IGNOU MHI 3 Solved Assignment 2022 2023

m d
d e a c y. e m m c o p s h
c h t
w s:
w /
.i w ou gn ad ua
g c y . e m y. c t p h / w p s w. w w o i g
: i u
ua
ou a
m d o y t m :/ tp w a e c m o s t g n ca
w /w no .i ca ou m a d o y h t t m : // t p w w // w n w . a c o u
m
d e a c y. e m m . c o t p s h / w s : . i w u g d a y e . c p h w : s . w o i g a de
m a d c o y h t t m : // t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o u e m c a . c o m y h t o m s : / t t w // i g n w u a n o d e a c a
m .c y de m .
c a y. c e m o
ht m :/ t
ps h
t
w s:
w /
.i w ou ign ad a
g c . m c t p h / w p s w. w w o . i g c a u a m d
: i u d e c y. e m
d e o m y.
c t p h / w
p s w / w n o w . i a c a o u e m a d c o y h t o m s : / t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o
. w g a m . t / o i a u m ad co y
u y e c p s
Answer -
co m
y ht om s:/ tt w : // i g n w a c
no de c
a
.c m h o s :
ht w :/ .ig w
t w / w ua gn d e a c y. e m m . c
m . c t p h / w p s w. w w o . i g
u a u a m y d o m y.
e c
tt m
p
// p
w s w w no .i
g
ca ou m ad co y
m o s t :/ ig n d c . h .i w u
and important.
Question No-1.
d e a c y. e m m . c o
y . h t t m : // t p w w / w n o w . i a c a o u e m a d c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w w: // w g n w . a c n o
a y o i a u m ad co y m
co ps h
t
w s:
/
.i w
g w u a
gn d . e m .c tp h /w s . i w u g d a y e m . c h
ht m :/ t w / e c c m ht om s:/ tt w : // gn w ac no
t p h / w p s w. w w n o . i g c a o u a m a d o m y. t / p w w o . u
em ca .co m
y
om
om s: tt :/ ig u n d c y. e c p h w s: .i w u ig ad a y de m .c ht
// p w w / w n o w . i a c a o u e m a d c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o em ca .co m om
w : s .i w u g d a y e m . c t p h / w s . w o ig u d m y .
tp
ps h
t / g n c . : i u ad a y e c s
: / t p w w / w n w. a c o
o u
em a co m
d y ht om s:/ tt
p
w // gn w ac no e m
ca .c m om ht
t
/w s . w ig a m . c t p h / w s w. w w o . i g u d o y ps
tt
p
w : // i g n w u a n o d e a c a y . c e m h o s t w :/ i g w u a n a d e a c y. c e m m . c o ht :/
w w o .i ca u m d o y
m t t
m :/ tp
/ w /w n . c ou m a o y m t p
w s: . w g . o i y d s
/w
w // i g n w u a n o d e a c a y . c e m co ps h w s: .i w u gn ad a e m .c ht :/ w
w w o .i ca u m d o y h t t m : // t t p w w // w g n w . a c o u e m c a . c o m y om t /
. g m .c w s: ps w
h o ps h
t w /
.i w ou ign ad a
g c y. d e m . c h : w
IGNOU MHI 3 Solved Assignment 2022 2023
// i g n w w u a n o d e a c a y . c e m
w o .i ca u m d o y t m :/ tp w / w n w. a c o em a co m om tt // w
. w ou ig y d e m y. ps w .i
ig ww ua gn d e a c y. e m m . c o t p s h / w s :
c h t w / i g n
ad ua
c . c h : w g
no .i ca ou m ad o y t m :/ tp w / w n w. a c o em a co m
y
om tt // w
g a y m .c tp h /w s o i ad ua ps w .i
w uac no de ca .c em h w :/ .ig ww ua gn c y. d e m . c
m h t : / w gn
.i u m d o y t
om s: tt
/ p w / w n . c o em a co om t / w
. w ou ig y d e m y. ps w .i ou
u a g n a d a c y. e m m . c o t p s h / w s : i ad ua c h :/ w g
c a o u e m a d c o y h t m : / t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o
m t / u
em ca .co m
y
om tt
p w no
d a y e . c p h w s . w o i g a d m .
/w . i
no h w :/ ig w ua n d e a c y. e m
c
co ht s:
/ w gn ua
u
em ca .co m
d y t
om s: tt
/ p /
w w no .i o m ad o y m tp /w w ca
. w u g
ca u
y e m . . i
ou
d
d e a c y. e m m . c o t p s h / w s : i d a co s: w gn
responsible for the result of the any action taken on the basis of this work or any omissions or errors.
ht / ac
m a d c o y h t t m : // t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o u e m c a . c o m y
m .c m tp /w w ou ad
y de m .
c s .i
c a y. c e m h o ps h
t
w s:
w /
.i w ou ign ad a
g w a c . m o h : w g a em
d om y t t m : // t p w /w n . m tt
p
// w no ca
y. e . w s: . o i g
ca ou em ad co y
m .c w . ig y.
h
co ps h
tt w o ht s:
/ w n
ua de
co m m : // i g n w w u a n o d e a c a y . c e m w c m
refutation, further development, further qualification of existing views.

m
What is generalisation? Discuss the role of generalisation in history-writing
m y . c t t p h // w p s w . w w o . i g c a u a m y d o m y . tp /w .i ou ad
m h o s w : i u d e c h s : w g a
y.
m : tt // gn w a no e ca .c m o m t / w n c em co
m y . c t t p h // w p s w . w w o . i g c a u a m y d o m y . tp /w . ig
ou a y. m
w a de
c
been described by contemporaries or later writers; they suggest new possible

s:
what is remaining on the map must outweigh the insignificance of items that were
co ht
m
This includes small-scale maps, which cannot convey every detail of the real world.
ht om s:/ tt w : // i g n w u a n o d e c a . c e m // w
posit the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common
m tp w .
no ca om
Cartographers must decide and then adjust the content within their maps to create a
u y
Generalization (or generalisation) of a concept is an extension of the concept to less-
t p h / w p s w. w w o . i g c a u a m d o m y.
y s i d
deductive inferences. The process of verification is necessary to determine whether a
understanding of old facts; they bring out fresh points and views for confirmation,
u n . e .c
highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers Solutions. Institution and publisher are neither
:/ ig d c co gn
Generalization has a long history in cartography as an art of creating maps for different
om s: tt ht :/ ac
Disclaimer: As these solutions and are prepared by the private the Chances Of error or mistake cannot he denied. Any Omission or Error is
w em ht
m o a
generalization holds true for any given situation.The concept of generalization has broad
the world in the most faithful and recognizable way. The level of detail and importance in
// p w w / w n o w . i a c a o u e m a d c o m y tp /w .
om
y
this way, every map has, to some extent, been generalized to match the criteria of display.
tp
characteristics shared by those elements. As such, they are the essential basis of all valid
maps are those that emphasize the most important map elements while still representing
suitable and useful map that conveysgeospatial information within their representation of
.i w ig
Generalisations guide us, they enable us to doubt facts as they appear or as they have
ps h w s: h w ua de .c
t / g
specific criteria. It is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning. Generalizations
w ua gn s: h
w
information of a map in a way that adapts to the scale of the display medium of the map. In
d e a c y. e m m . c o n
generalized, as to preserve the distinguishing characteristics of what makes the map useful
scale and purpose. Cartographic generalization is the process of selecting and representing
w m
the world.Generalization is meant to be context-specific. That is to say, correctly generalized

application in many related disciplines, sometimes having a specialized context or meaning.
:/ tp w /w n . c o m ad co y m tt // ca om tt
y e m . ps w . i
ou
d y
ht /w s:/ .ig w ou ign ad ua c h w g a . ps
t p w w / w n w. a c o em ca .co m om tt :/ w n c em co ht :/
/w s . w ou ig a ua y d e m y. ps /w . i
ou ad y m tp /w
:/ ig n d c h w g a e c h s
m
d e a c y. e m m c o p s h w s : t t . i w //o u g n w wa d u a n o y d e c am y . c e mt p h c o / w p s h tw . w w : / o u i g w w u a g n
ou c
m a d o y h t t m : // t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c o u . i ge m c a u.ac o m y d eh t o m y .s : / t t m w : // t pisg n w / w a c n o . i ca o
a y e m . p s : o i a n d m t c / p h w w . w u g d
de c . m co s h w : t t . i w // u g w d a o y e c . c m p h o w s t . w : / o i g wa a n
m a d c o y h t t m : // t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o u . i ge m c a u.ac o m y a d eh t o m y .s : / t t m w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u e
m .c s : o i a d t c / p hw w . w gm a
c a y. c e m h tt
o m p s : h t t w w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am h . c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w : //o u i g n wa d u a c n o y . d e c a
// p h w w s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d a o y d e t m . c: / t p h w / w s n w . w wa c o . i ge m a u c o m
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
co m h o m s : t t w w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am h . c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w : //o u i g n wa d u a c n o y . d e c am . c
m
m y . c t t p h // w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o . i g wcwa o u a i g nm y a d a co m y . d e mt t m . c:o// t p s h w / w s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o y d e
u e c p w g n m
his date.
m o s t :/ t ig / n d c o . a h t t . i w // u wd a y e c .c m
y . h t t m : // t p hw w / w p s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o m y d eh t o m y .sc: / t t p m hw w: // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u. c o m a d o m y
c
known facts
p h w s : t t . i w // u g n w d a n o y e c am . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o u i g wa u a n y d e a c m y . e m
ht om s:/ tt w // p g w w a . e c u. c m h o y s t m w : / t pi g / n d c o . a c h
generalisations.
t p h / w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o . i g wc a o u a i g nm a d a co m y . d e mt t m . c: // t p h w / w s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o m y d e o m y . c
interconnections.
om s: tt :/ t ig / u n w d c oy. e a c p h o w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c m o
// p hw w / w p s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o m y d eh t o m y .sc: / t t p m hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u. c o m a d o m y . h t t m
c p
in some type of order

ps h w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o i g a u n d a c m y. e
: / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u.ac o m y a d h o m y .s : t t m w : // t pi g n w / wu a n o w . id e a c a o yu. c e m a d c o m y h t o m s
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w : / t p i g / u n wa d u a n y d e c m . c e mt t p
c o . a h
c o// p s h w w s : o . i wc a u g m d a o y e m . c t p h
mw : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c m
tt m ht om s:/ tt
p s h w / w s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o y d eh t o m y .sc: / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u.ac o m y a d o m y .
w : t t . i w // u g n w d a n o y e c am . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o u i g wa u a n y d e c m . e m c tp h /w
w // p sg n w w a o . i e c a u. c m d h o y s t m w : / t pi g w / w a n . d e c o . c m a c o y h t o m s : / t t w
h tw . w : / o . i g wc a u g nm d a o m y . e t t m . c: // t p h w / w s n o . i wc o u i g m a d u a o y d e m . c t p
c : / ps
h
is motivated by new generalisations.

// t pi g n w w / wu a n o w . id e a c a o yu. c e m a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w // wu a g n wa. d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o m o m s : h t t w w : //
w s : o . i w c u g m d a o y e t m . c : // t p h w / w s n . w c o u i g m a u a o y d e m y . t / p w
co tps h /w s: .i
i g w w // wu a g n wa. d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o mt p s h o m
u h y t
w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d a n o y d e c am . c m
w / p g c . h m : t t w / / g
s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d a o y d e t m . c: / t p h w / w s n w . w wa c o . i ge m a u c o m d o m y .
y e
tt // p w w
/ g w a n y c m . mt o/ s : o i a u d a c p h w s . w
w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d h c o m yp s : h t t mw w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am . c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w : // i g n w
. i w a u g nm d a o m y . e t t . o i d w w
u g n w d a o y e c a c m p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o u . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d e a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s :
c
w ac o .i e a u c m d h om y s: tt . m : t i / d o c h t w /
.i w ou
w a u g nm d a o m y . e t t . c // p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a u.ac o m y a d o m y .
u e
t t m : // t p w / w g n w.
co ps h w s: .i w ou ign
n o w . id e a c o yu. c e m c a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w: //owu a i g n wa d a c n o y . d e m c am . c o m h m : t t w / / g w a
u a g nm y a d a co m y . e mt t m . c:o// t p s h w / w s :n o . i wc a o u . i ge m a d u ac o y d e m y . c t t p h // w p s w . w w n o . i g c a o
d o e c p h w t . w / g w a n y cm . m o s : i u d
i ge m c a u.ac o m y a d eh t o m y .sc: / t t p m w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d c o m y . h t t m : // t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o u
n d cm . t / h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e co ps h w s: .i w ou ign ad a
c a o yu. c e m a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o m h t w / g w a em c
d a co m y . e t t m . c: // t p h w / w s :n o . i wc o u i g m a d u a o y d e m y . c t t p m h : // wt p s w . / w w n o . i g c a o u
u
y . e a c m p h o mw s : t t . i w // u g wa d a n y e c m . c m : i d e a c y.
u ac o m y d h t o m y .s : t t w // p g n w w a n o . i e c a o u. c m a d o y h t o m s : / t t p w w // w g n w . a c n o m ad
c am . c e mt p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o u . i g wcwa u a g nm y d e a co m y . c e m m . c o t p s h / w s :
w //
.i w ou ign ad ua y e
m d h o y s : t t m w : // t pi g w / w a n . d e c o u. c m a
m . o y ht m :/ tt
p
gn w ac o
which provide the basis for understanding their facts and source material.
o i d w w . em ca .co m
are significant and relevant to the theme or subject matter of his research.
n
grasp an ever-increasing area of reality and make more and more complex
significance and relevance in his narrative. Take, for example, D. N. Naoroji’s

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s :
t i u d e c t /
.i w ou ign ad ua
g y. d e m
point out factual mistakes. Generalisations lead historians to pose issues for
o s m : / o h w w a c
c
known facts. When we say that a historian has thrown new light on old facts, it
d eh t m y . : / t t p w // p sg n w w a c n o . i e c a u. c m a d o m y
c h w w . w g m o y e . t t m : // t p w /w n .
o i a
ou em a co my
mt o/ s : o i a u d a c p h w s . w g a y d m .c
discussion and debate and to start processes of fruitful discussion among them.
thesis has to be a series of generalisations to be tested, whether he puts them as
from a book, an article, or a primary source. In fact, a student of history’s essay or
Generalisations help define a student of history’s theme whether in the case of an
o m yp s : h t t mw w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am . c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w : // i g n w u a c n o d e c a . c e m
w w . m o when and where questions but not how and why questions. The latter require wider
invariably means that the historian has used new generalisations to understand the
Although there are many objections to generalisation, no writing is possible without
t / u y ht o
the sources at their face value or literal meaning. Instead, he is led to establish their
They enable the historian to draw inferences and establish chains of causation and
m
The five W’s of a historian’s craft are who or what, when, where, how and why. Direct
. o i d
only if he is generalising while he is reading. Generalisations lead to debates among
. c // p h w w s n . w c o i g m a a o y d
c w s a
historians, otherwise the only reaction to each other’s work among them would be to
p h
Generalisations also enable a researcher to react to what he is reading. He can do so
p a u n u g
Generalisations help the historian to avoid ‘empiricism’ or ‘literalism’ ---- that is taking
Generalisations also enable the historian to establish new connections between old,
the starting points for the current work. The generalisation may keep changing as the
using general terms and concepts. These are derived from earlier works and serve as
o w s t . :/ o ig d cm . e .i w
essay, a tutorial, a research paper or a book. They enable him to take notes – whether
They improve a historian’s perception or ‘broaden his gaze’; they increase his ability to
for the historian with a mass of untidy facts in his notes not knowing how to put them
More specifically, generalisations lead the historian to look for new facts and sources.
work progresses. However, at every stage, the historians have to make generalisations
d e a c y. e m m . c o t p
c
They serve as the organising principles for his/her data thus resolving a basic problem
very often the process is the other way around. In general, the search for new materials
consequence or effect. In other words, they enable him to analyse, interpret and explain
statements or questions. Generalisations also enable him to find out which of his notes
Quite often new sources can be properly grasped only through new generalisations. But
facts (i.e., low level generalisations) can at the most enable us to answer who (or what),
y .s : h t t m w : // t pi g n w w / wu a n o w . id e a c a o yu. c e m a d c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w w: // w g n w . a c n o ht m
c o// p s h w w s : o . i wc a u g m d a o y e m . c t p h / w s . w o i g a u a m y a d o m y.
h w :/ ig w ua n de c .c em co tps h
h t mw : / t t . i g w // u g n w d a n o y . e c am . c m
t w / p w w a . e c uc m o y t
om s: tt
/ p / n ca u o m d o ya h t
m . t t m : //
/ w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o . i g wc a o u a i g nm a d a co m y . d e m m . c t p h / w s : w . i w w o u . i g
h o a y e c w
m :/ t ig /u n wd oy e a c s tt w // g w a n de c
c m h o
ps h
t
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
m
m o s t :/ t ig / u n d c o . e a c p h w t t . i w // u g wd a n y e c m .c m
Question No-2.
c p h w s : t t . i w // u g n w d a n o y e c am . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o u i g wa u a n y d e a c m y . e m
c p
on a sounder footing.
taken as its subject matter.

this tradition of history-writing

/w s t . w :/ o ig
w : / t pi g / u n w a d u a n y d e c m . c e mt t p
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
// t pi g n w w / wu a n o w . id e a c a o yu. c e m a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w // wu a g n wa. d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o m h t
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
w s : o . i w c u g m d a o y e t m . c : // t p h w / w s n . w c o u i g m a u a o y d e m y . w
co tps h /w s: htt .i
i g w w // wu a g n wa. d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o mt p s h o m w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d a n o y d e c am . c m h t w / g
s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d u a o y d eh t m y . c: / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c o . i ge m c a u. c o m d o m y . t t m : // t p h w / w p s
/ g w a n y c m . mt o/ s : o i a u d a y e c p h w s t . w
w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d h c o m yp s : h t t mw w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am . c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w : // t pisg n w
u g n w d a o y e c a c m p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o u . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d e a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h t t . i w : //o u
w a c o . i e c a u. c m d h o m y s : t t m w : // t pi g w / w a n . d e c o u. c m a c o y h t m : / t t p w // p sg n w w
w a u g nm d a o m y . e t t
w d a y e c c m p h o w s t . w : / o i g a u n d c m . e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w
n o . i e c o u. c m a d h o y s t m w : / t pi g w / wu a n w d a c o y . e m a c o m
u g m a o y et m . : t / o . i e u c d y ht om s:/ tt
p
w : // t pisg n w / wu a n o
d a c // p s h w w s :n o . i wc a u g m a d a o y e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g wcwa
d e a c n o y . e m c am . c o mt p s h o m w t . w / g w a n y cm . m o s : t i /u d
i g m a u ac o y d eh t m y . c: / t t p w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d c o m y . h t t m : // t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o u . i g
n d cm . t / h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e co ps h w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d a
c a o yu. c e m a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o m h t w / p g w wa . e c
d a co m y . e t t m . c: // t p h w / w s :n o . i wc o u i g m a d u a o y d e m y . c t t p m h : // wt p s h tw . / w w s :n/ o . i g wc a o u i g nm
wd a y
y . e a c m p h o mw s : t t . i w // u g wa d a n y e c m . c m : t i /u
u ac o m y d h t o m y .s : t t w // p g n w w a n o . i e c a o u. c m a d o y h t o m s : / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u.
c m . e mt c o// p s h w w s : o . i wc a u g m d a o y e m . c t p h / w s t . w : / o i g wa u a n y d a
w : // t pisg n w / wu a n o . id e c a o u. c e m
m a d h c o yp s : h t t mw w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am . c o m y h t o m s : / t t
m . n o i d p c m
and practice. Or may be one has to say that there is general and continuous
m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m
quantitative approaches tend to reduce the lives of millions to a few economic and
d eh t o m y .s : / t t p m w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d c o m y h t t m : // t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o u . i ge m c a u.ac o m y a d
mt co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e .c p h w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m . Microhistory emerged, primarily in Italy, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, as a revolt
revealing how those individuals interacted not only with one another, but also with the
Microhistory is a historical method that takes as its object of study the interactions of
would allow historians to rediscover the lived experience of individuals, with the aim of
statements on (British) foreign rule and the use of foreign capital over his lifetime.
durée. The microhistorians also objected to the increasingly popular use of quantitative
o m yp s : h t t mw w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am . c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d h c o
Without the use of generalisations, the tendency would be to take his statements at
broader economic, demographic, and social structures that traditional social history had
the generalisation. May be the generalisation has to bemade more complex; may be
American cliometricians. The source of the microhistorians' frustration was the fact that
Or may be, the generalisation has to be made that there are differences in his theory
. c // p h w w s n . w c o i g m a a o y d m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w wa u a g nm y d a co m y . e mt t
generalise regarding Naoroji’s approach and then see how all of his statements ‘fit in’
e c p
the historian to look at different options in interpretation; his discussion would be put
: t i /u d
social history, as it was then widely practiced, was to attempt to create a new method that
microhistorians were especially dissatisfied with then predominant social history methods
Naoroji was confused and incoherent. The latter would, in any case, be the impression
individuals and small groups with the goal of isolating ideas, beliefs, practices, and actions
ps h om
demographic data points. The microhistorians' response to these perceived weaknesses in

w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d u a n o y d e c am . c e m
unsystematic and irregular thinking by him. Then one can make the generalisation that
w
that would otherwise remain unknown by means of more conventional historical strategies.
against studies of large social groups and long, gradual historical transformations. The first
face value and quote them one after other in a chronological order. Or, the historian can
one has to make separate generalisations for different stages or phases in his thinking.
of the reader if ‘literalism’ was followed. On the other hand, generalisation would enable
y. : t t
methods inspired by the French Annales practitioners, the Cambridge Population Group, and
that concentrated on broad subjects over extremely long periods of time, the famous longue
What do you understand by ‘microhistory’? Describe the historians and their works related to
// p g n w w a o . i e c a u. c m d o y h t o m s : / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u. c o m a d h o m y .
c // p s h w w s : o . i wc a u g m d a o y e m . c t p h / w s t . w : / o i g wa u a n y d a c m y . e mt t
ht om w : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c m ht om s:/ tt w : // t pisg n w / wu a n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d h c o yp s h t
t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u.ac o m a d o m y . p h w w c gm o m . :
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
u a n y d c m y. e m c o t p s h / w s : t t . i w : //o u . i g w wa d u a n o y d e a c m y . c e mt t p h c o// w
m :/ t ig /u n o e a c h tt w // p g w w a n e c c m ad h o y s t m
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
practice.
Answer -
m
Question No-3.
ps h w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o i g a u n d a c m y. e c p
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
/
microhistory, traces the first use of the

h tw . w : / o . i g wc a u g nm d a o m y . e t t m . c: // t p h w / w s n o . i wc o u i g m a d u a o y d e m . c t p ps h
c :
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
p
w t . w / g w a n y cm . m o s : t i /u d
Discuss the distinctive features of Greco-Roman historiography

d e a c n o y . e m c am . c o mt p s h o m
Historiography is the art and science of writing history. For a deep

h t w / p g w wa . e c
aspects such as process, method, ideology, and intention- of history-

c a o yu. c e m a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o m
d
history, we can delve deep to uncover the nexus between history as the
understanding of history and the past, it is imperative to discover many
history-writing enables us to understand the past and history as textual

a co m y . e t t m . c: // t p h w / w s :n o . i wc o u i g m a d u a o y d e m y . c t t p m h : // wt p s h tw . / w w s :n/ o . i g wc a o u i g nm
writing of a given period. Thus, a historical trajectory of various ways of

y . e a c m p h o mw s : t t . i w // u g wa d a n y e c m . c m : t i /u wd a y
w
reconstruction of the past and history as it really happened. Moreover, the

u ac o m y d h t o m y .s : t t // p g n w w a n o . i e c a o u. c m a d o y h t o m s : / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u.
artefacts. By examining the various historiographies of different periods of

m . n o i d p c m
term to an American scholar, George R. Stewart. In his book, Pickett’s Charge: A

Microhistory is the intensive historical investigation of a well-defined smaller unit of
most influential were Carlo Ginzburg, Edoardo Grendi, Giovanni Levi, and Carlo Poni.
deals with the changes experienced over four centuries by a small village in Mexico.
from an early date, and without them microhistory might not have become a distinct
mt co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e .c p h w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m .
sources, folk tales and legends, are also used extensively by the microhistorians. The
microhistory. Some French and North American scholars soon followed suit, but their
history and a cultural history wing. Carlo Ginzburg, a famous historian associated with
Together they began to define the theoretical underpinnings of what became known as
local history as its subject-matter is often confined to a community or a locality. The oral
Microhistory of the Final Charge at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863 (1959), Stewart has used the
history aspires to “search for answers to large questions in small places” (in the words of
term. In 1968, Luis Gonzalez used the term ‘microhistory’ in the subtitle of his book which
m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w wa u a g nm y d a co m y . e mt t
: t i /u d e c p
efforts lacked the programmatic dimension of the Italians' work. Thus it was the Quaderni
original idea of writing microhistory came from Italy in the 1970s. Microstoria had a social
journal Quaderni Storici and, later, a series of books, microstorie, published by Einaudi. The
ps h om w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d u a n o y d e c am . c e m
research, most often a single event, and the community of a village, a family or a person. In
w
The term "microhistory" was first coined by a group of Italian historians associated with the
Charles Joyner). Microhistory thus, has links with local history and oral history. It resembles
Storici group that largely established the terms of debate and the boundaries of the method
its ambition, however, micro history can be distinguished from a simple case study as micro
y. : t t // p g n w w a o . i e c a u. c m d o y h t o m s : / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u. c o m a d h o m y .
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
to
of
s : o i a d t c / p hw w . w gm a
the
the
the
m .c
that
past;
c a y. c e m h tt
human
d e o m y.
c p s t / a y
brought
h
h
academic
o m s : t t w w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am h . c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w : //o u i g n wa d u a c n o y . d e c am . c
co m m
W H Walsh
experience
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
t w / g
critical understanding of history and the past.
i g w w // wu a g n wa. d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o mt p s h o m w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d a n o y d e c am . c m
s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d u a o y d eh t m y . c: / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c o . i ge m c a u. c o m d o m y . h t t m : // t p h w / w p s
p
historiography, Herodotus, Hegel, Marx, Foucault, Hayden White
Keywords- History, historiography, philosophy of history, narrative
historians of different ages in a new perspective by penetrating many
‘The word ‘history’ is itself ambiguous. It covers (1) the totality of past
wd a y
contrastive analysis of various historiographical traditions will enrich our
knowledge of various historiographical traditions can reveal the works of
w // p g n w w a n o . i e c a o u. c m a d o y h t o m s : / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u.
buried meanings of history and the past as well. A survey, comparison and
u ac o m y d h t o m y .s : t t
human actions, and (2) the narrative or account we construct of them now.’ –
Before embarking on the discussion on historiography, it would be pertinent to

m . n o i d p c m
understand these three concepts-history, philosophy of history and historiography.
core concern of history. The Encyclopedia Americana defines history as ‘...the past
d eh t o m y .s : / t t p m w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d c o m y h t t m : // t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o u . i ge m c a u.ac o m y a d history is considered both a set of written records of the past human actions and an
of human civilisation and culture at various phases of human history. History writing or
underlie important historiographies ranging from the ancient time to the contemporary.
and on the other hand, “history” refers to the discipline or inquiry in which knowledge of
Etymologically, history1 is a Greek word meaning an investigation and inquiry. Generally,
discipline that not only uses a narrative to represent the past events and but also studies
to it by various factors including ideology, human values, morality, ethics, etc. Apparently,
historiography of a particular period is often marked with certain salient features that are
human history. This paper makes an attempt to provide a brief account of the main ideas
the temporal progression of large-scale human events primarily, but not exclusively in the
d e c p
Modes of writing history are generally characterised by several changes with the progress
: t i /u
historiography of that particular historical period is ostensibly different from other periods
chronological records of events affecting a nation or people. According to Encyclopedia of

past is acquired or sought.’ (7:386) It is here evident that human beings and their action are
y. : t t w
Philosophy, history ‘...refers to two distinct, though related, things. One the one hand it refers
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
in
or
as
can
work
h
but a
c a y. c e m o m p s : h t t w w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am h . c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w : //o u i g n wa d u a c n o y . d e c a
writer
scope
tt
(7:386)
a y
For this
d e o m y.
c p s t /
actions,
h
deeds of
h narrative
of history.
co m m
evidences,
meticulously
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
written records, and ‘reconstructed’ narratives by historians.
p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
On the other hand philosophy of history is, as Encyclopedia of Philosophy avers,

account.’ (Vol 14) The repertoire of history thus consists of sources like documents,
of the pre-historical documents) was considered an account of the events that were
in reconstructing the flow of events from the original written traces or “sources” into a
of mankind. More exactly, history is the memory of that past experience, as it has been
Before the father of history Herodotus wrote Histories, history (based on understanding
events recorded in ancient documents were not considered as human actions, but were
kind of history, he proposes a term that is, ‘ ...theocratic history; in which phrase ‘history’
history, philosophy of history primarily aims at the goal, objective, orientation, nature and
it can mean philosophical reflection on the knowledge we have of the historical process.’
means not history proper, that is scientific history, but a statement of known facts for the
be said that there was an obvious absence of the humanity as an agent in those recorded
e c p
: t i /u d quasi-history by historiographers like R G Collingwood. Collingwood in The Idea of History
the god directly or indirectly. Hence, this kind of history was not considered history proper,
strongly argues that such history appears to be mere assertions of the knowledge that the
ps h om
Unlike historiography that mainly deals with method, process and various modes of writing
of history possesses, but not the answer of the questions, nor the result of any researches.
preserved, largely in written records. In the usual sense, history is the product of historians’
question, ought to know the deeds whereby he has made himself manifest.’ (14-15) Thus, it
kings on the earth (they were identified with the incarnation of a god). In other words, those
w
designed and exclusively delivered either by the gods or by their representative agents such
information of the persons to whom they are not known, but who, as worshippers of the god
y. : t t
conventionally associated with the ‘...philosophical reflection on the historical process itself,
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
a
with
men
been
c a y. c e m h o m p s : h t t w w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am h . c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w : //o u i g n wa d u a c n o y . d e c a
frame
tt // p h w w s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d a o y d e t m . c: / t p h w / w s n w . w wa c o . i ge m a u c o m
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
m
juncture, it
their works.
records and
illustrations.
m o s t :/ t ig / u n e a c p h w g wd a n y e c m .c m
understood in
d c o . t t . i w // u
Question No-4.
of semi-divine, heroic stature.’

/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
In Philosophy of History (2003), M C Lemon defines the manner in which myth is

but at the same time they appears to be partly an instrument and partly a recipient.
Another kind of quasi-history, as Collingwood appropriately explains , is found in the
commemorative archives of Egypt and Babylon are some more examples for further
mt .c p h
completely purged away and the characters of the story are simply gods.’ (15) At this
co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m .
and also of books and authors. The movement was in search for “a larger and a more
of narratives which incorporate gods and semi-gods as their characters. Genealogical
Braudel, and Ernst Labrousse. Until the turn of the century, traditional history was built
states that, ‘Myth...is not concerned with human actions at all. The human element has
featuring the work of a new generation of historians: Lucian Febvre, Marc Bloch, Fernand
around the acts and facts of "great men", political and military personalities who became
Who are considered to be the founders of the Annales School of historiography? Discuss
the stuff of legends: Alexander and Caesar, Gengis Khan, Louis XIV and Napoleon. These
exceptional individuals defined the scale of history; their deaths signalled a change of era
form of myth 2 which, unlike theocratic history, bears no any direct or indirect association
is desirable to understand that the temporal aspect of myth is always uncertain since it is
human history,” by its rejection of the predominant conceptions of writing history, namely:
historical narrative of the past. He writes, ‘Calling to mind ancient myths we think of often
: t i /u d e c p
detailed, lengthy narratives involving the dramatic actions and interactions of gods, and of
mythical consciousness of the past is inescapably embedded in theogony and embodies a
absolutely undated and thus, unacceptable in terms of history proper. It can be argued that
In 1929, a new journal called Annales d’historie economique et sociale appeared in France,
w
the human deeds. For Collingwood, the suitable ground for such claim lies in the fact which
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
PHASE 1
m
Braudel, Ernst Labrousse]

a narrative style of events
/w s t . w :/ o ig
: t i / u w a d u a n y d e c m . c e mt t p
o h
Marc Bloch (social psychology)

tt w / p g n c . m a mw : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c m ht om s:/ tt
a focus on political-military history
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
t w / g
concentrated on the analysis of short periods
s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d u a o y d eh t m y . c: / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c o . i ge m c a u. c o m d o m y . h t t m : // t p h w / w p s
w a y e c m p o s : o i a u n d m e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w
has divided the movement in three phases or generations:
d c h w t . w / g c .
the tradition of political history. [Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre]
p
socio-economic to the socio-cultural. [Ariel, Bourdieau, Goffman, etc.]

wd a y
Bloch partly applies Durkheim’s ideas on collective beliefs and mentalities.

what they called a “stamp collecting” mentality in collecting facts and events
m . n o i d p c m
France and England on a long term scale and analysed how such collective illusions
.c
traditional historians' obsession with wars and states, the “great” men of history, and
mt co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e p h w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m .
study on feudal society examines the culture of feudalism, its sense of time, forms of
Bloch started with a study of what he called ‘collective illusions’. In The Royal Touch he
sociology, economics and psychology. It was interested in longer timespans, the social
collective memory, and the structures of feeling and thought. Bloch here and elsewhere
because it uses a regressive method (lire l’histoire à rebours). Bloch believed that it was
looked at the belief that the king’s touch could cure people from diseases. He compared
Phase 1 (1920-1945): the movement is very radical and subversive and strongly opposes
such improbable things for a prolonged period in time, and to point to possible causes of
analytical history which looked at economic and social history in a long-term perspective,
survived after the Middle Ages. His aim was to problematize the fact that people believed
history of everyday life, and “mentalites” (modes of consciousness). In essence, it was an
e
departing from a traditional event-based historiography. These historians rebelled against
: t i /u d c p
Phase 2 (1945-1968): the movement becomes a school of thought, with its main concepts
ps h om
better to proceed from the known to the unknown, hence he reads history “backwards”. His
underlying causes in depth with a particular attention to long stretches of time. Peter Burke
w
(structure-conjuncture) and method (serial history of changes over the long term). [Fernand
In 1931 Bloch published French Rural History. This work is important for the Annales school
such a phenomenon. A survey of this kind could be regarded as a psychological history, and
looking at development as linear. Annales school historians examined phenomena and their
Phase 3 (1968-1989): the school becomes more fragmented and shifts its concern from the
The Annales wanted to integrate insights and methodologies from anthropology, geography,
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
history.
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
PHASE 2
m
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
Febvre (linguistics, human geography)
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
Ernst Labrousse (conjuncture and structure)
Fernand Braudel (methodological structuralism)

u
terms of their own time, rather than of earlier periods.
g n w d a o y e c a c m p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o u . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d e a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h t t . i w : //o u

p
d
historical linguistics of the impossibility of atheism in the 16th century.
m . n o i d p c m
In 1922, Lucien Febvre published La Terre et l'évolution humaine (translated as A
the mineral deposits, types of agriculture and typical flora, briefly listed and never
Geographical Introduction to History, 1932). His work on religion is an example of a
mt .c p h
and lengthy rhythms of material life relating to the geographical environment and the
co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m .
a few princes and rich men, the trivia of the past, bearing little relation to the slow and
concerned long-term. Conjuncture and structure were however complementary to one
mentioned again, as if the flowers did not come back every spring, the flocks of sheep
migrate every year, or the ships sail on a real sea that changes with the seasons,” but a
attacks the “idol” of origins arguing that historical phenomena ought to be explained in
powerful march of history . . . those statesmen were, despite their illusions, more acted
another in Labrousse. He also adopted demographic models and mainly wrote regional
upon than actors.” Beneath human history, Braudel attempted to describe deeper unities
the idea of conjuncture (which can be translated as “trend”), i.e., the connection between
an international reputation. The next generation of historical scholars were brought up to
In their place Braudel offered not “the traditional geographical introduction to history that
olive press, the milling of corn, the keeping of records of bills of lading, tides and winds. It
e c p
in a library. Only the third section of Braudel's book returned to the events of history which
Braudel became a crucial figure of the Annales movement, and is reckoned by some to be
a feat of historical imagination based on detailed knowledge of the habits and techniques
: t i /u d
He was an economic historian who largely used quantitative methods. He also introduced
often figures to so little purpose at the beginning of so many books, with its description of
diverse yet simultaneous phenomena. Conjuncture came to be contrasted with the idea of
began to seem as important for a historian to be able to ride a horse or sail a ship as to sit
famous work, Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l'époque de Philippe II, made him
structures that shape societies such as technology, trading, sailing routes, and mentalities.
ps h om
of the ploughman, the shepherd, the potter, and the weaver, the skills of the vintage and the
believe in the words of its preface: the old history of events was indeed dead, “the action of
whole new way of looking at the past, in which the historian re-created a lost reality through
structure, in the sense that conjuncture identified the short-medium term whereas structure
the greatest historian of the 20th century and the father of modern historiography. His most
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
can achieve;
of movement:
social time
w // p g w w a . e c u. c m / n d c o . a c h
individual time
ht om s:/ tt h o y s t m w : / t pi g
of the Annales school.

o
geographical time
om s: tt :/ t ig / u n w d c oy. e a c p h o w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c m
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
t / g
political economics and sociology) to history.
s :n o . i wc a o u i g m a d u a o y d eh t m y . c: / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c o . i ge m c a u. c o m d o m y . h w
t t m : // t p h w / w p s
emphasises two themes: 1) technology and 2) exchange.

p
wd a y
strong backs.” According to Braudel, historical time is divided into three forms
m . n o i d p c m
mediterranean people, writing a kind of history of structures, the economic, the
conditions (e.g., geography, climate). Within the context of human history Braudel
human subject). The most relevant factors are actually the slowly altering material
history of the environment. In the second part, he looks at the general trends of the
become fundamentally unimport. The longue durée cannot serve as the loci for any
history of events. He poses individuals and events in such a broad context, that they
.c p h
cloak of all-consuming time. Braudel introduces the social sciences (esp. geography,
mt co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m .
basic to ancient civilisation: fire and water technology, pottery, weaving, metalworking,
are merely “surface disturbances, crests of foam that the tides of history carry on their
time” with the rapid rhythm of “individual time” and the movement of peoples and their
ideas. Mediterranée, is divided in three parts. The first part is in fact a geohistory and a
individual subject. In so doing, he tries to demonstrate that a history of events can only
history per se does not exist. All that exists was past phenomena submerged under the
provide a superficial reading of society’s development (cf. Foucault's decentering of the

the very dawn of its protohistory a witness to those imbalances productive of exchange
In Mediterranée, Braudel is interested first and foremost in the environment in which the
1) Human history is a history of technological mastery and the development of the skills
seafaring and finally writing. This emphasis on the physical realities of early civilizations
the rivers, the roads and the towns. He combines the almost fixed rhythm of “geographic
geographical, the technological, etc. In part 3, Braudel is concerned with undermining the
e c p
But beyond all these froms of movement, the past was really a unity: “history can do more
: t i /u d
brings out the actual quality of life with a vividness that no amount of reading other books
than study walled gardens”—this was the ultimate expression of the intellectual ambitions
As in all knowledge, the historian intervenes at every stage in the making of history; indeed
peoples of the Mediterranean basin used to live: the mountains and the plains, the sea and
w
Braudel also demonstrated that history does not exist independently of the historian's gaze.
2) As to the importance of exchange, especially long-distance exchange: “Our sea was from
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
effect.
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
Mediterranean.
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
method was primarily structuralist.

c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
economic life (the place of trade and distribution).
p
d a
material civilization (where production takes place, immobile).
c // p s h w w s :n o . i wc a u g m a d a o y e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g wcwa
wd a y
m . o i d p c m
stretches of time, introducing into historiography the notion of la longue durée.

n
capitalist mechanism (the realm of consumption, where change is more rapid).
In Civilisation materielle et capitalisme, Braudel divides his object of study into:
introduced crucial concepts to the school and helped linking it to the currents in
be recaptured and relocated in the general framework of history, so that despite the
the history of mentalities. His main priority was to show that time moves at different
tools of the Annales school, viz. quantitative history and the history of mentalities. His
which would set the rhythm of its entire life.” It is imbalance that creates exchange and
difficulties, the fundamental paradoxes and contradictions, we may respect the unity of
reference to symbolic structures, nor to the history of meaning. The second, “Wheels of
approach which is heavily influenced by the world-system theory of Wallerstein. Braudel
the layers of clay, sand, and limestone from which the Egyptians carved their tombs and
and thrived in this demanding but gloriously beautiful world bordered and shaped by the
l'Ecole pratique des hautes études and the journal Annales. He fostered one of the most
therefore leads to progress. These two ideas, first formulated in The Mediterranean, and
approach. His concern is with what sustains life as a whole, as well as habit. There is no
Lucien Febvre died in 1956, and Braudel inherited the direction of both the VIe section de
commerce” is about the market economy and the ways it co-existed with the non-market
extraordinary collections of talent in the 20th century through his appointments including
are applied in the Memory and the Mediterranean to the ancient Mediterranean with great
e p
Greeks and Romans, and the great river civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt struggled
: t i /u d c
subsequently explored in depth in for the preindustrial world in Civilization and Capitalism,
ps h om
anthropology and linguistics in vogue at the time. Braudel was dismissive of two important
Braudel’s main contribution lies in his insistence on writing total histories: “Everything must
economy in early modernity. In the third part, Perspective of the world”, he takes a systemic
history which is also the unity of life.” Unlike Febvre and Bloch, Braudel says very little about
Here again in the first part, “The structures of everyday life”, he takes a global and long-term
Memory and the Mediterranean begins with the history of the Mediterranean seabed itself—
speeds, and he divides time into geographical, social, and individual. He also examines long
built their temples. What follows is the epic story of how the Phoenicians, the Etruscans, the
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
PHASE 3
m
u e p n m
impressions.
m o s t :/ t ig / n d c o . a c h w t t . i w // u g wd a y e c .c m
Question No-5.
c
Sultanate period.
and from a long perspective.

/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
the Maison des Sciences de l'Homme in 1970.
c : o i a u d e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w
knowledge after the religious scripture and jurisprudence.

w d a y e c m p h o w s t
n o . i e c o u. c m a d h o y s t m w : / t pi g w / wu a n w d a c o y . e m a c o m . w / g n c m .
p
wd a y
w
structures and opted for an understanding of them as mutually reflecting.
m . n o i d p c m
Among the Muslim elite, history was considered as the third important source of
reasserted the anthropological realm, especially through cultural anthropology, to
together, and where a succession of foreign visitors could be invited as associate
1960’s and 1970’s ceased to question the causal relationship between events and
hard to create a separate institution or building where all his colleagues could work
and descriptive social history, and reaffirmed the Durkheimian idea of the “history of
Georges Duby, Jacques Le Goff, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie and Maurice Aymard; the
Describe the important features of Indo-Persian tradition of history-writing during the

demography and economy. Braudel took the view that the peasant was the key to the
replaced the notion of social rules with that of habit and strategy. Other studies in the
mentalities.” It held that the historical world was created out of perceptions, not out of
structural anthropology which influenced the later Annales School. The third generation
events, and we needed to recognise that the whole of history was a construct of human
and the classical scholars Jean-Pierre Vernant and Pierre Vidal-Naquet. Braudel worked
reemphasize politics proper, and to return to history as narrative. Bourdieau for instance
philosophers Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault; the psychologists Jacques Lacan and
d e c p
Roman Jakobson transmitted the linguistic theory of Saussure to Lévi-Strauss. This led to
: t i /u
three volumes of which were published before his death, including sections on geography,
Georges Devereux; the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu; the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss;
ps h om
history of France, and a true history of mentalities could only be written in the longue durée
The new Annales history of the 1960’s turned away from the factual/quantitative economic
w
professors; this idea, begun about 1958, did not achieve physical shape until the opening of
Braudel's reply to this development was his last great projected work, The Identity of France,
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
w // p g w w a . e c u. c m h o y s t m w : / t pi g / n d c o . a c h
The Early Writings :

ht om s:/ tt
as Fakhr-i Mudabbir.
writing under the Mughal rule.
1526, was a prolific writer. His

/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
y e
account of the policies and events of the period.

/ g w a n y c m . mt o/ s : o i a u d a c p h w s t . w
details in his biography further enrich its importance.

g m a o m . : t / o . i e u c d y ht om s:/ tt
p
Lahori were some important historians of the Mughal period.
u d a y et c // p s h w w s :n o . i wc a u g m a d a o y e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g wcwa
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
Therefore, the study and writing of history were accorded great importance after the
Babur's son and successor, Humayun (1530-1555) was also interested in history. He
commissioned a renowned scholar, Khawandmir, to compose the history of his reign.

of Aurangzeb, were provided access to the official records that could facilitate them in
writing in medieval India. It was written for the enlightenment of the rulers of his times.
(in Turkish) by Babur and Tuzuk-i Jahangiri (in Persian) by Jahangir. Besides the official
autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi, written in Turkish is a literary masterpiece, containing the

availability of skilled craftsmen and artisans various towns and cities. The geographical
Another very striking feature of the period was the autobiographical accounts written by
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the closing years of 12th century. The pioneers of
Barani in the 14th century. His Tarikh-i Firuzshahi is a milestone in the tradition of history-
e p
Fazl, Nizamuddin Ahmad, Abdul Qadir Badauni, Khwaja Kamgar Husaini and Abdul Hamid
: t i /u d c
writing histories. It was the most significant feature of the Indo-Persian tradition of history
history of the rise and fall of the Timurid power in central Asia, biographical account about
the course of campaigns he led against his rivals. Though Babur's account on his dealings
His writings included a book of genealogies of the Prophet of Islam and the Muslim rulers,
history- writing in the Indo-Persian tradition were Muhammad bin Mansur, popularly known
ps h om
himself, the description of life and culture in India and the diary of events that took place in
emperors themselves. Some of the best-known works in this genre included Tuzuk-i-Baburi
w
including Qutbuddin Aibak. Minhaj Siraj Juzjani was another important historian of the 13th
Khawandmir prepared a brief account of Humayun's reign from his accession up to the year
Under the Mughals this tradition of history-writing continued and reached new heights. Abul
with the rulirvg elite in India lacks objectivity, he is full of praise for India's resources and the
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, who invaded India and supplanted the Lodi rule by his Own in
During the Mughal rule in India, a new tradition of history writing by official chroniclers came
y. : t t
into, existence. These chroniclers, appointed by almost all the Mughal emperors till the reign
century. However, the most important figure in the Indo-Persian historiography was Ziauddin
works, several independent works were written by independent scholars presenting a critical
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
m o / u n e c p h w g n y e c m
Akbar's Reign
s t :/ t ig d c o . a t t . i w // u wd a .c m
Official histories:
Jahangir's Reign:
Shah Jahan's Reign:

Non-official Histories:
w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o i g a u n d a c m y. e c p
frank account of his times.

ps h
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
introduced by Akbar till the year 1602.

c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
towards the Indian nobles and landed aristocracy.
p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
Akbarnama and the Ain- i Akbari provide exhaustive detail of the events and policies
of Islam, i.e., a history of one thousand years, called Tarikh-i Alfi. At Akbar's instance,
.c
meaning, the exoteric and esoteric. Abul Fazl's secular interpretation of history in the
Nemat Allah Harawi under the patronage of Khan-i Jahan Lodi, the noble of Jahangir.
lives and culture of the royal harem. Bayazid Biyat's Tazkirat-i Humayun wa Akbar and
Jauhar Aftabchi's Tazkirat-ul Waqiat are also important works written at Akbar's order.
1535. Qannu-i Humayuni sheds interesting light on Humayun's state policy, particularly
Nizamuddin Ahmad and Abdul Qadir Badauni were the two most important non-official
all the important events that took place during Akbar's reign including the controversial
Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur, wrote Humayunnama which sheds light on the
traditions set by Babur. Besides, Qazi Nurul Haque compiled the Zubdatu't Tawarikh and
concept of history writing. Akbar proposed to have a written history of the Muslim rulers
Mahzar which Abul Fazl had left out. His work was regarded by all the later writers as an
The emperor wrote the Tuzuk himself up to the 17th regal year. Later, he dictated it to his
. c // p h w w s n . w c o i g m a a o y d authentic work. Abdul Qadir Babauni's history entitled Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh presents a
presents Akbar as cosmic man, entrusted by God with sway over outward form and inner
: t i /u d e c p
from the death of the prophet up to his own time on the completion of the first millennium
Akbar's son and successor Jahangir wrote autobiographical history of his own reign in the
trusted officer, Mutamad Khan. It presents to a great extent the picture of Jahangir's reign.
with the account of his reign in it, he ordered Abul Fazl in 1589-1590 to compile the history
With the accession of Akbar (1556-1605) to the throne, important change took place in the
Akbar constituted a board of seven scholars to compile Tarikh-i Alfi. However, not satisfied
ps h om
the Muslim rulers of India. Another important work Tarikh-i Khan- i Jahani was compiled by
historians of the period. Nizamuddin wrote Tabaqat-i Akbari in three volumes. He mentions
of his reign, beginning with an account of Babur and Humayun. In his Akbarnama, Abul Fazl
y. : t t w
closed it with the account of Jahangir's reign. The Zubdatu't Tawarikh narrates the history of
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
m
of the reign.

/ u e c p w g n m
communism.
m o s t :/ t ig n d c o . a h t t . i w // u wd a y e c .c m
Question No-6.
Saleh Kamboh.
Aurangzeb's Reign :
ht om s:/ tt
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p w
means of production (the ‘base’ of society).

w s : o . i w c u g m d a o y e t m . c : // t p h w / w s n . w c o u i g m a u a o y d e m y .
p
wd a y
m . o i d p c m
Write a note on the Marxist historiography in the West after Second World War.
n
rule of the proletariat and paving the way for the long-awaited and ideal stage of
to continue the work. Two other histories of Shah Jahan during the early years of
of Mirzanathan are a few other important works of history for the Mughal period.

reads as a panegyric in prose.'Later on, Saqi Mustaid Khan compiled the history of
Marx identified five successive stages in the history of human society: the primitive-
.c
official history of the Mughal Empire. Maasir-ul Umara by Shahnawaz Khana, Diwan-i
always been, and always will be, determined by the relationship between man and his
aim was to justify Shah Jahan's rebellion against his father. Khwaja Kamgar Husaini's
Karl Marx believed that the history of human society was best understood through the
slaves had neither property nor rights and were subject to the will of their masters; the
Aurangzeb's reign were Badshahnama by Sad.4 Khan and Amal-i Saleh by Muhammad
history of his reign. Subsequently, Abdul Hamid Lahori, another scholar was appointed as
feudal stage, in which peasants worked on the land for their masters; the capitalist stage,
e p
theory that political systems, institutions and culture (the ‘superstructure’ of society) have
c
Shah Jahan assigned to Mohammed Amin Qazvini the task of compiling Badshahnama, a
characterised by a system of wage labour; and eventually the socialist stage, initiating the
: t i /u
communal stage, characterised by hunter-gatherer communities; the ancient stage, where

concept of historical materialism (although Marx himself never used this term). This is the
Pasand by Rai Chhatar Mai, Amamullah Hussain's Ganj-I Badawurd and Baharistan-i Ghaybi
w
Aurangzeb appointed Muhammad Kazim to write the history of his reign. His Alamgir Nama
Mutamad Khan wrote Iqbalnama-i Jahangiri after Shah Jahan's accession to the throne. His
Aurangzeb's reign titled Maasir-i Alamgiri. Composed in the form of annals, this was the last
y. : t t
Maasir-i Jahangiri is an important source for the events that took place during the last years
the official historian in his place. When he grew old, his pupil Mohammad Waris was ordered
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
p
wd a y
w
previously been absent from histories of India’s independence movement.
m . n o i d p c m
materialism was “fatally damaged” by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the
school in France”. From the 1980s onwards, however, neo-Marxist approaches to

practices” that Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks had “opened to view”. Adam Budd has
Throughout the twentieth century, Marx’s theory of historical materialism was both
Marxist approaches to historiography went from strength to strength in the last two
described this as a “refreshingly human approach” at a time when many of the more
account the role of culture in shaping society. This “cultural ground” that Gramsci had
vitally important to amend Marx’s theory of historical materialism in order to take into
In 1946 the Communist Party Historians’ Group was founded in Great Britain, many of
class between 1780 and 1832, arguing that it was during this period that “most English
describes this group as less interested in the role of economic structure and economic
Thompson’s study traced the growing class consciousness among the English working
responsible for laying the foundations of both social history and the history from below
of change in human society, showing little awareness of how culture – an aspect of the
approach, their influence described by Geoff Eley as “comparable to that of the Annales
other men whose interests are different from (and usually opposed to) theirs”. Although
‘superstructure’ of society – could also shape history. Ludmilla Jordanova confirms that
the English Working Class, published in 1963. The British Marxist historians were largely
whom had taken part in the anti-fascist campaigns in Britain in the late 1930s. Adamson
Studies Group sought to extend Marx’s notion of the proletariat to include those who had
of their influence between the 1940s and 1970s, with Edward Thompson’s The Making of
and 1970s, a particularly famous example of which is Edward Thompson’s The Making of
e p
Thompson’s focus was still on the working class and class struggle, his work represented
c
the English Working Class a particularly notable example of their work. Published in 1963,
less interested in the history of class and more concerned with issues of gender, race and
d
relations in shaping the past and instead keen to explore the role of “cultural relations and
: t i /u
institutional forms” of the working class. The British Marxist historians reached the height
Gramsci in his Prison Notebooks. Marx had believed that the economy was the only agent
disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991. In Asia, Africa and Latin America, however, neo-
explain the West’s historic and ongoing exploitation of the Global South, and the Subaltern
historiography experienced a decline in the Western world. Not only did historians become
decades of the twentieth century. Postcolonial historians used a neo-Marxist framework to
ps h om
the shift away from traditional Marxist interpretations of the past that had been initiated by
w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d u a n o y d e c am . c e m traditional Marxists were dismissing the history of the “traditions, value systems, ideas and
“opened to view” was examined further by the British Marxist historians between the 1940s
working people came to feel an identity of interests as between themselves, and as against
first of these was the Italian theorist and politician Antonio Gramsci, who argued that it was
y. : t t
ethnicity, but Peter Claus and John Marriott have argued also that Marx’s theory of historical
amended and extended by a series of historians known collectively as the neo-Marxists. The
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
m
Question No-7.
circumstances”.
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
h
stereotypes thrown at them day after day.

// t pi g n w w / wu a n o w . id e a c a o yu. c e m a d h c o m yp s h t o mw w s : / t t p. i g w w // wu a g n wa. d e a c n o y . c e m c am . c o m o m s : h t t w w : //
t / p w
irrespective of the intentions of the author.

history, just as they were creating an all-India empire.

w a u g nm d a o m y . e t t o u e
emphasis on their religion or caste or linguistic affiliation.

w d a y e c c m p h o w s t
n o . i e c o u. c m a d h o y s t m w : / t pi g w / wu a n w d a c o y . e m a c o m . w : / i g a n d c m .
m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w
p
wd a y
a cultural community rather than as any sort of simple reflection of economic
m . n o i d p c m
Compare the colonial historiography in India with the nationalist historiography.
Initially, in the 19th century, Indian historians followed in the footsteps of colonial

the English Working Class has been praised by Adamson for being an “enormously
on Ancient India and Elliot and Dawson’s work on Medieval India. Indian nationalist
the growth of nationalist feeling and to unify people in the face of religious, caste, or
But as colonial historical narrative became negative or took a negative view of India’s
political and social development, and, in contrast, a justificatory view of colonialism, a
o m yp s : h t t mw w : // t t p. i g w w // wu a g n w . d e a c n o yu. c e m c am . c o m y h t o m s : / t t p w : // t pisg n w / wu a c n o . id e c a o u. c e m a d h c o history as either of India as a whole or of rulers, who ruled different parts of India, with
historiography, considering history as scientific based on fact-finding, with emphasis on
of region and religion throughout much of Indian history. Nationalist historians too wrote
and as an effort to build national self-respect in the face of colonial denigration of Indian
historiography develop as a response to and in confrontation with colonial historiography

: t i /u d e c p
people and their historical record. Both sides appealed to history in their every day speech
Thompson’s work marked a shift away from “relations of production as determining social
nationalist reaction by Indian historians came. Colonial historians now increasingly, day by
ps h om
political history and that too of ruling dynasties. Colonial writers and historians, who began
to write the history of India from late 18th and easily 19th century, in a way created all India
influential example of how to study emerging class consciousness in relation to its basis in
w
relations”, towards “class consciousness as a special phenomenon”. Indeed, The Making of
linguistic differences or class differentiation. This may, as pointed out earlier, sometimes be
basis of region and religion, so did colonial historians stress division of Indians on the basis
Nationalist approach to Indian history may be described as one which tends to-contribute to
y. : t t
historians set out to create counter-stereotypes, often explicitly designed to oppose colonial
Simultaneously, just as the colonial rulers followed a political policy of divide and rule on the
Just as the Indian nationalist movement developed to oppose colonialism, so did nationalist
day, threw colonial stereotypes at Indians. Basic texts in this respect were James Mill’s work
/w s t . w :/ o ig
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c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
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Question No-8.
to Indian historiography
therefore not suitable to them.

/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
– Indians had always been divided.

w
crafts, etc. – had come from outside.

w // p sg n w w a o . i e c a u. c m d h o y s t m w : / t pi g w / w a n . d e c o . c m a c o y h t o m s : / t t
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
regimes in India were ‘monstrously cruel’ by nature.
a . e
often relied in their reply on earlier European interpretations.
u g m d a o y et m . : t / o i u c d
c // p s h w w s :n o . i wc a u g m a d a o y e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g wcwa y ht om s:/ tt
p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
Indians’ past history. After all, democracy was alien to their historical character and
was benevolent though autocratic. The colonial writers also held that Indians had, in
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government, democracy, legislative reform, etc., was unrealistic precisely because of
people of the Orient or East – was that of despotism. Indians also lacked the quality of
equality. All these colonial notions not only hurt the pride of Indian historians and other
democratic heritage of ancient Greece and Rome, the heritage of Indians – in fact of all
law, economic’ development, and modernization of society based on the ideas of social
and writing. Even when dealing with most obtuse or obscure historical subjects, Indians
of the East, to be ruled by despots or at least by autocratic rulers. This was the reason of
intellectuals but also implied that the growing demand of the Indian intellectuals for self-
For example, it was colonial rule which had brought to India law and order, equality before
account for historical events from the perspective of common people rather than leaders.
: t i /u d c p
A people's history, or history from below is a type of historical narrative which attempts to
welfare of the people. In contrast with the cruel Oriental Despotism of the past, British rule
ps h om
contrast to Europeans, always lacked a feeling of nationality and therefore of national unity
innovation and creativity. Consequently most good things – .institutions, customs, arts and
Indians, they said, had also lacked a democratic tradition. While Europeans had enjoyed the
There is an emphasis on disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and
Many colonial historians also held that it was in the very nature of India, like other countries
British rule in India was and had to be autocratic. This view came to be widely known as the
What do you understand by the term ‘History from Below’? Discuss with particular reference
theory of Oriental Despotism. Furthermore, these writers argued that the notion that the aim
of any ruler being the welfare of the ruled was absent in India. In fact, the traditional political
y. : t t
In contrast, the British, even through autocratic, were just and benevolent and worked for the
/w s t . w :/ o ig
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ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
h
followers.
co m m
:/ t ig / u n w d c oy. e a c p h o w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c m o
alternatively used for it.

om s: tt
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
p
wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur.
n d cm . t / h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e Albert Camus suggested, not to be on the side of the executioners."
co ps h w s : t t . i w : //o u i g n wa d a
wd a y
w
develop, as opposed to great people introducing ideas or initiating events.
u ac o m y d h t o m y .s : t t // p g n w w a n o . i e c a o u. c m a d o y h t o m s : / t t p hw w // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u. themselves almost exclusively with the political, social and religious elites.
m . n o i d p c m
country, presented as the history of a family, conceals fierce conflicts of interest
tradition of political and administrative historiography developed by Ranke and his

mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.
the driving factor of history is the daily life of ordinary people, their social status and
reaction against the traditional histories almost exclusively concerned with the socio-
A people's history is the history as the story of mass movements and of the outsiders.
'faces in the crowd', and the people lost in the past became the central concern of this
common people ', 'people's history', and 'history of everyday life' are some of the terms
with the activities and thoughts of those people and regions that were neglected by the
poor, the nonconformists, the subaltern and the otherwise forgotten people. This theory
Below is an attempt to write the history of the common people. It is a history concerned
earlier historians. Peasants and working classes, women and minority groups, unknown
History from Below is a major trend in the twentieth century historiography that marks a
history about the great deeds of the ruling classes received further boost from the great
political and religious elites. 'Grassroots history', 'history seen from below', 'history of the
profession. These are the factors that "push and pull" on opinions and allow for trends to
a world of conflict, a world of victims and executioners, it is the job of thinking people, as
History from Below began as a reaction against the traditional histories which concerned
: t i /u d e c p
also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming
In his book A People's History of the United States, Howard Zinn wrote: "The history of any
from-below theory's primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the
the common people', 'people's history', and even, 'history of everyday life'. The conventional
Individuals not included in the past in other type of writing about history are part of history-
ps h om
emphasize single great figures in history, referred to as the Great Man theory; it argues that
This revisionist approach to writing history is in direct opposition to methods which tend to
In opposition to the 'History from Above' popularized by the likes of Ranke, the History from
w
(sometimes exploding, most often repressed) between conquerors and conquered, masters
and slaves, capitalists and workers, dominators and dominated in race and sex. And in such
It has been variously termed as 'grassroots history, history seen from below or the history of
y. : t t
otherwise marginal groups. The authors are typically on the left and have a Marxist model in
/w s t . w :/ o ig
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ou c
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d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
Peasant Movements:
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tt m
are some of the all-India studies.

ht om s:/ tt
/ ps h
sources and to reinterpret the old ones.
c :
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
over an area of more than 500,000 square miles'.

w d a y e c c m p o w s t : o i g a u n d m . e m . c t p h / w s h tw . w w : / o . i g w
caused by the continued subalternity of the lower classes.
h
n o . i e c o u. c m a d h o y s t m w : / t pi g w / wu a n w d a c o y . e m a c o m . w / c
p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
the subordinate classes, including the industrial working classes, are not literate.

A general history of peasant movements by Barrington Moore Jr., Social Origins of
were almost exclusively produced by those not belonging to that stratum of society.
Ranajit Guha, the founder of the Subaltern Studies, in his book, Elementary Aspects of
article on 'Indian Peasant Uprising' (1974), counted peasant revolts during the colonial
The main problem in writing the History from below in India, apart from the conceptual
Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India (1983), talks about the elitist origin of most of the
literacy was much higher. Even there the sources related to the peasants and other pre-
peasants in active support or combat'. And the largest of these 'is the "Indian Mutiny" of
perspective. In Moore's account, the Indian peasantry lacked revolutionary potential and
There are many studies undertaken on Indian peasant movements. Apart from Kathleen
rebellions. According to Sumit Sarkar, this non-availability of evidences might have been
period. Her conclusion is that 'the smallest of which probably engaged several thousand
Therefore, direct sources coming from them are extremely rare, if not completely absent.
evidences which the historians use for understanding the mentalities behind the peasant
problems is the absence of relevant sources. The records pertaining to the lower classes
industrial groups come to us through those in authority. In India, most of the members of
e p
India after Independence (1986), Sunil Sen.'s Peasant Movements in India-Mid-Nineteenth

: t i /u d c
Dictatorship and Democracy (1967), puts the Indian peasant movements in a comparative
historiographical tradition. It can be regarded as an attempt to make history-writing broad-
based, to look into the lives of the marginalized groups and individuals, and to explore new
impoverished the peasants at least as much as in China and over as long a period of time'.
rebellions in India were 'relatively rare and completely ineffective and where modernization
and Twentieth Century's (1982), Ranajit Guha's elementary Aspects of Peasant Rebellion in
ps h om This view of the Indian peasant was challenged by many historians. Kathleen Gough, in her
w
Gough's work, A.R. Desai's (ed.) Peasant Struggles in India (1979) and Agrarian Struggles in
Colonial India (1978), and D.N. Dhanagare's Peasant Movements in India, 1920-1950 (1983)
were comparatively docile and passive in the face of poverty and oppression. Thus, peasant
The relevant sources are a big problem even in advanced countries where the working-class
y. : t t
1857-58, in which vast bodies of peasants fought or otherwise worked to destroy British rule
/w s t . w :/ o ig
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ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
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two directions:
Question No-9.
/ h
Tribal Movements:
ht om s:/ tt w // p g w w a . e c u. c m h o y s t m w : / t pi g n d c o . a c
/w s t . w :/ o ig Working-class Movements:
c o . a h
tt m
Samita Sen, and Nandini Gooptu.

ht om s:/ tt
c tp h /w
direction of the non-tribal peasants.
w : t t . i w // u g n w d a n o y e c am . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o u i g wa u a n y d e c m . e m
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
Write a note on the feminist historiography in India.

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historically-oriented analyses of colonial processes.

. i w a u g nm d a o m y . e t t
p
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being, which did not take into account his/her social and cultural existence.
m . n o i d p c m
decades. A new awareness of dynamics of global dominance, resistance, cultural
world history, global history, the new imperial history, Atlantic history, socio-history,
twentieth-centuries narratives of European colonial expansion. Starting from these

over the years the tribal society and economy have started resembling those of the
The understanding of colonial history has considerably changed over the last three
taken into account these aspects of the changing scenario include E.D. Murphy, R.K.
Newman, S. Bhattacharya, Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rajnarayan Chandavarkar, Janaki Nair,
peasants and the agrarian problems of the tribal's are same as those of the peasants.
number of published work'. Besides this, the focus was on the worker as an economic
a) the conditions, purposes and practices that directed and still direct the production of
now in our labour history the Trade Union movement has been the subject of the largest
interconnected and transnational approaches to history have challenged nineteenth and

Moreover, many scholars like Ghanshyam Shah, Ashoka Upadhyay and Jagannath Pathy
which view the working class history from a broader perspective. The scholars who have
Since the 1980s, however,' this situation began to change. Several studies have appeared
premises, this workshop aims to explore the transformations in colonial historiography in

Several scholars treat, tribal movements as part of the peasant movements. It is because
: t i /u d e c p
the history of trade unions. Writing in 1982, Sabyasachi Bhattacharya commented that 'Till
have shown the changes in the tribal society and economy which have pushed them in the
Until about twenty-five year's age, the history of Indian labour was almost synonymous with
w
Kathleen Gough, A.R. Desai and Ranajit Guha have dealt with the tribal movements as such.
encounters is strictly tied to renovation in historical studies. In emerging disciplines such as

/w s t . w :/ o ig
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c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
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accumulation.
/ n a c h
urban experiences.
ht om s:/ tt w // p g w w a . e c u. c m h o y s t m w : / t pi g d c o .
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
m
and topics of historical analysis.
tt ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p w
powerful influence on the imperial country.

p
modernization of these disadvantaged sections in the colonies.
wd a y
m p c
for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital
. n o i d m
dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-
and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations,
and class but also caste, region and religion. In India there is not one patriarchy.
as a way of capturing the raw materials of the colony and refuted the arguments of
The literature written mainly by women and concerned to women is called feminist
by bourgeoise class and they directed it to suit their own interests and neglected the
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change. Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is
Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social
those of native peoples. The native cultures of the colonized peoples can also have a
They highlighted heterogeneity in the Indian society in terms of class and castes, and
terms of economic developments of the colonial period, the rise of capitalism and the
proletariat class. Historian Marxists like Rajni Palme Dutt and A.R.Desai talked about the
viewed both colonialism and nationalism as structurally incapable of fulfilling the task of
b) the capacity of producing knowledge, i.e. the construction and presentation of objects
differentiated classes and underlined the contradictions between the bourgeoise and the
psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency." Colonies are
colonialism as being 'Civilising Mission'. They tried to explain the nationalist movement in
The impacts of colonization are immense and pervasive. Various effects, both immediate
d e c p
of colonist languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating

The Marxist view point on it is They conceptualise the nation as an aggregate of internally
: t i /u
big landlords and industrialists who were seeking their own interest out of this movement.
closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction,
ps h om
classes of peasants and workers, their role and people in the history. They saw colonialism
exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism,

development of market society in India. According to them the National Movement was led
constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search
literature. Firstly, the women's movement in India was a social movement that had to factor
"Patriarchies" emerge because of their overlapping with feudalism, caste and with rural and
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interests of the masses. They also believed that even the Congress party was comprised of
improved infrastructure, and technological progress.Colonial practices also spur the spread
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in the highly stratified nature of Indian society.Thus, it dealt with variables not only of gender
/w s t . w :/ o ig
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c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p w
responses to literature, history and society.
p
question patriarchy or its unequal distribution of property rights.
d
definitions and perspectives provided by the Anglo-American tradition.
positions in society as unequal and oppressed being on the basis of gender.
m . n o i d p c m
on the achievements of a range of women - writers, lawyers, saints, and politicians.

the practice of sati. This necessarily limited their goals and vision since they did not
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Literature. In fact, feminist writing in English in India is largely in the nature of critical
mt p h w s t . w : / o i g wa a n y d c m .
sociologists, social workers, political theorists and not out of departments of English
co/ s h w w : o .i w a u g m d a o y e
Thirdly, feminist readings of literature and society came out of the works of historians,
in order to evolve a feminist canon of Indian English writing, we need to depend on the
: Feminist historiography in India have been primarily, and with powerful and insightful
contributes to a different perspective of the Indian past. If at one time, only exceptional
In other words, literary production in English lacked a feminist perspective or a feminist
of history. The gains, therefore, though they have been substantial and impressive, have
highlight a deficiency or even describe a secondary mode of intellection, but a particular
those of what we might poorly describe as the global west. once more for reasons to do
Secondly, the earliest feminists were men who had set out to introduce reforms in upper
and academic feminism in India are too well known to bear repetition here). This is not to
nevertheless not translated into the kinds of paradigm shifts within the discipline that are
e
feminist history has been to make historical understandings an imperative for many other
d c p
the feminist approaches to these practices than to the more general professional practice
: t i /u
women were talked about in our standard histories, certainly one of the earliest tasks was
and, consequently, the mode of feminist theorisation in India has been quite different from
caste Hindu society addressing social evils like child marriage, dowry, female illiteracy and
women had been used to further the nationalist agenda without any redressed of their true
social science disciplines — literary criticism, sociology and anthropology, even economics
ps h om
of the National movement which was an upper caste, Hindu, male-dominated one, and that
— and thus feminist history has made a far more substantial difference laterally to many of
institutional and pedagogical practice within which the effects of theory have been slighter,
literary theory that was culture-specific. It is clear that when we come to the Indian context,
effect, been driven by certain critical events (and the links between the women’s movement
to give more ordinary women a voice, “make them visible”, “bring women in from the seams
with the uneven institutional spaces within which such intellection takes place, the effect of
of history” and remove them from the large list of people without history. This work focused
Many latter day feminist scholars felt that this agenda overlapped or intersected the agenda
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more than amply warranted. First consider some of the broad ways in which feminist history
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
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c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
Answer -
m
reformers.
Question No-11.
Question No-10.
Colonial perception of caste

Objectivity and Interpretation
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c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
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wd a y
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data, but it will require your interpretation of the data for people to understand it.

Often, though not invariably, so-called orientalists saw Hindus as the prisoners of an
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as being embraced, disputed and reflected on by Indian politicians, literati and social
p h
were shaped by contributions from Indians themselves. Some at least of these ideas
could happen only in the context of broader political and social changes which were in
played a significant part in the making of a more caste-conscious social order. Yet this
Scientific objectivity refers to the ability to judge without partiality or external influence.
inflexibly hierarchical and Brahman-centred value system. Their insistence on this point
own understanding of something. A person who translates one language into another is
to the early twentieth century. It is important to explore these because so-called Western
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being of the people in the society that follow it.Moral objectivity also calls for moral codes
called an interpreter because they are explaining what a person is saying to someone who
doesn't understand. Interpretation requires you to first understand the piece of music, text,
Interpretation:- Interpretation is the act of explaining, reframing, or otherwise showing your
caused by one's perception, emotions, or imagination). A proposition is considered to have
Objectivity in the moral framework calls for moral codes to be assessed based on the well-
objective truth when its truth conditions are met without bias caused by a sentient subject.
ps h om
language, or idea, and then give your explanation of it. A computer may produce masses of
The understandings of caste propounded by Western orientalists from the late seventeenth
w
Objectivity:- Objectivity is the concept of truth independent from individual subjectivity (bias
to be compared to one another through a set of universal facts and not through subjectivity.
y. : t t
‘constructions’ of caste had a considerable effect on Indian life, especially where such views
became embodied in the practices of government both during and after colonial rule, as well
/w s t . w :/ o ig
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c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
m
Protestantism.
c
the 16th century.

/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt with the Protestant Reformation,
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
caste-denying form under a different kind of political order.
p
occurred in so many areas without the active participation of Indians.
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
the modern movement is popularly considered to have begun in 1517 when Luther
the Eucharist. The various denominations generally emphasize the priesthood of all
gave rise to Anabaptist, Moravian, and other Pietistic movements. In later centuries,
works, and a belief in the Bible alone (rather than with Catholic tradition) as the sole
lasting movement. All the many Protestant denominations reject the notion of papal
reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the

supremacy over the Church universal and generally deny the Roman Catholic doctrine
is it to say that the ‘modernisation’ of India would somehow have taken a casteless or
progress well before the onset of colonial rule, as was seen in the preceding chapters.
and Eastern Orthodoxy. Anglicanism is sometimes considered to be independent from
authority in matters of faith and morals (sola scriptura). The "Five solae" summarize the
[b] The term refers to the letter of protestation from Lutheran princes in 1529 against an
[a] a movement against what its followers considered to beerrors in the Roman Catholic
So while much of the subcontinent did become more pervasively caste-conscious under
Furthermore, the continuing movement towards the castelike ways of life could not have
British rule, this is not to say that caste was in any simplistic sense a creation of colonial
which purported to offer remission of sin to their purchasers. Although there were earlier
believers, the doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide) rather than by or withgood
oftransubstantiation, but they disagree among themselves regarding Christ's presence in
breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church — notably by Peter Waldo,
edict condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical.With its origins in Germany,
Church. It is one of the major divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism
d e c p
published The Ninety-Five Theses as a reaction against abuses in the sale of indulgences,
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the expanding Magisterial Reformation led by Luther and various other reformers — which
Reformation — a response to perceived corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and
c) Protestantism :- Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice which originated
There were also reformational efforts throughout continental Europe known as the Radical
Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the
ps h om
scholar-officials, or a misperception on the part of fantasising Western commentators. Nor
Arnold of Brescia, John Wycliffe, and Jan Hus — only Luther succeeded in sparking a wider,
y. : t t w
Roman Catholic Church of the day. Protestantism diffused on the European continent during
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
m
ou c
fields.
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
m
y . h t t m : // t p hw w / w p s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o m y d eh t o m y .sc: / t t p m hw w: // w p sg n w . w wa c n o . i ge m c a o u. c o m a d o m y Question No-12.
them to later periods.

a u n c p
Early Indian history-writing
ps h w s : t t . i w // u g w d a n y e c m . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o i g d a c m y. e
/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
u
that otherwise lacks contemporary historical records.

g n w d a o y e c a c m p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o u . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d e a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h t t . i w : //o u
p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
substantially older epigraphy in the Indus script, which dates back to the early 3rd
earlier scholars; these include the Piprahwa relic casket inscription, the Badli pillar
semiotic functions are not well understood. Writing in Sanskrit (Epigraphical Hybrid
.c p h
Kannada University Sociology department Head and Researcher Devara Kondareddy.

1st millennium BCE, Megalithic graffiti symbols and symbols on punch-marked coins,
though an in depth study of many of these is yet to be conducted according to Hampi

inscribed on palm leaves, coins, Indian copper plate inscriptions, and on temple walls.
Sanskrit, EHS) appears in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. Indian epigraphy becomes more
were in Tamil Nadu;[6] . Over 25,000 Kannada inscriptions were unearthed in Karnataka,
Of the c. 100,000 inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India, about 60,000
Many of the inscriptions are couched in extravagant language, but when the information
stone, drawn in caves and on rocks, some gouged into the bedrock. Later they were also
inscription, the Bhattiprolu relic casket inscription, the Sohgaura copper plate inscription,
the Mahasthangarh Brahmi inscription, the Eran coin legend, the Taxila coin legends, and
still existing monuments or ruins, inscriptions provide insight into India's dynastic history
system. Hence, the first undisputed evidence of writing in the Indian Subcontinent are the
though most scholars do not consider these to constitute fully linguistic scripts, and their
the inscription on the silver coins of Sophytes. However, more recent scholars have dated
: t i /u d e c p
Edicts of Ashoka from c. 250 BCE. Several inscriptions were thought to be pre-Ashokan by
markings with symbol systems that may or may not contain linguistic information, there is
gained from inscriptions can be corroborated with information from other sources such as
ps h om
millennium BCE. Two other important archeological classes of symbols are found from the
widespread over the 1st millennium, engraved on the faces of cliffs, on pillars, on tablets of
w
The earliest undisputed deciphered epigraphy found in India are the Edicts of Ashoka of the
humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and other
3rd century BCE, in the Brahmi script. If epigraphy of proto-writing is included, undeciphered
The Bronze Age Indus script remains undeciphered and may not actually represent a writing
/w s t . w :/ o ig
w a d
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ou c
c a y. c e m h tt
d e o m y.
c p h s t / a y
Answer -
h
our world.
co m m
Question No-13.
c p h
academic journal.
w s : t t . i w // u g n w d a n o y e c am . c mt p h o / w s t . w : / o u i g wa u a n y d e a c m y . e m
c p
Historians and causation.

/w s t . w :/ o ig
c o . a h
tt m ht om s:/ tt
c tp h /w
simply the fulfillment of God's plan.

c : / ps h
o m s : h t t w w : //
/ p
them back to an original idea in someone's head.

p
wd a y
m . n o i d p c m
inscriptions at Anuradhapura have been published in an internationally recognised
Historical causation is the attempt to trace current and historical events to their root
.c p h
In Christian Europe, many thinkers tried to reconcile philosophers' earlier ideas about
of current events on future situations. Ideas about historical causation have changed
known as Tamil-Brahmi. Beginning in the late 1990s, archaeological excavations have
South India during the second half of the 3rd century BCE, assuming a local form now
press reports of such pre-Ashokan inscriptions have appeared over the years, such as
outcomes. Pascal's "Cleopatra's Nose" is one of the most famous examples of this: He
philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle, tried to formulate more systematic ideas of
causes. For example, philosopher Bertrand Russell traced the cause of industrialization
causation as a primary force, stating that "Any movement that happens according to the
European ideas about historical causation changed drastically. Newton explicitly attacks
Aquinas, not only did all things have an internal cause created by God, but all things were
Ancient ideas of historical causation were often linked to metaphysical and mythological
back through the European Renaissance, to the fall of Constantinople, the invasion of the
ideas about how the world works. The ancient Greeks, for example, believed that fate and
first law of motion is an uncaused event." Other thinkers reexamined historical events in a
: t i /u d e c p
With the discovery of the laws of physics and mechanical ideas about the nature of reality,
Until the 1990s, it was generally accepted that the Brahmi script used by Ashoka spread to
destiny caused events like a leader's rise to power and the outcome of wars. Several Greek
explanation for changes and is often also used to predict events, by forecasting the effects
w
Palani,Erode,and Adichanallur, dated to c. 500 BCE, but so far only the claimed pre-Ashokan
Turks and finally, to social disintegration in Central Asia. Historical causation tries to find an
dramatically over time, but the subject has always been at the center of how we understand
causation with a world view in which all things ultimately had their origin in God. To Thomas
new light, observing that changing certain variables could have produced different historical
y. : t t causation. Aristotle devised a four-part inquiry into the cause of events that included tracing
produced a small number of candidates for Brahmi epigraphy predating Ashoka. Preliminary
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h tw . w : / o . i g wc a u g nm d a o m y . e t t m . c: // t p h w / w s n o . i wc o u i g m a d u a o y d e m . c t p ps h
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responsible for the result of the any action taken on the basis of this work or any omissions or errors.
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the most important subject on earth: the survival of human civilizations.
y . e a c m p h o mw s : t t . i w // u g wa d a n y e c m . c m
m . n o i d p c m
"Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed" apply the latest findings of

highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers Solutions. Institution and publisher are neither
Disclaimer: As these solutions and are prepared by the private the Chances Of error or mistake cannot he denied. Any Omission or Error is
claimed that if the Egyptian queen's nose had been just a little bit shorter, Mark Anthony
archaeology and the natural sciences to trace the historical causation of what is possibly
scheme of things. This is apparent in advanced ideas such as the "chaos theory," in which
e p
even the flapping of the wings of a butterfly can effect circumstances on the other side of
ps h om : t i /u d c
Since the scientific revolution, ideas about historical causation have tended to follow along
the world -- known as the "butterfly effect." Modern best-selling books like Jared Diamond's
would not have found her beautiful enough to forsake his Roman wife, and the world would
w
the lines of Pascal's thinking, that even the smallest event can dramatically shape the grand
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m d

refutation, further development, further qualification of existing views.

been described by contemporaries or later writers; they suggest new possible

the world.Generalization is meant to be context-specific. That is to say, correctly generalized

in some type of order

is motivated by new generalisations.

significance and relevance in his narrative. Take, for example, D. N. Naoroji’s

taken as its subject matter.

this tradition of history-writing

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

demographic data points. The microhistorians' response to these perceived weaknesses in

microhistory, traces the first use of the

Discuss the distinctive features of Greco-Roman historiography

Historiography is the art and science of writing history. For a deep

aspects such as process, method, ideology, and intention- of history-

history-writing enables us to understand the past and history as textual

writing of a given period. Thus, a historical trajectory of various ways of

reconstruction of the past and history as it really happened. Moreover, the

artefacts. By examining the various historiographies of different periods of

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

Before embarking on the discussion on historiography, it would be pertinent to

chronological records of events affecting a nation or people. According to Encyclopedia of

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

of semi-divine, heroic stature.’

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

Braudel, Ernst Labrousse]

Marc Bloch (social psychology)

socio-economic to the socio-cultural. [Ariel, Bourdieau, Goffman, etc.]

Bloch partly applies Durkheim’s ideas on collective beliefs and mentalities.

Fernand Braudel (methodological structuralism)

g n w d a o y e c a c m p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o u . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d e a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h t t . i w : //o u

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

an international reputation. The next generation of historical scholars were brought up to

of the Annales school.

emphasises two themes: 1) technology and 2) exchange.

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

provide a superficial reading of society’s development (cf. Foucault's decentering of the

method was primarily structuralist.

stretches of time, introducing into historiography the notion of la longue durée.

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

and from a long perspective.

knowledge after the religious scripture and jurisprudence.

Describe the important features of Indo-Persian tradition of history-writing during the

The Early Writings :

writing under the Mughal rule.

1526, was a prolific writer. His

account of the policies and events of the period.

details in his biography further enrich its importance.

commissioned a renowned scholar, Khawandmir, to compose the history of his reign.

autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi, written in Turkish is a literary masterpiece, containing the

Shah Jahan's Reign:

frank account of his times.

introduced by Akbar till the year 1602.

m y . c t t p h // w p s h tw . w w s :n/ o . i g wcwa o u a i g nm y a d a co m y . d e mt t m . c:o// t p s h w / w s :n o w . i w wa c a o u . i ge m a d u ac o y d e

means of production (the ‘base’ of society).

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

communal stage, characterised by hunter-gatherer communities; the ancient stage, where

m y . c e mt t p h c o// w p s h tw . w w s : / o . i g wcwa u a g nm y a d a co m y . e m m . c o t p s h / w s : h twt . i w w : //o u . i g w wa d u a g n o y d e a co m

decades of the twentieth century. Postcolonial historians used a neo-Marxist framework to

stereotypes thrown at them day after day.

irrespective of the intentions of the author.

history, just as they were creating an all-India empire.

emphasis on their religion or caste or linguistic affiliation.