC UG NG KPEWNE GN
VGOQT C NQU FKQUGU GN TGURGVQ C NCU NG[GU NCU TGINCU FG NC
FGEGPEKC NC OQFGUVKC [ NC HTWICNKFCF 6TCU GN GUVCNNKFQ FG
NC (VFSSB 4PDJBM UW VQ 5GZVQ HWG GNGIKFQ EPUWN FCPFQ CU
WP RQEQ FG HCOC C NC HCOKNKC %WCPFQ VGPC FKG\ CQU UG
XKQ EQPCFQ C NCU GPUGCP\CU FG /CTEQ #PVQPKQ )TKHP
WP HSBNNBUJDVT FG QTKIGP ICNQ [ HQTOCFQ GP NC GUEWGNC
FG TGVTKEQU CNGLCPFTKPQU EQPUKFGTCFQ WPQ FG NQU JQODTGU
OU XGTUCFQU GP NKVGTCVWTC ITKGIC [ TQOCPC FG UW RQEC
#RTGPFK C NGGT [ C RGPUCT EQP NCU QDTCU FG *QOGTQ NC
*MBEB [ NC 0EJTFB RTKOGTQ EQP NC VTCFWEEKP CN NCVP FG
.KXKQ #PFTPKEQ [ FGURWU EQP GN VGZVQ QTKIKPCN GP ITKGIQ
#NIWPQU CWVQTGU EQPVGORQTPGQU XKPKGTQP C CFJGTKTUG C
GUVC DCUG NKVGTCTKC SWG TGEKDCP FG WPC OCPGTC OU Q OG
PQU WPKHQTOG NQU LXGPGU TQOCPQU FG UW VKGORQ #UKOKU
OQ CRTGPFK QTCVQTKC [ C GUETKDKT RQGUC=?
.C OWLGT FG /CTKQ UW VC RCVGTPC ,WNKC FGUGORG VCO
DKP WP RCRGN OW[ FGUVCECFQ GP NC GFWECEKP [ QTKGPVC
EKP FGN LQXGP %UCT &WTCPVG UW XKFC GN IGPGTCN JCDC
UKFQ WP KPW[GPVG RQNVKEQ TGHQTOKUVC NFGT FG NC HCEEKP
RTQITGUKUVC FGN 5GPCFQ NQU QPQVMBSFT GPGOKIQU FG NQU
EQPUGTXCFQTGU NQU PQUJNBUFT
%KGTVCU HWGPVGU ENUKECU TGIKUVTCP SWG %UCT RCFGEC ETKUKU
GRKNRVKECU SWG RQFCP RTQFWEKTUG GP EWCNSWKGT OQOGPVQ
[ JCEGTNG RGTFGT GN EQPQEKOKGPVQ 5WGVQPKQ OGPEKQPC FQU
FG GUVCU ETKUKU [ 2NWVCTEQ WPC FWTCPVG NC #BUBMMB EF 5BQ
TP EQPUVKVW[G NC PKEC QECUKP FG NC SWG UG VKGPG PQVKEKC
GP SWG WP CVCSWG GRKNRVKEQ KPVGTTK GP UW ECRCEKFCF FG
OCPFQ=?=?=?
6TCU NC )WGTTC 5QEKCN CWOGPVCTQP NQU GPHTGPVCOKGPVQU GP
VTG PQUJNBUFT [ QPQVMBSFT EQP NCU FKURWVCU GPVTG /CTKQ [
5KNC RQT GN OCPFQ FGN GLTEKVQ SWG FGDC KT C EQODCVKT
CN TG[ /KVTFCVGU 8+ FGN 2QPVQ NQ SWG EQPFWLQ C NC OCT
EJC FG 5KNC UQDTG 4QOC SWG FGL CN ECTIQ FG WP EPUWN
PQUJNBUF [ QVTQ QPQVMBS [ CN IQNRG FG GUVCFQ FG /CTKQ
[ %KPPC KPKEKPFQUG WP RGTQFQ FG VTGU CQU
$JOOBOVN
UFNQVT  GP GN SWG %KPPC FKTKIK GN 'UVCFQ GP ECNK
FCF FG EPUWN
'P  C % %KPPC PQODT CN LQXGP %UCT
FG  CQU
BNFO EJBMJT GN UCEGTFQVG FG ,RKVGT [ NQ ECU EQP UW
JKLC %QTPGNKC
(NCOKPKC VTCU JCDGTUG FKXQTEKCFQ FG UW
OCVTKOQPKQ EQP %QUWVKC RGTVGPGEKGPVG C WPC TKEC HCOKNKC
FG TCPIQ GEWGUVTG 'UG OKUOQ CQ [ VTCU GN CUGUKPCVQ FG
%KPPC [ NCU FGTTQVCU FG %CTDP [ /CTKQ GN LQXGP
JKLQ FG
)C[Q /CTKQ C OCPQU FG 5KNC GN NFGT EQPUGTXCFQT GPVT
GP 4QOC .C UKVWCEKP FG %UCT GTC OW[ KPUGIWTC RWGU
GUVCDC WPKFQ C VTCXU FG XCTKQU NC\QU HCOKNKCTGU CN DCPFQ
RGTFGFQT PQ UNQ GTC UQDTKPQ FG /CTKQ UKPQ SWG CFGOU
GUVCDC ECUCFQ EQP NC JKLC FG %KPPC 5KNC VTCV FG CVTCGTNQ C
UW DCPFQ EQOQ JCDC JGEJQ EQP XCTKQU FG NQU UGIWKFQTGU
FG UW GPGOKIQ RCTC RTQDCT UW NGCNVCF NG QTFGP FKXQT
EKCTUG FG UW GURQUC C NQ SWG RCTC UQTRTGUC FGN FKEVCFQT
GN LQXGP UG PGI=?



1SJNFSPT BPT

$PSPOB DWJDB

-VDJP $PSOFMJP 4JMB

'PHWTGEKFQ 5KNC QTFGP C WPC DCPFC FG UKECTKQU SWG NQ

ECRVWTCTCP [ CUGUKPCTCP CPWN UW PQODTCOKGPVQ EQOQ
BNFO EJBMJT [ EQPUE VQFC UW HQTVWPC # %UCT PQ NG
SWGF QVTC UCNKFC SWG JWKT FG 4QOC XKPFQUG QDNKICFQ C
ECODKCT FG TGHWIKQ ECFC PQEJG EC[ GPHGTOQ CN PQ GUVCT
CEQUVWODTCFQ C GUVC ENCUG FG XKFC 7PC PQEJG HWG UQT
RTGPFKFQ RQT NQU UKECTKQU FG 5KNC RGTQ RWFQ UCNXCTUG CN
UQDQTPCTNGU EQP GN FKPGTQ SWG UG QHTGEC RQT UW ECDG\C
FQU VCNGPVQU FG QTQ 6TCU GUECRCT FG NQU JQODTGU FG 5KNC
RGTOKVK C UW HCOKNKC KPVGTEGFGT RQT N CPVG GN FKEVCFQT 5W
OCFTG UWU VQU /CTEQ )C[Q [ .WEKQ NCU XTIGPGU XGUVCNGU
[ GN [GTPQ FG 5KNC /COGTEQ 'OKNKQ .RKFQ .KXKCPQ NQ
ITCTQP EQPXGPEGT CN FKEVCFQT SWG CEEGFK C TGICCFKGPVGU
C RGTFQPCTNG NC XKFC 6TCU QTFGPCT GN EGUG FG NC RGTUGEW
EKP FKLQ SWG GUG LQXGP UGTC GN P FG NQU PQUJNBUFT RWGU
lGP N XGQ C OWEJQU /CTKQU|=?
#N RGTECVCTUG FG SWG GN RGTFP FG 5KNC RQFC UGT TGXQEC
FQ GP EWCNSWKGT OQOGPVQ %UCT LW\I SWG NQ OU UGIWTQ
GTC CNGLCTUG FG 4QOC FWTCPVG WP VKGORQ [ FGEKFK XKCLCT C
1TKGPVG RCTC RCTVKEKRCT GP NC IWGTTC EQPVTC /KVTFCVGU 8+
FGN 2QPVQ DCLQ NCU TFGPGU FGN EPUWN /CTEQ /KPWEKQ 6GT
OQ &WTCPVG GN UKVKQ FG /KVKNGPG UG NG QTFGP KT C $KVKPKC
RCTC UQNKEKVCT C 0KEQOGFGU +8 NC EGUKP FG WPC RGSWGC
QVC C P FG CUCNVCT NC EKWFCF TGDGNFG #N RCTGEGT GN TG[
CUKVKEQ SWGF VCP FGUNWODTCFQ EQP NC DGNNG\C FGN LQXGP
OGPUCLGTQ TQOCPQ SWG NQ KPXKV C FGUECPUCT GP UW JCDKVC
EKP [ C RCTVKEKRCT GP WP HGUVP FQPFG UKTXK FG EQRGTQ TGCN

FWTCPVG GN DCPSWGVG .C CXGPVWTC FG %UCT GP #UKC NNGI

OW[ RTQPVQ C QFQU FG NQU EKWFCFCPQU FG 4QOC 'P NC
RQNVKEC TQOCPC CEWUCT C CNIWKGP FG OCPVGPGT TGNCEKQPGU
JQOQUGZWCNGU RCUKXCU GTC WPC GUVTCVGIKC EQOP=? RWGU
NC JQOQUGZWCNKFCF RCUKXC C FKHGTGPEKC FG NC CEVKXC GTC
EQPUKFGTCFC WPC RTEVKEC XGTIQP\QUC 5WU GPGOKIQU RQ
NVKEQU RTQENCOCTQP SWG UG JCDC RTQUVKVWKFQ EQP WP TG[
DTDCTQ [ NG CRQFCTQP lNC TGKPC FG $KVKPKC| ECWUCPFQ WP
ITCP FCQ C UW TGRWVCEKP 5KP GODCTIQ %UCT UKGORTG
FGUOKPVK GUVG JGEJQ 'N TGUVQ FG NC ECORCC NG XCNK WPC
OGLQT TGRWVCEKP OQUVTCPFQ ITCP ECRCEKFCF FG OCPFQ [
WP CTTQLQ [ XCNQT RGTUQPCN GPEQOKCDNGU RQT NQU SWG /K
PWEKQ 6GTOQ VTCU NC VQOC FG /KVKNGPG NG EQPEGFGTC NC
EQTQPC EXKEC NC EQPFGEQTCEKP CN XCNQT OU CNVC SWG UG
QVQTICDC GP NC 4GRDNKEC 4QOCPC=?
&GURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG 5KNC GP GN  C % %UCT TG
ITGU C 4QOC G KPKEK WPC ECTTGTC EQOQ CDQICFQ GP GN
(QTQ TQOCPQ FPFQUG C EQPQEGT RQT UW EWKFCFC QTCVQTKC
5W RTKOGT ECUQ HWG FKTKIKFQ EQPVTC %PGQ %QTPGNKQ &QNC
DGNC WP RTQVGIKFQ FG 5KNC SWG GP GN CQ  C % JCDC
UKFQ GNGIKFQ EPUWN [ FGURWU CN CQ UKIWKGPVG RTQEPUWN
GP /CEGFQPKC [ FQPFG CN RCTGEGT JCDC OCNXGTUCFQ NQU
HQPFQU FGN 'UVCFQ &QNCDGNC CN GPVGTCTUG FGN RTQEGUQ GP
UW EQPVTC EQPVTCV RCTC UW FGHGPUC C WPQ FG NQU OU KNWU
VTGU CDQICFQU FG NC RQEC 3WKPVQ *QTVGPUKQ
NNCOCFQ l'N
$CKNCTP| RQT UW OCPGTC FG OQXGTUG GP NQU GUVTCFQU [
CN GOKPGPVG .WEKQ #WTGNKQ %QVVC UW RTQRKQ VQ RGTQ
GUVQ GTC PQTOCN # RGUCT FG GUVQU HQTOKFCDNGU GPGOK
IQU %UCT OQUVT UW ECNKFCF FG QTCFQT SWG CWPSWG PQ
NG UKTXK RCTC ICPCT NC ECWUC U NG RTQEWT NC HCOC SWG
DWUECDC=?
#N CQ UKIWKGPVG WPCU EKWFCFGU ITKGICU SWG JCDCP UKFQ
UCSWGCFCU RQT )C[Q #PVQPKQ *[DTKFC FWTCPVG NC ECORC
C FG 5KNC GP )TGEKC NG EQPCTQP NC FGHGPUC FG UW ECWUC
%UCT JCDN CPVG GN RTGVQT /CTEQ 6GTGPEKQ 8CTTP .EW
NQ EQP OWEJC GNQEWGPEKC [ ICP GN LWKEKQ RGTQ *[DTKFC


CRGN C NQU VTKDWPQU FG NC RNGDG NQU EWCNGU GLGTEKGTQP UW
FGTGEJQ CN XGVQ FGLCPFQ GP UWURGPUQ NC UGPVGPEKC FKEVCFC
GP UW EQPVTC=? 'P GN CQ  C % NC OWGTVG FG UW VQ NG
CDTK NCU RWGTVCU RCTC UGT GNGIKFQ QPOUJGFY GP UW UWUVKVW
EKP GPVTCPFQ FG GUC OCPGTC GP GN %QNGIKQ FG 2QPVEGU
WP QTICPKUOQ TGNKIKQUQ FG ITCP ECNCFQ GP NC XKFC RKCFQUC
FG 4QOC
# RGUCT FG GUVG ZKVQ %UCT FGEKFK XKCLCT C 4QFCU RC
TC CORNKCT UW HQTOCEKP GUVWFKCPFQ NQUQHC [ TGVTKEC
EQP GN ITCOVKEQ #RQNQPKQ /QNP SWG GTC EQPUKFGTCFQ
GN OGLQT FG NC RQEC 5KP GODCTIQ FWTCPVG GN XKCLG UW
DCTEQ HWG CUCNVCFQ C NC CNVWTC FG NC KUNC (CTOCEWUC RQT NQU
RKTCVCU SWG NQ TCRVCTQP %WCPFQ GZKIKGTQP WP TGUECVG FG
 VCNGPVQU FG QTQ
WP VCNGPVQ GSWKXCNC C  MKNQU CRTQ
ZKOCFCOGPVG %UCT UG TKQ [ NQU FGUC C RGFKT  'P
UW ECWVKXGTKQ UG FGFKE C EQORQPGT CNIWPQU FKUEWTUQU VG
PKGPFQ RQT Q[GPVGU C NQU RKTCVCU C NQU EWCNGU VTCVCDC FG KI
PQTCPVGU [ DTDCTQU EWCPFQ PQ CRNCWFCP 6TGKPVC [ QEJQ
FCU FGURWU GN TGUECVG NNGI [ %UCT HWG NKDGTCFQ FGURWU
FG WP ECWVKXGTKQ DCUVCPVG EOQFQ FWTCPVG GN EWCN C RGUCT
FG VTCVCT C UWU UGEWGUVTCFQTGU EQP COCDKNKFCF NGU CXKU
GP XCTKCU QECUKQPGU FG UW PGITQ HWVWTQ #U WPC XG\ TGEW
RGTCFC UW NKDGTVCF QTICPK\ WPC HWGT\C PCXCN SWG RCTVK
FGN RWGTVQ FG /KNGVQ ECRVWT C NQU RKTCVCU GP UW TGHWIKQ [
NQU NNGX C NC RTKUKP GP 2TICOQ 7PC XG\ ECRVWTCFQU HWG
GP DWUEC FG ,WPKQ IQDGTPCPVG FG #UKC RQTSWG NG EQORG
VC C GUVG ECUVKICT C NQU CRTGUCFQU ,WPKQ UG KPVGTGU OU
GP GN DQVP [ FGL C NQU DCPFKFQU C LWKEKQ FG %UCT SWKGP
NQU OCPF ETWEKECT VCN EQOQ NGU JCDC RTQOGVKFQ
CWP
SWG GP WP IGUVQ FG EQORCUKP QTFGP SWG RTKOGTQ NQU
FGIQNNCTCP=?=?

 #*0(3"'"
GP NQ SWG CEVWCNOGPVG GU GN +UNQVG FG 5CPEVK 2GVTK ,WNKQ
%UCT VWXQ WP UWGQ SWG NG RTGFGEC GN FQOKPKQ FGN OWP
FQ FGURWU FG JCDGT NNQTCFQ CPVG GN DWUVQ FG #NGLCPFTQ
/CIPQ RQT JCDGT EWORNKFQ UW GFCF UKP JCDGT CNECP\CFQ
WP ZKVQ KORQTVCPVG=?=? #NN EQOQ EWGUVQT EQPQEK C
.WEKQ %QTPGNKQ $CNDQ 'N /C[QT GN EWCN RQUVGTKQTOGP
VG UG EQPXKTVK GP EQPUGLGTQ [ COKIQ FGN HWVWTQ FKEVCFQT [
RTQRTGVQT FG NC *KURCPKC 7NVGTKQT GP GN CQ  C % )CFGU
RTQRQTEKQP WP ITCP CRQ[Q C NC QVC TQOCPC GP UW ECO
RCC FG .WUKVCPKC FQPFG $CNDQ [C GTC QSBFGFDUVT GBCSVN
GUVQ GU WPC GURGEKG FG LGHG FG KPIGPKGTQU RGTVGPGEKGPVG
C NC RNCPC OC[QT FG NCU NGIKQPGU

'P  C % %QTPGNKC HCNNGEK OKGPVTCU FCDC C NW\ C WP PK

Q SWG PCEK OWGTVQ [ RQEQ FGURWU %UCT RGTFK C UW VC
,WNKC XKWFC FG /CTKQ C SWKGP UG JCDC UGPVKFQ OW[ WPK
FQ 'P EQPVTC FG NCU EQUVWODTGU FG NC RQEC %UCT KPUKUVK
GP QTICPK\CT UGPFQU HWPGTCNGU RDNKEQU #ODQU HWPGTCNGU
UKTXKGTQP VCODKP RCTC FGUCCT NCU NG[GU FG 5KNC RWGU GP
GN UGRGNKQ FG ,WNKC UG GZJKDKGTQP NCU KOIGPGU FG )C[Q
/CTKQ [ FGN JKLQ SWG JCDC VGPKFQ EQP GNNC [ SWG VCO
DKP JCDC NWEJCFQ EQPVTC 5KNC UW FKHWPVQ RTKOQ )C[Q
/CTKQ GN ,QXGP [ GP GN UGRGNKQ FG %QTPGNKC NC KOCIGP FG
UW RCFTG .WEKQ %QTPGNKQ %KPPC 6QFQU GNNQU JCDCP UKFQ
RTQUETKVQU [ NCU NG[GU FGN FKEVCFQT RTQJKDCP OQUVTCT UWU
KOIGPGU GP RDNKEQ RGTQ %UCT PQ XCEKN GP SWGDTCT NCU
TGINCU 'UVG FGUCHQ HWG OW[ CRTGEKCFQ RQT NQU RNGDG[QU
[ NQU SWG HQTOCDCP NC HCEEKP FG NQU QPQVMBSFT [ GP NC +VMJP $TBS 0CSB EF /JDPMBT $PVTUPV
OKUOC OGFKFC TGRWFKCFQ RQT NQU PQUJNBUFT=?
# UW TGITGUQ C 4QOC %UCT RTQUKIWK UW ECTTGTC EQOQ
CDQICFQ JCUVC UGT GNGIKFQ GFKN EWTWN GP GN CQ  C %
GN RTKOGT ECTIQ FGN DVSTVT IPOPSVN SWG UG FGUGORGC
1.2 Ascenso poltico
DC FGPVTQ FG 4QOC .CU HWPEKQPGU FG WP GFKN RWGFGP UGT
%UCT HWG GNGIKFQ EWGUVQT RQT NQU %QOKEKQU GP GN  C GSWKRCTCFCU GP EKGTVQ OQFQ C NCU FG WP OQFGTPQ 2TGUK
% EQP  CQU FG GFCF EQOQ GUVKRWNCDC GN DVSTVT IPOP FGPVG FG WPC ,WPVC /WPKEKRCN G KPENWCP NC TGIWNCEKP FG
SVN TQOCPQ 'P GN UQTVGQ UWDUKIWKGPVG NG EQTTGURQPFK NCU EQPUVTWEEKQPGU FGN VTPUKVQ FGN EQOGTEKQ [ QVTQU CU
WP ECTIQ GP NC RTQXKPEKC TQOCPC FG *KURCPKC 7NVGTKQT UK RGEVQU FG NC XKFC FKCTKC GPVTG QVTCU NCU HWPEKQPGU FG LGHG
VWCFC GP NQ SWG GU JQ[ FC 2QTVWICN [ GN UWT FG 'URCC FG RQNKEC 2GTQ GN ECTIQ GN RTKOGT RGNFCQ RDNKEQ RCTC
5GIP EWGPVC WPC NG[GPFC NQECN GP GN 6GORNQ FG *TEW NNGICT C NC OCIKUVTCVWTC UWRTGOC FGN EQPUWNCFQ RQFC UGT
NGU )CFKVCPQ
*GTCMNGKP FG NC EKWFCF FG )CFGU UKVWCFQ VCODKP GN NVKOQ SWG UG FGUGORGCTC RWGU KPENWC NC QT



&M QSJNFS USJVOWJSBUP

ICPK\CEKP FG NQU LWGIQU GP GN %KTEQ /ZKOQ NQ SWG FG

DKFQ C NQ NKOKVCFQ FGN RTGUWRWGUVQ RDNKEQ GZKIC CN GFKN
NC WVKNK\CEKP FG HQPFQU RGTUQPCNGU 'UVQ HWG GURGEKCNOGP
VG XGTFCF GP GN ECUQ FG %UCT SWG RTGVGPFC TGCNK\CT WPQU
LWGIQU OGOQTCDNGU RCTC KORWNUCT UW ECTTGTC RQNVKEC ;
FG JGEJQ GORNG VQFQ UW KPIGPKQ RCTC EQPUGIWKTNQ NNG
ICPFQ C FGUXKCT GN EWTUQ FGN 6DGT G KPWPFCT GN %KTEQ RCTC
QHTGEGT WPC PCWOCSWKC
WP EQODCVG GPVTG DCTEQU #ECD
GN CQ EQP FGWFCU FGN QTFGP FG XCTKQU EKGPVQU FG VCNGPVQU
FG QTQ=?


FKHEKN PQ UNQ RCTC %UCT UKPQ VCODKP RCTC 4QOC &W
TCPVG UW EQPUWNCFQ %KEGTP TGXGN WPC EQPURKTCEKP RCTC
FGUVKVWKT C NQU OCIKUVTCFQU GNGEVQU [ TGFWEKT NC HWPEKQPCNK
FCF FGN 5GPCFQ EQORNQV NKFGTCFQ RQT .WEKQ 5GTIKQ %CVK
NKPC WP RCVTKEKQ HTWUVTCFQ RQT UW HCNVC FG ZKVQ RQNVKEQ 5K
DKGP PQ UG EGNGDT LWKEKQ EQPVTC GNNQU GP GN UGPVKFQ GUVTKEVQ
FGN VTOKPQ NQ EKGTVQ GU SWG ECUK VQFQU NQU CEWUCFQU GP NC
EQPURKTCEKP [ FGUFG NWGIQ %CVKNKPC GUVWXKGTQP RTGUGPVGU
GP NCU UGUKQPGU FGN 5GPCFQ GP NCU SWG UG NGU LW\I 'P NC
VGTEGTC TGWPKP %KEGTP FGUECTI UW TGURQPUCDKNKFCF UQ
DTG NC EWTKC JCEKGPFQ SWG NQU UGPCFQTGU FGDCVKGTCP NC RGPC
C NC SWG JCDTC FG EQPFGPCTUG C NQU EQPLWTCFQU 'N TGUWN
VCFQ HWG WPC UGPVGPEKC FG OWGTVG RCTC EKPEQ RTQOKPGPVGU
TQOCPQU CNKCFQU FG %CVKNKPC [ RCTC GN RTQRKQ %CVKNKPC=?
6QFQU GUVQU GZVTGOQU SWGFCTQP RCTC NC RQUVGTKFCF GP NCU
HCOQUCU %CVKNKPCTKCU GUETKVCU RQT GN RTQRKQ %KEGTP

5KP GODCTIQ UW ZKVQ EQOQ GFKN HWG WPC C[WFC KORQT

VCPVG RCTC SWG FGURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG 3WKPVQ %GEK
NKQ /GVGNQ 2Q GP GN CQ  C % %UCT HWGTC GNGIKFQ
1POUJGFY .BYJNVT=? FKIPKFCF SWG FQVCDC CN GNGEVQ FG
GPQTOG BVDUPSJUBT [ EJHOJUBT 'N FC FG UW GNGEEKP JCDC
UQURGEJCU FG WP CVGPVCFQ EQPVTC N NQ SWG QDNKI C ,WNKQ
%UCT C FGEKT C UW OCFTG
%UCT UG QRWUQ C NC RGPC FG OWGTVG WUCPFQ RCTC GUQU PGU
UW OGLQT QTCVQTKC RGTQ HWG XGPEKFQ RQT NC KPUKUVGPEKC FG
/CTEQ 2QTEKQ %CVP GN ,QXGP [ NQU EKPEQ JQODTGU HWGTQP
/CFTG JQ[ XGTU C VW JKLQ OWGTVQ GP GN
GLGEWVCFQU GUG OKUOQ FC (WG VCODKP GP GUVC FTCOVK
(QTQ Q XKUVKGPFQ NC VQIC FGN UWOQ RQPVEG
EC TGWPKP FGN 5GPCFQ GP NC SWG GN TQOCPEG FG %UCT EQP
=?
5WGVQPKQ
5GTXKNKC %GRKQPKU JGTOCPC FG /CTEQ 2QTEKQ %CVP UCNK
C NC NW\=? .QU QRQUKVQTGU RQNVKEQU FG %UCT NQ CEWUCTQP
FG HQTOCT RCTVG FG NC EQPURKTCEKP FG .WEKQ 5GTIKQ %CVK
'N ECTIQ KORNKECDC WPC ECUC PWGXC GP GN (QTQ NC %PNVT NKPC NQ SWG PWPEC HWG RTQDCFQ PK RGTLWFKE UW ECTTGTC
1VCMJDB NC RTGUKFGPEKC FGN %QNGIKQ FG 2QPVEGU [ WPC
EKGTVC RTGGOKPGPEKC GP NC XKFC TGNKIKQUC FG 4QOC CU EQ %UCT HWG GNGEVQ RTGVQT WTDCPQ RCTC GN  C % GN RWGUVQ
OQ NC CUWPEKP FG NQU FGDGTGU [ FGTGEJQU FGN RCVGTHCOKNKCU FG RTGVQT OU FKUVKPIWKFQ [C SWG GTC GN SWG UG QEWRCDC FG
NQU CUWPVQU GPVTG EKWFCFCPQU TQOCPQU #RQ[ CN VTKDWPQ
UQDTG NCU 8TIGPGU 8GUVCNGU=?
FG NC RNGDG 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 0GRQVG EWCPFQ UVG
5W GUVTGPQ EQOQ 1POUJGFY .BYJNVT HWG OCTECFQ RQT WP RTGUGPV CNIWPCU NG[GU GP HCXQT FG 2QORG[Q 5KP GODCT
GUEPFCNQ &GURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG %QTPGNKC %KPPC % IQ FKEJCU NG[GU HWGTQP XGVCFCU RQT %CVP [ UG RTQFWLGTQP
UCT UG JCDC ECUCFQ EQP 2QORG[C 5KNC
JKLC FG %QTPGNKC NWEJCU ECNNGLGTCU GPVTG CODQU DCPFQU=? &GURWU FG UW
5KNC [ 3WKPVQ 2QORG[Q 4WHQ PKGVC FG 5KNC %QOQ GU EQORNKECFQ CQ EQOQ RTGVQT %UCT HWG PQODTCFQ RTQ
RQUC FGN 1POUJGFY .BYJNVT [ WPC FG NCU OWLGTGU OU KO RTGVQT FG *KURCPKC 7NVGTKQT=?
RQTVCPVGU FG 4QOC 2QORG[C GTC TGURQPUCDNG FG NC QTIC
PK\CEKP FG NQU TKVQU FG NC #POB %FB GP FKEKGODTG WPC
NKVWTIKC GZENWUKXCOGPVG HGOGPKPC FQPFG NQU JQODTGU PQ
1.3 El primer triunvirato
RQFCP RCTVKEKRCT 2GTQ FWTCPVG NCU EGNGDTCEKQPGU FGN CQ
 C % 2WDNKQ %NQFKQ 2WNETQ
WP LQXGP NFGT FGOCIQIQ
EQPEGRVWCFQ RGNKITQUQ EQPUKIWK GPVTCT GP NC ECUC FKUHTC 'N IQDKGTPQ FG %UCT GP NC RTQXKPEKC FG *KURCPKC PQ UG
\CFQ FG OWLGT CN RCTGEGT OQXKFQ RQT GN NCUEKXQ RTQRUKVQ GPEWGPVTC DKGP FQEWOGPVCFQ UCDGOQU SWG NKFGT WPC RG
FG [CEGT EQP 2QORG[C 'P TGURWGUVC C GUVG UCETKNGIKQ FGN SWGC [ TRKFC IWGTTC GP GN PQTVG FG .WUKVCPKC SWG SWK\ NG
EWCN GNNC RTQDCDNGOGPVG PQ GTC EWNRCDNG 2QORG[C TGEK RTQRQTEKQPCTC CNIQ FG DQVP RCTC UCNFCT RCTVG FG NCU FGW
DK WPC QTFGP FG FKXQTEKQ %UCT FGENCT GP RDNKEQ SWG FCU IGPGTCFCU GP UW IGUVKP EQOQ GFKN [ ICPCTUG WP DWGP
HWG
N PQ NC EQPUKFGTCDC TGURQPUCDNG RGTQ LWUVKE UW CEEKP ETFKVQ EQOQ NFGT ECUVTGPUG 5KP FWFC GN ZKVQ OKNKVCT=?
KORQTVCPVG
[C
SWG
GN
5GPCFQ
NG
EQPEGFK
WP
VTKWPHQ
EQP NC ENGDTG OZKOC
%UCT CDCPFQP UW RTQXKPEKC CPVGU KPENWUQ FG NC NNGICFC
FG UW UWUVKVWVQ [ OCTEJ C 4QOC EQP EGNGTKFCF #N NNGICT
.C OWLGT FG %UCT PQ UNQ FGDG UGT
CN %CORQ FG /CTVG VWXQ SWG FGVGPGTUG C NC GPVTCFC FG
JQPTCFC CFGOU FGDG RCTGEGTNQ
=?
NC EKWFCF RWGU CP QUVGPVCDC GN JNQFSJVN JCUVC JCDGT
2NWVCTEQ
EGNGDTCFQ GN VTKWPHQ=? #PVG NC KORQUKDKNKFCF FG GPVTCT
GP 4QOC UG KPUVCN GP NC 8KNNC 2DNKEC [ UG CRTGUWT GP
RTGUGPVCT UW ECPFKFCVWTC CN EQPUWNCFQ RQT RGTUQPC KPVGT
%NQFKQ HWG RGTFQPCFQ RQT XQNWPVCF FGN RWGDNQ [C SWG PC RWGUVC Q DKGP OGFKCPVG WPC OKUKXC CN UGPCFQ RWGU PQ JC[
FC JCDC UKFQ RTQDCFQ [ GN RTQRKQ %UCT PQ SWKUQ FGENCTCT EQPUVCPEKC FG SWG UVG UG TGWPKGTC FYUSBQPNFSJVN
Q UGC
EQPVTC N
HWGTC FGN RQOGTKQ RCTC GUEWEJCT NC RGVKEKP 6TCU FG
'P NCU GNGEEKQPGU RCTC GN  C % /CTEQ 6WNKQ %KEGTP OQTCTUG WP FC RCTGEC SWG GN 5GPCFQ PQ VGPFTC RTQDNG
UCNK GNGIKFQ EPUWN TFOJPS (WG WP CQ RCTVKEWNCTOGPVG OCU GP XCNKFCTNC=?

 #*0(3"'"
WPC XG\ CECDCFQ GN OCPFCVQ FG NQU EPUWNGU [ GUVCPFQ
+VCNKC RNCICFC FG HQTCLKFQU [ DCPFKFQU VCP UNQ FKG\ CQU
FGURWU FG NC TGDGNKP FG 'URCTVCEQ UGTC GP DKGP FG NC
4GRDNKEC GPECTICT C NQU EPUWNGU SWG CECDCTCP EQP GNNQU
GP WPC OKUKP FG WP CQ FG FWTCEKP 'N 5GPCFQ CEQIK
HCXQTCDNGOGPVG NC KFGC SWG UG EQPXKTVK GP NG[ .C XQ
NWPVCF FG %CVP UG EWORNK RGTHGEVCOGPVG [ RCTGEC SWG
%UCT VGTOKPCTC UW EQPUWNCFQ EQOQ RQNKEC GPVTG CNFGC
PQU [ RCUVQTGU KVCNKCPQU=?
(WG WPC FGEKUKP CTTKGUICFC PQ QDUVCPVG RGTQ CN VQOCT
NC GN 5GPCFQ UG CUGIWTCDC FG SWG UK %UCT PQ NC CEGRVCDC
VGPFTC SWG TGEWTTKT C NC HWGT\C RCTC TGXQECTNC [ UGTC FG
ENCTCFQ WP ETKOKPCN WP UGIWPFQ %CVKNKPC .C GUVTCVGIKC FG
%CVP EQPUKUVK UKGORTG GP KFGPVKECTUG EQP NC VTCFKEKP
[ CTTKPEQPCT C UWU GPGOKIQU EQPVTC GNNC JCUVC QDNKICTNGU C
VQOCT GN RCRGN FG TGXQNWEKQPCTKQU 'P GN 5GPCFQ NQU CNKC
FQU FG NQU QRVKOCVGU NKFGTCFQU RQT %CVP OCPVGPCP WPC
OC[QTC UNKFC EQPVCPFQ EQP %TCUQ [ UW RQFGTQUQ DNQ
SWG RWGU VQFQ GN OWPFQ GURGTCDC SWG UVG UG QRWUKGUG C
EWCNSWKGT OGFKFC FG 2QORG[Q=?

'P NC RTKOGTC TGWPKP FGN 5GPCFQ FWTCPVG GN EQPUWNCFQ FG

%UCT UVG VTCVQ FG QHTGEGT WP IGPGTQUQ CEWGTFQ RCTC TG
EQORGPUCT C NQU XGVGTCPQU FG 2QORG[Q %CVP PQ GUVCDC
FKURWGUVQ C SWG UG CRTQDCTC [ GORG\ C WVKNK\CT UW VEVKEC
k%GFCPV CTOC VQICG k$FEBO MBT BSNBT B MB UPHB{
 .BSDP 5VMJP HCXQTKVC JCDN [ JCDN JCUVC SWG %UCT NG KORKFK UGIWKT
$JDFSO OP EFK RVF OBEJF PMWJEBSB OVODB TV BSNBDJO EF RVF
KPFKEPFQNGU EQP WP IGUVQ FG NC ECDG\C C UWU NKEVQTGU SWG
FO FM  B $ DPO MB EFSSPUB EF MB DPOTQJSBDJO EF $BUJMJOB M
UG NQ NNGXCTCP #N XGTNQ CNIWPQU UGPCFQTGU EQOGP\CTQP C
IBCB TBMWBEP MB 3FQCMJDB
CDCPFQPCT UWU RWGUVQU CN UGT KPVGTTQICFQU RQT %UCT RCTC
EQPQEGT RQT SW UG OCTEJCDCP WPQ FG GNNQU NG EQPVGUV
SWG lRTGGTQ GUVCT GP NC ETEGN EQP %CVP SWG GP GN 5G
%CVP RQTVCXQ\ FG NC HCEEKP PQUJNBUF OU EQPUGTXC PCFQ EQPVKIQ|=?
FQTC GTC TGCEKQ C SWG WP RQNVKEQ QPQVMBS QDVWXKGUG GN
#PVG GNNQ UG XKQ QDNKICFQ C TGEVKECT RGTQ UW TGVKTCFC HWG
EQPUWNCFQ [ OU CP UK GUVG RQNVKEQ GTC %UCT
C SWKGP
RWTCOGPVG GUVTCVIKEC NNGX NC ECORCC FG UW NG[ CITCTKC
FGVGUVCDC=? [ UCDKGPFQ SWG UG FGDC XQVCT CPVGU FG NC
FKTGEVCOGPVG CPVG NQU %QOKEKQU 4QOC GORG\ C NNGPCTUG
RWGUVC FGN 5QN UKIWK JCDNCPFQ JCUVC DKGP GPVTCFC NC PQ
FG XGVGTCPQU FG 2QORG[Q NQ SWG CNCTO C NQU EQPUGTXC
EJG RQT NQ SWG PQ UG RWFQ CRTQDCT NC OQEKP CPVGTKQT
FQTGU 5KP GODCTIQ %UCT RQFC JCEGT CRTQDCT NC RTQ
#PVG GNNQ %UCT FGEKFK RTGUEKPFKT FG NQU NCWTGNGU FG UW
RWGUVC RQT GN RWGDNQ EQP HWGT\C FG NG[ RGTQ KT EQPVTC NC
VTKWPHQ [ RTGUGPVCTUG RGTUQPCNOGPVG EQOQ ECPFKFCVQ=?
XQNWPVCF FGN 5GPCFQ GTC WPC VEVKEC RQEQ QTVQFQZC SWG
6TCU PQ JCDGT RQFKFQ PGWVTCNK\CT NC GPVTCFC FG %UCT GP CTTWKPCTC UW ETFKVQ GPVTG UWU EQNGICU [ UW ECTTGTC JCDTC
NCU GNGEEKQPGU NQU QRVKOCVGU UG OQXKGTQP TRKFCOGPVG VGTOKPCFQ .C GUVTCVGIKC FG %UCT UG FGUXGN GP NC TGEVC
RCTC GPEQPVTCT WP ECPFKFCVQ SWG GSWKNKDTCUG NC DCNCP\C PCN FG NC XQVCEKP PQ UQTRTGPFK C PCFKG SWG NC RTKOGTC
[ SWG RGTVGPGEKGTC C NC GUHGTC FG NCU KFGCU EQPUGTXCFQ RGTUQPC GP JCDNCT GP HCXQT FG UWU XGVGTCPQU HWGUG 2QO
TCU EQP GN P FG EQPVTCTTGUVCT NCU OGFKFCU SWG %UCT RW RG[Q RGTQ NC KFGPVKFCF FG NC UGIWPFC RGTUQPC SWG CRQ
FKGUG VQOCT=? 2QORG[Q OKGPVTCU VCPVQ JCDC GORG\CFQ [ NC OQEKP HWG UQTRTGUKXC /CTEQ .KEKPKQ %TCUQ .QU
C TGRCTVKT FKPGTQ GPVTG UW ENKGPVGNC [ XQVCPVGU ICUVCPFQ QRVKOCVGU FGUDQTFCFQU XKGTQP EOQ ECCP VQFCU UWU GU
EWCPVQ HWGUG PGEGUCTKQ RCTC EQORTCT NQU FQU EQPUWNCFQU RGTCP\CU ,WPVQU NQU VTGU JQODTGU RQFTCP TGRCTVKTUG NC
/KGPVTCU %CVP GNKIK EQOQ ECPFKFCVQ C UW [GTPQ /CTEQ 4GRDNKEC EQOQ IWUVCUGP=? .QU JKUVQTKCFQTGU FGUKIPCP
%CNRWTPKQ $DWNQ SWKGP RCTC NQU QRVKOCVGU KPVGTRTGVCDC GUVC WPKP EQOQ GN RTKOGT VTKWPXKTCVQ Q GN HPCJFSOP EF MPT
GN RCRGN FG UCNXCFQT FG NC 4GRDNKEC 'P NCU GNGEEKQPGU FGN USFT IPNCSFT 2CTC EQPTOCT NC CNKCP\C 2QORG[Q UG ECU
CQ  C % %UCT HWG RTKOGTQ EQP FKHGTGPEKC [ $DWNQ EQP ,WNKC %CGUCTKU NC PKEC JKLC FG %UCT [ C RGUCT FG
ICP GN UGIWPFQ RWGUVQ=?
NC FKHGTGPEKC FG GFCFGU [ CODKGPVG UQEKCN GN OCVTKOQPKQ
=?
6QFQ RCTGEC VTCPUEWTTKT EQP PCVWTCNKFCF RCTC NQU EQPUGT HWG WP ZKVQ
XCFQTGU SWG VTCU DNQSWGCT RQNVKECOGPVG C 2QORG[Q [
CPVG NC RGTURGEVKXC RCTC GNNQU KPCEGRVCDNG FG RGTOKVKT SWG
WP JQODTG EQOQ %UCT VCP UGFKGPVQ FG INQTKC [ EQP FQ
VGU OKNKVCTGU HWGUG IQDGTPCFQT FG WPC RTQXKPEKC KPKEKC
TQP OCPKQDTCU RCTC GXKVCTNQ %CVP RNCPVG CN 5GPCFQ SWG

.CU TC\QPGU RQT NCU SWG GUVCU VTGU RGTUQPCNKFCFGU FG NC XK

FC RDNKEC TQOCPC FGEKFKGTQP WPKTUG PQ FGDGP DWUECTUG
OU SWG GP NQU KPVGTGUGU FG ECFC WPQ 2QORG[Q PGEGUK
VCDC C %UCT RCTC SWG UG CRTQDCTCP NCU NG[GU CITCTKCU SWG



-B (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT

FQVCTCP FG VKGTTCU C UWU XGVGTCPQU %TCUQ SWGTC WP OCPFQ

RTQEQPUWNCT SWG NG RTQRQTEKQPCTC XGTFCFGTC INQTKC SWG
PQ JCDC EQPUGIWKFQ GP UW TGRTGUKP FG NC TGXWGNVC FG
'URCTVCEQ [ %UCT PGEGUKVCDC FGN RTGUVKIKQ FG 2QORG[Q
[ FG NQU HQPFQU FG %TCUQ RCTC RQFGT EQPUGIWKT NC RTQXKP
EKC SWG CPUKCDC=? &GUFG NWGIQ PQ FGDG RGPUCTUG SWG GN
CEGTECOKGPVQ FG GUVQU VTGU ITCPFGU RGTUQPCLGU FG NC 4G
RDNKEC HWG UDKVQ RQT OU SWG EQPUVKVW[GTC WPC UQTRTGUC
RCTC UWU EQGVPGQU OCPKQDTC RQNVKEC FG EW[C GZKUVGPEKC
UG FKGTQP EWGPVC OU DKGP ITCFWCNOGPVG=?
/CTEQ $DWNQ [ NQU EQPUGTXCFQTGU SWG NQ CRQ[CDCP KPKEKC
TQP WPC GUVTCVGIKC GP NC TGVCIWCTFKC GORG\CTQP C WUCT GN
XGVQ RCTC QRQPGTUG C NCU RTQRWGUVCU FG %UCT RGTQ %UCT
PQ GUVCDC FKURWGUVQ C SWG PQ NG FGLCTCP NGIKUNCT [ NNGX
UWU RTQ[GEVQU FKTGEVCOGPVG CPVG NQU %QOKEKQU FQPFG UG
CRTQDCDCP GPVTG QVTCU EQUCU RQT GN FGEKFKFQ CRQ[Q HUK
EQ FG NQU XGVGTCPQU FG 2QORG[Q=? 5KP GODCTIQ EWCPFQ
GP WP CNVGTECFQ CNIWPQU GNGOGPVQU FGN QPQVMVT CTTQLCTQP
WPC EGUVC FG GUVKTEQN C NC ECDG\C FG $DWNQ UVG QRV RQT
TGVKTCTUG FG VQFC NC XKFC RQNVKEC CWPSWG UKP TGPWPEKCT C
UW OCIKUVTCVWTC EQP GN RTGVGZVQ FG FGFKECTUG C NC QDUGTXC
EKP FG NQU EKGNQU GP DWUEC FG RTGUCIKQU=?=? 'UVC FGEK
UKP CRCTGPVGOGPVG FG GURTKVW TGNKIKQUQ GUVCDC FGUVKPC
FC C KORGFKT C %UCT CRTQDCT NG[GU FWTCPVG UW EQPUWNCFQ
RGTQ %UCT KIPQT UKUVGOVKECOGPVG NQU CWIWTKQU FGUHCXQ
TCDNGU SWG RWDNKECDC FKCTKCOGPVG $DWNQ [ UG CRQ[ RCTC
NC VQOC FG FGEKUKQPGU GP NQU VTKDWPQU FG NC RNGDG [ GP NQU
%QOKEKQU=?
%QOQ GU UCDKFQ NQU TQOCPQU FGPQOKPCDCP NQU CQU RQT
GN PQODTG FG NQU FQU EPUWNGU SWG TGICP FKEJQ RGTQFQ
'N CQ  C % VTCU NC PWNC RCTVKEKRCEKP FG $DWNQ HWG
NNCOCFQ RQT NQU RTQRKQU TQOCPQU
EQP UGPVKFQ FGN JWOQT
GN BP EF +VMJP Z $TBS=?=?

&M .VOEP 3PNBOP BOUFT EF MB (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT

SWG OU VCTFG UG FGPQOKP )WGTTC FG NCU )CNKCU

 C %
  C %=? GP NC SWG EQPSWKUV NC NNCOCFC (BMJB $P
NBUB Q )CNKC OGNGPWFC
CEVWCNOGPVG (TCPEKC *QNCPFC
5WK\C [ RCTVGU FG $NIKEC [ #NGOCPKC GP XCTKCU ECORC
CU %UCT JK\Q WPC FGOQUVTCEKP FG HWGT\C EQPUVTW[GPFQ
RQT FQU XGEGU WP RWGPVG UQDTG GN 4KP G KPXCFKGPFQ GP FQU
QECUKQPGU )GTOCPKC UKP KPVGPEKP FG EQPSWKUVCTNC G JK\Q
QVTQ CNCTFG FG HQTVCNG\C ETW\CPFQ GN %CPCN FG NC /CPEJC
VCODKP RQT FQU XGEGU JCEKC NCU +UNCU $TKVPKECU UK DKGP
GU EKGTVQ SWG GUVCU FQU KPEWTUKQPGU VGPCP WP UGPVKFQ OU
GUVTCVIKEQ SWG EQNQPKCN=?
'PVTG UWU NGICFQU
EQOCPFCPVGU FG NGIKP UG EQPVCDCP
UWU RTKOQU .WEKQ ,WNKQ %UCT [ /CTEQ #PVQPKQ /CTEQ
.KEKPKQ %TCUQ JKLQ FG UW EQORCGTQ FG VTKWPXKTCVQ CU
EQOQ 6KVQ .CDKGPQ ENKGPVG FG 2QORG[Q [ 3WKPVQ 6WNKQ
%KEGTP GN JGTOCPQ OU LQXGP FG /CTEQ 6WNKQ %KEGTP
VQFQU JQODTGU SWG JCDTCP FG UGT RGTUQPCLGU KORQTVCPVGU
GP NQU CQU UKIWKGPVGU

'P OCVGTKC FG VEVKECU ,WNKQ %UCT WU EQP ITCP TGUWNVCFQ

NQ SWG UG EQPQEK EQOQ DFMFSJUBT DBFTBSJT Q lTCRKFG\ EG
1.4 La Guerra de las Galias
UCTKCPC|
SWG RWGFG EQORCTCUG UCNXCPFQ NCU FKUVCPEKCU
C NC FGPQOKPCFC IWGTTC TGNORCIQ FGN UKINQ :: CRCTVG
6TCU WP CQ FKHEKN EQOQ EPUWN %UCT TGEKDK RQFG FG UW IGPKQ OKNKVCT VCPVQ GP DCVCNNCU ECORCNGU EQOQ GP
TGU RTQEQPUWNCTGU RCTC IQDGTPCT NCU RTQXKPEKCU FG )CNKC CUGFKQ FG EKWFCFGU #FGOU UWRQ EQPLWICT UCDKCOGPVG
6TCPUCNRKPC
CEVWCNOGPVG GN UWT FG (TCPEKC G +NKTKC
NC NC HWGT\C NC FKRNQOCEKC [ GN OCPGLQ FG NCU TGPEKNNCU KPVGT
EQUVC FG &CNOCEKC FWTCPVG EKPEQ CQU ITCEKCU CN CRQ PCU FG NCU VTKDWU ICNCU RCTC UGRCTCTNCU [ XGPEGTNCU=?=?
[Q FG NQU QVTQU FQU OKGODTQU FGN VTKWPXKTCVQ SWG EWO
RNKGTQP EQP NC RCNCDTC FCFC # GUVCU FQU RTQXKPEKCU UG
CCFK NC )CNKC %KUCNRKPC VTCU NC OWGTVG KPGURGTCFC FG
UW IQDGTPCFQT 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ %NGT 'TCP WPCU
RTQXKPEKCU OW[ DWGPCU RCTC CNIWKGP SWG EQOQ %UCT [
UKIWKGPFQ NC VRKEC OGPVCNKFCF FGN RTQEPUWN TQOCPQ PQ
VGPC KPVGPEKQPGU FG IQDGTPCT RCEECOGPVG RWGU GUVCDC
PGEGUKVCFQ FG DKGPGU RCTC RCICT NCU HCDWNQUCU UWOCU SWG
CFGWFCDC=?
.C QRQTVWPKFCF UG NG RTGUGPV OGFKCPVG WPC VGTKEC COG
PC\C FG NQU JGNXGEKQU SWG RGPUCDCP GOKITCT CN QGUVG FG
NCU )CNKCU &GEKFKFQ C KORGFKTNQ [ EQP NC GZEWUC RQNVKEC
FG SWG UG CEGTECTCP FGOCUKCFQ C NC RTQXKPEKC FG NC )C &M QVFOUF EF $TBS TPCSF FM 3JO $VBESP EF +PIO 4PBOF 
NKC %KUCNRKPC NQU JGNXGEKQU SWGTCP KPUVCNCTUG GP RCIQ
5CPVP CN PQTVG FG NC #SWKVCPKC TGENWV VTQRCU G KPKEK %UCT FGTTQV C RWGDNQU EQOQ NQU JGNXGEKQU GP  C %
NCU QRGTCEKQPGU DNKECU SWG C NC RQUVTG FCTCP NWICT C NQ C NC EQPHGFGTCEKP DGNIC [ C NQU PGTXKQU GP  C % [ C

 #*0(3"'"

NQU XPGVQU GP  C % (KPCNOGPVG GP  C % %UCT

XGPEK C WPC EQPHGFGTCEKP FG VTKDWU ICNCU NKFGTCFCU RQT
8GTEKPIVQTKZ GP NC DCVCNNC FG #NGUKC 5WU ETPKECU RGTUQ
PCNGU FG NC ECORCC GUVP TGIKUVTCFCU GP UWU $PNFOUBSJPT
B MB (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT
%F #FMMP (BMMJDP

NC UQODTC C %NQFKQ [ UWU UGEWCEGU SWG GUVCDCP UGODTCP

FQ NC XKQNGPEKC GP 4QOC=? #PVG GUVC UKVWCEKP SWG COG
PC\CDC UW RTQEQPUWNCFQ %UCT EQPXQE C WPC TGWPKP C
UWU FQU CNKCFQU GP NC EKWFCF FG .WEEC RWGU N PQ RQFC
KT C 4QOC UKP TGPWPEKCT C UW JNQFSJVN #N RCTGEGT C FK
EJQ GPEWGPVTQ PQ UNQ CUKUVKGTQP GNNQU UKPQ WPQU FQUEKGP
VQU UGPCFQTGU
NCU FQU VGTEGTCU RCTVGU FGN 5GPCFQ GP GU
VG EQPEKNKQ UG CEQTF SWG VCPVQ 2QORG[Q EQOQ %TCUQ UG
RTGUGPVCTCP CN EQPUWNCFQ CN CQ UKIWKGPVG [ SWG WPC XG\
EPUWNGU RTQOWNICTCP WPC NG[ RQT NC SWG GN RTQEQPUWNC
FQ FG %UCT UG CNCTICTC EKPEQ CQU OU 'UVG RCEVQ UG
EQPQEG GP NC *KUVQTKC EQOQ GN l%QPXGPKQ FG .WEEC|=?
#N CQ UKIWKGPVG EQOQ GTC FG RTGXGT UWU CNKCFQU %PGQ
2QORG[Q /CIPQ [ /CTEQ .KEKPKQ %TCUQ HWGTQP GNGIKFQU
EPUWNGU [ JQPTCTQP GN CEWGTFQ GUVCDNGEKFQ EQP %UCT

&G CEWGTFQ EQP 2NWVCTEQ NC IWGTTC UG EGTT EQP WP DC

NCPEG FG  EKWFCFGU VQOCFCU
EQOQ NC FG #XCTKEQ GP
NC EWCN FG NQU  FGHGPUQTGU UQNQ SWGFCTQP 
 VTKDWU UQOGVKFCU WP OKNNP FG ICNQU TGFWEKFQU C NC
GUENCXKVWF [ QVTQU VTGU OKNNQPGU OWGTVQU GP NQU ECORQU FG
DCVCNNC 2NKPKQ JCDNC FG  OWGTVQU [ OU Q OG
PQU NQU OKUOQU RTKUKQPGTQU [ 8GNG[Q 2CVTEWNQ FKEG SWG
OWTKGTQP  ICNQU [ OWEJQU OU HWGTQP VQOCFQU
RTKUKQPGTQU CWPSWG NCU EKHTCU FG NQU CPVKIWQU JKUVQTKCFQ
TGU FGDGP VQOCTUG EQP OWEJC RTGECWEKP KPENWKFCU NCU
FGN RTQRKQ ,WNKQ %UCT=?=?
5KP GODCTIQ GP  C % ,WNKC %CGUCTKU OWTK FWTCPVG WP
7VKNK\ GP XCTKCU QECUKQPGU NC VEVKEC FG UQTRTGPFGT CN RCTVQ FGLCPFQ CN RCFTG [ OCTKFQ OW[ CRGPCFQU /CTEQ
GPGOKIQ CRCTGEKGPFQ CPVG N EQOQ RQT GPUCNOQ [ C FGU .KEKPKQ %TCUQ RQT UW RCTVG OWTK GP GN  C % GP NC
RGEJQ FG NQU FCU FG OCTEJC JCEC SWG UWU UQNFCFQU UG $CVCNNC FG %CTTJCG HTGPVG C NQU RCTVQU FWTCPVG NC FGUCU
GPHTGPVCUGP FKTGEVCOGPVG EQP GN CFXGTUCTKQ RGUG C SWG VTQUC ECORCC FG 2GTUKC EQPFGPCFC CN HTCECUQ FGUFG GN
UVG EQPUKFGTCDC SWG GN ECPUCPEKQ KPXCNKFCTC GN GORWLG KPKEKQ RQT WPC RUKOC RNCPKECEKP 6QFCXC GP NC )CNKC
FG UWU NGIKQPGU (WG KIWCNOGPVG DTKNNCPVG GP NQU CUGFKQU %UCT VTCV FG CUGIWTCTUG NC CNKCP\C EQP %PGQ 2QORG
FG EKWFCFGU NNGICPFQ CN EWNOGP GP GN UKVKQ FG #NGUKC GP [Q /CIPQ RTQRQPKPFQNG OCVTKOQPKQ EQP WPC FG UWU UQ
FQPFG QTFGP EQPUVTWKT WPC FQDNG NPGC FG HQTVKECEKQPGU DTKPCU RGTQ UVG RTGTK ECUCTUG FG PWGXQ EQP %QTPGNKC
FG XCTKQU MKNOGVTQU FG GZVGPUKP RCTC DNKPFCTUG HTGP /GVGNC JKLC FG 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 'UEKRKP RGTVGPG
VG C NQU ECUK VTGUEKGPVQU OKN ICNQU SWG KPVGPVCDCP C[WFCT C EKGPVG C NC HCEEKP QRVKOCVG
NQU QEJGPVC OKN UQNFCFQU FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ CUGFKCFQU C NQU
SWG %UCT VGPC CEQUCFQU FGPVTQ FG NC RNC\C HWGTVG %UCT
EQP OGPQU FG EKPEWGPVC OKN GHGEVKXQU EQTTGURQPFKGPVGU C
FKG\ NGIKQPGU PWPEC EQORNGVCU VTCU QEJQ CQU FG IWGTTCU
GP NCU )CNKCU XGPEK C WPQU [ C QVTQU GP NC OKUOC DCVCNNC
GP NC SWG UG FGEKFK GN FGUVKPQ FG NQU ICNQU=?

1.5

Crisis poltica

'N FGUCUVTG FG NC $CVCNNC FG %CTTJCG GP GN SWG %TCUQ OWTK

EQP UWU NGIKQPGU CN GPHTGPVCTUG C NQU RCTVQU [ NC OWGTVG FG
,WNKC CECD RQT TQORGT GN VTKWPXKTCVQ &CU FGURWU VTCU
NC XKEVQTKC FG %UCT GP NC #NGUKC %GNKQ EQOQ VTKDWPQ
NCP\ WPC RTQRWGUVC FG NG[ CFKEKQPCN %UCT UGTC FKURGP
UCFQ FG NC QDNKICEKP FG CEWFKT C 4QOC RCTC RTGUGPVCT
UW ECPFKFCVWTC CN EQPUWNCFQ 'UVC OGFKFC UWRQPC SWG NQU
QRQUKVQTGU [ GPGOKIQU FG %UCT SWG RTGVGPFCP RTQEGUCT
NG RQT NQU UWRWGUVQU ETOGPGU FG UW RTKOGT EQPUWNCFQ RGT
FGTCP VQFC RQUKDKNKFCF FG LW\ICTNG RWGUVQ SWG %UCT GP
PKPIP OQOGPVQ FGLCTC FG FGUGORGCT WPC OCIKUVTC
VWTC /KGPVTCU HWGUG RTQEPUWN %UCT VGPFTC KPOWPKFCF
LWFKEKCN RGTQ UK UG XGC QDNKICFQ C GPVTCT GP 4QOC RCTC
RTGUGPVCTUG CN EQPUWNCFQ RGTFGTC UW ECTIQ [ FWTCPVG WP
VKGORQ RQFTC UGT CVCECFQ EQP VQFC WPC DCVGTC FG FG
OCPFCU FG UWU GPGOKIQU=?

'N RQFGT FG %UCT GTC XKUVQ RQT OWEJQU UGPCFQTGU EQP

UGTXCFQTGU EQOQ WPC COGPC\C 5K %UCT TGITGUCDC C 4Q
OC EQOQ EPUWN PQ VGPFTC RTQDNGOCU RCTC JCEGT CRTQ
DCT NG[GU SWG EQPEGFKGUGP VKGTTCU C UWU XGVGTCPQU [ C N
WPC TGUGTXC FG VTQRCU SWG UWRGTCUG Q TKXCNK\CUG EQP NCU FG
2QORG[Q %CVP [ NQU GPGOKIQU FG %UCT UG QRWUKGTQP
HTQPVCNOGPVG EQP NQ SWG GN 5GPCFQ UG XKQ GPXWGNVQ GP NCT
&M .VOEP 3PNBOP USBT MBT DPORVJTUBT EF $TBS
ICU FKUEWUKQPGU UQDTG GN POGTQ FG NGIKQPGU SWG FGDGTC
FG VGPGT DCLQ UW OCPFQ [ UQDTG SWKP FGDGTC UGT GN HWVWTQ
2GTQ C RGUCT FG UWU ZKVQU [ FG NQU DGPGEKQU SWG NC EQP IQDGTPCFQT FG NC )CNKC %KUCNRKPC G +NKTKC
SWKUVC FG )CNKC NNGX C 4QOC %UCT EQPVKPWCDC UKGPFQ
2QORG[Q PCNOGPVG UG FGECPV RQT HCXQTGEGT C NQU VTCFK
KORQRWNCT GPVTG UWU RCTGU GP RCTVKEWNCT GPVTG NQU EQPUGT
EKQPCNKUVCU [ GOKVK WP XGTGFKEVQ ENCTQ %UCT FGDC CDCP
XCFQTGU SWG VGOCP UW CODKEKP
FQPCT UW OCPFQ NC RTKOCXGTC UKIWKGPVG HCNVCPFQ VQFCXC
'P GN  C % GN VTKWPXKTCVQ UG VCODCNGCDC RWGU 2QORG OGUGU RCTC NCU GNGEEKQPGU CN EQPUWNCFQ VKGORQ OU SWG
[Q PQ UG CDC FG %TCUQ [ ETGC SWG GTC GN SWG OCPVGPC GP



(VFSSB DJWJM

UKGTQP %WTKQ [ %GNKQ /CTEQ #PVQPKQ EQOQ VTKDWPQ XG

V NC RTQRWGUVC RCTC KORGFKT SWG UG EQPXKTVKGTC GP NG[
6TCU GN XGVQ FG /CTEQ #PVQPKQ C NC OQEKP SWG QDNKICDC
C %UCT C CDCPFQPCT UW ECTIQ FG IQDGTPCFQT FG NCU )C
NKCU 2QORG[Q PQVKE PQ RQFGT ICTCPVK\CT NC UGIWTKFCF
FG NQU VTKDWPQU #PVQPKQ %GNKQ [ %WTKQ UG XKGTQP HQT\CFQU
C CDCPFQPCT 4QOC FKUHTC\CFQU EQOQ GUENCXQU CEQUCFQU
RQT NCU DCPFCU ECNNGLGTCU
'N  FG GPGTQ GN 5GPCFQ RTQENCO GN GUVCFQ FG GOGTIGP
EKC [ EQPEGFK C 2QORG[Q RQFGTGU GZEGREKQPCNGU PQO
DTPFQNG DOTVM TJOF DPMMFHB %CVP [ /CTEGNQ KPUVCTQP CN
5GPCFQ C SWG RTQPWPEKCTC NC HCOQUC HTCUG
$BWFBOU DPOTVMFT OF RVJE EFUSJNFOUJ SFT QV
CMJDB DBQJBU
%WKFGP NQU EPUWNGU SWG NC TGR
DNKEC PQ UWHTC FCQ CNIWPQ
SWG GSWKXCNC C FKEVCT NC NG[ OCTEKCN G KPUVCTQP C 2QORG[Q
C VTCUNCFCT KPOGFKCVCOGPVG UWU VTQRCU C 4QOC .C ETKUKU
JCDC NNGICFQ C UW RWPVQ OU NIKFQ=?

&TUBUVB EF $OFP 1PNQFZP .BHOP FO MB 7JMMB "SDPOBUJ *UBMJB

1.6 Guerra civil

UWEKGPVG RCTC LW\ICTNG=? 5KP GODCTIQ GP NCU UKIWKGPVGU

GNGEEKQPGU RCTC VTKDWPQ FG NC RNGDG HWG GNGIKFQ %WTKQ SWG
UG TGXGN EQOQ EGUCTKCPQ XGVCPFQ VQFQU NQU KPVGPVQU FG
CRCTVCT C %UCT FG UW OCPFQ GP NCU )CNKCU ,WTFKECOGP
VG VQFQU NQU KPVGPVQU EQPUWNCTGU FG CRCTVCT C %UCT FG UWU
VTQRCU UG XGCP CPWNCFQU RQT NC USJCVOJDJB QPUFTUBT
# PCNGU FGN OKUOQ CQ %UCT CECOR GP 4XGPC EQP
NC :+++ NGIKP 2QORG[Q VQO GN OCPFQ FG FQU NGIKQPGU
GP %CRWC [ GORG\ C TGENWVCT NGXCU KNGICNOGPVG WP CEVQ
SWG EQOQ GTC RTGFGEKDNG CRTQXGEJCTQP NQU EGUCTKCPQU GP
UW HCXQT %UCT HWG KPHQTOCFQ FG NCU CEEKQPGU FG 2QORG
[Q RGTUQPCNOGPVG RQT %WTKQ SWG GP GUQU OQOGPVQU [C
JCDC PCNK\CFQ UW OCPFCVQ /KGPVTCU VCPVQ UW RWGUVQ FG
VTKDWPQ HWG QEWRCFQ RQT /CTEQ #PVQPKQ SWG NQ FGUGO
RG JCUVC FKEKGODTG
-PDBMJ[BDJO EFM SP 3VCJDO
2GTQ EWCPFQ GN 5GPCFQ NG EQPVGUV FGPKVKXCOGPVG KO
RKFKPFQNG EQPEWTTKT CN EQPUWNCFQ [ RQPKPFQNG GP NC FKU 'P XKUVC FGN ECTK\ SWG VQOCDCP NQU CEQPVGEKOKGPVQU %
[WPVKXC FG NKEGPEKCT C UWU .GIKQPGU Q UGT FGENCTCFQ GPGOK UCT CTGPI C WPC FG UWU NGIKQPGU NC FGEKOQVGTEGTC [ NGU
IQ RDNKEQ EQORTGPFK SWG GUEQIKGTC NC CNVGTPCVKXC SWG GZRNKE NC UKVWCEKP RTGIWPVPFQNGU UK GUVCDCP FKURWGUVQU
GUEQIKGTC UG GPVTGICDC KPGTOG GP OCPQU FG UWU GPGOK C GPHTGPVCTUG EQP 4QOC GP WPC IWGTTC FQPFG UGTCP ECNK
IQU RQNVKEQU 'N  FG GPGTQ FG  C % /CTEQ #PVQPKQ ECFQU FG VTCKFQTGU GP ECUQ FG RGTFGTNC .QU NGIKQPCTKQU
NG[ WPC ECTVC FG %UCT GP GN 5GPCFQ GP NC EWCN GN RTQEP TGURQPFKGTQP C NC CTGPIC FG UW IGPGTCN EQP NC FGEKUKP FG
UWN UG FGENCTCDC COKIQ FG NC RC\ 6TCU WPC NCTIC NKUVC FG CEQORCCTNQ=?=?
UWU OWEJCU IGUVCU RTQRWUQ SWG VCPVQ N EQOQ 2QORG[Q 'PVTG GN  [ GN  FG GPGTQ FG  C % OW[ RTQDCDNG
TGPWPEKCTCP CN OKUOQ VKGORQ C UWU OCPFQU 'N 5GPCFQ OGPVG GN  FG GPGTQ=? %UCT TGEKDK NC PQVKEKC FG
QEWNV GUVG OGPUCLG C NC QRKPKP RDNKEC=?
NC EQPEGUKP FG NQU RQFGTGU GZEGREKQPCNGU C 2QORG[Q G
/GVGNQ 'UEKRKP FKEV WPC HGEJC RCTC NC EWCN %UCT FGDG
TC JCDGT CDCPFQPCFQ GN OCPFQ FG UWU NGIKQPGU Q EQPUK
FGTCTUG GPGOKIQ FG NC 4GRDNKEC .C OQEKP UG UQOGVK
KPOGFKCVCOGPVG C XQVCEKP 5NQ FQU UGPCFQTGU UG QRW

KPOGFKCVCOGPVG QTFGP SWG WP RGSWGQ EQPVKPIGPVG FG

VTQRCU ETW\CTC NC HTQPVGTC JCEKC GN UWT [ VQOCTC NC EKW
FCF OU EGTECPC #N CPQEJGEGT LWPVQ EQP NC .GIKQ :+++
)GOKPC %UCT CXCP\ JCUVC GN 4WDKEP NC HTQPVGTC GPVTG



 #*0(3"'"

NC RTQXKPEKC FG NC )CNKC %KUCNRKPC G +VCNKC [ VTCU WP OQ

OGPVQ FG FWFC FKQ C UWU NGIKQPCTKQU NC QTFGP FG CXCP\CT
#NIWPCU HWGPVGU JCP UWIGTKFQ SWG HWG GPVQPEGU EWCPFQ
RTQPWPEK GN HCOQUQ l"MFB JBDUB FTU|=?

&G TGITGUQ C 4QOC HWG PQODTCFQ FKEVCFQT EQP /CTEQ

#PVQPKQ EQOQ .BHJTUFS FRVJUVN [ HWG LWPVQ C 2WDNKQ
5GTXKNKQ 8CVKC +UCTKEQ EQOQ EQNGIC LWPKQT GNGEVQ EPUWN
RQT UGIWPFC XG\

%WCPFQ NQU PQUJNBUFT EQPQEKGTQP NC PQVKEKC CDCPFQPCTQP

NC EKWFCF FGENCTCPFQ GPGOKIQ FG 4QOC C VQFQ CSWGN SWG
UG SWGFCUG GP GNNC .WGIQ OCTEJCTQP JCEKC GN UWT UKP UC
DGT SWG %UCT GUVCDC CEQORCCFQ UNQ RQT UW FGEKOQVGT
EGTC NGIKP=? %UCT RGTUKIWK C 2QORG[Q JCUVC GN RWGTVQ
FG $TWPFKUKWO GP GN UWT FG +VCNKC EQP CNIWPC GURGTCP\C
FG RQFGT TGJCEGT UW CNKCP\C RGTQ UVG UG TGRNGI JCEKC
)TGEKC EQP UWU UGIWKFQTGU 'PVQPEGU JWDQ FG VQOCT WPC
FGEKUKP Q RGTUGIWC C 2QORG[Q JCUVC )TGEKC FGLCPFQ
UWU GURCNFCU FGUIWCTPGEKFCU [ GZRWGUVCU C WP CVCSWG RQT
RCTVG FG NCU NGIKQPGU RQORG[CPCU GUVCDNGEKFCU GP *KURC
PKC Q FGLCPFQ QTICPK\CTUG C 2QORG[Q GP )TGEKC UG FKTK
IC C *KURCPKC RCTC CUGIWTCT UW TGVCIWCTFKC=?

'P  C % %UCT UG FKTKIK C 'IKRVQ GP DWUEC FG 2QO

RG[Q RGTQ NG UQTRTGPFK GN JGEJQ FG SWG GN XKGLQ CNKCFQ
[ GPGOKIQ JCDC UKFQ CUGUKPCFQ GN CQ CPVGTKQT #N UCDGT
FG UW UWGTVG %UCT SWGF CRGPCFQ RQT UW CUGUKPCVQ [ RQT
JCDGT RGTFKFQ NC QRQTVWPKFCF FG QHTGEGTNG UW RGTFP=?
6CN XG\ FGDKFQ C GUVQ [ C NQU KPVGTGUGU FG 4QOC GP 'IKRVQ
%UCT FGEKFK KPVGTXGPKT GP NC RQNVKEC GIKREKC [ UWDUVKVW[
CN TG[ 2VQNQOGQ :+++ FG 'IKRVQ SWG [C VGPC NC FKIPKFCF
FG HCTCP RQT UW JGTOCPC %NGQRCVTC SWG ETGC OU CHP C
4QOC &WTCPVG UW GUVCPEKC SWGO UWU PCXGU RCTC GXKVCT
SWG NCU WUCTCP GP UW EQPVTC NQ SWG RTQXQE GN KPEGPFKQ FG
WP CNOCEP FG NKDTQU CPGZQ C NC $KDNKQVGEC FG #NGLCPFTC
%UCT VWXQ WP TQOCPEG EQP NC TGKPC FG 'IKRVQ [ FG NC TGNC
EKP RCTGEG SWG PCEK WP PKQ GN HWVWTQ 2VQNQOGQ :8 FG
'IKRVQ
%GUCTKP SWG UGTC GN NVKOQ HCTCP FG 'IKRVQ UK
DKGP %UCT PWPEC NNGI C TGEQPQEGTNQ QEKCNOGPVG EQOQ
JKLQ UW[Q=?

6TCU RQPFGTCT NC UKVWCEKP %UCT UG FKTKIK C *KURCPKC GP

WPC OCTEJC HQT\CFC FG CRGPCU  FCU RCTC FGTTQVCT C NQU
UGIWKFQTGU FG 2QORG[Q GP GUC RQFGTQUC RTQXKPEKC #NN
JCDC GUVCDNGEKFCU XCTKCU NGIKQPGU CN OCPFQ FG NGICFQU
RTQRQORG[CPQU C NQ SWG JCDC SWG CCFKT SWG NC IGPG
TCNKFCF FG NCU RQDNCEKQPGU CWVEVQPCU JCDCP LWTCFQ FG
NKFCF CN RTQRKQ 2QORG[Q
SWG UGIWC UKGPFQ 2TQEPUWN FG
GUC RTQXKPEKC 6TCU XCTKCU GUECTCOW\CU [ DCVCNNCU %UCT
UG OKFK EQPVTC UWU GPGOKIQU GP NC $CVCNNC FG +NGTFC EGTEC
FG NC CEVWCN .TKFC FQPFG NQU FGTTQV FGPKVKXCOGPVG=?
5NQ EWCPFQ EQPUKFGT UGIWTC NC TGVCIWCTFKC [ FGURWU
FG QTICPK\CT NCU KPUVKVWEKQPGU RQNVKECU GP 4QOC SWG JC
DC ECFQ GP NC CPCTSWC %UCT UG FKTKIK C )TGEKC 'N 
FG LWNKQ FG  C % %UCT HWG FGTTQVCFQ GP NC $CVCNNC FG
&KTTCSWKWO 5KP GODCTIQ 2QORG[Q PQ UWRQ Q PQ RWFQ
JCEGT WUQ FG GUVC XKEVQTKC RCTC CECDCT EQP %UCT [ U
VG EQPUKIWK JWKT EQP UW GLTEKVQ ECUK KPVCEVQ RCTC NWEJCT
GP QVTQ OQOGPVQ 'N GPEWGPVTQ PCN UG FKQ RQEQ FGURWU
GN  FG CIQUVQ GP NC $CVCNNC FG (CTUCNKC=? %UCT QDVW
XQ WPC XKEVQTKC CRNCUVCPVG ITCEKCU C WP CTFKF VEVKEQ 5KP
GODCTIQ UWU GPGOKIQU RQNVKEQU EQPUKIWKGTQP JWKT %PGQ
2QORG[Q /CIPQ RCTVK JCEKC 4QFCU [ FG CJ C 'IKRVQ
3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 'UEKRKP [ /CTEQ 2QTEKQ %CVP
OCTEJCTQP JCEKC GN PQTVG FG HTKEC

&GURWU FG NCU ECORCCU FG 'IKRVQ %UCT UG FKTKIK CN

#UKC /GPQT FQPFG FGTTQV C (CTPCEGU TG[ FGN 2QPVQ GP
NC $CVCNNC FG <GNC FGDKFQ C NC EWCN RTQPWPEK NC HCOQUC
HTCUG l7FOJ WJEJ WJDJ|=? &GURWU UG FKTKIK CN PQTVG FG
HTKEC RCTC CVCECT C NQU NFGTGU FG NC HCEEKP EQPUGTXCFQTC
CNN TGHWIKCFQU 'P NC $CVCNNC FG 6CRUQ GP  C % %UCT
QDVWXQ WPC XKEVQTKC OU [ XKQ FGUCRCTGEGT C FQU FG UWU
OU GPECTPK\CFQU GPGOKIQU 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 'U
EKRKP [ /CTEQ 2QTEKQ %CVP 2GTQ NQU JKLQU FG 2QORG[Q
%PGQ [ 5GZVQ 2QORG[Q (CUVWNQU CU EQOQ UW CPVKIWQ NG
ICFQ RTKPEKRCN GP NCU )CNKCU 6KVQ .CDKGPQ EQPUKIWKGTQP
JWKT C NCU RTQXKPEKCU FG *KURCPKC=?

1.7 Tras la victoria

%UCT TGITGU C 4QOC C PCNGU FG LWNKQ FG  C % .C XKE
VQTKC VQVCN FG UW HCEEKP FQV C %UCT FG WP RQFGT GPQTOG
[ GN 5GPCFQ UG CRTGUWT C NGIKVKOCT UW XKEVQTKC PQODTP
FQNQ FKEVCFQT RQT VGTEGTC XG\ GP NC RTKOCXGTC FGN  C %
RQT WP RNC\Q UKP RTGEGFGPVGU FG FKG\ CQU
'P UGRVKGODTG EGNGDT UWU VTKWPHQU QHTGEKGPFQ EWCVTQ
FGUNGU VTKWPHCNGU SWG UG FGUCTTQNNCTQP GPVTG GN FC  FG
UGRVKGODTG [ GN FC  FG QEVWDTG=? )CNQU GIKREKQU CUK
VKEQU [ CHTKECPQU FGUNCTQP GPECFGPCFQU CPVG NC OWNVKVWF
OKGPVTCU LKTCHCU ECTTQU FG IWGTTC DTKVCPQU [ DCVCNNCU GP
NCIQU CTVKEKCNGU FGLCDCP DQSWKCDKGTVQU C UWU EQPEKWFC
FCPQU .C IWGTTC GPVTG TQOCPQU HWG GPOCUECTCFC RQT NCU
XKEVQTKCU EQPVTC GZVTCPLGTQU [ NCU EGNGDTCEKQPGU PQ VWXKG
TQP RTGEGFGPVGU GP UWU FKOGPUKQPGU [ FWTCEKP

-FHJO FO PSEFO EF NBSDIB

&WTCPVG NCU EGNGDTCEKQPGU HWG GLGEWVCFQ TKVWCNOGPVG

8GTEKPIGVTKZ SWG JCDC RGTOCPGEKFQ GP WPC ETEGN FG
RNCVC FGUFG UW ECRVWTC VTCU #NGUKC GP GUG OKUOQ FGUNG
UG TQORK GN GLG FG UW ECTTQ\C [ GUVWXQ C RWPVQ FG ECGT
CN UWGNQ 'N FGUNG VTKWPHCN EQPVTC (CTPCEGU ++ EQPV EQP
WPC ECTTQ\C SWG RQTVCDC GN NGOC l7FOJ WJEJ WJDJ|=?=?





5SBT MB WJDUPSJB

3FDSFBDJO NPEFSOB EF VOB MVDIB EF HMBEJBEPSFT

-JDUPSFT $BEB DOTVM JCB QSFDFEJEP QPS EPDF Z FM EJDUBEPS QPS
WFJOUJDVBUSP

%UCT PQ QNXKF TGEQORGPUCT C UWU VTQRCU [ CU GPVTGI

C ECFC NGIKQPCTKQ EKPEQ OKN FGPCTKQU
GN GSWKXCNGPVG C NQ
SWG ICPCTCP GP NQU  CQU FG UGTXKEKQ QDNKICVQTKQ C EC
FC EGPVWTKP FKG\ OKN [ C ECFC VTKDWPQ [ RTGHGEVQ XGKPVG
OKN FGPCTKQU #FGOU NGU CUKIP VCODKP VGTTGPQU CWP
SWG PQ EGTECPQU C 4QOC RCTC PQ FGURQLCT C EKWFCFCPQU
[ GUVCDNGEGT CU EQNQPKCU TQOCPCU GP VGTTKVQTKQU TGEKGPVG
OGPVG EQPSWKUVCFQU &KUVTKDW[ CN RWGDNQ FKG\ OQFKQU FG
VTKIQ RQT ECDG\C [ QVTCU VCPVCU NKDTCU FG CEGKVG EQP 
UGUVGTEKQU GP EWORNKOKGPVQ FG WPC CPVKIWC RTQOGUC SWG
NG JCDC JGEJQ C NQU EWCNGU CITGI  OU RQT NC FGOQTC
4GDCL GN CNSWKNGT FG NCU ECUCU GP 4QOC JCUVC NC UWOC FG
 UGUVGTEKQU GP GN TGUVQ FG +VCNKC JCUVC SWKPKGPVQU #
VQFQ GNNQ CCFK NC FKUVTKDWEKP FG ECTPGU [ FGURWU FGN
VTKWPHQ UQDTG *KURCPKC FQU HGUVKPGU RDNKEQU [ PQ EQP
UKFGTCPFQ GN RTKOGTQ DCUVCPVG FKIPQ FG UWU OCIPKEGP
EKCU GN SWG QHTGEK EKPEQ FCU FGURWU HWG OWEJQ OU
CDWPFCPVG=? &KQ VCODKP GURGEVEWNQU FG XCTKQU VKRQU
KPENW[GPFQ EQODCVGU FG INCFKCFQTGU [ EQOGFKCU GP VQFQU
NQU DCTTKQU FG NC EKWFCF FGUGORGPFQNCU CEVQTGU FG VQ
FCU NCU PCEKQPGU [ GP VQFQU NQU KFKQOCU ,WGIQU GP GN EKTEQ
CVNGVCU [ WPC PCWOCSWKC EQORNGVCTQP GN RTQITCOC=?
'P GN (QTQ EQODCVKGTQP GPVTG NQU INCFKCFQTGU (WTKQ .GR
VKPQ GP EW[C HCOKNKC IWTCDCP RTGVQTGU [ 3WKPVQ %CN
RGPQ SWG JCDC HQTOCFQ RCTVG FGN 5GPCFQ [ FGHGPFKFQ
ECWUCU FGNCPVG FGN RWGDNQ .QU JKLQU FG OWEJQU RTPEKRGU
FG #UKC [ FG $KVKPKC DCKNCTQP NC RTTKEC 'N EKWFCFCPQ TQ
OCPQ &EKOQ .KDGTKQ TGRTGUGPV GP NQU LWGIQU WP OKOQ
FG UW EQORQUKEKP TGEKDKGPFQ SWKPKGPVQU OKN UGUVGTEKQU
[ WP CPKNNQ FG QTQ [ RCUCPFQ FGURWU FGUFG NC GUEGPC RQT
NC QTSWGUVC C UGPVCTUG GPVTG NQU FRVJUFT=?
'P GN %KTEQ UG GPUCPEJ NC CTGPC RQT CODQU NCFQU CDTKG
TQP CNTGFGFQT WP HQUQ SWG NNGPCTQP FG CIWC [ LXGPGU
PQDKNUKOQU EQTTKGTQP GP CSWGN TGEKPVQ EWCFTKICU [ DKICU
Q UCNVCTQP GP ECDCNNQU CFKGUVTCFQU CN GHGEVQ 0KQU FKXK
FKFQU GP FQU DCPFQU UGIP NC FKHGTGPEKC FG GFCF GLGEW
VCTQP NQU LWGIQU NNCOCFQU VTQ[CPQU 5G FKGTQP  FCU FG
EQODCVGU FG GTCU [ PCNOGPVG UG FKQ WPC DCVCNNC GPVTG
FQU GLTEKVQU ECFC WPQ EQORTGPFC  KPHCPVGU  LKPG
VGU [  GNGHCPVGU %QP QDLGVQ FG FGLCT C NCU VTQRCU OC[QT

GURCEKQ JCDCP SWKVCFQ NCU DCTTGTCU FGN EKTEQ HQTOCPFQ

C ECFC GZVTGOQ WP ECORCOGPVQ=?
&WTCPVG  FCU NWEJCTQP CVNGVCU GP WP GUVCFKQ EQPUVTWKFQ
GZRTGUCOGPVG GP NCU KPOGFKCEKQPGU FGN %CORQ FG /CT
VG 5G JK\Q WP NCIQ GP NC %QFGVC OGPQT
WP NWICT FGN QVTQ
NCFQ FGN 6DGT [ CNN VTCDCTQP EQODCVG PCXCN DKTTGOGU
VTKTTGOGU EWCVTKTTGOGU IWTCPFQ FQU QVCU WPC VKTKC [
QVTC GIKREKC ECTICFCU FG UQNFCFQU 'N CPWPEKQ FG GUVQU
GURGEVEWNQU JCDC CVTCFQ C 4QOC C WPC ITCP ECPVKFCF FG
HQTCUVGTQU EW[C OC[QT RCTVG FWTOK GP VKGPFCU FG ECO
RCC GP NCU ECNNGU [ NCU RNC\CU [ OWEJCU RGTUQPCU GPVTG
GNNCU FQU UGPCFQTGU HWGTQP CRNCUVCFCU Q CUZKCFCU RQT NC
OWNVKVWF=?
'P GN KPXKGTPQ FGN CQ  C % GUVCNN WPC PWGXC TGDGNKP
GP *KURCPKC NKFGTCFC RQT NQU JKLQU FG 2QORG[Q 7UCPFQ
NC CPVKIWC KPWGPEKC FG UW RCFTG [ NQU TGEWTUQU FG NC RTQ
XKPEKC NQU JGTOCPQU 2QORG[Q [ 6KVQ .CDKGPQ EQPUKIWKG
TQP TGWPKT WP PWGXQ GLTEKVQ FG VTGEG NGIKQPGU EQORWGUVCU
RQT NQU TGUVQU FGN GLTEKVQ EQPUVKVWKFQ GP HTKEC NCU FQU
NGIKQPGU FG XGVGTCPQU WPC NGIKP FG EKWFCFCPQU TQOCPQU
FG *KURCPKC [ GN CNKUVCOKGPVQ FG NC RQDNCEKP NQECN # 
PCNGU FGN  C % VQOCTQP GN EQPVTQN FG ECUK VQFC *KURCPKC
7NVGTKQT KPENW[GPFQ NCU EQNQPKCU TQOCPCU FG +VNKEC [ FG
%QTFWDC NC ECRKVCN FG NC RTQXKPEKC %UCT CPVG GN RGNK
ITQ TGITGU C *KURCPKC [ VTCU CNIWPCU GUECTCOW\CU NQU
FGTTQV PCNOGPVG GP NC $CVCNNC FG /WPFC
/GPEKP CRCTVG OGTGEG NC CEVKXKFCF EQPUVTWEVKXC FG %
UCT SWG FWTCPVG UW FKEVCFWTC GORTGPFK PWOGTQUQU RTQ
[GEVQU FG TGHQTOC FG NQU GFKEKQU RDNKEQU FG 4QOC [
ETG QVTQU OWEJQU PWGXQU GP IGPGTCN GP VQTPQ CN ECORQ
FG /CTVG [ GN PWGXQ EQORNGLQ FGN (QTQ %CDG FGUVCECT GP
VTG GNNQU GN (QTQ ,WNKQ Q (QTQ FG %UCT EQPUVTWKFQ GP 
C % GP NCU RGPFKGPVGU FGN %CRKVQNKQ [ PCNK\CFQ RQT #W
IWUVQ GP GN EGPVTQ FG NC RNC\C UG CN\CDC NC GUVCVWC GEWGUVTG
FG %UCT CPVG GN VGORNQ FG UW FKXKPC CPVGRCUCFC 8GPWU
)GPGVTKZ QDTC FGUVCECFC KIWCNOGPVG 'P FKEJQ VGORNQ UG
GPEQPVTCDC NC GUVCVWC FG NC FKQUC KPUVCNCFC GP GN DUKFG
FGN VGORNQ [ SWG GTC QDTC FG #TEGUKNCU EW[QU DQEGVQU
CNECP\CDCP UGIP 2NKPKQ RTGEKQU CUVTQPOKEQU=?



1.8

 #*0(3"'"

El poder absoluto

TGITGUQ GP 4QOC CPVGU FG EQNQECT NQU FGETGVQU C NQU RKGU

FG ,RKVGT %CRKVQNKPQ EQOQ GTC VTCFKEKQPCN NQU UGPCFQTGU
&GDG UGCNCTUG SWG PQ GUV JKUVTKECOGPVG FGOQUVTCFQ FGEKFKGTQP RTGUGPVTUGNQU RGTUQPCNOGPVG &G GUVG OQFQ
SWG NC KPVGPEKP FG %UCT HWGTC RTQENCOCTUG TG[ [ FG JC UG UWDTC[CDC CP OU NC KORQTVCPEKC FGN JQOGPCLG SWG GN
DGT SWGTKFQ UGTNQ PQ RWGFG UCDGTUG SW VKRQ FG TG[ UK WP 5GPCFQ NG TGPFC=?
SFY C NC OCPGTC GVTWUEC EQOQ NQ JCDCP UKFQ 5GTXKQ 6W %UCT GUVCDC GP GN XGUVDWNQ FGN VGORNQ FG 8GPWU )GPG
NKQ Q .WEKQ 6CTSWKPKQ 2TKUEQ WPQ C UGOGLCP\C FGN HCTCP VTKZ QEWRCFQ GP FKUEWVKT NQU RNCPQU FG NQU VTCDCLQU SWG NQU
GIKREKQ Q UKORNGOGPVG CN GUVKNQ FG NQU $CUKNGWU JGNPK CTSWKVGEVQU [ CTVKUVCU JCDCP XGPKFQ C UQOGVGTNG %WCPFQ
EQU .Q EKGTVQ GU SWG WP CPNKUKU RQPFGTCFQ FG NQU JGEJQU UG NG CPWPEK SWG GN 5GPCFQ JO DPSQPSF JCDC XGPKFQ C
UGIP PQU JCP NNGICFQ FG NCU HWGPVGU RCTGEG KPFKECT SWG XGTNQ RTGEGFKFQ FG NQU OCIKUVTCFQU GP GLGTEKEKQ [ FG WPC
RGPUCDC GP KPUVCWTCT WP TIKOGP CWVQETVKEQ FG CNIP VK OWNVKVWF FG EKWFCFCPQU FG FKXGTUQU TCPIQU JK\Q EQOQ
RQ Q CN OGPQU NQ RGPUCDCP GP NCU GUHGTCU OU EGTECPCU SWG PQ NG FCDC KORQTVCPEKC CNIWPC [ EQPVKPW UKP KPVG
C N=?
TTWORKTNC NC EQPXGTUCEKP EQP UWU EQNCDQTCFQTGU=?

%FOBSJP DFTBSJBOP EFM BP  B $ &O FM BOWFSTP FM CVTUP EF

$TBS MBVSFBEP Z MB MFZFOEB $"&4"3 *. 1 . FO FM SFWFSTP
MB EJPTB 7FOVT QPSUBOEP VO DFUSP Z B 7JDUPSJB Z MB MFZFOEB "&.*-*74 #7$"

%UCT FGURWU FG XGPEGT VTCU GN NVKOQ KPVGPVQ FG NQU

RQORG[CPQU
FKTKIKFQ RQT %PGQ 2QORG[Q JKLQ FG 2QO
RG[Q /CIPQ UG OQUVT FGUEQPCFQ RGPUCPFQ GP NC RQ
UKDKNKFCF FG WP KPOKPGPVG KPVGPVQ FG CUGUKPCVQ /WGUVTC
FG GNNQ GU SWG GP FKEKGODTG FGN CQ  C % GP XURG
TCU FG NCU 5CVWTPCNGU HWG C RCUCT WPQU FCU EQP GN UWGITQ
FG )C[Q 1EVCXKQ
UW UQDTKPQ PKGVQ GP NC TGUKFGPEKC SWG
UVG RQUGC EGTEC FG 2WVGQNK
JQ[ 2Q\\WQNK G JK\Q SWG NQ
CEQORCCTC WPC GUEQNVC FG  JQODTGU
%KEGTP EW[C XKNNC EQNKPFCDC EQP NC FG .WEKQ /CTEKQ (K
NKRQ JCDC RGFKFQ C %UCT SWG NG JKEKGTC GN JQPQT FG EGPCT
EQP N 'N FKEVCFQT CEGRV .QU UWEGUQU FG CSWGNNC PQEJG
SWGFCTQP TGIKUVTCFQU GP WPC ENGDTG ECTVC FG /CTEQ 6W
NKQ %KEGTP C 6KVQ 2QORQPKQ VKEQ 5GIP %KEGTP %UCT
NNGI C NC XKNNC CEQORCCFQ FG VQFC NC IWCTFKC 6TGU UC
NQPGU GURGEKCNGU TGEKDKGTQP CN USWKVQ FG %UCT .C EGPC
HWG WP ITCP ZKVQ %QOQ N =%UCT? UG JCDC RWTICFQ
RTGEKUC /CTEQ 6WNKQ %KEGTP DGDK [ EQOK EQP VCPVQ
CRGVKVQ EQOQ GPGTIC %UCT UG OQUVT EQPXGTUCFQT DTK
NNCPVG G KPIGPKQUQ 2QT QVTC RCTVG CCFG UW CPVTKP PK
WPC RCNCDTC FG CUWPVQU UGTKQU %QPXGTUCEKP GPVGTCOGP
VG NKVGTCTKC #N FC UKIWKGPVG  FG FKEKGODTG RCTVK C
4QOC=?
'N 5GPCFQ JCDC CRTQXGEJCFQ NC CWUGPEKC FG %UCT RCTC
XQVCT GP DNQSWG NQU FGETGVQU TGNCVKXQU C NQU JQPQTGU SWG
NG GTCP EQPHGTKFQU #U GZRNKEC &KP %CUKQ GUVC NCDQT
PQ FGDC RCTGEGT GN TGUWNVCFQ FG WPC EQCEEKP UKPQ NC GZ
RTGUKP FG UW NKDTG XQNWPVCF %WCPFQ %UCT GUVCDC [C FG

-B $VSJB +VMJB MVHBS EF SFVOJO EFM 4FOBEP 3PNBOP NBOEB

EB FEJDBS QPS $TBS EVSBOUF TV EJDUBEVSB QFSP UFSNJOBEB QPS
0DUBWJP "VHVTUP USBT MB EFTUSVDDJO EF MB $VSJB )PTUJMJB QPS MPT
TFHVJEPSFT EF $MPEJP

7PQ FG NQU UGPCFQTGU UG CFGNCPV RCTC RTQPWPEKCT WP FKU

EWTUQ CRTQRKCFQ C NCU EKTEWPUVCPEKCU 'PVQPEGU %UCT UG
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SWKGTC C NGXCPVCTUG FG UW CUKGPVQ 2TQDCDNGOGPVG UG VTC
VCDC FG RQPGT GP GXKFGPEKC UW FKUIWUVQ EQP NC CHTGPVC SWG
NG KPKIK GN VTKDWPQ #SWKNC VTGU OGUGU CPVGU #UKOKUOQ
UW TGURWGUVC FGL CPQPCFCFQU C NQU UGPCFQTGU 'P XG\ FG
CNCTICT NC NKUVC FG JQPQTGU C N CEQTFCFQU KPUKUVK OU DKGP
GP TGFWEKTNQU 2GTQ PQ QDUVCPVG NQU CEGRV 'UVC CEVKVWF
RTQFWLQ WPC VTGOGPFC KPFKIPCEKP GPVTG NQU OKGODTQU FGN
5GPCFQ [ GP NC OWNVKVWF SWG CUKUVK C GUVC UQNGOPKFCF=?
%UCT PQ UG NKOKV C CEGRVCT NCU FKUVKPEKQPGU JQPQTECU
EQP NCU SWG NQ JCDC EQNOCFQ GN 5GPCFQ UKPQ SWG CN OKU
OQ VKGORQ UWRQ CRQFGTCTUG FG ONVKRNGU RTGTTQICVKXCU FG
WP ECTEVGT OU TGCNKUVC SWG NG RGTOKVKGTQP TGWPKT GP UWU
OCPQU NC VQVCNKFCF FGN RQFGT IWDGTPCOGPVCN 'ZKIK [ QD
VWXQ SWG VQFQU UWU CEVQU HWGUGP TCVKECFQU RQT GN 5GPCFQ
NQU HWPEKQPCTKQU RDNKEQU HWGTQP QDNKICFQU C RTGUVCT LW
TCOGPVQ FGUFG UW GPVTCFC GP HWPEKQPGU FG PQ QRQPGTUG
LCOU C OGFKFC CNIWPC GOCPCFC FG N [ UG JK\Q CVTKDWKT
NQU RTKXKNGIKQU FG NQU VTKDWPQU FG NC RNGDG EQP NQ SWG QD



$PNQMPU Z BTFTJOBUP



VWXQ NC USJCVOJDJB QPUFTUBT [ NC KPOWPKFCF UCETQUCPVC SWG NCDC FGNCPVG FG NC VTKDWPC GN EQNGIKQ FG UCEGTFQVGU ,W
NQU FKUVKPIWC=?
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UQNWEKQPGU TGUQNWEKQPGU SWG GN FKEVCFQT RQFC RCUCT RQT SWG GUVCNNCTQP NQU CRNCWUQU 'PVQPEGU .KEKPKQ UWDK C NC
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C .RKFQ RCTC SWG NQ
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=?
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0Q NG HCNVCDC OU SWG GN VVWNQ # GUVG TGURGEVQ GORG\ EQTQPC [ NC EQNQE FG PWGXQ UQDTG NC ECDG\C FGN FKEVCFQT
WPC RTQRCICPFC KPUKPWCPVG GORTGPFKFC RQT EKGTVQU CIGP RGTQ %UCT GUVC XG\ UG SWKV N OKUOQ NC EQTQPC [ NC CTTQL
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UVC EQOGP\ EWCPFQ NC GUVCVWC FG QTQ SWG CECDCDC FG UGT [ QTFGP NNGXCTNC CN VGORNQ FG ,RKVGT lFQPFG UGT OGLQT
GTKIKFC FG %UCT GP NC TQUVTC HWG EQTQPCFC EQP WPC FKCFG EQNQECFC| [ TGSWKTK CN TGFCEVQT FG NQU CEVQU RDNKEQU SWG
OC RQTVCPFQ WPC EKPVKNNC DNCPEC FKUVKPEKP FG NC TGCNG\C JKEKGTC EQPUVCT CNN lSWG JCDKPFQNG QHTGEKFQ GN RWGDNQ NC
5G VTCVCDC FG WPC RTKOGTC VGPVCVKXC VQFCXC OW[ FKUETGVC TGCNG\C FG OCPQU FGN EPUWN N NC JCDC TGEJC\CFQ|=?
FG UQPFGCT GN VGTTGPQ [ UKOWNCT WP FGUGQ RQRWNCT GP HC
XQT FG NC EQTQPCEKP FG %UCT EQOQ TG[ &QU VTKDWPQU FGN /KGPVTCU VCPVQ UG TGEWTTK C NQU NKDTQU UKDKNKPQU SWG JC
DKGPFQ UKFQ EQPUWOKFQU RQT NCU NNCOCU GP VKGORQU FG
RWGDNQ QTFGPCTQP CTTCPECT NC FKCFGOC [ NCP\CTNC NGLQU
JGEJQ GUVQ UKOWNCTQP GTKIKTUG GP FGHGPUQTGU FG NC TGRW .WEKQ %QTPGNKQ 5KNC JCDCP UKFQ TGGORNC\CFQU FGUFG GP
VQPEGU RQT EQRKCU GURWTKCU .QU GPECTICFQU FG NC EWUVQ
VCEKP EXKEC FG %UCT=?
FKC FG FKEJQU NKDTQU CPWPEKCTQP SWG EKGTVQU RCUCLGU FG NQU
'P NQU NVKOQU FCU FG GPGTQ VGPCP NWICT GP GN /QPVG #N OKUOQU FGLCDCP GPVGPFGT SWG NQU GLTEKVQU TQOCPQU PQ
DCPQ GP NCU EGTECPCU FG 4QOC NCU VTCFKEKQPCNGU GUVCU QDVGPFTCP NC XKEVQTKC UQDTG NQU RCTVQU GP NC IWGTTC SWG
NCVKPCU %UCT GUVCDC NNCOCFQ C CUKUVKT DKGP EQOQ 2QPVEG KDC C EQOGP\CT FG WP OQOGPVQ C QVTQ JCUVC SWG GUVW
/ZKOQ Q EQOQ FKEVCFQT 1RV RQT GUVC NVKOC ECNKFCF XKGUGP OCPFCFQU RQT WP TG[ 2TQPVQ EKTEWN GP 4QOC GN
NQ EWCN NG RGTOKVC WUCPFQ GN RTKXKNGIKQ SWG NG JCDC EQP TWOQT SWG GP NC RTZKOC UGUKP FGN 5GPCFQ SWG FGDC VG
EGFKFQ GN 5GPCFQ IWTCT GP GUVCU EGTGOQPKCU XKUVKGPFQ PGT NWICT GN  FG OCT\Q GN SWKPFGEGPXKTQ .WEKQ #WTGNKQ
NC VQIC RTRWTC [ ECN\CPFQ NCU CNVCU DQVCU TQLCU #N EQP %QVVC VQ FGN FKEVCFQT VQOCTC NC RCNCDTC RCTC RTQRQPGT
ENWKT NCU GUVCU %UCT JK\Q UW GPVTCFC GP 4QOC C ECDCNNQ SWG HWGUG EQPHGTKFQ GN VVWNQ FG TG[ C UW UQDTKPQTGH PC
'P OGFKQ FG NC OWNVKVWF SWG NQ GURGTCDC [ FGUFG SWG OGRCI 9CNVGT )GTCTF $TBS %CRVWNQ  RCI 
UG NG XKQ CRCTGEGT TGUQPCTQP CENCOCEKQPGU GUEWEJPFQ +ORTGUQ'FKEKQPGU %KGPEKCU 5QEKCNGUTGH
UG XQEGU SWG NQ UCNWFCDCP EQP GN VVWNQ FG TG[ SWK\ RTQ
XGPKGPVGU FG UCVNKVGU FGDKFCOGPVG CNGEEKQPCFQU +POG
FKCVCOGPVG GN RCTVKFQ QRWGUVQ KPVGTXKPQ [ UG GUEWEJCTQP 1.9 Complot y asesinato
GZENCOCEKQPGU FG RTQVGUVC %UCT UCNX NC UKVWCEKP TGU
RQPFKGPFQ l/K PQODTG GU %UCT [ PQ 4GZ| NQ EWCN GP
TKIQT RQFTC KPVGTRTGVCTUG EQOQ SWG N UNQ XGC GP NQU
UCNWFQU FG SWG GTC QDLGVQ WPC CNWUKP C UW RCTGPVGUEQ EQP
NC IGPU .BSDDJ 3FHFT C NC SWG RGTVGPGEC UW OCFTGTGH
PCOGRCI 9CNVGT )GTCTF $TBS %CRVWNQ  RCI
 +ORTGUQ'FKEKQPGU %KGPEKCU 5QEKCNGUTGH
1VTQ CEVQ GUVCDC RTGXKUVQ RCTC GN  FG HGDTGTQ FC FG NCU
GUVCU .WRGTECNGU 2CTC CUKUVKT C GNNCU %UCT WU GN OKU
OQ TQRCLG SWG JCDC WUCFQ GP NCU GUVCU NCVKPCU [ QEWR
WP UKVKCN FG QTQ UKVQ GP OGFKQ FG NC VTKDWPC FG NCU CTGP
ICU FGNCPVG FGN EWCN FGDC RCUCT NC RTQEGUKP EQPFWEKFC
RQT /CTEQ #PVQPKQ ,WPVQ CN FKEVCFQT UG UKVW GN EWGTRQ
FG OCIKUVTCFQU GP GLGTEKEKQ UW LGHG FG ECDCNNGTC /CTEQ /WGTVG FG %UCT EF $BSM 5IFPEPS WPO 1JMPUZ
'OKNKQ .RKFQ NQU RTGVQTGU NQU GFKNGU GVE /KGPVTCU FGU
0Q GU RQUKDNG UCDGT EQP EGTVG\C SW EQPFKEKQPGU HWGTQP



 #*0(3"'"

NCU SWG NNGXCTQP C WP ITWRQ FG UGPCFQTGU C RGPUCT GP GN

CUGUKPCVQ FG %UCT .QU KPVGPVQU FG GUVCDNGEGT WP TIK
OGP CWVQETVKEQ UKP FWFC VWXKGTQP OWEJQ SWG XGT RGTQ
PQ UG RWGFG FGUECTVCT SWG JWDKGTC QVTCU OQVKXCEKQPGU PQ
VCP PQDNGU

UW ECFXGT CN 6DGT CFLWFKECT UWU DKGPGU CN 'UVCFQ [ CPW

NCT UWU FKURQUKEKQPGU=?

*C[ SWG VGPGT GP EWGPVC SWG NCU OQVKXCEKQPGU FG NQU OCI

PKEKFCU GTCP OW[ JGVGTQIPGCU [C SWG NQU JCDC OQXKFQU
RQT WP CWVPVKEQ UGPVKFQ FG UCNXCEKP FG NC 4GRDNKEC #
'N UQNQ JGEJQ FG SWG WP POGTQ TGNCVKXCOGPVG CNVQ FG UG UVQU UG NGU JCDCP WPKFQ QVTCU RGTUQPCU OQXKFCU RQT GN
PCFQTGU GUVWXKGTC FKURWGUVQ C RCTVKEKRCT GP GN EQORNQV [ TGPEQT NC GPXKFKC Q RQT NC KFGC FG SWG UK %UCT CECRCTC
C OCVCT C %UCT GP GN RTQRKQ UGPCFQ NQ SWG EQPUVKVWC DC NCU OCIKUVTCVWTCU C GNNQU PQ NGU VQECTC PWPEC NNGICT CN
WP UCETKNGIKQ FC OWGUVTC FGN GUVCFQ FG EQUCU CN SWG UG RQFGT=?
JCDC NNGICFQ
6CODKP GU FG UGCNCT SWG OWEJQU FG NQU EQPURKTCFQTGU
1.9.1

La conspiracin

GTCP GZ RQORG[CPQU TGEQPQEKFQU C NQU SWG %UCT JCDC

RGTFQPCFQ NC XKFC [ NC JCEKGPFC KPENWUQ EQPCPFQ GP GNNQU
RCTC NC CFOKPKUVTCEKP FGN 'UVCFQ
%CUKQ [ $TWVQ HWGTQP
IQDGTPCFQTGU RTQXKPEKCNGU PQODTCFQU RQT %UCT=?

.QU NVKOQU CEQPVGEKOKGPVQU CECGEKFQU [ GP RCTVKEWNCT

GN TWOQT FG NQ SWG UG RTGRCTCDC RCTC GN  FG OCT\Q GP GN
5GPCFQ OQVKXCTQP SWG NQ SWG SWGFCDC FG NC HCEEKP PQUJ
1.9.2 El magnicidio
NBUF [ GPVTG GNNQU )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ FGEKFKGUGP RCUCT
C NC CEEKP )C[Q %CUKQ UG FKTKIK C CNIWPQU JQODTGU GP
NQU SWG ETGC RQFGT EQPCT [ SWG C UW LWKEKQ EQORCTVCP
UW KFGC FG FCT OWGTVG CN FKEVCFQT NKDTCPFQ CU C 4QOC FGN
FGUVKPQ SWG N ETGC SWG NG GURGTCDC WP PWGXQ KORGTKQ
EQUOQRQNKVC FKTKIKFQ FGUFG #NGLCPFTC=?
5KP GODCTIQ )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ PQ GTC RTQDCDNGOGPVG
GN JQODTG CFGEWCFQ RCTC UGT NC ECDG\C XKUKDNG FG GUVG VKRQ
FG CEEKP [ UG CEQTF VCPVGCT C /CTEQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ EQP
UKFGTCFQ EQOQ GN RGTUQPCLG KPFKECFQ RCTC GUVG RCRGN=?
5G GURGEWNC SWG VTCU WPC UGTKG FG TGWPKQPGU CODQU GUVC
DCP FG CEWGTFQ GP SWG NC NKDGTVCF FG NC 4GRDNKEC GUVCDC
GP LWGIQ RGTQ PQ VGPCP NQU OKUOQU RWPVQU FG XKUVC FG
EOQ CEVWCT /CTEQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ PQ RGPUCDC CUKUVKT CN 5G
PCFQ GN FC  UKPQ SWG CDQICDC RQT NC RTQVGUVC RCUKXC
NC
CDUVGPEKP RGTQ )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ NG TGRNKE SWG EQ
OQ CODQU GTCP RTGVQTGU RQFCP QDNKICTNQU C CUKUVKT 'P
VQPEGU TGURQPFK $TWVQ l'P GUG ECUQ OK FGDGT UGT PQ
ECNNCTOG UKPQ QRQPGTOG CN RTQ[GEVQ FG NG[ [ OQTKT CPVGU
FG XGT GZRKTCT NC NKDGTVCF| )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ TGEJC\
FG NNGPQ GUVC UQNWEKP RWGU GPVGPFC SWG PQ GTC FPFQUG
OWGTVG EQOQ UG KDC C UCNXCT NC 4GRDNKEC [ NQ GZJQTV C
NC NWEJC C RCUCT C NC CEEKP 5W GNQEWGPEKC VGTOKP RQT
EQPXGPEGT C UW KPVGTNQEWVQT=?
'N PQODTG FG /CTEQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ CVTCLQ XCTKCU CFJGUKQ
PGU XCNKQUCU PQ GP XCPQ UG FGEC FGUEGPFKGPVG FG CSWGN
QVTQ $TWVQ
.WEKQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ SWG JCDC FKTKIKFQ NC GZ
RWNUKP FGN NVKOQ TG[ FG 4QOC 6CTSWKPKQ GN 5QDGTDKQ
GP  C % GPVTG QVTCU CFJGUKQPGU C NC VTCOC UG RTQ
FWLQ NC FG &EKOQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ #NDKPQ WP HCOKNKCT FGN
FKEVCFQT GP SWKGP UVG VGPC GPVGTC EQPCP\C 'P VQVCN GN
POGTQ FG NQU EQPLWTCFQU RCTGEG JCDGT UKFQ FG WPQU UG
UGPVC &WTCPVG NCU TGWPKQPGU RTGNKOKPCTGU UG GNCDQT WP
RNCP FG CEEKP 5G FGEKFK RQT WPCPKOKFCF CVGPVCT EQPVTC
%UCT GP RNGPQ 5GPCFQ &G GUVG OQFQ UG GURGTCDC SWG
UW OWGTVG PQ RCTGEKGTC WPC GODQUECFC UKPQ WP CEVQ RCTC
NC UCNXCEKP FG NC RCVTKC [ SWG NQU UGPCFQTGU VGUVKIQU FGN
CUGUKPCVQ KPOGFKCVCOGPVG FGENCTCTCP UW UQNKFCTKFCF=?
.QU RNCPGU FG NQU EQPLWTCFQU PQ UQNCOGPVG RTGXGCP GN
CUGUKPCVQ FG %UCT UKPQ SWG CFGOU FGUGCDCP CTTCUVTCT

/WGTVG FG %UCT EF +FBO-PO (SNF 

'P NQU KFWU FG OCT\Q FGN CQ  C % WP ITWRQ FG UG

PCFQTGU RGTVGPGEKGPVGU C NC EQPURKTCEKP CTTKDC EKVCFC
EQPXQE C %UCT CN (QTQ RCTC NGGTNG WPC RGVKEKP GUETKVC
RQT GNNQU EQP GN P FG FGXQNXGT GN RQFGT GHGEVKXQ CN 5G
PCFQ /CTEQ #PVQPKQ SWG JCDC VGPKFQ PQVKEKCU FKHWUCU
FG NC RQUKDKNKFCF FGN EQORNQV C VTCXU FG 5GTXKNKQ %CUEC
VGOKGPFQ NQ RGQT EQTTK CN (QTQ G KPVGPV RCTCT C %
UCT GP NCU GUECNGTCU CPVGU FG SWG GPVTCTC C NC TGWPKP FGN
5GPCFQ=?
2GTQ GN ITWRQ FG EQPURKTCFQTGU KPVGTEGRV C %UCT LWUVQ
CN RCUCT CN 6GCVTQ FG 2QORG[Q FQPFG UG TGWPC NC EWTKC
TQOCPC [ NQ EQPFWLQ C WPC JCDKVCEKP CPGZC CN RTVKEQ
GUVG FQPFG NG GPVTGICTQP NC RGVKEKP %WCPFQ GN FKEVCFQT
NC EQOGP\ C NGGT 6WNKQ %KODGT SWG UG NC JCDC GPVTG
ICFQ VKT FG UW VPKEC RTQXQECPFQ SWG %UCT NG GURGVCTC
HWTKQUCOGPVG k*TUB RVJEFN WJT FTU { 3W ENCUG FG XKQNGP
EKC GU GUVC!
PQ FGDG QNXKFCTUG SWG %UCT CN EQPVCT EQP NC
UCETQUCPVKFCF FG NC USJCVOJDJB QPUFTUBT [ RQT UGT 1POUJGFY
.BYJNVT GTC LWTFKECOGPVG KPVQECDNG 'P GUG OQOGPVQ
GN OGPEKQPCFQ %CUEC UCECPFQ WPC FCIC NG CUGUV WP EQT
VG GP GN EWGNNQ GN CITGFKFQ UG XQNXK TRKFCOGPVG [ ENC
XCPFQ UW RWP\P FG GUETKVWTC GP GN DTC\Q FG UW CITGUQT=?
NG FKLQ l3W JCEGU %CUEC XKNNCPQ!| RWGU GTC UCETKNGIKQ
RQTVCT CTOCU FGPVTQ FG NCU TGWPKQPGU FGN 5GPCFQ=?=?
%CUEC CUWUVCFQ ITKV GP ITKGIQ l |





$POTFDVFODJBT EFM NBHOJDJEJP

lBEFMQIF CPFUIFJ|  b5QEQTTQ JGTOCPQU [ GP TGU

RWGUVC C GUC RGVKEKP VQFQU UG NCP\CTQP UQDTG GN FKEVC
FQT KPENWKFQ /CTEQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ=?=? %UCT GPVQPEGU
KPVGPV UCNKT FGN GFKEKQ RCTC TGECDCT C[WFC RGTQ EG
ICFQ RQT NC UCPITG VTQRG\ [ EC[ .QU EQPURKTCFQTGU
EQPVKPWCTQP EQP UW CITGUKP OKGPVTCU CSWN [CEC KPFG
HGPUQ GP NCU GUECNGTCU DCLCU FGN RTVKEQ &G CEWGTFQ EQP
'WVTQRKQ [ 5WGVQPKQ CN OGPQU  UGPCFQTGU RCTVKEKRCTQP
GP GN OCIPKEKFKQ %UCT TGEKDK  RWCNCFCU FG NCU SWG
UK ETGGOQU C 5WGVQPKQ UQNCOGPVG WPC NC UGIWPFC TGEKDKFC
GP GN VTCZ HWG NC OQTVCN=?
.CU NVKOCU RCNCDTCU FG %UCT PQ GUVP GUVCDNGEKFCU TGCN
OGPVG [ JC[ WPC RQNOKEC GP VQTPQ C NCU OKUOCU UKGPFQ 5VNCB EF +VMJP $TBS FO FM 'PSP 3PNBOP
NCU OU EQPQEKFCU
1EVCXKCPQ FCFQ SWG VQFQU NQU GORGTCFQTGU RQUVGTKQTGU C
#WIWUVQ JCUVC 0GTP HWGTQP CFQRVCFQU GN DPHOPNFO %
UCT CECD UKGPFQ WPC GURGEKG FG VVWNQ OU SWG WP PQODTG
5V RVPRVF #SVUF MJJ NFJ
VTCFWEEKP CN NCVP FG NC [ CU FGUFG 8GURCUKCPQ GP CFGNCPVG NQU GORGTCFQTGU NQ
QUVGPVCTQP EQOQ VCN UKP JCDGT UKFQ CFQRVCFQU RQT NC HC
HTCUG CPVGTKQT b6 VCODKP $TWVQ JKLQ OQ
OKNKC %UCT 6CPVQ RTGUVKIKQ CEWOWN GN DPHOPNFO SWG FG
&U UV #SVUF
.CVP 6 VCODKP $TWVQ! XGTUKP %UCT RTQXKGPGP NQU CRGNCVKXQU MKUGT [ \CT=?
KPOQTVCNK\CFC GP NC RKG\C FG 5JCMGURGCTG=?
/WEJCU FG UWU KPKEKCVKXCU SWGFCTQP GP UWURGPUQ C UW
 ,BJ TZ UFLOPO
GP ITKGIQ V VCO
DKP JKLQ OQ! 5WGVQPKQ=?

2NWVCTEQ PQU EWGPVC SWG PQ FKLQ PCFC UKPQ SWG UG OWGTVG GPVTG GNNCU
EWDTK NC ECDG\C EQP NC VQIC VTCU XGT C $TWVQ GPVTG
4GRTKOKT C NQU FCEKQU SWG DCLQ GN TGKPCFQ FG
UWU CITGUQTGU=?
$WTGDKUVC UG JCDCP GZVGPFKFQ JCUVC GN 2QPVQ 'WZKPQ
[ NC 6TCEKC=? GPUGIWKFC NNGXCT NC IWGTTC CN +ORGTKQ
6TCU GN CUGUKPCVQ NQU EQPURKTCFQTGU JW[GTQP FGLCPFQ GN
2CTVQ RCUCPFQ RQT #TOGPKC /GPQT [ PQ EQODC
ECFXGT FG %UCT C NQU RKGU FG WPC GUVCVWC FG 2QORG[Q
VKTNQU GP DCVCNNC ECORCN JCUVC JCDGTNGU OGFKFQ UWU
FQPFG SWGF GZRWGUVQ RQT WP VKGORQ &G CNN NQ TGEQIKG
HWGT\CU=?
TQP VTGU GUENCXQU RDNKEQU SWG NQ NNGXCTQP C UW ECUC GP WPC
NKVGTC=? FG FQPFG /CTEQ #PVQPKQ NQ TGEQIK [ NQ OQU
VT CN RWGDNQ SWG SWGF EQPOQEKQPCFQ RQT NC XKUKP FGN
ECFXGT 2QEQ FGURWU NQU UQNFCFQU FG NC FGEKOQVGTEGTC
NGIKP VCP WPKFC C %UCT VTCLGTQP CPVQTEJCU RCTC KPEKPG
TCT GN EWGTRQ FG UW SWGTKFQ NFGT .WGIQ NQU JCDKVCPVGU FG
4QOC EQP ITCP VWOWNVQ GEJCTQP C GUC JQIWGTC VQFQ NQ
SWG VGPCP C OCPQ RCTC CXKXCT OU GN HWGIQ=?
.C NG[GPFC EWGPVC SWG %CNRWTPKC 2KUQPKC
%CNRWTPKC 2K
UQPKU NC OWLGT FG %UCT FGURWU FG JCDGT UQCFQ EQP
WP RTGUCIKQ VGTTKDNG CFXKTVK C %UCT FG SWG VWXKGTC EWK
FCFQ RGTQ %UCT KIPQT UW CFXGTVGPEKC FKEKGPFQ k4MP TF
EFCF UFNFS BM NJFEP{ 'P QVTCU UG EWGPVC EOQ WP XKFGPVG
EKGIQ NG JCDC RTGXGPKFQ EQPVTC NQU +FWU FG /CT\Q NNGIC
FQ GN FC %UCT NG TGEQTF FKXGTVKFQ GP NCU GUECNGTCU FGN
5GPCFQ SWG CP UGIWC XKXQ C NQ SWG GN EKGIQ TGURQPFK
SWG NQU JEVT PQ JCDCP CECDCFQ CP=?

1.10 Consecuencias del magnicidio

.C EQPUVTWEEKP FG WP VGORNQ C /CTVG OC[QT SWG

EWCNSWKGT QVTQ FGN OWPFQ TGNNGPCPFQ JCUVC GN PKXGN
FGN UWGNQ GN NCIQ GP SWG QHTGEK NC PCWOCSWKC=?
.C EQPUVTWEEKP FG WP VGCVTQ IKICPVGUEQ CN RKG FG NC
4QEC 6CTRG[C=?
4GFWEKT C LWUVC RTQRQTEKP VQFQ GN FGTGEJQ EKXKN [
GPEGTTCT GP RQSWUKOQU NKDTQU NQ OGLQT [ OU KP
FKURGPUCDNG FGN KPOGPUQ [ FKHWUQ POGTQ FG NG[GU
GZKUVGPVGU=?
(QTOCT DKDNKQVGECU RDNKECU ITKGICU [ NCVKPCU NQ OU
PWOGTQUCU RQUKDNG [ GPECTI C /CTEQ 6GTGPEKQ 8C
TTP GN EWKFCFQ FG CFSWKTKT [ ENCUKECT NQU NKDTQU=?
5G RTQRQPC UGECT NCU NCIWPCU 2QPVKPCU CDTKT UCNK
FC C NCU CIWCU FGN NCIQ (WEKPQ EQPUVTWKT WP ECOKPQ
FGUFG GN OCT #FTKVKEQ JCUVC GN 6DGT C VTCXU FG NQU
#RGPKPQU [ CDTKT GN KUVOQ FG %QTKPVQ=?

.CU EQPUGEWGPEKCU FG NC OWGTVG FG %UCT UQP PWOGTQ

UCU [ PQ UG NKOKVCP C NC IWGTTC EKXKN RQUVGTKQT 'N PQO
DTG l%UCT| RQT GLGORNQ UG EQPXKTVK GP EQOP C VQFQU
NQU GORGTCFQTGU RQUVGTKQTGU FGDKFQ C SWG #WIWUVQ FG 'P GN NWICT FG NC ETGOCEKP FG UW ECFXGT UG EQPUVTW[ WP
PQODTG %C[Q 1EVCXKQ CN UGT CFQRVCFQ QEKCNOGPVG RQT CNVCT SWG UGTXKTC FG GRKEGPVTQ RCTC WP VGORNQ C N FGFK
GN FKEVCFQT ECODK UW PQODTG RQT GN FG %C[Q ,WNKQ %UCT ECFQ RWGU GP GN CQ  C % GN 5GPCFQ NG FGKE EQP GN



 $4"3 $0.0 (0#&3/"/5&

PQODTG FG &KXKPQ ,WNKQ

%JWVT *VMJVT=? CEEKP SWG UG
EQPXGTVKTC GP EQUVWODTG C RCTVKT FG GUG OQOGPVQ EQP NQ
SWG VQFQU NQU GORGTCFQTGU FGUFG #WIWUVQ HWGTQP FGKEC
FQU C UW OWGTVG 'UVC RTEVKEC GU NC SWG CN RCTGEGT KPURKT
NCU NVKOCU RCNCDTCU FG 8GURCUKCPQ SWG CN UGPVKTUG OQTKT
RCTGEG UGT SWG FKLQ $SFP RVF NF FTUPZ DPOWJSUJFOEP FO
EJPT=?
&GURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG %UCT GUVCNN WPC NWEJC RQT GN
RQFGT GPVTG UW UQDTKPQPKGVQ %UCT #WIWUVQ C SWKGP GP UW
VGUVCOGPVQ JCDC PQODTCFQ JGTGFGTQ WPKXGTUCN [ /CTEQ
#PVQPKQ SWG EWNOKPCTC EQP NC ECFC FG NC 4GRDNKEC [ GN
$MFPQBUSB FKFSDJ VOB QSPGVOEB GBTDJOBDJO TPCSF $TBS $VBESP
PCEKOKGPVQ FG WPC GURGEKG FG /QPCTSWC SWG UG JC FCFQ
%NGQRCVTC GPUC[C XGPGPQU GP EQPFGPCFQU C OWGTVG EF "MFYBOESF
GP FGPQOKPCT 1SJODJQBEP EQP NQ SWG NC EQPURKTCEKP [ $BCBOFM
GN OCIPKEKFKQ UG TGXGNCTQP C NC RQUVTG KPVKNGU [C SWG PQ
KORKFKGTQP GN GUVCDNGEKOKGPVQ FG WP UKUVGOC CWVQETVKEQ
UK GN GLTEKVQ PQ UG JWDKGUG PGICFQ C UGIWKTNQU .C JK\Q KT C
4QOC EQNOPFQNC FG JQPQTGU [ FG RTGUGPVGU=? 2CTC N
GTC WP DWGP OQFQ FG UWLGVCT 'IKRVQ FQPFG SWGFCDCP RTG
2 Csar el seductor
UGPVGU VTGU NGIKQPGU [ EW[Q RCRGN GP GN CRTQXKUKQPCOKGP
VQ FG EGTGCNGU RCTC +VCNKC GORG\CDC C UGT RTGRQPFGTCPVG
2.1 Las mujeres de la alta sociedad roma- 5GC EQOQ HWGTG %NGQRCVTC GUVWXQ RTGUGPVG GP 4QOC GP
GN OQOGPVQ FGN CUGUKPCVQ FG %UCT [ XQNXK TRKFCOGPVG
na
C UW RCU FGURWU FGN ETKOGP
5GIP GN JKUVQTKCFQT NCVKPQ 5WGVQPKQ %UCT UGFWLQ C PW
OGTQUCU OWLGTGU C NQ NCTIQ FG UW XKFC [ UQDTG VQFQ C CSWG
NNCU RGTVGPGEKGPVGU C NC CNVC UQEKGFCF TQOCPC=?
3 Csar como gobernante
5GIP GN CWVQT %UCT JCDTC UGFWEKFQ C 2QUVWOKC GURQ
UC FG 5GTXKQ 5WNRKEKQ 4WHQ C .QNKC
.QNNKC GURQUC FG
#WNQ )CDKPKQ [ C 6TVWNC
6GTVWNNC GURQUC FG /CTEQ .K
EKPKQ %TCUQ 6CODKP RCTGEG JCDGT HTGEWGPVCFQ C /W
EKC GURQUC FG 2QORG[Q=? #UKOKUOQ %UCT OCPVWXQ
TGNCEKQPGU EQP 5GTXKNKC %GRKQPKC
5GTXKNKC %GRKQPKU OC
FTG FG $TWVQ C NC SWG RCTGEC CRTGEKCT GURGEKCNOGPVG=?
#U 5WGVQPKQ TGGTG NQU FKUVKPVQU TGICNQU [ DGPGEKQU SWG
QHTGEK C UW COCFC FG NQU EWCNGU FGUVCEC WPC OCIPEC
RGTNC EQP WP XCNQT FG UGKU OKNNQPGU FG UGUVGTEKQU=? 'N
COQT FG 5GTXKNKC JCEKC %UCT GTC EQPQEKFQ RDNKECOGPVG
GP 4QOC=?
.C KPENKPCEKP FG %UCT JCEKC NQU RNCEGTGU FGN COQT VCO
DKP JC UKFQ EQPTOCFC RQT NQU XGTUQU ECPVCFQU RQT UWU
UQNFCFQU EQP QECUKP FG UW VTKWPHQ GP 4QOC RQT NCU ECO
RCCU GP NC )CNKC TGHGTKFQU RQT 5WGVQPKQ
%KWFCFCPQU XKIKNCF C XWGUVTCU OWLGTGU
VTCGOQU C WP CFNVGTQ ECNXQ
*CU HQTPKECFQ GP )CNKC EQP GN QTQ SWG VQOCUVG
RTGUVCFQ GP 4QOC=?

2.2

Las reinas

%UCT OCPVWXQ TGNCEKQPGU COQTQUCU EQP 'WPQ GURQUC FG

$QIWF TG[ FG /CWTKVCPKC=?

SGPCVXU PQRXNXU QXG RQOCPXU

5KP GODCTIQ UW TGNCEKP OU HCOQUC HWG EQP %NGQRCVTC

8++ 5WGVQPKQ EWGPVC SWG %UCT TGOQPV GN 0KNQ EQP NC .C NCDQT FG IQDKGTPQ FG %UCT EQOQ EPUWN [ EQOQ FKE
TGKPC GIKREKC=? GP WPC PCXG RTQXKUVC FG ECDKPCU [ JC VCFQT HWG OW[ CORNKC RGUG C SWG GN VKGORQ GP SWG TGCN
DTC CVTCXGUCFQ CU VQFQ 'IKRVQ [ RGPGVTCFQ JCUVC 'VKQRC OGPVG GUVWXQ GP GN RQFGT HWG TGNCVKXCOGPVG EQTVQ 5KP GO


DCTIQ [ EQOQ DKGP UGCNC #FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[=? WP
CPNKUKU FGVCNNCFQ FG ECFC OGFKFC Q RQUKDNG OGFKFC SWG
VQO UGTC GZEGUKXCOGPVG GZVGPUQ RWGU UW QDTC NGICN HWG
CTFWC CWP CU RQFGOQU JCEGTPQU WPC KFGC FG UW VTCDCLQ
GP GUVG ECORQ RQT NC NKUVC FG FKURQUKEKQPGU NGICNGU SWG UG
GPEWGPVTC GP 5WGVQPKQ [ QVTQU CWVQTGU
%QTTKIK GN ECNGPFCTKQ GP WUQ GP GN SWG JCDC VCN FGU
QTFGP RQT EWNRC FG NQU RQPVEGU [ RQT CDWUQ CPVK
IWQ [C FG NCU KPVGTECNCEKQPGU SWG NCU GUVCU FG NC
TGEQNGEEKP PQ ECCP [C GP GUVQ PK NCU XGPFKOKCU GP
QVQQ #LWUV GN CQ CN EWTUQ FGN UQN [ NQ EQORWUQ FG
 FCU UWRTKOKGPFQ GN OGU KPVGTECNCFQ [ CWOGP
VCPFQ WP FC ECFC EWCVTQ CQU 2CTC SWG GUVG PWGXQ
QTFGP FG EQUCU RWFKGTC EQOGP\CT GP NCU ECNGPFCU FG
GPGTQ FGN CQ UKIWKGPVG CCFK FQU OGUGU GPVTG PQ
XKGODTG [ FKEKGODTG VGPKGPFQ RQT EQPUKIWKGPVG GUVG
CQ SWKPEG OGUGU EQPVCPFQ GN CPVKIWQ KPVGTECNCTKQ
SWG QEWTTC GP N=? 'UVC VTCUEGPFGPVCN TGHQTOC
SWG EQPQEGOQU JQ[ GP FC EQOQ %CNGPFCTKQ LWNKCPQ
EQPUKUVK GP SWG RCTVKGPFQ FGN CQ  C % UG VQOC
EQOQ KPKEKQ FGN CQ GN  FG GPGTQ GP NWICT FGN VTCFK
EKQPCN  FG OCT\Q RCTC RQFGT RNCPGCT NCU ECORCCU
FGN CQ EQP VKGORQ %QPUVC FG  FCU FKXKFKFQU GP
 OGUGU GZEGRVQ NQU CQU DKUKGUVQU SWG VKGPGP 
FCU [ CCFGP WP FC CFKEKQPCN CN OGU FG HGDTGTQ
'N ECNGPFCTKQ LWNKCPQ EWGPVC EQOQ DKUKGUVQU WPQ FG
ECFC EWCVTQ CQU KPENWUQ NQU UGEWNCTGU %QP GUVG EC
NGPFCTKQ UG EQOGVG WP GTTQT FG  FCU ECFC 
CQU
'N QTFGP FG NQU OGUGU [ NC FKUVTKDWEKP FG NQU
FCU GTC CU KBOVBSJVT
 FCU GFCSVBSJVT

 NQU CQU DKUKGUVQU NBSUJVT
 BQSJMJT

 NBJVT
 KVOJVT
 KVMJVT

CP
VGTKQTOGPVG RVJOUJMJT [ NNCOCFQ CU GP JQPQT FGN
RTQRKQ %UCT TFYUJMJT

TGPQODTCFQ BVHVT
UVT GP GN TGKPCFQ FG UW JKLQ CFQRVKXQ TFQUFN
CFS
 PDUPCFS
 OPWFNCFS
 EFDFN
CFS

%QORNGV GN 5GPCFQ FKG\OCFQ RQT NC IWGTTC EKXKN
CWOGPVCPFQ GN POGTQ FG UGPCFQTGU C  [ NNGPP
FQNQ FG RCTVKFCTKQU UW[QU GP GURGEKCN FRVJUFT NKVGU
RTQXKPEKCNGU [ CNIP SWG QVTQ GUETKDC EGPVWTKP G
KPENWUQ JKLQ FG NKDGTVQ 'PVTG NQU OU FGUVCECFQU [
RQFGTQUQU UG GPEQPVTCTQP NQU $CNDQU=?
%TG PWGXQU RCVTKEKQU CWOGPV GN POGTQ FG
RTGVQTGU FG GFKNGU FG EWGUVQTGU [ FG OCIKUVTCFQU KP
HGTKQTGU CORNKCPFQ RQT GLGORNQ GN XKIKPVKXKTCVQ C 
OCIKUVTCFQU
WJHJOUJTFYWJSBUVN TGJCDKNKV C CNIWPQU
C NQU SWG NQU EGPUQTGU JCDCP FGURQLCFQ FG UW FKIPK
FCF Q EQPFGPCFQ NQU LWGEGU RQT EQJGEJQ %QORCTVK
EQP GN RWGDNQ GN FGTGEJQ FG GNGEEKP FG OCIKUVTCFQU
FG UWGTVG SWG GZEGRVWCPFQ UWU EQORGVKFQTGU CN EQP
UWNCFQ NQU FGOU ECPFKFCVQU NQU FGUKIPCDCP RQT OK
VCFGU GN RWGDNQ [ N .QU UW[QU NQU FGUKIPCDC GP VC
DNKNNCU SWG OCPFCDCP C VQFCU NCU VTKDWU EQPVGPKGPFQ

GUVC DTGXG KPUETKREKP l%UCT FKEVCFQT C VCN VTKDW

1U TGEQOKGPFQ C GVMBOP [ C NFOHBOP RCTC SWG QD
VGPICP UW FKIPKFCF RQT XWGUVTQ UWHTCIKQ| #FOKVK C
NQU JQPQTGU C NQU JKLQU FG NQU RTQUETKVQU=?
'UVCDNGEK NC EQPVTCVCEKP C GZVTCPLGTQU GP NCU NGIKQ
PGU [ ETG GN ECTIQ FG +ORGTCVQT SWG UGTC GN EQOCP
FCPVG FGN GLTEKVQ=?
4GUVTKPIK GN UKUVGOC LWFKEKCN C FQU ENCUGU FG LWGEGU
C NQU UGPCFQTGU [ C NQU ECDCNNGTQU [ UWRTKOK NQU VTK
DWPQU FGN 6GUQTQ
VTKDWPQ CWTGCTKK SWG HQTOCDCP
NC VGTEGTC LWTKUFKEEKP=?
*K\Q GN EGPUQ FGN RWGDNQ PQ FG NC OCPGTC CEQUVWO
DTCFC PK GP GN RCTCLG QTFKPCTKQ UKPQ RQT DCTTKQU [
UGIP RCFTQPGU FG NQU RTQRKGVCTKQU FG NCU ECUCU TG
FWLQ GN POGTQ FG CSWGNNQU C SWKGPGU UWOKPKUVTCDC
VTKIQ GN 'UVCFQ FG   C   [ RCTC SWG NC
HQTOCEKP FG GUVCU NKUVCU PQ RWFKGUG UGT GP NQ XGPKFG
TQ ECWUC FG PWGXQU FKUVWTDKQU FGETGV SWG GN RTGVQT
RWFKGUG TGGORNC\CT C NQU SWG HCNNGEKGTCP RQT OGFKQ
FGN UQTVGQ EQP NQU SWG PQ GUVCDCP KPUETKVQU=?
&KUVTKDW[ C   EKWFCFCPQU GP NCU EQNQPKCU FG
WNVTCOCT [ RCTC SWG PQ SWGFCUG GZJCWUVC NC RQDNC
EKP GP 4QOC FGETGV SWG PKPIP EKWFCFCPQ OC
[QT FG  CQU [ OGPQT FG  CQU SWG PQ GUVWXKG
UG QDNKICFQ RQT WP ECTIQ RDNKEQ RGTOCPGEKGUG OU
FG  CQU HWGTC FG +VCNKC SWG PKPIP JKLQ FG UGPCFQT
GORTGPFKGUG XKCLGU NGLCPQU UK PQ GTC GP EQORCC Q
DCLQ GN RCVTQPCVQ FG CNIP OCIKUVTCFQ [ RQT NVKOQ
SWG NQU SWG ETKCDCP ICPCFQ VWXKGUGP GPVTG UWU RCUVQ
TGU RQT NQ OGPQU NC VGTEGTC RCTVG FG JQODTGU NKDTGU
GP GFCF FG RWDGTVCF=?
%QPEGFK GN FGTGEJQ FG EKWFCFCPC C EWCPVQU RTCE
VKECDCP OGFKEKPC GP 4QOC Q EWNVKXCDCP NCU CTVGU NK
VGTCTKCU FGDKGPFQ GUVG HCXQT LCTNQU GP NC EKWFCF [
CVTCGT C QVTQU=?
'P EWCPVQ C NCU FGWFCU GP XG\ FG EQPEGFGT NC CDQNK
EKP EQP CHP GURGTCFC [ TGENCOCFC UKP EGUCT FGETG
V SWG NQU FGWFQTGU RCICTCP UGIP NC GUVKOCEKP FG
UWU RTQRKGFCFGU [ EQPHQTOG CN RTGEKQ FG GUVQU DKG
PGU CPVGU FG NC IWGTTC EKXKN [ SWG UG FGFWEKTC FGN
ECRKVCN VQFQ NQ SWG UG JWDKGUG RCICFQ GP FKPGTQ Q GP
RTQOGUCU GUETKVCU C VVWNQ FG WUWTC EQP EW[C FKURQ
UKEKP FGUCRCTGEGTC EGTEC FG NC EWCTVC RCTVG FG NCU
FGWFCU=?
&KUQNXK VQFCU NCU CUQEKCEKQPGU GZEGRVWCPFQ CSWG
NNCU SWG VGPCP QTKIGP GP NQU RTKOGTQU VKGORQU FG
4QOC=?
#WOGPV NC RGPCNKFCF GP EWCPVQ C NQU ETOGPGU [
EQOQ NQU TKEQU NQU EQOGVCP UKP RGTFGT PCFC FG UW



 $4"3 $0.0 .*-*5"3

3FTUPT EFM 'PSP EF $TBS RVJFO MP NBOE FEJDBS FO 3PNB EV

SBOUF TV EJDUBEVSB

ECWFCN FGETGV EQPVTC NQU RCTTKEKFCU NC EQPUECEKP

EQORNGVC [ EQPVTC NQU ETKOKPCNGU NC FG NC OKVCF FG
UWU DKGPGU=?

VTKWPXKTQU TGURQPUCDNGU FG NC HWPFKEKP [ CEWC

EKP FG QTQ RNCVC [ DTQPEG EQPCPFQ NC FKTGE
EKP FG NC EGEC FGN VGORNQ FG ,WPQ /QPGVC
CU EQ
OQ NCU TGPVCU RDNKECU C CNIWPQU FG UWU RTQRKQU
GUENCXQU=? 6CODKP ETG WPC EGEC RTKXCFC EQP NC
SWG CEW TGIWNCTOGPVG FG  C  C % GN QTQ
SWG QDVWXQ GP NC )WGTTC FG NCU )CNKCU [ UCSWGCP
FQ GN GTCTKQ RDNKEQ
  NKPIQVGU=? (KL GN
RGUQ FGN CWTGWU GP  FG NC NKDTC TQOCPC
CRTQ
ZKOCFCOGPVG GN GSWKXCNGPVG C  ITCOQU 6WXKGTQP
ITCP ZKVQ CN UGT UKOKNCTGU GP RGUQ [ NG[ C NCU GUV
VGTCU OCEGFQPKCU=? 6CODKP L GN WTGQ GP 
FGPCTKQU FG OQFQ SWG WPC NKDTC FG QTQ GSWKXCNKG
TC C  FGPCTKQU VTCU GN FGUEGPUQ FGN RTGEKQ FGN
QTQ
C  FGPCTKQU NC NKDTC SWG JCDC RTQXQECFQ GN
ECWFCN FG DQVP VTCFQ FG NCU )CNKCU=? &GDG FGU
VCECTUG CUKOKUOQ SWG ,WNKQ %UCT HWG GN RTKOGT FKTK
IGPVG TQOCPQ XKXQ EW[Q TQUVTQ CRCTGEK GP WPC OQ
PGFC GP EKTEWNCEKP
 C % RQT CWVQTK\CEKP FGN
5GPCFQ=? 5KP GODCTIQ PQ JWDQ PKPIWPC GOKUKP
UWDUVCPEKCN FG DTQPEG DCLQ UW IQDKGTPQ RQT NQ SWG
EQPVKPW NC GUECUG\ FG PWOGTCTKQ RTQRKC FGN UKINQ +
C %=? 'P WP KPVGPVQ FG TGUVCWTCT NC NKSWKFG\ JK
\Q CRTQDCT WPC NG[ SWG RTQJDC SWG PCFKG CEWOWNC
TC OU FG   FGPCTKQU RTGVGPFKGPFQ RQPGT GP
EKTEWNCEKP NCU OQPGFCU CVGUQTCFCU 'UVC NG[ EQOQ
RWGFG UWRQPGTUG FGDK UGT UKP FWFC CNIWPC VCP KP
GEC\ EQOQ KPCRNKECDNG=?
2CTC GXKVCT RTQDNGOCU HWG GN RTKOGT NGIKUNCFQT TQ
OCPQ SWG KPUVCN C UWU XGVGTCPQU GP EQNQPKCU HWGTC
FG +VCNKC=?

4 Csar como militar

2TKX FGN QTFGP UGPCVQTKCN C NQU EQPXKEVQU FG

EQPEWUKP=?
+PFKUEWVKDNGOGPVG WPQ FG NQU CURGEVQU OU TGEQPQEKFQU
FG NC RGTUQPCNKFCF FG ,WNKQ %UCT GU UKP FWFC UW IGPKQ
&GENCT PWNQ GN OCVTKOQPKQ FG WP CPVKIWQ RTGVQT SWG OKNKVCT 'UVG IGPKQ HWG RWGUVQ C RTWGDC OWEJCU XGEGU C NQ
UG JCDC ECUCFQ EQP WPC OWLGT CN UGIWPFQ FC FG UG NCTIQ FG UW CEEKFGPVCFC XKFC ECUVTGPUG [ %UCT TGURQPFK
RCTCFC FG UW OCTKFQ CWPSWG PQ UG NC UQURGEJCTC FG C NQU TGVQU ECUK UKGORTG EQP KPPQXCEKQPGU VEVKECU Q CC
IC\CU SWG UQTRTGPFKGTQP C UWU EQPVTCTKQU [ SWG NG JKEKGTQP
CFWNVGTKQ=?
ICPCT XGPVCLCU GP WP VGTTGPQ W QVTQ
'UVCDNGEK KORWGUVQU UQDTG NCU OGTECPECU GZVTCPLG
TCU /CPFCDC C NQU OGTECFQU IWCTFKCU SWG UGEWGU
VTCTCP NQU CTVEWNQU RTQJKDKFQU [ NQU NNGXCTCP C UW EC
UC [GPFQ CNIWPCU XGEGU NKEVQTGU [ UQNFCFQU C TGEQIGT
GP NQU EQOGFQTGU NQ SWG JCDC GUECRCFQ C NC XKIKNCP
EKC FG NQU IWCTFKCU=?
2TQJKDK GN WUQ FG NKVGTCU FG NC RTRWTC [ NCU RGTNCU
GZEGRVWCPFQ C EKGTVCU RGTUQPCU EKGTVCU GFCFGU [ GP
FGVGTOKPCFQU FCU=?
'P EWCPVQ C NC OQPGFC KPETGOGPV C EWCVTQ GN P
OGTQ FG USFTWJSJ BVSP BSHFOUP BFSF BOEP GFSJVOEP

5GIP 5WGVQPKQ %UCT GTC WP CWVPVKEQ UQNFCFQ SWG

EQORCTVC EQP UWU NJMJUFT NCU HCVKICU FG NC IWGTTC GTC GZ
RGTVQ GP NCU CTOCU [ GP GSWKVCEKP=? 6CODKP UCDG
OQU SWG GTC WP IGPGTCN XCNKGPVG=? SWG FKTKIC UWU VTQ
RCU FGUFG GN RTQRKQ HTGPVG FG DCVCNNC RCTC SWG UW GLGO
RNQ KPHWPFKGTC XCNQT GP NQU UQNFCFQU [ GTC RTQENKXG C NCU
CTGPICU [ OCPVGPGFQT FG WPC HTTGC FKUEKRNKPC=? 5KP
GODCTIQ UWU UQNFCFQU NQ XGPGTCDCP [ HWGTQP OW[ TCTQU
NQU ECUQU FG FGUGTEKP SWK\ FGDKFQ CN ECTEVGT OCIPPK
OQ FG %UCT=? 6CODKP OQPVCDC WP ECDCNNQ FG PQO
DTG )GPKVQT SWG PCEK GP NQU GUVCDNQU SWG GN IGPGTCN VGPC
GP UW ECUC 'N ECDCNNQ RTGUGPVCDC CVCXKUOQ GP NCU RCVCU
RQT NQ SWG VGPC XCTKQU FGFQU NCTIQU TGOCVCFQU GP RG\WC
CFGOU FG ECUEQ EGPVTCN=? CNIQ ECWUCFQ RQT NC FGUCE





-B #BUBMMB EF "MFTJB

VKXCEKP FGN IGP KPJKDKFQT SWG KORKFG GN ETGEKOKGPVQ FG

OU FGFQU GP NQU ECDCNNQU CRCTVG FGN VGTEGTQ FWTCPVG GN
FGUCTTQNNQ GODTKQPCTKQ
2CTC QHTGEGT WPC XKUKP NQ OU CORNKC RQUKDNG FG NC EC
RCEKFCF VEVKEC FG %UCT UG JC GNGIKFQ QHTGEGT DTGXGU TG
UGCU FG CNIWPCU FG UWU DCVCNNCU SWK\ PQ NCU OU TGRTG
UGPVCVKXCU Q HWPFCOGPVCNGU RGTQ U FG NCU SWG UWRWUKGTQP
CNIWPC KPPQXCEKP VEVKEC Q WPC OWGUVTC FG EOQ %UCT
FKTKIC UWU VTQRCU NC $CVCNNC FG $KDTCEVG EQOQ GLGORNQ
FG DCVCNNC EQPVTC HWGT\CU PQ TQOCPCU NC $CVCNNC FG #NG
UKC EQOQ GLGORNQ FG CUGFKQ NC $CVCNNC FG (CTUCNKC EQOQ
GLGORNQ FG NWEJC GPVTG TQOCPQU NC $CVCNNC FG 4WURKPC
RQT NC OCPGTC GP NC SWG UG EQPXKTVK FG WPC FGTTQVC ECUK
UGIWTC GP WPC TGVKTCFC QTFGPCFC [ NC $CVCNNC FG 6CRUQ GP
HTKEC SWG UWRWUQ NC FGTTQVC FG NCU HWGT\CU RQORG[CPCU
GUVCDNGEKFCU GP GUC RTQXKPEKC [ C NC NCTIC NC OWGTVG FG
%CVP [ QVTCU IWTCU UGGTCU FG NC QRQUKEKP C %UCT

4.1

La Batalla de Bibracte

'P GN CQ  C % %UCT CECDCDC FG VQOCT RQUGUKP FG

UW ECTIQ FG RTQEPUWN FG NC )CNKC EWPFQ HWG CFXGTVKFQ
FG SWG WPC EQPHGFGTCEKP FG RWGDNQU IGTOPKEQU EQO
RWGUVC RQT NQU JGNXGEKQU NQU DQKQU [ NQU VWNKPIKQU JCDCP
FGEKFKFQ FGLCT UWU VKGTTCU CPEGUVTCNGU [ GOKITCT C NC )CNKC
%QOCVC
#ODCU HWGT\CU EQKPEKFKGTQP GP NCU EGTECPCU FG NC NQEC (VFSSFSPT DFMUBT
NKFCF FG $KDTCEVG FQPFG %UCT JCDC VQOCFQ RQUKEKQPGU
GP NQ CNVQ FG WPC EQNKPC %QPVCDC EQP EWCVTQ NGIKQPGU XG
VGTCPCU NCU 8++ 8+++ +: [ : SWG QTFGP GP USJQMFY BDJFT
CN RKG FG NC UWDKFC NCU NGIKQPGU :+ [ :++ FG PQXCVQU [
NQU CWZKNKCTGU HWGTQP FGURNGICFQU DCLQ WPC GNGXCEKP FGN
VGTTGPQ GP NC EKOC
.CU HWGT\CU JGNXGEKCU SWK\ WPQU   IWGTTGTQU UK JG
OQU FG ETGGT CN RTQRKQ %UCT GP UWU $PNFOUBSJJ CXCP\CTQP
JCEKC NQU TQOCPQU GP WPC HQTOCEKP SWG %UCT FGUETKDG
EQOQ lWPC HCNCPIG| NQ SWG SWKGTG FGEKT SWG RTQDCDNG
OGPVG HQTOCDCP WPC OCUC EQORCEVC SWG UG CITWRCDC VTCU
NQU GUEWFQU PQ WPC HQTOCEKP FG VKRQ OCEGFQPKQ=?

 IWGTTGTQU COGPC\CPFQ GN CPEQ FGTGEJQ FGN GLTEKVQ

TQOCPQ=? 'N CPEQ FGTGEJQ GTC GN OU RGNKITQUQ RWGU
GTC GN SWG PQ RQTVCDC GUEWFQ
SWG UG NNGXCDC GP GN DTC\Q
K\SWKGTFQ
%QIKFQU CU GPVTG NC GURCFC FG NQU JGNXGEKQU SWG CN XGT
CRCTGEGT C UWU CNKCFQU UG NCP\CTQP CN CVCSWG EQP PKOQ
TGPQXCFQ [ C NC RCTGF FG NQU DQKQU [ VWNKPIKQU %UCT QT
FGP SWG NC VGTEGTC NPGC FG NC USJQMFY BDJFT TQVCTC JCEKC NC
FGTGEJC EQNQEPFQUG GP PIWNQ TGEVQ FG ECTC C NQU PWGXQU
CVCECPVGU OKGPVTCU SWG NCU HWGT\CU TGUVCPVGU HQTOCFCU GP
EVQMFY BDJFT JCECP HTGPVG CN TGPQXCFQ CVCSWG FG NQU JGN
XGEKQU

%WCPFQ NC HQTOCEKP JGNXGEKC UG GPEQPVT CN CNECPEG CFG

EWCFQ Q UGC WPQU  OGVTQU FG NCU NCU TQOCPCU UCNK NC
RTKOGTC UCNXC FG RKNC 'UVC LCDCNKPC RGUCFC GUVCDC FKUG
CFC RCTC TGVQTEGTUG CN ENCXCTUG GP GN GUEWFQ FGLCPFQ CU
CN IWGTTGQ CVCECPVG NC QREKP FG RQTVCT WP RGUCFQ GUEW
FQ EQP WPC LCDCNKPC ENCXCFC SWG FKEWNVCDC UW OCPGLQ Q
FGUJCEGTUG FGN GUEWFQ [ NWEJCT UKP RTQVGEEKP
(CNVQU FGN HCEVQT UQTRTGUC GP SWG JCDCP EQPCFQ RGQT
.C NNWXKC FG QJMB VWXQ GN GHGEVQ FG FGUJCEGT NC HQTOCEKP CTOCFQU SWG NQU TQOCPQU [ NQU JGNXGEKQU [C ECPUCFQU RQT
JGNXGEKC [ NQU TQOCPQU CRTQXGEJCTQP RCTC ECTICT CORC NC NWEJC HWGTQP CTTCUCFQU RQT NCU NGIKQPGU
TCFQU VTCU UWU GUEWFQU EQP UWU INCFKWU CRTQXGEJCPFQ GN .C KPPQXCEKP VEVKEC FG %UCT HWG NC TCRKFG\ GP SWG ECN
FGUPKXGN [ EQTTKGPFQ EQNKPC CDCLQ UKP GUEWFQU [ OCN CT EWNCPFQ GN RTQDNGOC JCDC EQPXGTVKFQ NC VTCFKEKQPCN FKU
OCFQU NQU JGNXGEKQU HWGTQP QDNKICFQU C TGVTQEGFGT JCUVC RQUKEKP NGIKQPCTKC GP USJQMFY BDJFT GP WPC HQTOCEKP PQ
WPC EQNKPC SWG UG JCNNCDC EQOQ C WP MKNOGVTQ [ OGFKQ XGFQUC EQP WP HTGPVG GP EVQMFY BDJFT SWG UG GPECTI FG
.CU NGIKQPGU NQU UKIWKGTQP EQPCPFQ GP WPC TRKFC XKEVQ HTGPCT C NQU JGNXGEKQU [ WPQ GP TJNQMFY BDJFT SWG EQPVWXQ
TKC EWCPFQ FG RTQPVQ CRCTGEKGTQP GP GN ECORQ FG DC GN CVCSWG RQT GN CPEQ [ GXGPVWCNOGPVG NG NNGX C ICPCT
VCNNC NQU DQKQU [ NQU VWNKPIKQU GP ECPVKFCF FG WPQU  NC DCVCNNC



 $4"3 $0.0 .*-*5"3

FGHGPUKXC GZVGTKQT RTQVGIKGPFQ UWU VTQRCU 'N PWGXQ RG
TOGVTQ GTC FG  MO KPENW[GPFQ EWCVTQ ECORCOGPVQU
FG ECDCNNGTC 'UVC UGTKG FG HQTVKECEKQPGU NGU RTQVGIGTC
EWCPFQ NCU VTQRCU FG NKDGTCEKP ICNCU NNGICUGP CJQTC GTCP
UKVKCFQTGU RTGRCTPFQUG RCTC UGT UKVKCFQU=?

.CU HQTVKECEKQPGU EQPUVTWKFCU RQT %UCT GP #NGUKC FG CEWGTFQ

C NC JKRVGUKU FG NQECNK\CEKP GP #NKUG5CKPVG4GKPG
&O FM NBQB EF MB FTRVJOB MB DSV[ NVFTUSB MB MPDBMJ[BDJO EF "MFTJB
FO MB (BMJB IPZ 'SBODJB
 &O FM FTRVFNB FM DSDVMP NVFTUSB FM
QVOUP ECJM FO MB DJSDVOWBMBDJO

4.2

La Batalla de Alesia

#NGUKC GUVCDC UKVWCFC GP NC EKOC FG WPC EQNKPC TQFGCFC

RQT XCNNGU [ TQU [ EQPVCDC EQP KORQTVCPVGU FGHGPUCU &C
FQ SWG WP CUCNVQ HTQPVCN UQDTG NC HQTVCNG\C UGTC UWKEKFC
%UCT EQPUKFGT OGLQT HQT\CT WP CUGFKQ FG NC RNC\C RCTC
TGPFKT C UWU GPGOKIQU RQT JCODTG %QPUKFGTCPFQ SWG JC
DC EGTEC FG   JQODTGU HQTVKECFQU FGPVTQ FG #NG
UKC LWPVQ EQP NC RQDNCEKP EKXKN GN JCODTG [ NC UGF HQT\C
TCP TRKFCOGPVG NC TGPFKEKP FG NQU ICNQU 2CTC ICTCPVK
\CT WP DNQSWGQ RGTHGEVQ %UCT QTFGP NC EQPUVTWEEKP FG
WP RGTOGVTQ EKTEWNCT FG HQTVKECEKQPGU .QU FGVCNNGU FG
NQU VTCDCLQU FG KPIGPKGTC UG GPEWGPVTCP GP NQU $PNFOUB
SJPT B MB (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT
%F #FMMP (BMMJDP FG ,WNKQ
%UCT [ JCP RQFKFQ UGT EQPTOCFQU RQT NCU GZECXCEKQPGU
CTSWGQNIKECU GP NC \QPC 5G EQPUVTW[GTQP OWTQU FG 
MO FG NCTIQ [  OGVTQU FG CNVQ EQP HQTVKECEKQPGU GURC
EKCFCU TGIWNCTOGPVG GP WP VKGORQ TEQTF FG  UGOCPCU
'UVC NPGC HWG UGIWKFC JCEKC GN KPVGTKQT RQT FQU FKSWGU FG
EWCVTQ OGVTQU [ OGFKQ FG CPEJQ [ EGTEC FG OGFKQ OG
VTQ FG RTQHWPFKFCF 'N OU EGTECPQ C NC HQTVKECEKP UG
NNGP FG CIWC RTQEGFGPVG FG NQU TQU EGTECPQU #UKOKU
OQ UG ETGCTQP EQPEKGP\WFQU ECORQU FG VTCORCU [ JQ[QU
HTGPVG C NCU GORCNK\CFCU EQP GN P FG SWG UW CNECPEG HWG
UG VQFCXC OU FKHEKN OU WPC UGTKG FG VQTTGU GSWKRCFCU
EQP CTVKNNGTC [ GURCEKCFCU TGIWNCTOGPVG C NQ NCTIQ FG NC
HQTVKECEKP=?
.C ECDCNNGTC FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ C OGPWFQ EQPVTCCVCECDC
NQU VTCDCLQU TQOCPQU RCTC GXKVCT XGTUG EQORNGVCOGPVG GP
EGTTCFQU CVCSWGU SWG GTCP EQPVGUVCFQU RQT NC ECDCNNGTC
IGTOCPC SWG XQNXK C RTQDCT UW XCNC RCTC OCPVGPGT C NQU
CVCECPVGU C TC[C 6TCU FQU UGOCPCU FG VTCDCLQ RCTVG FG
NC ECDCNNGTC ICNC RWFQ GUECRCT FG NC EKWFCF RQT WPC FG
NCU UGEEKQPGU PQ PCNK\CFCU %UCT RTGXKGPFQ NC NNGICFC
FG VTQRCU FG TGHWGT\Q OCPF EQPUVTWKT WPC UGIWPFC NPGC

2QT GUVQU VKGORQU NCU EQPFKEKQPGU FG XKFC GP #NGUKC KDCP

GORGQTCPFQ ECFC XG\ OU %QP NQU   UQNFCFQU [ NC
RQDNCEKP NQECN JCDC FGOCUKCFC IGPVG FGPVTQ FG NC HQTVC
NG\C RCTC VCP GUECUC EQOKFC=? 'UVQ RTQXQE SWG RCTVG
FG NC RQDNCEKP EKXKN UCNKGTC FG NC EKWFCF [ RKFKGTC XXG
TGU CN GLTEKVQ FG %UCT G KPENWUQ VTCDCLCT EQOQ GUENCXQU
GP NCU EQPUVTWEEKQPGU CPVGU SWG OQTKT FG JCODTG %UCT
CFXKTVKGPFQ UW RTQRKC HCNVC FG XXGTGU GP ECUQ FG CNKOGP
VCTNQU NQU GPXK FG XWGNVC C NC EKWFCF [ EWCPFQ GUVQ RCU
8GTEKPIVQTKZ QTFGP EGTTCT NCU RWGTVCU FG NCU OWTCNNCU
[C SWG JCDC FGOCUKCFC RQDNCEKP RCTC NC GUECUG\ FG X
XGTGU 'UVC RCTVG FG NC RQDNCEKP EKXKN OWTK C NQU RQEQU
FCU
# PCNGU FG UGRVKGODTG NCU VTQRCU ICNCU FKTKIKFCU RQT
%QOOKQ CEWFKGTQP GP TGHWGT\Q FG NQU HQTVKECFQU GP
#NGUKC [ CVCECTQP NCU OWTCNNCU GZVGTKQTGU FG %UCT 8GT
EKPIGVTKZ QTFGP WP CVCSWG UKOWNVPGQ FGUFG FGPVTQ 5KP
GODCTIQ PKPIWPQ FG GUVQU KPVGPVQU VWXQ ZKVQ [ C NC RWGU
VC FGN UQN NC NWEJC JCDC CECDCFQ #N FC UKIWKGPVG GN CVC
SWG ICNQ HWG DCLQ NC EQDGTVWTC FG NC QUEWTKFCF FG NC PQ
EJG [ NQITCTQP WP OC[QT ZKVQ SWG GN FC CPVGTKQT %UCT
UG XKQ QDNKICFQ C CDCPFQPCT CNIWPCU UGEEKQPGU FG UWU N
PGCU HQTVKECFCU 5NQ NC TRKFC TGURWGUVC FG NC ECDCNNGTC
FKTKIKFC RQT /CTEQ #PVQPKQ [ )C[Q 6TGDQPKQ UCNX NC UK
VWCEKP .C RCTGF KPVGTPC VCODKP HWG CVCECFC RGTQ NC
RTGUGPEKC FG VTKPEJGTCU NQU ECORQU RNCPVCFQU FG MJSJPT
[ FG DFQQPT SWG NQU JQODTGU FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ VGPCP
SWG NNGPCT RCTC CXCP\CT NGU TGVTCUCTQP NQ UWEKGPVG EQ
OQ RCTC GXKVCT NC UQTRTGUC 2CTC GPVQPEGU NC UKVWCEKP FGN
GLTEKVQ TQOCPQ VCODKP GTC FKHEKN=?
'N FC UKIWKGPVG GN  FG QEVWDTG 8GTECUKXGNNCWPQ WP RTK
OQ FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ NCP\ WP CVCSWG OCUKXQ EQP  
JQODTGU GPHQECFQ CN RWPVQ FDKN FG NCU HQTVKECEKQPGU
TQOCPCU SWG %UCT JCDC VTCVCFQ FG QEWNVCT JCUVC GPVQP
EGU RGTQ SWG JCDC UKFQ FGUEWDKGTVQ RQT NQU ICNQU 'N TGC
GP EWGUVKP GTC WPC \QPC EQP QDUVTWEEKQPGU PCVWTCNGU GP NC
SWG PQ UG RQFC EQPUVTWKT WPC OWTCNNC EQPVKPWC 'N CVCSWG
UG RTQFWLQ EQODKPCPFQ NCU HWGT\CU FGN GZVGTKQT EQP NCU
FG NC EKWFCF 8GTEKPIGVTKZ CVCE FGUFG VQFQU NQU PIWNQU
NCU HQTVKECEKQPGU KPVGTKQTGU %UCT EQP GP NC FKUEKRNK
PC [ XCNQT FG UWU JQODTGU [ QTFGP OCPVGPGT NCU NPGCU
N RGTUQPCNOGPVG TGEQTTK GN RGTOGVTQ CPKOCPFQ C UWU
NGIKQPCTKQU=?
.C ECDCNNGTC FG .CDKGPQ HWG GPXKCFC C CIWCPVCT NC FG
HGPUC FGN TGC GP FQPFG UG JCDC NQECNK\CFQ NC DTGEJC FG
NCU HQTVKECEKQPGU %UCT EQP NC RTGUKP KPETGOGPVPFQUG
ECFC XG\ OU UG XKQ QDNKICFQ C EQPVTCCVCECT NC QHGPUKXC
KPVGTPC [ NQIT JCEGT TGVTQEGFGT C NQU JQODTGU FG 8GT
EKPIGVTKZ 5KP GODCTIQ RCTC GPVQPEGU NC UGEEKP FGHGP
FKFC RQT .CDKGPQ UG GPEQPVTCDC C RWPVQ FG EGFGT %UCT
VQO WPC OGFKFC FGUGURGTCFC VQOCPFQ  EQJQTVGU FG



-B #BUBMMB EF 'BSTBMJB



3FDPOTUSVDDJO BDUVBM EF MBT GPSUJDBDJPOFT EF "MFTJB

ECDCNNGTC
WPQU  JQODTGU RCTC CVCECT GN GLTEKVQ FG
TGUGTXC GPGOKIQ
WPQU   RQT NC TGVCIWCTFKC .C CE
EKP UQTRTGPFK VCPVQ C CVCECPVGU EQOQ C FGHGPUQTGU=?
8KGPFQ C UW IGPGTCN CHTQPVCT VCP VTGOGPFQ TKGUIQ NQU
JQODTGU FG .CDKGPQ TGFQDNCTQP UWU GUHWGT\QU 'P NCU NCU
ICNCU RTQPVQ GORG\ C EWPFKT GN RPKEQ [ VTCVCTQP FG TGVK
TCTUG 5KP GODCTIQ EQOQ UQNC QEWTTKT GP NC CPVKIGFCF
WP GLTEKVQ GP TGVKTCFC FGUQTICPK\CFC GU WPC RTGUC HEKN
RCTC NC RGTUGEWEKP FG NQU XGPEGFQTGU [ NQU ICNQU HWG )POEFSP CBMFBS
TQP OCUCETCFQU %UCT CPQV GP UWU %QOGPVCTKQU SWG UNQ
GN JGEJQ FG SWG UWU JQODTGU GUVCDCP EQORNGVCOGPVG GZ
JCWUVQU UCNX C NQU ICNQU FG NC EQORNGVC CPKSWKNCEKP=? VKXCU CNCU K\SWKGTFCU RWGU NQU CPEQU FGTGEJQU FG NCU HQT
'P #NGUKC 8GTEKPIGVTKZ HWG VGUVKIQ FG NC FGTTQVC FGN GLT OCEKQPGU UG CRQ[CDCP GP GN TQ 'PKRGWU SWG RTQVGIC FG
EKVQ GZVGTKQT 'PHTGPVPFQUG VCPVQ CN JCODTG EQOQ C NC GUC OCPGTC GN CNC FGTGEJC %UCT EQNQE C NCU NGIKQPGU +:
OQTCN UG XKQ QDNKICFQ C TGPFKTUG UKP WPC NVKOC DCVCNNC [ 8+++ GP GN CPEQ FGTGEJQ CRQ[CFCU GP GN TQ [ FGURWU
#N FC UKIWKGPVG GN NFGT ICNQ RTGUGPV UWU CTOCU C ,WNKQ HWG EQNQECPFQ UWEGUKXCOGPVG C NC :+ :++ :+++ 8+ 8++
%UCT RQPKGPFQ P CN CUGFKQ FG #NGUKC [ C NC EQPSWKUVC [ : 2GTQ VTCU NC NPGC FG ECDCNNGTC QEWNVQU VTCU WPC RG
SWGC GNGXCEKP FGN VGTTGPQ FGVTCLQ [ EQNQE WPC EWCTVC
TQOCPC FG NC )CNKC=?
NC EQORWGUVC FG UGKU EQJQTVGU GP UGPVKFQ QDNKEWQ C NC
ECDCNNGTC [ SWG TGEKDK TFGPGU GUVTKEVCU FG PQ OQXGTUG
DCLQ EKTEWPUVCPEKC CNIWPC JCUVC SWG NG HWGTC UGCNCFQ RQT
4.3 La Batalla de Farsalia
WP XGZKNNWO=?
&GURWU FG JCDGT UKFQ FGTTQVCFQU GP NC $CVCNNC FG &[TTC
EJKWO NQU EGUCTKCPQU UG GPHTGPVCTQP FGPKVKXCOGPVG GP
DCVCNNC ECORCN C 2QORG[Q [ UWU CNKCFQU GP NCU EGTECPCU
FG (CTUCNKC
%UCT VGPC EQP N C NCU NGIKQPGU 8++ 8+++ +: : :+ :++
[ :+++ OW[ TGFWEKFCU GP EWCPVQ C HWGT\C RWGU RTQDCDNG
OGPVG PQ GUVCDCP EQORWGUVCU RQT OU FG  NGIKQPC
TKQU ECFC WPC FG GNNCU [ CFGOU NCU NGIKQPGU 8+++ [ +:
SWG JCDCP UQUVGPKFQ GN HTGPVG FG DCVCNNC GP &[TTCEJKWO [
JCDCP SWGFCFQ UGTKCOGPVG OGTOCFCU C NCU SWG UG NGU FKQ
NC QTFGP FG SWG CEVWCTCP EQOQ WPC UQNC [ UG RTQVGIKGTCP
WPC C NC QVTC CFGOU EQPVCDC EQP WP RGSWGQ EQPVKP
IGPVG FG ECDCNNGTC 'P GN QVTQ NCFQ 2QORG[Q FKTKIC WPC
HWGT\C FG QPEG NGIKQPGU RQUKDNGOGPVG FG  JQODTGU
ECFC WPC [ WPC ECDCNNGTC FG  LKPGVGU LWPVQ EQP WP
HWGTVG FGUVCECOGPVQ FG CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU=?

2QORG[Q JCDC HQTOCFQ GP WPC UKUVGOC OU ENUKEQ EQP

VQFCU UWU NGIKQPGU RQT KIWCN [ NC ECDCNNGTC CRQ[CFC RQT
WPC FGPUC HQTOCEKP FG CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU EQNQECFC
VTCU GNNC UKP GODCTIQ NQU JCDC FKURWGUVQ GP WPC HQTOC
EKP OU GUVVKEC EQP NC KFGC VEVKEC FG SWG QHTGEKGTCP WP
OWTQ FG EQPVGPEKP C NC KPHCPVGTC EGUCTKCPC RWGU 2QO
RG[Q JCDC FGRQUKVCFQ UWU GURGTCP\CU GP NC UWRGTKQTKFCF
FG NC ECDCNNGTC
.C DCVCNNC UK ETGGOQU C %UCT UG CDTK EQP NC ECTIC UWK
EKFC FG WP EGPVWTKP RTKORCNQ GUVQ GU GN EGPVWTKP SWG
OCPFCDC NC RTKOGTC EGPVWTKC FG NC RTKOGTC EQJQTVG WP
RWGUVQ FG ITCP RTGUVKIKQ &KEJQ EGPVWTKP FG PQODTG
%TCUVKPQ CTTCUVT C  XQNWPVCTKQU EQP N C ECTICT EQP
VTC NC NPGCU FG 2QORG[Q GP NCU SWG NIKECOGPVG HWGTQP
CTTCUCFQU=?

#N QEWTTKT GUVQ NCU NPGCU RTKOGTC [ UGIWPFC FG NC HQTOC

#ODQU IGPGTCNGU HQTOCTQP UWU GLTEKVQU GP USJQMFY BDJFT EKP EGUCTKCPC ECTICTQP RGTQ C OKVCF FG ECOKPQ RCTCTQP
WPQ HTGPVG C QVTQ [ NC ECDCNNGTC CRQUVCFC GP NCU TGURGE RCTC EQIGT CKTG CN XGT SWG NCU NGIKQPGU FG 2QORG[Q PQ EQP



 $4"3 $0.0 .*-*5"3

OGPVG PQXGFQUQ EQP NC NPGC FG  EQJQTVGU VGPFKGPFQ WPC
EGNCFC C UW GPGOKIQ GP NC SWG EC[ [ SWG NG UKTXK RCTC
ICPCT NC DCVCNNC [ FGUVTQ\CT C NCU RTKPEKRCNGU HWGT\CU FG NQU
RQORG[CPQU

4.4 La Batalla de Ruspina

$BCBMMFSB MFHJPOBSJB

6TCU (CTUCNKC WPC DWGPC ECPVKFCF FG VTQRCU RQORG[CPCU

[ FG UGCNCFCU IWTCU FG NC HCEEKP EQOQ %CVP GN ,QXGP
3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 2Q 'UEKRKP 0CUKEC %QTPGNKCPQ [
GN CPVKIWQ NGICFQ RTKPEKRCN FG %UCT GP NCU )CNKCU 6KVQ
.CDKGPQ UG TGRNGICTQP C NC RTQXKPEKC FG HTKEC RCTC TG
QTICPK\CTUG [ RNCPVCT ECTC FG PWGXQ CN FKEVCFQT EQTTC GN
CQ  C %

UVG NGU RGTUKIWK [ FGURWU FG FGUGODCTECT L UWU

TGCNGU GP 4WURKPC EGTEC FG NC CEVWCN #N /WPCUVKT 6TCU
WPC UGTKG FG RGTKRGEKCU UCNK GP DWUEC FG VTKIQ EQP WPC
HWGT\C FG  EQJQTVGU CTOCFCU lC NC NKIGTC|=? Q UGC
WPQU   JQODTGU OU Q OGPQU FQU OKN LKPGVGU [
.C ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC UCNK CN ICNQRG FKXKFKFC GP UWU EKGPVQ EKPEWGPVC CTSWGTQU=?
VWTOC KPFKXKFWCNGU UGIWKFC RQT NQU CTSWGTQU EQP GN P 5DKVCOGPVG C WPQU EKPEQ MKNOGVTQU FGN ECORCOGPVQ
FG CPSWGCT GN CNC K\SWKGTFC FG NC HQTOCEKP FG %UCT NQU GZRNQTCFQTGU FG %UCT NG CXKUCTQP FG SWG UG CRTQZK
RCTC CVCECT CU FGUFG NC TGVCIWCTFKC [ HQTOCT WP OCTVKNNQ OCDC WPC ITCP HWGT\C FG KPHCPVGTC JCEKC GNNQU GTCP VTQ

ECDCNNGTC [ WP [WPSWG
KPHCPVGTC RCTC OCEJCECT C NQU RCU RQORG[CPCU CN OCPFQ FG .CDKGPQ %QPUEKGPVG FG UW
EGUCTKCPQU .C ECTIC VWXQ ZKVQ EQP NC ECDCNNGTC EGUCTKC KPHGTKQTKFCF %UCT QTFGPC C UW GZKIWC ECDCNNGTC [ C NQU
PC SWG UCNK GP FGUDCPFCFC
RQEQU CTSWGTQU SWG VGPC SWG UCNKGTCP FGN ECORCOGPVQ [
VTCECTICDCP
SWK\ RQTSWG 2QORG[Q VGPC NC GURGTCP\C FG
SWG UG ECPUCTCP RTGXKCOGPVG .QU EGUCTKCPQU TGEQORW
UKGTQP UWU NPGCU [ GP UG OQOGPVQ 2QORG[Q FKQ QTFGP
C UW ECDCNNGTC FG ECTICT

2GTQ GP GUG OQOGPVQ %UCT QTFGP C UW NPGC GUEQPFKFC

FG UGKU EQJQTVGU SWG CVCECTC .C ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC UG
GPEQPVT EQP SWG GP XG\ FG VQOCT RQT UQTRTGUC RQT NC
TGVCIWCTFKC C NCU NGIKQPGU EGUCTKCPCU [ FGUDCTCVCTNCU WPC
PWGXC NPGC FG DCVCNNC UG FKTKIC JCEKC GNNQU EQP HGTQEKFCF

.CU VWTOCU SWG NKFGTCDCP NC ECTIC GPVTCTQP GP RPKEQ [

JW[GTQP RGTQ RTQDCDNGOGPVG UG VQRCTQP GP UW JWKFC EQP
NQU GUEWCFTQPGU SWG NGU UGIWCP [ SWG PQ UQURGEJCDCP PC
FC UGODTCPFQ CU NC EQPUKIWKGPVG EQPHWUKP .QU NGIKQPC
TKQU FG %UCT PQ CTTQLCTQP UWU RKNC UKPQ SWG NQU WUCTQP
RQT QTFGP FG UW IGPGTCN OU EQOQ RKECU GPHTGPVPFQNQU
C NC ECTC FG NQU LKPGVGU [ UWU ECDCNNQU CWOGPVCPFQ FG UVC
OCPGTC GN RPKEQ [ NC EQPHWUKP CU WPC HWGT\C FG CRGPCU
 NGIKQPCTKQU RWUQ GP HWIC C NC ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC
[ RWFQ FGFKECTUG C FGUVTQ\CT C NQU NKIGTCOGPVG CTOCFQU
CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU=?

NG UKIWKGTCP C EQTVC FKUVCPEKC

/KGPVTCU %UCT GUVCDC EQNQECPFQ C UWU JQODTGU SWG FCFC

NC GZKIKFCF FG GUVC HWGT\C GZRGFKEKQPCTKC KDCP HQTOC
FQU GP TJNQMFY BDJFT EQP NC ECDCNNGTC GP CNCU=? .CDKGPQ
FGURNGI UWU HWGT\CU SWG TGUWNVCTQP GUVCT EQPUVKVWKFCU GP
UW KPOGPUC OC[QTC RQT ECDCNNGTC [ PQ RQT KPHCPVGTC
(WG WPC JDKN EGNCFC VGPFKFC RQT GN EQOCPFCPVG RQORG
[CPQ SWG JCDC LWPVCFQ CN OZKOQ UWU NPGCU KPVGTECNCP
FQ WPC PWOGTQUC VTQRC FG KPHCPVGTC NKIGTC POKFC GPVTG
NQU LKPGVGU RCTC FCT GUG GHGEVQ FGUFG NC FKUVCPEKC=?

/KGPVTCU NQU RQORG[CPQU CXCP\CTQP GP WPC NPGC UKORNG

FG GZVTGOC NQPIKVWF %UCT JCDC FGURNGICFQ UWU VTQRCU C
PGU FG PQ XGTUG CPSWGCFQ RQT NCU FG UW GPGOKIQ 2GTQ
GUVQ HWG RTGEKUCOGPVG NQ SWG QEWTTK OKGPVTCU NCU RQECU
VTQRCU FG ECDCNNGTC NWEJCDCP GP XCPQ RCTC PQ UGT UWRG
TCFCU GN EGPVTQ FG NC HQTOCEKP FG %UCT UG XKQ IQNRGCFQ
# EQPVKPWCEKP UG NCP\CTQP CN CVCSWG FGN CJQTC FGURTQ RQT NC OCUC FG NC ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC [ NC KPHCPVGTC NK
VGIKFQ CPEQ K\SWKGTFQ FG NQU RQORG[CPQU CRQ[CFQU GP IGTC POKFC SWG CVCECDCP [ UG TGVKTCDCP UWEGUKXCOGPVG
UG OQOGPVQ RQT WPC CVCSWG HWTKQUQ FG NC VGTEGTC NPGC FG .C KPHCPVGTC EGUCTKCPC TGURQPFK EQOQ RWFQ RGTQ GO
NCU NGIKQPGU EGUCTKCPCU SWG UWUVKVW[GPFQ C NCU ECPUCFCU RG\ C FKUITGICTUG #N XGTNQ %UCT QTFGP SWG PKPIP
RTKOGTC [ UGIWPFC NPGCU RTGUKQPCTQP GN HTGPVG FG DCVCNNC UQNFCFQ UG CNGLCTC OU FG EWCVTQ RCUQU FG UW WPKFCF=?
#VCECFCU RQT VTQRCU FG TGHTGUEQ GP GN EGPVTQ CPSWGCFCU
RQT NC K\SWKGTFC [ RQT NC TGVCIWCTFKC NCU VTQRCU RQORG[C
PCU RTKOGTQ XCEKNCTQP [ NWGIQ GORTGPFKGTQP WPC JWKFC GP
VQFC TGINC FGLCPFQ GP GN ECORQ C   OWGTVQU HTGPVG
C NQU  FG NQU EGUCTKCPQU=?=?

2GTQ NC UWRGTKQTKFCF PWOTKEC FGN GPGOKIQ NC GUECUC EC

DCNNGTC EGUCTKCPC NQU JGTKFQU [ ECDCNNQU RGTFKFQU JKEKG
TQP SWG NC HQTOCEKP FG %UCT GORG\CTC C EQNCRUCTUG 'P
UG OQOGPVQ %UCT QTFGP C UWU VTQRCU SWG CFQRVCTCP
WPC HQTOCEKP FGHGPUKXC FGPQOKPCFC PSCJT
NKVGTCNOGP
.C IGPKCNKFCF FG %UCT HWG RTGXGT SWG 2QORG[Q KDC C VG orbe DUKECOGPVG WPC HQTOCEKP GP ETEWNQ SWG VGPC
WUCT UW ECDCNNGTC RCTC CVCECT SWG NC UW[C RTQRKC PQ VGPC EQOQ OKUKP NC FG PQ QHTGEGT GN CPEQ CN GPGOKIQ
NC HWGT\C RCTC TGUKUVKTNC [ CTDKVTCT WP OVQFQ EQORNGVC 2GTQ UG GPEQPVT TQFGCFQ RQT VQFQU NCFQU RQT NCU VTQRCU





-B #BUBMMB EF 5BQTP

6OB USPQB EF JOGBOUFSB SPNBOB GPSNBOEP FO UFTUVEP

TKQU UG EWDTCP EQP NQU GUEWFQU=?

+JOFUF ONJEB

OWEJQ OU PWOGTQUCU [ OXKNGU FG .CDKGPQ GP WP NG

LCPQ GEQ FG NC FGUCUVTQUC $CVCNNC FG %CPPCU  [ CNIWPQU
FG UWU OU TGEKGPVGU TGENWVCU EQOGP\CTQP C HCNNCT CPVG
GNNQ %UCT VQO WPC FGEKUKP QTFGP GZVGPFGT NC NPGC FG
DCVCNNC GP QTFGP EGTTCFQ VCP NGLQU EQOQ HWGTC RQUKDNG 'U
VC OCPKQDTC HWG UKGORTG CNVCOGPVG FGUCEQPUGLCFC RQT NQU
VEVKEQU TQOCPQU RQTSWG NNGXCDC GZEGUKXQ VKGORQ NNGXCTNC
C ECDQ=? UKP GODCTIQ GUVC XG\ NCU HWGT\CU FG %UCT NQ
JKEKGTQP TRKFCOGPVG [ WPC XG\ SWG UG JCNNCTQP FGURNG
ICFCU GP WPC UQNC NPGC %UCT FKQ QVTC QTFGP SWG ECFC
EQJQTVG RCT FKGTC WP RCUQ CVTU [ UG GPHTGPVCTCP FG ECTC C
UW GPGOKIQ EQP NQ SWG EQPUKIWK VTCPUHQTOCT NC TJNQMFY
BDJFT GP WPC EVQMFY BDJFT=?=?

# OGFKFC SWG NCU VTQRCU RQORG[CPCU UG KDCP SWGFCPFQ

UKP LCDCNKPCU [ SWG UW GPGTIC EQODCVKXC FKUOKPWC HTGPVG
C NC EGTTCFC HQTOCEKP FG %UCT UVG UG FKQ EWGPVC FG SWG
NNGICDC GN OQOGPVQ FG TQORGTNC [ CVCECT UDKVCOGPVG
RQT NQ SWG EWTU TFGPGU FG SWG C WPC UGCN UW[C UG NGXCP
VCTC GN OWTQ FG GUEWFQU RCTC FGLCT RCUCT C WPCU EQJQTVGU
UGNGEVCU SWG CFQRVCPFQ NC HQTOCEKP FO DVB IQNRGCTQP
C NCU VTQRCU RQORG[CPCU=? &GN TGNCVQ FG NC (VFSSB EF
GSJDB PQ SWGFC ENCTQ UK UVG CVCSWG UG RTQFWLQ GP XCTKQU
RWPVQU FGVGTOKPCFQU Q HWG WP CVCSWG OCUKXQ UQDTG WP U
NQ RWPVQ RGTQ NQ EKGTVQ GU SWG VWXQ GN GHGEVQ FGUGCFQ [ NCU
VTQRCU RQORG[CPCU UG CDTKGTQP FGLCPFQ GZRGFKVQ GN RCUQ
C %UCT [ C UWU JQODTGU SWG UG TGVKTCTQP GP HQTOCEKP
JCEKC UW ECORCOGPVQ FQPFG UG HQTVKECTQP
.Q XGTFCFGTCOGPVG IGPKCN FG UVC DCVCNNC PQ GU NC FGTTQVC
GP U FG %UCT UKPQ EOQ OGFKCPVG WPC UGTKG FG FGEKUKQ
PGU VEVKECU [ XCTKCFCU HQTOCEKQPGU FG DCVCNNC NQIT SWG
NQ SWG RQFTC JCDGT UKFQ WPC OCUCETG UG EQPXKTVKGTC GP
WPC TGVKTCFC QTICPK\CFC GP NC SWG EQPUGTX GN OC[QT P
OGTQ RQUKDNG FG GHGEVKXQU=?

'P GUG OQOGPVQ NC ECDCNNGTC EGUCTKCPC CRCTGEK RCTC

TQORGT FGPKVKXCOGPVG GN ETEWNQ HQT\CPFQ C NQU RQO
4.5
RG[CPQU C HQTOCT FQU NPGCU FG DCVCNNC UGRCTCFCU RQT NCU
VTQRCU EGUCTKCPCU 'PVQPEGU NQU UQTRTGPFKFQU RQORG[C
PQU UG XKGTQP UQOGVKFQU C WPC NNWXKC FG QJMB RQT RCTVG CO
DQU NCFQU FG NC HQTOCEKP EQPVTCTKC NQ SWG RTQXQE SWG
XCEKNCTCP [ UG GEJCTCP CVTU WPC FKUVCPEKC PQ NQ UWEKGP
VGOGPVG ITCPFG EQOQ RCTC FKUITGICTUG RGTQ U RCTC SWG
%UCT QTFGPCTC NC XWGNVC CN ECORCOGPVQ GP QTFGP FG DC
VCNNC

La Batalla de Tapso

/KGPVTCU XQNXCP C UWU TGCNGU NQU RQORG[CPQU UG XKG

TQP TGHQT\CFQU RQT NC KPGURGTCFC NNGICFC FG WPC HWGT\C
FG  LKPGVGU [ WP ITCP POGTQ FG KPHCPVGU CN OCPFQ
FG /CTEQ 2GVTG[Q [ )PGQ 2KUP SWG JK\Q SWG CVCECTCP
FG PWGXQ EQP TGPQXCFCU HWGT\CU TQFGCPFQ QVTC XG\ C NQU
EGUCTKCPQU RGTQ CJQTC FGUFG OU NGLQU C PGU FG SWG %
UCT PQ XQNXKGTC C TGRGVKT NC OCPKQDTC [ NCP\CPFQ UQDTG &MFGBOUFT EF HVFSSB DBSHBOEP
UWU VTQRCU WPC NNWXKC FG CTOCU CTTQLCFK\CU .CU VTQRCU FG
%UCT UG RCTCTQP [ CPVG NC CXCNCPEJC SWK\ HQTOCTQP WP 6TCU NC $CVCNNC FG (CTUCNKC NCU VTQRCU RQORG[CPCU UG JC
lUFTUVEP|
VQTVWIC WPC HQTOCEKP GP NC SWG NQU NGIKQPC DCP TGHWIKCFQ GP NC RTQXKPEKC FG HTKEC FQPFG CN OCP


FQ FG FGUVCECFQU OKGODTQU FG NC HCEEKP EQPUGTXCFQTC
EQOQ %CVP GN ,QXGP [ 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 'UEKRKP
JCDCP NQITCFQ TGQTICPK\CTUG [ GUVCDCP FKURWGUVQU C EQP
VKPWCT NC NWEJC .QU EQPUGTXCFQTGU TGWPKGTQP UWU HWGT\CU
C WPC XGNQEKFCF KORTGUKQPCPVG 5W GLTEKVQ KPENWC  
JQODTGU
WPCU  NGIKQPGU WPC RQFGTQUC ECDCNNGTC FK
TKIKFC RQT GN SWG HWG CPVGTKQTOGPVG NC OCPQ FGTGEJC FG
%UCT GP NC )CNKC 6KVQ .CDKGPQ [ HWGT\CU CNKCFCU FG TG
[GU NQECNGU GPVTG GNNQU GN POKFC ,WDC + [  GNGHCPVGU FG
IWGTTC %UCT VGPC EQPUKIQ CN OGPQU  NGIKQPGU CWPSWG
PQ RQFGOQU UCDGT EOQ GUVCDCP FG EQORNGVCU [ WPC GU
VKOCDNG HWGT\C FG ECDCNNGTC

 $4"3 $0.0 )*4503*"%03 : &4$3*503

[ QTFGP GN CVCSWG .QU CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU FGN CNC FG
TGEJC FKURCTCTQP UWU RTQ[GEVKNGU EQPVTC NQU GNGHCPVGU FGN
CNC K\SWKGTFC FG NQU RQORG[CPQU SWG CN TGEKDKT NC NNWXKC
FG GEJCU [ RKGFTCU UG CUWUVCTQP [ FKGTQP OGFKC XWGNVC
ECTICPFQ EQPVTC UWU RTQRKCU NCU 'P UG OQOGPVQ NC EC
DCNNGTC NKIGTC POKFC CRQUVCFC RQT 'UEKRKP GP GUC CNC
ECTI JCEKC GN HTGPVG CN XGTUG FGURTQVGIKFC GN OWTQ FG GNG
HCPVGU RGTQ HWGTQP FGUDCPFCFQU RQT NC ECTIC FG NCU NGIKQ
PGU [ NC -FHJP 9 VQO RQUGUKP FGN ECORCOGPVQ RQORG
[CPQ KORKFKGPFQ CU NC JWKFC FG NQU GPGOKIQU=?=?

5KP WP NWICT CN SWG XQNXGT EQP NCU VTQRCU GP FGUDCPFCFC

TGPFKFCU Q OWGTVCU NQU NFGTGU RQORG[CPQU CDCPFQPCTQP
6TCU GN KPEKFGPVG FG 4WURKPC UKIWKGTQP WPC UGTKG FG GP GN ECORQ FG DCVCNNC C %UCT EQP NQ SWG FKGTQP RQT RGTFKFC
EWGPVTQU PQ FGEKUKXQU GPVTG NCU VTQRCU FG CODCU HCEEKQPGU NC IWGTTC=?
RGSWGCU DCVCNNCU RCTC OGFKT UWU HWGT\CU [ FWTCPVG GUG .C IGPKCNKFCF FG %UCT GP NC DCVCNNC HWG GN OQXKOKGPVQ
VKGORQ FQU NGIKQPGU FG NQU EQPUGTXCFQTGU FGUGTVCTQP RCTC VEVKEQ FG EQNQECT KPHCPVGTC NGIKQPCTKC RTQVGIKGPFQ C NQU
WPKTUG C %UCT /KGPVTCU VCPVQ %UCT GURGTCDC TGHWGT\QU CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU FG NQU GNGHCPVGU [ CUWOKT EQP RTQP
FG 5KEKNKC=?
VKVWF GN FGUCTTQNNQ FG NC OKUOC WUCPFQ C UW HCXQT NC RTG
# EQOKGP\QU FG HGDTGTQ %UCT NNGI C 6CRUQ [ RWUQ EGT EKRKVCEKP EQP NC SWG JCDC EQOGP\CFQ
EQ C NC EKWFCF DNQSWGCPFQ NC GPVTCFC UWT EQP VTGU NCU FG
HQTVKECEKQPGU .QU EQPUGTXCFQTGU DCLQ GN OCPFQ FG /G
VGNQ 'UEKRKP PQ RQFCP RGTOKVKTUG RGTFGT GUC RQUKEKP 5 Csar como historiador y escritor
RQT NQ SWG UG XKGTQP QDNKICFQU C GPVCDNCT DCVCNNC=?

%JTQPTJDJO EF MPT FKSDJUPT FO MB #BUBMMB EF 5BQTP TFHO VO HSB

CBEP BOUJHVP

'UEKRKP FGURNGI UWU VTQRCU HQTOCPFQ NCU NGIKQPGU GP

GN EGPVTQ GP DVBESVQMFY BDJFT RWUQ NC ECDCNNGTC GP NCU
CNCU FGNCPVG FG NCU EWCNGU UKVW NC OKVCF FG UWU GNGHCP
VGU FG IWGTTC
VTGKPVC GP GN CNC FGTGEJC [ VTGKPVC GP GN CNC
K\SWKGTFC RQT FGVTU FG NCU NCU NGIKQPCTKCU RWUQ GP GN
CNC K\SWKGTFC WPC HQTOCEKP FG VTQRCU NKIGTCU [ QVTC OKZVC
FG ECDCNNGTC G KPHCPVGTC NKIGTC [ GP GN CNC FGTGEJC WPC
OKZVC FG ECDCNNGTC G KPHCPVGTC NKIGTC=?=?
%UCT HQTO EQP NCU NGIKQPGU GP GN EGPVTQ GP USJQMFY
BDJFT
NCU : [ 8++ C NC FGTGEJC [ NCU 8+++ [ +: C NC K\
SWKGTFC UKVW NC ECDCNNGTC GP NC CNCU [ HTGPVG C NQU GNG
HCPVGU FGURNGI C UWU CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU 2GTQ FKXKFK
NC .GIKQ 8 #NCWFCG GP FQU ITWRQU FG EKPEQ EQJQTVGU ECFC
WPQ [ NQU UKVW FGVTU FG NCU HQTOCEKQPGU FG CTSWGTQU [
JQPFGTQU=?=?

%F #FMMP (BMMJDP

.C QDTC GUETKVC SWG NNGIC JCUVC PWGUVTQU FCU EQNQEC C %

UCT GPVTG NQU ITCPFGU OCGUVTQU FG NC NGPIWC NCVKPC 5WU VTC
DCLQU EQPQEKFQU KPENW[GP
%F #FMMP (BMMJDP %QOGPVCTKQU UQDTG NCU ECORCCU
FG NC )CNKC
%F #FMMP $JWJMJ %QOGPVCTKQU UQDTG NC IWGTTC EKXKN

0Q UG RWGFG CUGIWTCT SWG NC CWVQTC FGN NNCOCFQ $PSQVT

$FTBSJBOP Q 5SJB #FMMB GUVQ GU NC (VFSSB EF "MFKBOESB
NC (VFSSB EF GSJDB [ NC (VFSSB EF )JTQBOJB UGC FG %UCT
[ GPVTG UWU VTCFWEVQTGU GZKUVG WP EQPUGPUQ IGPGTCNK\CFQ
CEGTEC FG SWG PQ HWGTQP GUETKVCU RQT N CWPSWG U GUVP
=?
#WPSWG NC DCVCNNC EQOGP\ CPVGU FG NQ SWG %UCT JWDKGTC RQUKDNGOGPVG DCUCFCU GP UWU PQVCU
FGUGCFQ=? FGDKFQ C NC KORCEKGPEKC FG UWU UQNFCFQU FGN 6CPVQ NC (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT EQOQ NC (VFSSB $JWJM UQP
CNC FGTGEJC VQO TRKFCOGPVG GN OCPFQ FG NC UKVWCEKP KPFKUEWVKDNGOGPVG QDTC FG %UCT [ GUVP GUETKVCU GP WP


NCVP FG ITCP RGTHGEEKP UKPVEVKEC #ODCU UQP RTWGDC UQDTG OWEJQU CURGEVQU FG NQU RWGDNQU WUQU [ EQUVWODTGU
FG NC GTWFKEKP FG UW CWVQT [ HWGTQP WUCFCU UQDTG VQFQ FG NC RQEC=?
EQOQ RTQRCICPFC CPVG GN 5GPCFQ [ GN RWGDNQ FG 4QOC
'P GNNCU JCEG KORQTVCPVUKOCU TGHGTGPEKCU C ONVKRNGU CU
RGEVQU FG NC XKFC EQVKFKCPC GP GN GLTEKVQ TQOCPQ FG NC 6 Csar en la literatura y el cine
VCTFQTTGRDNKEC FG UW QTICPK\CEKP VEVKECU VEPKECU [
CTOCOGPVQ=?=?
#UKOKUOQ JK\Q FGUETKREKQPGU GVPQITECU FG RWGDNQU
EGNVCU [ IGTOCPQU KPENW[GPFQ VGOCU EQOQ NC QTICPK\C
EKP UQEKCN [ OKNKVCT NC TGNKIKP Q NC NGPIWC SWG CP JQ[
GP FC UQP FG QDNKICFQ GUVWFKQ RCTC NQU GZRGTVQU GP NCU
FKHGTGPVGU OCVGTKCU=?
+IWCNOGPVG FGUETKDK NWICTGU IGQITEQU EQOQ NC 5GNXC
*GTEKPKC=? [ FGUETKDG GP UWU GUETKVQU KORQTVCPVGU CU
RGEVQU SWG RGTOKVGP EQORTGPFGT OGLQT NC RQNVKEC FG NC
4GRDNKEC TQOCPC FG NQU NVKOQU CQU FGN UKINQ + C % [
C IWTCU EQOQ 2QORG[Q %KEGTP %CVP [ QVTQU=?
#FGOU UG UCDG SWG UGPVC EWTKQUKFCF RQT OWEJQU VGOCU
FGUFG NC NQUQHC ITKGIC JCUVC NC CUVTQPQOC RCUCPFQ RQT
VGOCU UCITCFQU Q NKPIUVKEQU 2QT TGHGTGPEKCU GP QVTQU CW
VQTGU ENUKEQU UG UCDG SWG %UCT EQORWUQ WP VTCVCFQ FG
+BNFT .BTPO DPNP #SVUP FO MB QFMDVMB ,WNKQ %UCT EF 
CUVTQPQOC QVTQ FG NKPIUVKEC [ QVTQ OU UQDTG CWIWTKQU
RGTQ UG JCP RGTFKFQ [ PQ UG EQPQEG PK UKSWKGTC WP RTTCHQ
FG GNNQU
6CODKP UG UCDG RQT 5WGVQPKQ SWG EQORWUQ WP VTCVCFQ
GP FGHGPUC UW[C NNCOCFQ GN "OUJDBUO FQU NKDTQU UQDTG NC
"OBMPHB [ CN OGPQU WP RQGOC NNCOCFQ &M $BNJOP GP
UW LWXGPVWF GUETKDK NCU "MBCBO[BT EF )SDVMFT WPC VTC
IGFKC EQP GN VVWNQ FG &EJQP [ WPC %QNGEEKP FG HTCUGU
UGNGEVCU=? 2CTGEG UGT SWG UG EQPUGTXCDCP UWU QEKQU CN
5GPCFQ UWU ECTVCU C %KEGTP [ UW EQTTGURQPFGPEKC RTK
XCFC 5KP GODCTIQ #WIWUVQ RTQJKDK C UW DKDNKQVGECTKQ
SWG VQFQU GUVQU FQEWOGPVQU HWGTCP EQRKCFQU Q RWDNKEC
FQU RQT NQ SWG CECDCTQP RGTFKPFQUG=? 5G UCDG SWG
GTC WP OCIPEQ QTCFQT RWGU VCPVQ 2NWVCTEQ EQOQ 5WG
3FY )BSSJTPO JOUFSQSFUBOEP B +VMJP $TBS FO %NGQRCVTC
VQPKQ NQ OGPEKQPCP [ RCTGEG UGT SWG VCODKP %KEGTP [
%QTPGNKQ 0GRQVG CXCNCDCP UVC QRKPKP=? 6CODKP UG
,WNKQ %UCT JC UKFQ EQP HTGEWGPEKC TGRTGUGPVCFQ GP QDTCU
EQPQEG SWG GORNGCDC WP NCVP FG ITCP RGTHGEEKP=?
NKVGTCTKCU [ EKPGOCVQITECU 'P NC NKVGTCVWTC FGUVCECP
.C QDTC EQPQEKFC FG %UCT PQ RWGFG VQOCTUG EQOQ NC FG
WP JKUVQTKCFQT OQFGTPQ RWGU UW KPVGPEKP PQ GTC GUC .CU
.C VTCIGFKC +VMJP $TBS FG 9KNNKCO 5JCMGURGCTG
QDTCU SWG UG EQPUGTXCP [ EW[C CWVQTC PQ GU FKUEWVKFC GUVQ
RTQDCDNGOGPVG NC OU HCOQUC CRCTKEKP FG %UCT GP
GU NQU %QOGPVCTKQU UQDTG NCU )WGTTCU )CNCU [ %KXKN GTCP
NC NKVGTCVWTC
WP KPUVTWOGPVQ FG RTQRCICPFC [ WP KPHQTOG FG RTQITGUQU
RCTC GN 5GPCFQ PQ WPC QDTC EQOQ NCU FG 6EKVQ Q 2QNKDKQ
5W CRCTKEKP GP $MFPQBUSB FG 'OKN .WFYKI SWG FGU
RQT NQ SWG VQFCU UWU CTOCEKQPGU GP GURGEKCN NCU RQNVK
ETKDG C ,WNKQ %UCT EQOQ IWGTTGTQ [ COCPVG
=?
ECU FGDGP UGT CPCNK\CFCU FGUFG WP PKOQ ETVKEQ
'N
JGEJQ FG SWG NC OC[QT RCTVG FG NC QDTC NKVGTCTKC FG %UCT
.C QDTC FG VGCVTQ $TBS Z $MFPQBUSB FGN CWVQT DTKV
UG JC[C RGTFKFQ GU WP KPEQPXGPKGPVG SWG PQ RQT JCDKVWCN
PKEQ )GQTIG $GTPCTF 5JCY
GP NC OC[QTC FG NQU CWVQTGU ENUKEQU FGLC FG UGT NCOGP
VCDNG [ SWG JC KORGFKFQ WPC ETVKEC TC\QPCFC FG %UCT
EQOQ CWVQT [C SWG NQU JKUVQTKCFQTGU UNQ RWGFGP DCUCTUG
.C PQXGNC JKUVTKEC -PT JEVT EF NBS[P FG 6JQTPVQP
GP WPQU NKDTQU SWG RGUG C UGT FG NQU OU KORQTVCPVGU GP
9KNFGT GUETKVC GP HQTOC GRKUVQNCT SWG HWG CNCDCFC
NC *KUVQTKC 1EEKFGPVCN PQ FGLCDCP FG UGT OU WP KPUVTW
RQT GN RTQRKQ $QTIGU=?
=?
OGPVQ FG RTQRCICPFC SWG WP CNCTFG FG GTWFKEKP
#WP CU EQP VQFCU UWU NKOKVCEKQPGU GP OWEJCU QECUKQPGU
UWU GUETKVQU UQP GN PKEQ VGUVKOQPKQ CPVKIWQ SWG UG RQUGG

#UKOKUOQ ,QTIG .WKU $QTIGU GP -PT DPOKVSBEPT

 NG FGFKE WP RQGOC SWG TGTKPFQUG C UW CUG



$30/0-0("

UKPCVQ EQOKGP\C EQP "RV MP RVF EFKBSPO MPT QVB

MFT 'N VGZVQ EQPENW[G XCVKEKPCPFQ UW JWGNNC JKUV
TKEC EQP NC HTCUG DVZB HSBO TPNCSB TFS FM PSCF FO
UFSP=?
.C PQXGNC $TBS FG #NNCP /CUUKG SWG GN OKUOQ
#FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[ TGEQOKGPFC RQT UW FGNKFCF C
NQU JGEJQU JKUVTKEQU=?
'P GN EWCTVQ ECPVQ FG -B %JWJOB $PNFEJB FG &CPVG
%UCT CRCTGEG GP GN .KODQ LWPVQ C *EVQT [ 'PGCU
GP UW EQPFKEKP FG JTQG FG NC CPVKIGFCF RCICPC
SWG PQ TGEKDK GN DCWVKUOQ RGTQ UG FKUVKPIWK RQT UW
ENGOGPEKC=?
%UCT GU WPQ FG NQU RGTUQPCLGU SWG CRCTGEGP GP NC
UGTKG FG PQXGNCU JKUVTKECU FG %QNNGGP /E%WNNQWIJ
'P EWCPVQ CN EKPG GN RGTUQPCLG JC CRCTGEKFQ GP PWOGTQUQU
NOGU FGUFG NC RCPVCNNC ITCPFG C NC VGNGXKUKP DKGP EQOQ
RTQVCIQPKUVC DKGP EQOQ RGTUQPCLG UGEWPFCTKQ
7PQ FG NQU OU TGRWVCFQU VCPVQ RQT NC ECNKFCF FG NC EKPVC
EQOQ RQT NC FG UWU CEVQTGU GU NC RGNEWNC FGN CQ 
,WNKQ %UCT FKTKIKFC RQT ,QUGRJ . /CPMKGYKE\ [ EW &TUBUVB EF CSPODF EF $TBS FO 3NJOJ
[QU RCRGNGU RTKPEKRCNGU NQU FGUGORGCDCP /CTNQP $TCP
FQ
EQOQ /CTEQ #PVQPKQ .QWKU %CNJGTP
EQOQ %UCT
 C % %WGUVQT GP *KURCPKC 7NVGTKQT
&GDQTCJ -GTT
EQOQ 2QTEKC [ ,COGU /CUQP
EQOQ $TW
 C % 'FKN
VQ %QP OUKEC FG /KMNU 4\UC GN IWKQP GU WPC CFCRVC
EKP FG NC QDTC FG VGCVTQ FG 5JCMGURGCTG (WG PQOKPCFC
 C % 'NGEVQ QPOUJGFY NBYJNVT [ RTGVQT WTDCPQ
C EKPEQ 2TGOKQU UECT FG NQU SWG ICP WPQ=?
EQPURKTCEKP FG %CVKNKPC
1VTQ FG NQU NOGU OU RTGOKCFQU [ EQPQEKFQU GP GN SWG
 C % %PUWN RQT RTKOGTC XG\ KPKEKQ FGN RTKOGT
%UCT GU RTQVCIQPKUVC GU NC EKPVC $MFPQBUSB &KTKIKFC RQT
VTKWPXKTCVQ
,QUGRJ . /CPMKGYKE\ EQP HQVQITCHC FG .GQP 5JCO
TQ[ [ OUKEC FG #NGZ 0QTVJ NQU RCRGNGU RTKPEKRCNGU HWG
 C % 2TQEPUWN EQOKGP\C NC ECORCC GP NCU
TQP KPVGTRTGVCFQU RQT 'NK\CDGVJ 6C[NQT EQOQ %NGQRCVTC
)CNKCU
4KEJCTF $WTVQP EQOQ /CTEQ #PVQPKQ [ 4GZ *CTTKUQP EQ
 C % /WGTVG FG ,WNKC
OQ %UCT (WG PQOKPCFC C QEJQ RTGOKQU UECT FG NQU SWG
ICP EWCVTQ=?
 C % /WGTVG FG %TCUQ P FGN VTKWPXKTCVQ
'P GN OWPFQ FGN EOKE UKP FWFC WPC FG NCU OU ENG
 C % $CVCNNC FG #NGUKC
DTGU TGRTGUGPVCEKQPGU FG %UCT GU GN RGTUQPCLG UCNKFQ FG
NC RNWOC [ GN RKPEGN FG )QUEKPP[ [ 7FGT\Q CPVCIQPKUVC
 C % #VTCXKGUC GN 4WDKEP EQOKGP\C NC IWGTTC

UQDGTDKQ QTIWNNQUQ RGTQ CN PCN UKGORTG LWUVQ FG UW

EKXKN &KEVCFQT RQT RTKOGTC XG\
ENGDTG RGTUQPCLG #UVTKZ
 C % &GTTQVC C 2QORG[Q GP )TGEKC UG EQPXKGTVG
GP FKEVCFQT TQOCPQ RQT UGIWPFC XG\

6.1

Filmografa

Cronologa
 FG LWNKQ  C % 0CEG GP 4QOC
 C % 'UECRC FG NCU RGTUGEWEKQPGU FG 5KNC
 C % 5GTXKEKQ OKNKVCT GP #UKC [ %KNKEKC
#QU  C % %CTTGTC EQOQ CDQICFQ

 C % %CORCC GP 'IKRVQ EQPQEG C %NGQRCVTC

 C %
 FG GPGTQ %UCT GU PQODTCFQ FKEVCFQT RQT
VGTEGTC XG\
 FG CDTKN &GTTQVC FG NQU RQORG[CPQU GP
HTKEC GP NC DCVCNNC FG 6CRUQ /WGTGP %CVP
[ /GVGNQ 'UEKRKP
 C %


 FG GPGTQ %UCT GU PQODTCFQ FKEVCFQT RQT
EWCTVC XG\
 FG OCT\Q 'P NC /WPFC %UCT FGTTQVC C
NQU RQORG[CPQU FG *KURCPKC EQOCPFCFQU RQT
6KVQ #VKQ .CDKGPQ SWKP OWTK GP DCVCNNC [
NQU JKLQU FG 2QORG[Q %PGQ [ 5GZVQ
4GITGUC C 4QOC FKEVCFQT RQT EWCTVC XG\
 C %
 FG GPGTQ %UCT GU PQODTCFQ FKEVCFQT XKVC
NKEKQ RQFGT UKOKNCT CN FG WP GORGTCFQT
(GDTGTQ TGJUC NC FKCFGOC QHTGEKFC RQT /CT
EQ #PVQPKQ
 FG OCT\Q CUGUKPCFQ

Vase tambin
*KUVQTKC FG NC 4GRDNKEC 4QOCPC VCTFC
%QPUVKVWEKP 4GRWDNKECPC
5GIWPFQ 6TKWPXKTCVQ
+PXCUKQPGU FG %UCT C $TKVCPKC

=? 8CUG PQVC 

=? 5GIP 5WGVQPKQ
7JEB EF $TBS $TBS 
2QT RCTVG OCVGTPC NC GUVKTRG FG OK VC VKG
PG QTKIGP FG TG[GU RQT RCTVG FG RCFTG GUV
GORCTGPVCFC EQP NQU FKQUGU KPOQTVCNGU 2WGU
NQU /CTEKQ TG[GU RTQEGFGP FG #PEQ /CTEKQ [
FG VCN NKPCLG JC UKFQ UW OCFTG [ FGN FG 8GPWU
NQU ,WNKQU C EW[C GUVKTRG RGTVGPGEG PWGUVTC HC
OKNKC 'ZKUVG RQT VCPVQ GP NC TC\C NC UCETCNKFCF
FG NQU TG[GU SWG FGUVCECP GPQTOGOGPVG GP
VTG NQU JQODTGU [ VCODKP GN GPEWODTCOKGP
VQ FG NQU FKQUGU DCLQ EW[C RQVGUVCF GUVP NQU
OKUOQU TG[GU
=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP $TBS RI 
=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP $TBS RI 
=? 6EKVQ %QTPGNKQ %F PSBUPSJCVT 
=? )GTCNF 9CNVGT $TBS %CRVWNQ ++ RI  +ORTGUQ 'FK
EKQPGU %KGPEKCU 5QEKCNGU +5$0 :
=? 5WGVQPKQ 7JEB EF MPT EPDF $TBSFT $TBS 
=? 2NWVCTEQ 7JEBT QBSBMFMBT $TBS Z "MFKBOESP 
=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP $TBS RI 
=? /QPVCPGNNK +PFTQ )JTUPSJB EF 3PNB RI 

2TKOGTC )WGTTC %KXKN FG NC 4GRDNKEC FG 4QOC

=? /QPVCPGNNK +PFTQ )JTUPSJB EF 3PNB RI 

*KUVQTKC FG NC GUVTWEVWTC FGN GLTEKVQ TQOCPQ

=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP $TBS RI

6EVKECU TQOCPCU FG KPHCPVGTC

=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP $TBS RI

=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP $TBS RIU 

Notas

=? 'RKITECOGPVG +/2x)#+85x+8.+85x%#'5#4 GU FG

EKT GN &NQFSBEPS $BZP +VMJP $TBS UGIP GN UKUVGOC
FG NKCEKP
QSBFOPNFO OPNFO [ QBUSPOJNJDVT FG NC
PQOGPENCVWTC TQOCPC 6TCU UW OWGTVG GP  C % HWG FGK
ECFQ RQT GN 5GPCFQ EQPXKTVKPFQUG GP %JWVT $BFTBS GN
%JWJOP $TBS
=? .C HGEJC FGN PCEKOKGPVQ FG %UCT PQ CRCTGEG EQP ENCTK
FCF GP PKPIP VGZVQ CPVKIWQ 9KNJGNO &TWOCPP CN SWG
UKIWGP 2KICPKQN -NQV\ [ %CT[ NC UKVWCDC GP GN CQ 
C % ,TOG %CTEQRKPQ UGCNCDC CN CQ  [ 6JGQFQT
/QOOUGP GN  EQP GN DGPGRNEKVQ FG (QYNGT (GTTGTQ
[ *QNOGU
=? ,WG\ SWG FKTKOC NCU FKURWVCU GPVTG EKWFCFCPQU TQOCPQU
=? (CEEKP EQPUGTXCFQTC FGN 5GPCFQ

10

Referencias

=? 2NWVCTEQ $TBS  5WGVQPKQ $TBS 

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11 Bibliografa
11.1 Obra propia

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11.2

Libros generales sobre la poca de

Csar

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13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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13.2

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13.3

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