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Dialnet AprendizajeConYSinErrorEnEstudiantesConTEA 6754134
Dialnet AprendizajeConYSinErrorEnEstudiantesConTEA 6754134
85
María MORALO y Manuel MONTANERO
nipulative materials (cards to be matched feedback support when the student made
or ordered). Two teaching approaches were errors led to a slightly higher number of cor-
compared: one comprising errorless learning rect answers but also some repeated errors.
(in which physical prompting was used to pre- Finally, the implications of these results for
vent the subject from making mistakes) and the design of learning sequences of students
one involving errors (in which mistakes were with ASD are discussed, along with the main
permitted and corrected, with the appropri- limitations of the study.
ate help). Observation records showed signifi-
cant differences in sequential thinking tasks, Keywords: errorless learning, self-regulated
where less skilled subjects achieved poorer learning, feedback, verbal labelling, sequen-
results in errorless learning conditions. The tial thinking, autism, special education class-
approach based on a structured sequence of room.
ayuda necesaria, son experiencias educa- No obstante, con los apoyos educativos
tivas muy importantes para personas con y ambientales adecuados, las personas
y sin discapacidad (Boekaerts, 1999; Cus- con TEA pueden desarrollar capacidades
revista española de pedagogía
cuencia, resulta difícil discriminar qué in- centro ordinario de Educación Primaria.
fluencia tiene realmente en sus resultados. Una vez obtenido el permiso correspon-
Los datos, a menudo de poca calidad, sue- diente y suscritos los compromisos éticos y
len aludir, además, a habilidades compor- de confidencialidad, los estudiantes fueron
tamentales o socio-comunicativas (Mot- seleccionados por conveniencia, en función
tron, 2017). La escasa investigación que ha de los siguientes criterios:
comparado específicamente el aprendizaje
con y sin error en algunas tareas curricu- • Tener un TEA diagnosticado (con una
lares (como las operaciones aritméticas bá- puntuación inferior a 50 en la escala
sicas) ha arrojado incluso resultados sensi- IDEA) en un informe psicopedagógico
blemente peores en esta última modalidad oficial elaborado por el equipo psicope-
instruccional (Leaf et al., 2010). dagógico de la zona, sin que concurrie-
ran otras circunstancias de discapaci-
Parece, por tanto, necesario continuar dad intelectual o sensorial.
investigando sobre las condiciones que fa- • Tener más de 5 años y menos de 9 y
cilitan la eficacia de este tipo de procedi- estar escolarizados como mínimo en el
mientos instruccionales, así como el riesgo tercer curso de Educación Infantil.
o las oportunidades de aprendizaje que • Presentar lenguaje oral con estructura-
representa el error para los estudiantes ción oracional.
con TEA. En este sentido, los objetivos de • Tener competencia lecto-escritora y po-
este trabajo son principalmente dos: por seer capacidad de análisis del lenguaje.
un lado, pretendemos analizar la efectivi-
dad de un procedimiento muy estructura- En el estudio participó también una
año 77, nº 272, enero-abril 2019, 85-101
pensamiento secuencial). Por otro lado, más de 5 años en tareas de apoyo educati-
pretendemos explorar la eficacia de un vo a alumnos con TEA, contaba con una
procedimiento alternativo de identifica- formación pedagógica amplia en diversas
ción y autocorrección de errores, con ayu- técnicas para la atención educativa de este
das de tipo material y verbal, que puede alumnado y en particular para la instruc-
implementarse fácilmente en aulas espe- ción de contenidos curriculares.
ciales.
2.2. Diseño
La investigación se fundamentó en un
2. Método diseño observacional de caso múltiple. Se
2.1. Participantes establecieron dos grupos de trabajo, en
En el estudio participaron cuatro estu- función del nivel de competencia curricu-
diantes con Trastornos de Espectro Autis- lar de los sujetos. El grupo del nivel I es-
ta (TEA), de entre 5 y 8 años de edad, es- tuvo conformado por 2 niños (J. y R.), de
colarizados en el aula especializada de un 5 y 6 años de edad, respectivamente, y un
88
Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA
Los contenidos de las actividades (de tomó para evitar posibles variables ex-
dificultad equivalente en ambas condicio- trañas relacionadas con el aprendizaje de
nes) no habían sido trabajados anterior- nuevas estrategias, ya que los estudiantes
mente en el aula. Todos los estudiantes habían seguido siempre ese mismo método
participaron en las dos condiciones ins- en el aula para trabajar tareas de etique-
truccionales, empezando por la condición tado verbal y pensamiento secuencial con
de aprendizaje sin error. Esta decisión se otros contenidos conceptuales.
89
María MORALO y Manuel MONTANERO
mica de trabajo era diferente. Se les mos- repasar todas las palabras trabajadas en
traba dos tarjetas-dibujo (verbalizando sesiones anteriores, por lo que, a medida
su etiqueta verbal) y una sola tarjeta-pa- que avanzaban las sesiones, se incremen-
labra que el sujeto debía asociar. Tras la taba el número de palabras a repasar.
asociación del primer dibujo con su pala-
bra, se colocaba sobre la mesa otra tarje- Nivel II
ta-dibujo, de modo que siempre estuvie- En el nivel de mayor dificultad las se-
ran presentes dos dibujos. Este proceso siones se distribuyeron en tres fases: cla-
se repetía hasta repasar la totalidad de sificación, designación y denominación de
palabras trabajadas anteriormente. Al conceptos opuestos.
igual que antes, no permitíamos que se
equivocara al asociar la tarjeta-palabra • En la fase de clasificación se presen-
con la tarjeta-dibujo que le correspondía, taban dos bandejas, en las que se
de modo que, antes de que llegara a unir- iban depositando las tarjetas-dibujo
los, la maestra le sujetaba la mano mien- a trabajar (por ejemplo, los conceptos
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Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA
ejemplo, «¿cómo lo has hecho?, muy bien, 2.5. Evaluación del proceso
está fenomenal»). En el caso de que el y resultados del aprendizaje
alumno tomara conciencia espontánea- Durante las sesiones que acabamos de
revista española de pedagogía
mente del error, se permitía que lo corri- describir se registró en soporte de papel
giera, quitando las figuras en las que se cada uno de los aciertos, errores y ayudas
había equivocado. Después se retiraba la que los sujetos recibieron. Nótese que,
pauta-corrección para que colocara las fi- aunque en la modalidad sin error los niños
guras geométricas siguiendo solo el ejem- no llegaban a cometerlos físicamente, era
plo de la serie-modelo. Si no se daba cuen- posible detectarlos en la intención inicial.
ta del error, se le proporcionaba una serie
de ayudas, de menor a mayor intensidad, Dado que en las tareas de etiquetado
según el orden que aparece en la Tabla 2, verbal, los conceptos trabajados se volvían
hasta que conseguía corregirlo. a repasar en las sesiones siguientes de un
modo acumulativo, se discriminó entre dos
Nivel II tipos de errores: nuevos (con palabras in-
En el nivel de mayor dificultad se em- troducidas por primera vez en cada sesión)
plearon dos historias de cinco viñetas y o repetidos (con palabras que habían sido
otras dos de seis, que el estudiante debía presentadas anteriormente).
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Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA
95
María MORALO y Manuel MONTANERO
3. Resultados
3.1. Etiquetado verbal
Globalmente, los sujetos registraron con error durante las tareas de etiquetado
un porcentaje total de aciertos ligeramen- verbal (Tabla 3), aunque las diferencias no
te superior en la modalidad de aprendizaje resultaron estadísticamente significativas.
Tabla 3. Total de aciertos y errores en el conjunto de las sesiones de etiquetado verbal.
Condición Nivel I Nivel II
Resultados
instruccional J. R. A. P.
Aciertos 133 136 140 142
Aprendizaje sin error Errores nuevos 9 7 4 2
Errores repetidos 2 1 0 0
Aciertos 138 141 141 144
Aprendizaje con error Errores nuevos 2 1 3 0
Errores repetidos 4 2 0 0
Fuente: Elaboración propia.
Los alumnos del nivel I (con menor com- En el grupo de nivel II (de mayor com-
petencia curricular) acertaron el 96.9 % de petencia curricular) los estudiantes obtu-
las veces al emparejar las tarjetas-dibujo y vieron un 99 % de aciertos en la modalidad
las tarjetas-palabra en el conjunto de las 16 con error y un 97.9 % en la modalidad de
sesiones de la modalidad de aprendizaje con aprendizaje sin error. Todos los fallos se
error, y un 93.4 % en la modalidad sin error. cometieron en la fase de clasificación y
ninguno durante el repaso. Si exceptua-
año 77, nº 272, enero-abril 2019, 85-101
Al igual que en la anterior tarea, los riores con esos mismos contenidos, por
estudiantes consiguieron más aciertos en lo que fueron clasificados como errores
la modalidad de aprendizaje con error: nuevos.
un 91.7 % (frente a un 74.3 % en la con-
dición sin error) en el caso de los suje- El repertorio de ayudas registradas
tos de menor nivel de competencia (nivel fue más variado que en las tareas de
I); y un 88.6 % (frente a un 87.5 %) en el etiquetado verbal. Como se aprecia en
caso de los sujetos de mayor competen- el Gráfico 1, las ayudas más frecuentes
cia (nivel II). Las principales diferencias fueron también las focalizaciones con
14
12
10
8 Eficaces
Fallidas
6
0
FDE FDM CDE CDM CJE CJM IE CM
un Trastorno de Espectro Autista (TEA). corrección, así como una secuencia proto-
En general los sujetos cometieron pocos colizada de ayudas de feedback. Ayudas de
errores, especialmente en las tareas de baja intensidad, como la simple focaliza-
revista española de pedagogía
etiquetado verbal1, y en las últimas sesio- ción de la atención de los estudiantes sobre
nes alcanzaron tasas de acierto cercanas al determinadas claves visuales de la tarea,
90 %. resultaron en la mayoría de las ocasiones
suficientes para culminar con éxito el pro-
Aunque las diferencias entre las condi- ceso de autocorrección.
ciones de aprendizaje con y sin error han
resultado muy pequeñas en los estudian- Sin bien es cierto que el número de
tes de mayor nivel de competencia, en la errores repetidos fue también algo superior
tarea de pensamiento secuencial hemos en la condición de aprendizaje con error,
encontrado una diferencia significativa resultó también muy bajo, por lo que no se
entre el promedio de aciertos registrado en puede concluir una mayor vulnerabilidad
el nivel de competencia más bajo, a favor por el hecho de permitir equivocarse.
de la modalidad de aprendizaje con error.
Este resultado sugiere que los estudiantes En definitiva, los resultados ponen al
con TEA pueden beneficiarse de situacio- menos en duda la conveniencia de utili-
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Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA
99
María MORALO y Manuel MONTANERO
treatment alternative: The law of parsimony chology and Psychiatry, 35 (6), 1015-1032.
applied to choosing appropriate instructional Riviére, A. y Núñez, M. (1996). La Mirada Mental.
control and errorless learning procedures for Psicología Cognitiva y Educación. Buenos Ai-
the difficult-to-teach child. Journal of Autism res: Aique.
revista española de pedagogía
and Developmental Disorders, 9 (4), 361-382. Russell, J. (2000). El autismo como tratamiento de
Fentress, G. M. y Lerman, D. C. (2012). A compari- la función ejecutiva. Madrid: Medica Paname-
son of two prompting procedures for teaching ricana.
basic skills to children with autism. Research in Smith, T. (2001). Discrete Trial Training in the Treat-
Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6 (3), 1083-1090. ment of Autism. Focus on Autism and Other
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.02.006 Developmental Disabilities, 16 (2), 86-92. doi:
Kaplan, A. (2008). Clarifying Metacognition, https://doi.org /10.1177/108835760101600204
Self-Regulation and Self-Regulated Learning: Thomson, K., Martin, G. L., Arnal, L., Fazzio, D.
What’s the Purpose? Educational Psycholo- y Yu, Z. T. (2009). Instructing individuals to
gy Review, 20 (4), 477-488. doi: http://dx.doi. deliver discrete-trials teaching to children with
org/10.1007/s10648-008-9087-2 autism spectrum disorders: A review. Research
Leaf, J. B., Sheldon, J. B. y Sherman, J. A. (2010). in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3 (3), 590-606.
Comparison of simultaneous prompting and doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2009.01.003
no-no prompting in two-choice discrimination Touchette, P. E. y Howard, J. (1984). Errorless
learning with children with autism. Journal of learning: Reinforcement contingencies and
Applied Behavior Analysis, 43 (2), 215-228. doi: stimulus control transfer in delayed promp-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-215 ting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
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Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA
101
revista española de pedagogía
año 77, nº 272, enero-abril 2019
Spanish Journal of Pedagogy
year 77, n. 272, January-April 2019
Sumario*
Table of Contents**
Estudios
Studies
Francisco López Rupérez, Isabel García García, David Luque
Eva Expósito Casas Desarrollos interpretativos de la filosofía
Rendimiento en ciencias, concepciones epistémicas de la educación en la tradición anglófona:
y vocaciones STEM en las comunidades autónomas un intento de sistematización
españolas. Evidencias desde PISA 2015, políticas y Interpretive developments of the philosophy
prácticas de mejora of education in the anglophone tradition:
Performance in Sciences, epistemic conceptions and STEM an attempt to systematise them 67
vocations in the Spanish Autonomous Communities. Evidence
from PISA 2015, improvement policies and practices 5 Notas
Notes
Zaida Espinosa Zárate
El cultivo de la creatividad para el diálogo María Moralo, Manuel Montanero
intercultural Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA
Cultivating creativity for intercultural dialogue 29 Learning with and without errors in students with ASD 85
* Todos los artículos están también publicados en inglés en la página web de la revista: https://revistadepedagogia.org.
** All the articles are also published in English on the web page of the journal: https://revistadepedagogia.org.
Oihane Fernández-Lasarte, Eider Goñi, Igor Camino, Informaciones
Estibaliz Ramos-Díaz El Profesor Giuseppe Mari. In memoriam (Emanuele
Apoyo social percibido e implicación escolar Balduzzi); III Conferencia Internacional de EuroSoTL:
del alumnado de educación secundaria “Explorando nuevos campos a través de un enfoque
Perceived social support and school engagement académico de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje”;
in secondary students 123 Una visita a la hemeroteca (Ana González-Benito);
Una visita a la red (David Reyero). 191
Jesús-Miguel Muñoz-Cantero, Luisa Losada-Puente
Validación del constructo de autodeterminación
a través de la escala ARC-INICO para adolescentes Instrucciones para los autores
Validation of the construct of self-determination through Instructions for authors 201
the ARC-INICO scale for teenagers 143
85 EV
María MORALO and Manuel MONTANERO
their errors with the necessary help, are ties at varying levels depending on their dis-
very important educational experiences ability and their particular needs (Martín,
for people with and without disabilities Hernández, & Ruíz, 2007). To do this, it is
(Boekaerts, 1999; Cuskelly, Zhang, & Gil- necessary to create a sufficiently predicta-
revista española de pedagogía
more, 1998; Vieillevoye & Nader-Grosbois, ble and structured environment with visual
2008). Students with autism spectrum dis- cues and other types of material and per-
orders (ASD), however, show distinctive sonal resources to facilitate the anticipation
executive functioning disorders (Burgess, and comprehension of activities. In addition,
1997) that limit their ability to adapt to interventions adapted to meet the needs of
changes in their environment and self-reg- each individual may be required, whether
ulate their behaviour (Martos-Pérez, 2005; these be biomedical, sensory-motor, psycho-
Riviére & Núñez, 1996; Russell, 2000). educational, or behavioural (Weiss, Fiske, &
These difficulties manifest themselves in Ferraioli, 2009).
stereotypical and repetitive behaviour in
various activities in everyday life and in a This last type of intervention is prin-
lack of strategic behaviour, that is, sequenc- cipally aimed at facilitating functional
es of actions consciously aimed at attain- learning of skills using various modelling,
ing a goal (Kaplan, 2008; Ozonoff, Strayer, chaining, immediate reinforcement, etc.,
McMahon, & Filloux, 1994). techniques that have proven to be useful
86 EV
Learning with and without errors in students with ASD
with students with ASD (Martos-Pérez & In comparison with other similar strat-
Llorente-Comí, 2013; Mulas et al., 2010). egies, like no-no-prompt (in which stu-
The activities are structured in brief learn- dents are permitted to make errors up to
ing sequences that are repeated as often two consecutive times when performing
as needed, as is done in the discrete trial a task) or the instructive-feedback tech-
training (DTT) approach (Lovaas, 1981; nique (which does not explicitly avoid er-
Thomson et al., 2009; Smith, 2001). rors), it has been shown that MTL reduc-
es the probability of failure and increases
One of the principles that frequently the likelihood that the skill learnt will be
guides the design of these activities is er- retained over time, but it does not favour
rorless learning. This essentially involves autonomy and self-regulation of the learn-
providing a type of feedback in highly ing process and can be less effective than
structured learning tasks in such a way other alternatives (Fentress & Lerman,
that at all times the student is prevented 2012).
from making errors (Touchette & Howard,
1984). This principle derives from the fact Despite their extensive use in inter-
that people with ASD tend to fix in their ventions with people with ASD, we do not
memory any errors they make in the yet have sufficient proof of the effective-
learning process to an unusual extent, to ness on curriculum content of errorless
the extent that it can get in the way of the learning approaches. The strategies de-
acquisition of certain skills, such as read- scribed above benefit some subjects but
ing, or the acquisition of concepts, and not others, this depending on a range of
Disorders (ASD), aged between 5 and 8 curricular competency: year three of early
and educated in the special class of a main- childhood education. Level II comprised a
stream primary school, took part. Once the boy and a girl (A. and P.) of 7 and 8 years of
appropriate consent was obtained and the age, with a curricular competency level of
revista española de pedagogía
the teacher noted that the student was and a variety of material and verbal help
about to make a mistake, she used physi- was provided (listed below).
cal guidance, moving the student’s hand
towards the correct card. In the trial As two competence levels were worked
and error learning approach, however, with, a total of 8 learning activities were de-
students were allowed to make mistakes signed. These are summarised in Table 1.
Sequential Sequential
Task Verbal labelling Verbal labelling
thinking thinking
8 series of 8 series of
3 geometric 3 geometric
shapes (one figures (one
16 concrete and 16 concrete and
Level I 2 joint variable joint variable
familiar concepts. familiar concepts.
and another and another
differentiating differentiating
one). one).
4 temporal 4 temporal
8 less concrete sequences of 5 8 less concrete sequences of 5
Level II 2 and familiar to 6 sketches and familiar to 6 sketches
The content of the activities (of 2.3. Materials revista española de pedagogía
equivalent difficulty in both approach- Various cards and work sheets were de-
es) had not previously been covered in signed for doing the learning activities in
class. All of the students took part in both the errorless and trial and error ap-
both teaching methods, starting with proaches. These are described below:
the errorless learning method. This
decision was taken to avoid potential 2.3.1. Verbal labelling tasks
extraneous variables relating to learn- At the first level, 32 concrete and fa-
ing new strategies, as the students had miliar concepts were covered in verbal
always followed the errorless learning labelling: 16 for the errorless approach
method in the classroom when work- and another 16 for the trial and error ap-
ing on verbal labelling and sequential proach. In both teaching approaches, the
thinking tasks with other conceptual words used to express these concepts had
content. the same number of syllables (from 2 to
89 EV
María MORALO and Manuel MONTANERO
4). To prevent reading errors when using grey and the other light grey. All of the
the direct lexical route, none of the words flash-cards are stuck to a sheet of blue
in either teaching method started with cardboard to make it possible to identify
the same syllables. Each of the concepts them clearly.
selected was represented with a picture
and a word written on two laminated 2.3.2. Sequential thinking tasks
cards: 16 picture cards and 16 word cards To teach sequential thinking at lev-
for each teaching method. In addition, for el I, 16 work sheets were used, each
the trial and error learning method, an- showing a series of 3 geometric shapes
other 16 correction cards were prepared, (8 cards for the errorless learning ap-
with the image from the picture card and proach and another 8 for the trial and
the concept from the word card below it. error approach). The series of geometric
In other words, the final result of asso- shapes shared one common variable (the
ciating the picture card with the correct geometric shape) and another differen-
word card. tiating variable (the colour). At the top
of the card, there was a model-series
At level II, another 16 concepts were the students have to try to repeat (for
covered (8 in each approach). These were example, three squares and inside them
also selected at random, but were more a blue triangle, a green triangle and a
abstract and less familiar than at level red triangle). At the bottom of the card
I. As the subjects had already acquired there was a block with nine empty cells
based literacy skills, the dynamic of the (a similar pattern to the one in the upper
year 77, n. 272, January-April 2019, 85-101
activity was also somewhat more complex. part, but empty), where the student had
The concepts were worked on in pairs, to repeat the model series. The series to
matching opposing concepts. Instead of work on each day were picked at ran-
representing one single concept, as in the dom. In addition, for the trial and error
revista española de pedagogía
previous level, the picture cards showed learning approach, 4 correction series
a pair of antonyms (for example, in the were prepared with the correct series of
case of the light and dark concepts, there geometric shapes already in place and
would be a dark red book on one card and stuck down.
a light red book on the other; two other
cards would show a light blue comb and Instead of geometric shapes, level II
a dark blue one, etc.). In the trial and er- involved working on sequential think-
ror teaching approach, flash-cards were ing with 8 temporal sequences from a
used instead of the word cards (for each story (4 sequences for each method). To
pair of concepts to learn). The flash-cards do so, the Schubi 1 and Schubi 2 tem-
represented the concepts using images poral sequences speech therapy material
based on the Picture Exchange Commu- was used with 5 and 6 cartoons per se-
nication System (PECS). For example, for quence. A series of cartoons portrayed,
the concepts of light and dark, the flash for example, a man sitting down on a
cards were two laminated cards, one dark sofa to read the newspaper and sitting
90 EV
Learning with and without errors in students with ASD
on a cat because he has not seen it. The sions with errorless learning and another
allocation of sequences was done at 16 with trial and error learning, includ-
random, but using the same number of ing the revision activities). At level II
cartoons in each method. In addition, in each of the students performed 3 sessions
the trial and error learning approach, per week (one day working on classifying
correction cards were prepared with the concepts, one on identifying them, and
sequence of cartoons already in the cor- another on naming them). In total, there
rect order. were 24 sessions (12 with errorless learn-
ing and 12 with trial and error learning).
2.3.3. Evaluation record Each session lasted approximately 5 min-
To evaluate the process and learning utes.
outcomes of the two teaching methods
(trial and error and errorless), a direct ob- Level I
servation record was kept. This comprised The procedure for carrying out the ses-
a table on which the name of the student, sions at the lower level of difficulty was
session number, and type and level of the always the same:
task to be worked on were listed before
the start of the session. At the end of the 1) The first picture card was presented
session, the number of correct answers and the corresponding word said aloud,
given by the student was noted down. We then the word card was presented
also recorded the number of new and re- straight away, and the sequence was
peated errors and how often effective help repeated with a second word.
card or position; once they were correct- described for errorless learning, with
ly linked the student would be asked to the exception that, if the subject made a
read it. mistake, the teacher would show the cor-
rection card. This process was repeated
In the review activities, the working until all of the words covered in previous
dynamic was different. The students were sessions had been reviewed, and so, as the
shown two picture cards (with the teacher sessions advanced, the number of words to
reading the verbal label aloud) and a sin- review increased.
gle word card that the student had to link.
After associating the first picture with its Level II
word, another picture card was placed on At the more advanced level, the ses-
the table so that there were always two sions were split into three phases: classi-
pictures present. This process was repeat- fying, identifying, and naming opposite
ed until all of the words previously covered concepts.
had been reviewed. As before, the student
was not allowed to make any errors when • In the classification phase, two trays
associating the word card with the corre- were provided into which the picture
sponding picture card, and so before the cards being worked on would be placed
student could link them the teacher would (for example, the wide-narrow con-
take his or her hand and guide it towards cepts). The teacher would first show
the correct position while repeating the a flash card with a drawing represent-
written word. ing the concept (wide), say the name
year 77, n. 272, January-April 2019, 85-101
the errorless learning method. The only its name aloud, and put it in the oth-
difference was that possible errors in the er tray. After this, the teacher showed
drawing-word association were not pre- each picture card and said its name
vented. When this happened, they were aloud, but the student would put them
shown a different card (correction card), in one tray or the other, as appropri-
which showed the correct drawing-word ate until all 24 picture cards had been
relationship, so that they could correct used (12 representing the concept nar-
it. If they did not correct themselves, the row and the other 12 the concept wide,
teacher would provide simple help by fo- in this case).
cussing attention on the card. When the • Once the students had done the classi-
students made the correct association, fication without errors, they moved on
they would be asked to read the word. to the identification phase. Using the
instruction «give me…», the student
During the review, the working dy- was asked to hand over one of the cards
namic was also very similar to the one from one concept or the other (they
92 EV
Learning with and without errors in students with ASD
ture: first…, second…, third…, and fi- during the verbal labelling tasks (Table 3),
nally…). although the differences were not statisti-
cally significant.
In the errorless learning approach,
before children could pick up the wrong The students from level I (with less
sketch, their hand would be guided to the curricular competence) gave the right an-
previous sketch, which was already cor- swer 96.9 % of the time when matching
rectly placed, with the instruction «look the picture cards and word cards over the
closely here…». 16 sessions in the trial and error learning
approach, and 93.4 % of the time in the er-
In the trial and error approach, the rorless learning approach.
subjects were given as many consecutive
instances of help as needed, in the order In the errorless learning approach,
shown in Table 2, until they placed the most of the errors made were new ones:
correct drawing. 5.6 % compared with 1 % new errors in the
94 EV
Learning with and without errors in students with ASD
Error
An error is jointly indicated and the
identification «Take it off.» «Take it off.»
student is encouraged to correct it.
(EI)
Table 3. Total correct answers and errors in all of the verbal labelling sessions.
Level I Level II
Teaching approach Result
J. R. A. P.
Correct answers 133 136 140 142
Errorless learning New errors 9 7 4 2
Repeated errors 2 1 0 0
Correct answers 138 141 141 144
Trial and error
New errors 2 1 3 0
learning
Repeated errors 4 2 0 0
Source: Own elaboration.
trial and error learning approach. In con- In the level II group (with greater cur-
trast, the percentage of repeated errors in riculum competence), the students gave
the review activities was slightly higher 99 % correct answers in the trial and error
in the trial and error learning approach learning approach and 97.9 % in the error-
(2.1 %, compared with 1 % in the errorless less learning approach. All of the errors
approach). In other words, the students were made in the classification phase and
made fewer errors but the ones they did none during the review. If we exclude the
make were more persistent than in the first verbal labelling session in level II, the
trial and error learning approach. For ex- overall performance of the subjects was very
ample, in the trial and error learning ap- similar in both learning approaches.
year 77, n. 272, January-April 2019, 85-101
cases the children were able to self-correct after which the subject always managed to
the error. correct the error.
Table 4. Total correct answers and errors in all of the sequential thinking sessions.
Level I Level II
Teaching approach Result
J. R. A. P.
Correct answers 54 53 40 37
Errorless learning New errors 18 19 4 7
Repeated errors 0 0 0 0
Correct answers 66 66 40 38
Trial and error
New errors 6 6 4 6
learning
Repeated errors 0 0 0 0
Source: Own elaboration.
96 EV
Learning with and without errors in students with ASD
As in the previous task, students gave The set of types of help recorded was more
more correct answers in the trial and er- varied than in the verbal labelling tasks. As
ror learning approach: 91.7 % (compared shown in Graph 1, the most frequent types of
with 74.3 % in the errorless approach) in help were also focussing with descriptions by
the case of the students from level I, and the student (FDS). At level I, 12 instances of this
88.6 % (compared with 87.5 %) in the case type of help were recorded (83.3% of which led
of the students from level II. The main directly to self-correction of the error). In addi-
differences between the two teaching tion, 2 cases of focussing with description by the
approaches regarding success in order- teacher (FDT) were also recorded, as well as 2
ing the sequences were mainly observed comparisons with description by the student
in the period corresponding to sessions (CDS), and 2 comparisons with description by
2, 3, and 4 at level I, a level where the the teacher (CDT), although only the last type
difference between the average number was effective. At level II, 10 FDS were given
of correct answers in the errorless learn- (with an effectiveness of 50%), 5 FDT (40%), 3
ing sessions (6.7) and in trial and error CDT (66.6%), and 1 comparison with explana-
97 EV
María MORALO and Manuel MONTANERO
ulated learning situations, where they are atively large number of measurements of
helped to review and correct their own er- the execution of the tasks by the students,
rors in logical sequencing tasks (geomet- we cannot guarantee that we controlled
ric shapes) and pragmatic tasks (stories). for certain extraneous variables.
revista española de pedagogía
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year 77, n. 272, January-April 2019, 85-101
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2153-1180
101 EV
revista española de pedagogía
año 77, nº 272, enero-abril 2019
Spanish Journal of Pedagogy
year 77, n. 272, January-April 2019
Table of Contents
Sumario
Studies Notes
Estudios Notas
Francisco López Rupérez, Isabel García García, María Moralo, Manuel Montanero
Eva Expósito Casas Learning with and without errors in students with ASD
Performance in science, epistemic conceptions, and STEM Aprendizaje con y sin error en estudiantes con TEA 85
vocations in Spain’s autonomous communities: evidence
Antonio Portela Pruaño, José Miguel Nieto Cano, Ana
from PISA 2015, improvement policies, and practices
Torres Soto
Rendimiento en Ciencias, concepciones epistémicas y
Re-engagement in education and training of young
vocaciones STEM en las comunidades autónomas españolas.
people who leave education early: the importance
Evidencias desde PISA 2015, políticas y prácticas de mejora 5
of earlier prior trajectories
Zaida Espinosa Zárate La reincorporación formativa de jóvenes
Cultivating creativity for intercultural dialogue que abandonan tempranamente la educación:
El cultivo de la creatividad para el diálogo intercultural 29 relevancia de su trayectoria previa 103
This is the English version of the research articles and book reviews published orig-
inally in the Spanish printed version of issue 272 of the revista española de pe-
dagogía. The full Spanish version of this issue can also be found on the journal's
website http://revistadepedagogia.org.