Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
PROFESOR GUÍA:
DIEGO MORATA CÉSPEDES
MIEMBROS DE LA COMISIÓN:
MARTIN REICH MORALES
CLAUDIA CANNATELLI
SANTIAGO MAZA ROBLES
Este trabajo ha sido financiado por el Centro de Excelencia en Geotermia de los Andes (CEGA),
proyecto FONDAP-CONICYT 15090013
SANTIAGO DE CHILE
2020
RESUMEN DE LA MEMORIA PARA OPTAR
AL TÍTULO DE: Geóloga y grado de Magíster en
Ciencias, mención Geología
POR: Romina Gallardo Tapia
FECHA: Abril 2020
PROFESOR GUÍA: Diego Morata Céspedes
Una compleja evolución hidrotermal fue documentada en el SGNC a través del análisis de
la mineralogía secundaria presente. Cuatro etapas conforman la secuencia paragenética de este
sistema, a lo largo de las cuales se constatan un calentamiento inicial, condiciones de ebullición, la
infiltración de aguas someras y un cambio en las condiciones de temperatura y/o pH de los fluidos
hidrotermales profundos, respectivamente. Más aún, la distribución espacial de los minerales
secundarios ilustra el desarrollo de tres zonas de alteración hidrotermal, observándose en níveles
someros la presencia de alteración argílica que grada con la profundidad a una alteración sub-
propilítica y finalmente propilítica. En particular, la zona de alteración sub-propilítica comprende
el desarrollo del clay cap, elemento clave en la configuración espacial del SGNC. Este último
restringe la circulación de los fluidos hidrotermales a estructuras secundarias, y delimita un
dominio somero dominado por la circulación de fluidos ácidos sulfatados calentados por vapor,
asociados a la interacción con volátiles magmáticos, respecto de un dominio profundo controlado
por la presencia de aguas neutras cloruradas de baja salinidad.
Este estudio ilustra la importante función de los minerales de alteración hidrotermal como
registros de las condiciones acaecidas durante la evolución de los sistemas hidrotermales.
Adicionalmente, se constata el rol del clay cap como regulador de la circulación de los fluidos
hidrotermales, y como elemento que aísla dominios determinados por distintas condiciones
fisicoquímicas. Finalmente, el modelo de alteración hidrotermal presentado para el SGNC se
configura como una contribución a la exploración de los sistemas geotermales andinos cuyo
contexto geológico y características geoquímicas sean afines con las descritas para el SGNC.
i
A mis padres y hermanos
ii
AGRADECIMIENTOS
En primer lugar quisiera agradecer a mi profesor guía, el Dr. Diego Morata, por brindarme
la oportunidad de realizar este estudio de Magíster, período durante el cual su guía, apoyo y
confianza en mi trabajo aportaron de forma invaluable a mi desarrollo profesional. De igual forma
agradezco a los profesores Martin Reich y Claudia Cannatelli, por su excelente disposición frente
a las inquietudes surgidas y por sus diversas indicaciones que potenciaron este estudio, y a Santiago
Maza, por toda su colaboración y las reiteradas conversaciones que mejoraron esta investigación.
De igual forma agradezco a Diego Aravena, Angello Negri y todos quienes me apoyaron
durante la realización de las dificultosas salidas a terreno, instancias en las cuales pude ahondar en
discusiones respecto a esta tesis. Este trabajo no habría sido posible sin la colaboración de Verónica
Rodríguez y Érica de las Mercedes Rojas en las tareas desarrolladas en el Laboratorio de
Geoquímica del CEGA, y Roberto Valles y Julio Díaz, en el trabajo realizado en los laboratorios
del Departamento de Geología. En la misma línea quiero agradecer a Christian Nievas por sus
enseñanzas y consejos respecto a el trabajo realizado con el SEM, a Andrés Ibáñez por su ayuda
con los análisis de XRD y a Estefanía Camus por todos sus consejos sobre las actividades
desarrolladas en el Laboratorio de Arcillas del CEGA.
Un ámbito de desarrollo importante para este estudio tuvo lugar en la convivencia con los
compañeros de la sala de posgrado y las instancias en donde se promovió el diálogo con el resto de
los colaboradores del CEGA. Este trabajo no habría sido igual de grato y estimulante sin estas
interacciones, y sobre todo sin el soporte que diversas personas en estos círculos me brindaron de
forma reiterada y desinteresada. Agradezco también a Rodrigo Pérez por su cariño, generosidad y
respaldo incesante durante el desarrollo de este proyecto.
También quisiera mencionar y agradecer el continuo apoyo que recibí por parte de
Bernardette Vásquez, Karin Rojas, Blanca Baccola y Maritza Acuña, quiénes me guiaron a través
de los diversos trámites administrativos que competen a los programas de posgrado y pregrado.
Quiero agradecer especialmente a mis padres y hermanos por todo el amor, apoyo y
contención que me han brindado a lo largo de toda mi vida, impulsándome a través de innumerables
inquietudes. Ustedes son mi ejemplo y mi orgullo.
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TABLA DE CONTENIDO
iv
2.6.3. Characterization of hydrothermal fluids ...........................................................................20
2.6.3.1. Surface manifestations.....................................................................................................20
2.6.3.2. Deep-seated hydrothermal fluids ...................................................................................21
2.6.4. Hydrothermal evolution and conceptual model of the NCGS .......................................22
2.7. CONCLUDING REMARKS ...............................................................................................23
2.8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................24
2.9. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................24
2.10. FIGURES .................................................................................................................................33
2.11. TABLES ...................................................................................................................................43
CAPÍTULO 3: DISCUSIONES.................................................................................................. 46
BIBLIOGRAFÍA ......................................................................................................................... 51
ANEXOS ...................................................................................................................................... 57
ANEXO A: Análisis petrográfico ........................................................................................... 57
A.1. Referencias geológicas .................................................................................................. 57
A.2. Descripciones petrográficas ........................................................................................... 59
ANEXO B: Análisis XRD ........................................................................................................ 78
B.1. Minerales de arcilla documentados en el pozo Nieblas-1 ............................................. 78
B.2. Difractogramas de los minerales de arcilla.................................................................... 79
ANEXO C. Análisis químico de aguas termales ................................................................... 89
C.1. Diagramas ternarios ....................................................................................................... 89
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ÍNDICE DE FIGURAS
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ÍNDICE DE TABLAS
viii
CAPÍTULO 1: INTRODUCCIÓN
El primer capítulo de este trabajo consiste en una introducción general donde se explicitan
la motivación, objetivos e hipótesis, bajo las cuales se enmarca este estudio. En el segundo capítulo
se detalla el contexto geológico, las metodologías empleadas, los resultados y las discusiones
desarrolladas en esta investigación. Este capítulo corresponde a un manuscrito en preparación,
titulado “Hydrothermal evolution of the Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System, Southern Andes”.
El tercer capítulo resume las conclusiones principales de este trabajo.
1.2. Motivación
Los sistemas geotermales, originados dada la interacción entre una fuente de calor, rocas
permeables y fluidos que actúan como agentes de transporte del calor (Goff and Janik, 1999;
Pirajno, 2009), constituyen sistemas hidrotermales dinámicos comúnmente presentes en regiones
tectónicamente activas (Goff and Janik, 1999; Henley and Ellis, 1983).
Figura 1: Modelo conceptual para sistemas geotermales hospedados en volcanes. Modificado de Henley & Ellis (1983)
y Stimac et al. (2015).
Figura 2: Sección esquemática de un sistema hidrotermal volcano-magmático, ilustrando los tipos de alteración
comunes en sistemas hidrotermales mineralizados y la caracterización de los fluidos hidrotermales en dichas zonas.
Modificado de Stimac et al. (2015).
4
1.2.2. Desarrollo de la geotermia en Chile
Figura 3: Ubicación de las áreas termales de interés en Chile. Tomado de Aravena et al. (2016).
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se tradujo en la caracterización en mayor detalle de zonas prioritarias en el sur de Chile (Sepúlveda
et al., 2004; Sepúlveda and Lahsen, 2003). Finalmente, el proyecto FONDAP – Centro de
Excelencia en Geotermia de los Andes (CEGA), asociado a la Universidad de Chile, ha abordado
la investigación de los sistemas geotermales a partir de 2011 a lo largo de todo el territorio chileno.
Si bien la investigación de los sistemas geotermales en Chile data desde fines del siglo XX,
a la fecha el área abarcada por el territorio nacional sigue siendo una de las zonas con menor
desarrollo geotérmico a nivel mundial (Aravena et al., 2016; Lahsen et al., 2005; Sepúlveda et al.,
2005).
Las características geológicas de este sistema están enmarcadas por la presencia del CVNC,
que a su vez se encuentra supeditado a la presencia de un lineamiento de orientación NNW que
constriñe el desarrollo espacial de la actividad volcánica (Stanton-Yonge et al., 2016). Granitoides,
secuencias volcano-sedimentarias y lavas cenozoicas conforman la base del edificio volcánico.
Desde el Pleistoceno medio al presente, ignimbritas y lavas han conformado el edificio volcánico
propiamente tal, concentrándose la actividad volcánica en dos subcomplejos desde los 40 ka.
(Deruelle and Deruelle, 1974; Dixon et al., 1999; Naranjo et al., 2008).
A pesar de que la realización de los primeros estudios del SGNC datan de 1978, y de que
este sistema es considerado como un área geotermal de alto interés, a la fecha no se cuentan con
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estudios que integren el contexto geológico con las propiedades geoquímicas del sistema con el fin
de elaborar un modelo que sea consistente con ambas características.
1.3. Objetivos
El objetivo principal de esta tesis reside en la determinación de los factores principales que
enmarcaron el desarrollo del SGNCh, y en la evaluación del rol de dichos factores en la evolución
y configuración actual del sistema.
1.5.1. Publicaciones
Gallardo R., Morata, D., Reich, M., Cannatelli, C., Maza, S. Hydrothermal evolution of the
Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System, Southern Andes (manuscript in preparation). (Capítulo
2).
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1.5.2. Resúmenes en congresos
Gallardo, R., Morata, D., Maza, S., Cannatelli, C. Geochemical evolution of Nevados de Chillán
Geothermal System: Evidences from hydrothermal alteration in well Nieblas-1. XV Congreso
Geológico Chileno. Noviembre 18-23, 2018. Concepción, Chile.
Gallardo, R., Morata, D., Maza, S., Cannatelli, C. Hydrothermal alteration in Nevados de Chillán
Geothermal System: Constraints regarding the chemical and thermal evolution of an active
geothermal system. AGU Fall Meeting. December 10-14, 2018. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
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CAPÍTULO 2: HYDROTHERMAL EVOLUTION OF THE NEVADOS DE CHILLÁN
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM, SOUTHERN ANDES
Romina Gallardo1*, Diego Morata1, Martin Reich1, Claudia Cannatelli1, Santiago Maza1
1
Deparment of Geology and Andean Geothermal Center of Excellence (CEGA), Facultad de
Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile, Plaza Ercilla 803, Santiago, Chile.
2.1. ABSTRACT
The interplay between a heat source, secondary permeability and hydrothermal fluids grants
geothermal systems with a highly dynamic environment where evolving physico-chemical
conditions are recorded in the alteration mineralogy. A comprehensive characterization of
hydrothermal alteration is therefore essential when deciphering the major components along the
development of a geothermal system. In this study we define the geochemical evolution of the
Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System (NCGS) in the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) of the
central Andes, where a direct association with a currently active volcanic complex and vertically-
inhibited fluid circulation conform the regional framework of the system.
In order to characterize the secondary mineralogy present at the NCGS we integrated optical
petrography, SEM observations, XRD analysis and microthermometric measurements along the
1000 m-depth well, Nieblas-1. The evolution of the system is outlined by four paragenetic stages,
where the main processes identified for each phase are heating, boiling, mixing of fluids and re-
equilibration to new physico-chemical conditions, respectively. Additionally, three hydrothermal
zones were recognized: an upper argillic section, an intermediate sub-propylitic zone and a deep
propylitic domain. Thermal springs sampled are characterizaed by pH values between 2.4 - 5.9 and
high SO4-- concentrations (>290 ppm). These acid-suflfate steam-heated waters depict the
contribution of primary magmatic volatiles to the hydrothermal system. Alunite recorded in the
alteration haloes of veinelts between 170 – 230 m-depth denote the circulation of acid fluids at
these levels. It is likely that at the depths mentioned the condensation of magmatic volatiles into
shallow aquifers conforms the recharge area of the superficial thermal manifestations. Conversely,
deep-seated hydrothermal fluids correspond to near-neutral chloride fluids, with salinities ranging
from 0.1 to 6.9 wt.% NaCl eq. The distribution of illite/smectite and chlorite/smectite mixed-
layered minerals outlines the presence of a significative clay-cap, which in this system, separates
the steam heated domain from the deep hydrothermal realm and restricts fluids circulation to
existing, permeable channels.
2.2. INTRODUCTION
Studies of hydrothermal alteration have proven to be an essential implement not only when
defining the existing architecture of geothermal and epithermal systems, but also when unraveling
the framework under which they were developed (Moore et al., 2000, 2008; Sanchez-Alfaro et al.,
2016a; Simpson and Mauk, 2011). The susceptibility of minerals to changes concerning
temperature and the chemical composition of hydrothermal fluids has enabled the evaluation of
thermodynamic and compositional conditions throughout the different stages developed along the
evolution of hydrothermal systems (Browne, 1978). Moreover, the direct inspection of paleo-
hydrothermal fluids, as done by means of fluid inclusion analysis, has unraveled in an accurate
manner changes of temperature profiles and fluid compositions, and has depicted the different fluid
phases associated to preceding conditions (Hedenquist et al., 1992; Moncada et al., 2012; Sanchez-
Alfaro et al., 2016a).
In addition to fluid/rock interactions, heating, cooling, mixing and boiling of fluids, are also
prevalent processes in geothermal systems (Hedenquist et al., 1992; Moore et al., 2008; Simmons
and Christenson, 1994). These processes have been assessed through the analysis of the alteration
mineralogy and likewise through the chemical analysis of hydrothermal fluids. Notably, the
response of hydrothermal minerals to changes in the physico-chemical conditions has further
clarified the link between magmatic and hydrothermal systems. In locations where such
configuration is present, as in volcano-hosted geothermal systems, changes brought about by the
input of magmatic volatiles are in part mirrored by the presence of highly-acidic hydrothermal
fluids (Rye, 2005; Stimac et al., 2015) and steam heated waters (Giggenbach, 1991; Giggenbach
et al., 1988). Environmental conditions leading to the development of intense hydrothermal
alteration, such as in intrusion related systems, also relates to the presence of highly effective cap-
rocks. The sealing capacity of hydrothermal minerals, especially clays, heightens the enclosure
capacity of cap-rocks. Clay-caps seal hydrothermal systems in regard to temperature, pressure and
enthalpy (Corrado et al., 2014; Maffucci et al., 2016; Sanchez-Alfaro et al., 2016a), thus concerning
critical aspects during the evolution of hydrothermal systems.
The myriad of studies regarding geothermal systems has led to the formulation of several
conceptual models for these systems (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Stimac et al., 2015). These
representations illustrate the key elements that conform the architecture of geothermal systems and
also depict how these components interplay along the evolution of these systems. However, the
numerous factors that play a role in the development of geothermal systems and the geologic
context inherent to each particular system, entails the establishment of detailed characterizations
for each particular system.
Along the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) in the Central Andes, mineral and thermal waters
with the highest temperatures recorded are associated to Quaternary volcanic products of the
contemporaneous volcanic arc, especially in areas where regional-scale structures are present
within or close to the last-mentioned (Hauser, 1997; Sánchez et al., 2013). In this segment, vertical
permeability is promoted by the presence of intra-arc fault systems favorably oriented relative to
the stress field. Such structures support the emplacement of deep convective cells (Sánchez et al.,
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2013; Tardani et al., 2016). Conversely, fault systems emplaced on the volcanic arc but severely
misoriented with respect to the stress field (Arc-oblique Long-lived Fault System, ALFS), inhibit
vertical permeability. This last setting favors the development of magma reservoirs, which later act
as a source of heat and mass for hydrothermal systems (Sánchez et al., 2013; Tardani et al., 2016;
Wrage et al., 2017). These conditions translate into favorable environments for the formation of
evolved, long-lived high-enthalpy geothermal systems (Tardani et al., 2016). Despite the high
geothermal potential of the area and the knowledge acquired, to this day the zone remains as one
of the larger underdeveloped areas concerning geothermal energy (Aravena et al., 2016).
This study centers in the unravelling of Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System (NCGS)
hydrothermal evolution. The NCGS (~ 37ºS) is a highly promising geothermal area in central Chile,
hosted by an active volcanic complex framed by the presence of an ALFS structure. Surface
features include extensive areas with intense hydrothermal alteration, thermal springs, bubbling
pools and fumaroles, with temperatures reaching ~ 120ºC for the last-mentioned (Lahsen, 1978;
Lahsen et al., 2005; Wrage et al., 2017). Two exploration wells have been drilled, providing a
continuous record of the hydrothermal alteration up to ~ 1000 m-depth. Our aim is to provide a
detailed characterization of a highly promising geothermal system that is associated to active
volcanism and where the stress field and permeability orientation does not favor the circulation of
hydrothermal fluids. We performed a systematical analysis of the NCGS alteration mineralogy
along the 1000 m-depth well Nieblas-1. Optical petrography and SEM analysis, used to decode the
NCGS paragenetic stages, were coupled with XRD analysis of clay minerals and
microthermometry measurements in vein minerals to clarify secondary permeability and physico-
chemical constraints of paleo-hydrothermal fluids. Additionally, chemical analysis of thermal
springs were considered to further characterize the chemical signature of the hydrothermal fluids.
Our results illustrate the NCGS present configuration and the key elements along its evolution,
where magmatic contributions and progressive changes in permeability were found to be two of
the major controls.
The Andean Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), located in between 33º and 46ºS, has been
characterized for the last 20 Ma by a geodynamic environment defined by the slightly-oblique,
dextral convergence between the Nazca and South American plates, with modern convergence
rates around 7-9 cm/year (Somoza, 1998; Somoza and Ghidella, 2005). Accordingly,
morphostructural units and magmatism have been developed as north-south oriented belts, parallel
to the convergence margin (Fig. 4.A), with the latter being related to an eastward migration of the
volcanic arc as far as its current position on the Main Cordillera (Charrier et al., 2007; Farías et al.,
2010).
Deformation in the upper crust brought about by the convergent regime is accommodated
by large-scale structures located in the modern volcanic arc (Stanton-Yonge et al., 2016). These
structures comprise fold-and-thrust belts, intra-arc fault systems, and fault zones and alignments of
WNW orientation (Fig. 4.A) which conform the Arc-oblique Long-lived Fault System (ALFS)
(Cembrano and Lara, 2009; Giambiagi and Ramos, 2002; Sielfeld et al., 2019; Stanton-Yonge et
al., 2016). ALFS structures, which are severely disoriented with respect to the present tectonic
regime (Jordan et al., 2001; Lange et al., 2008; Melnick et al., 2006), favor longer residence times
and episodic magma fractionation (Cembrano and Lara, 2009; López Escobar et al., 1995; Stanton-
Yonge et al., 2016), and inhibit vertical fluid permeability (Tardani et al., 2016) in magmatic-
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hydrothermal systems. Despite the former, temporally variable stress regimes, as induced by
megathrust events, shift ALFS behavior to normal slip structures with tensile tractions that can act
as “pumps” when considering the ascent of magmas and geofluids (Sielfeld et al., 2019; Stanton-
Yonge et al., 2016).
In the studied area, the volcanic arc is characterized by the solely presence of a large-scale
ALFS structure, which has framed the development of the Nevados de Chillán Volcanic Complex
(Fig. 4.B) and the Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System (NCGS). The basement of the Nevados
de Chillán Volcanic Complex (NCVC) is composed of Miocene to Early Pleistocene volcano-
sedimentary rocks locally intruded by Miocene granitoids. Volcanic activity in this system dates
from 650 ka. At this point, the formation of the volcanic edifice started, involving subglacial
andesitic lava flows during the late Miocene, subaerial and subglacial effusive pulses during the
Middle Pleistocene, and ignimbrite deposits associated with caldera collapses around 40 ka
(Naranjo et al., 2008). Since then, the volcanic activity has been subjected to the presence of the
ALFS with stratovolcanoes being developed around two subcomplexes above the NNW lineament,
and with the volcanic activity migrating, both in time and composition, from the NW to the SE end
of the lineament (Fig. 4.B). The Cerro Blanco subcomplex, located on the northern end of the
lineament, has been characterized by volcanic products of andesitic to dacitic composition erupted
from the late Pleistocene to the lower Holocene. The Las Termas subcomplex, located on the
southern end of the segment, is instead associated to dacitic-rhyolitic volcanic products erupted
since the late Pleistocene up to the present-day (Deruelle and Deruelle, 1974; Dixon et al., 1999;
Orozco et al., 2016). This last subcomplex currently houses the Nevados de Chillán Geothermal
System (NCGS) surface manifestations (Fig. 4.C).
Thermal springs, boiling pools and fumaroles located on the East and South-East flank of
the NCVC (Fig. 4.C) comprise the superficial hydrothermal features of the NCGS (Fig. 5).
Measured temperatures of these discharge points range between 68º and 96ºC, with saturated and
superheated fumaroles reaching 125ºC (Lahsen et al., 2005; Sepúlveda and Lahsen, 2003; Wrage
et al., 2017). Surrounding these thermal manifestations, patches with intense acid-sulfate
hydrothermal alteration are spotted throughout the area with an abundant presence of clay minerals,
silica products and the precipitation of native sulfur (Fig. 5.D-E) (Lahsen, 1978; Lahsen et al.,
2005). The subsurface hydrothermal activity of the system has been assessed by geophysical
surveys focused on documenting the response of the NCVC to seismic activity. Numerous volcano-
tectonic and tremor events registered within the volcanic edifice, mainly between 1 to 2.5 km depth,
have attested the deep circulation of hydrothermal fluids (Farías et al., 2014).
Geothermal development in the NCGS has been carried out by the Empresa Nacional de
Geotermia (ENG, formerly known as Geotérmica del Norte (GDN)) and has included the drilling
of two exploration wells located in the area with the greatest presence of hydrothermal
manifestations (Fig. 4.C). Chillán-1, drilled in 1995, encompassed ~ 270 m depth. Measured
temperatures in this well reached 198ºC at a depth of 240 m, while geothermometers suggested
temperatures of up to 265ºC for a deeper reservoir (Salgado and Raasch, 2002). Nieblas-1, drilled
to a depth of ~ 1080 m in 2008, recorded temperatures ~ 220ºC at the bottom of the well (Aravena
et al., 2016). Additionally, MT surveys performed in the area have outlined a concave shaped
resistivity anomaly, which has enabled a rough approximation of the volume of the deep reservoir,
ranging from 3.000 to 15.000 km3. In accordance with this data, estimates of the NCGS potential
are in the order of 32 ± 24 MWe (Aravena et al., 2016).
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2.4. SAMPLES AND METHODS
A detailed core logging of the 1000.87 m-depth exploration well Nieblas-1 was performed
in order to document the main features regarding lithology, permeability, and hydrothermal
alteration associated to the NCGS. Thirty-eight representative samples were collected at 30 m
intervals and studied with polarized light microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) techniques. SEM observations were carried out using a FEI Quanta 250
SEM equipped with backscattered electron (BSE), energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS)
and secondary electron (SE) detectors, at the Andean Geothermal Center of Excellence (CEGA),
Universidad de Chile. The operating conditions were: spot size of 4-5 μm, accelerating voltage of
20 kV, beam intensity of 1 nA, and a working distance of 10-11 mm.
In order to establish a temperature profile for the NCGS, borehole temperatures of the two
exploration wells in the area of study—Nevados de Chillán-1 and Nieblas-1—were also
considered.
Thermal waters of two springs located in an area nearby Nieblas-1 exploration well (Fig.
4.C) were sampled at the Las Termas subcomplex. The springs, situated next to each other, were
placed on a intensely altered terrain with an abundant presence of clay minerals, silica and sulfur
(Fig. 5.B-E) without nearby fumaroles. Temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), redox potential
(Eh) and pH were measured in situ. Water samples were filtered with a 0.45 m filter and stored
in pre-cleaned high-density polyethylene bottles. Samples for major cations analysis were acidified
with HNO3 (Suprapur), 4N.
Concentrations of major elements were analyzed at the CEGA, Universidad de Chile. Anion
concentrations were determined by Ion Cromatography (IC, Thermo Scientific Dionex ICS-2100)
and cation concentrations were measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optic Emission
Spectrometry (ICP-OES, PerkinElmer Precisely Optima 7300 V). Silica contents were determined
by Portable Photometer (Hanna HI96705) and HCO3- concentrations were determined by
volumetric titration following the procedures in Giggenbach and Goguel (1989).
The charge balance and ion activity of the thermal waters presented in Table 1 were
computed utilizing The Geochemist’s Workbench software and the thermodynamic data provided
in the thermo.tdat database (Bethke et al., 2019). Thermal waters presenting charge-balance errors
higher than ± 15% were not further considered in the geochemical modelling. Fluid-mineral
equilibrium diagrams were generated with the Act and Tact programs included in the software
above mentioned, considering mineral saturations and temperatures estimated through the
alteration mineralogy and microthermometric measurements.
2.5. RESULTS
The hydrothermal alteration displayed by the andesitic lavas was in overall of low to
moderate intensity, with the primary mineralogy being partially replaced. Secondary minerals in
the andesitic lavas, mainly Fe oxyhydroxides, quartz and clay minerals, were mostly present in
14
vesicles and replacing primary amphibole and pyroxenes, while primary plagioclase phenocrysts
were replaced by Na-plagioclase and clay minerals. Conversely, the volcanoclastic rocks showed
an intense and pervasive hydrothermal alteration, with secondary minerals replacing most of the
primary mineralogy. Feromagnesian phenocrysts were pseudomorphically replaced by Fe
oxyhydroxides, quartz and clay minerals, while plagioclase phenocrists were less altered by clay
minerals. The presence of other secondary minerals, such as calc-silicates minerals, calcite and
calcium zeolites, namely wairakite and laumontite, was mainly developed in vesicles and veinlets
throughout Nieblas-1.
Besides the temporal distribution of the hydrothermal minerals, a vertical zonation of the
alteration mineralogy was documented according to depth. Following the criteria in Gifkins et al.
(2005) and Stimac et al. (2015), three main alteration zones were defined (Fig. 6): an upper argillic
zone in the first 350 m, an intermediate sub-propylitic alteration zone between 350 to 680 m-depth;
a deep propylitic zone documented in the last 410 m of the drill core.
The clay minerals identified in well Nieblas-1 encompass chlorite/smectite (C/S), corrensite
(Co), chlorite (Chl), illite/smectite (I/S) and illite (Ilt) (Fig. 8). Figure 6 displays the different depths
at which these minerals were documented. Co was observed from the shallowest core sample, at
30 m, up to 194 m-depth, with two isolated appearances at 307 and 680 m-depth. Mixed-layer
C/S was documented continuously from the shallower levels, at a depth of 60 m, and last detected
at 680 m-depth. Chl was recorded throughout well Nieblas-1. These minerals, related to the
smectite-to-chlorite transition series, were documented replacing primary mafic phenocrysts and
infilling amygdules and veins (Fig. 7.A). In the case of samples with both Co and C/S or Chl and
C/S, Co and Chl were identified in the outer margins of the domains mentioned, with interstratified
C/S being developed in the inner portions. Representative BSE images displaying the textural
features of these minerals are shown in figure 9. In the shallower levels, long chl crystals fill
amygdules, veins and replace amphibole and pyroxene phenocrysts, associated to Fe
oxyhydroxides and microcrystalline quartz (Fig. 9.A). Moreover, at 276.05 m-depth, chl fills
15
vesicles displaying a slightly curved plate-like morphology in unoriented packets (Fig. 9.B), and is
associated to Fe oxyhydroxides, quartz and latter rhombic calcite. Mixed-layer C/S, observed in
the inner portions of the domains above mentioned, presents the same mineral associations as chl
but shows textural differences regarding the later. Furthermore, at 476.48 m-depth intertsified C/S,
in quartz rimmed vesicles and veins, exhibits a curled flake-like morphology without preferred
orientation (Fig. 9.C). Such textures suggest that these clay minerals are formed primarily through
direct precipitation from hydrothermal fluids (Giorgetti et al., 2003; Yau et al., 1988; Yoneda et
al., 2016).
Regarding the smectite-to-illite transition series, the spatial distribution of mixed-layer I/S
and Ilt is shown in figure 6. Interstratified I/S was documented between 60 and 720 m-depth while
Ilt was only recognized in the deepest levels of Nieblas-1, appearing at 700 m-depth and being
last recorded at 948 m-depth. Unlike the former minerals, the illitic phases were present mainly
in veins. Only at depth below 700 m authigenic Ilt was observed in plagioclase voids (Fig. 9.E).
Typical textures of these minerals phases are presented in figure 9. Mixed-layer I/S was
documented in quartz veins and also coating large epidote grains in quartz veins, in some ocassions
associated to prehnite and minor sulfides. At 276.04 m-depth, interstratified I/S shows a curved
lens-shapped morphology with no preferred orientation (Fig. 9.D). In the deepest levels, Ilt is
present both in veins, associated to quartz, epidote and prehnite, and growing in plagioclase voids
with quartz and minor sulfides. At 935.35 m-depth, authigenic Ilt grows in plagioclase voids
displaying a filamentous texture (Fig. 9.F). The textures described illustrate the crystallization of
the illitic phases directly from hidrothermal fluids, without requiring precursor smectite, and most
likely following dissolution of volcanic glass or feldspar (Bauluz et al., 2002; Giorgetti et al., 2003,
2000; Maza et al., 2018; Pollastro, 1985; Vázquez et al., 2016)
It is noteworthy to point out the absence of samples containing pure smectite all through
the drill core. In spite of the former, a common characteristic observed in both series was a general
decrease in the percentage of expandable layers, i.e. smectite layers, with depth. Moreover, when
considering the smectite-to-illite transition, I/S-R0 with 20% ill was observed at 60 m-depth, I/S-
R0 with 10% Ill at 100 m-depth, I/S-R1 with 55% Ill at 193.75 m-depth and from 276 m-depth I/S-
R3 with > 75% ill was recorded up to the end of the well. The distribution of the percentage of
expandable layers in interstratified I/S minerals describes a sigmoidal curve when plotted against
temperature (Fig 13), with the exception of samples NB 60.00 and NB 193.75, which fall out of
this trend containing 20% and 55% Ill, respectively. However, a point to consider regarding these
samples is the spatial distribution of the I/S mixed-layered minerals, which in these samples are
present only as vein minerals, and were not recognized replacing primary and/or secondary
mineralogy. Therefore, both of these samples were not considered in the curve above described.
The physicochemical features and major elements contents of the thermal waters sampled
in the area of study are presented in Table 1, alongside with data from previous studies in the sector
(Lahsen, 1978; Wrage et al., 2017). The elevated charge-balance errors determined for two of the
samples are likely linked to the highly acidic character of the thermal waters. For such waters, the
shortage of data regarding Fe (II/III) and H+ speciation, and the absence of measurements
concerning common ions in acid fluids (HS-, H2S), conform a source of error when calculating the
charge-balance errors (Nordstrom et al., 2010).
16
Measured temperatures of the spring waters vary between 68 and 92ºC while pH values
range from 2.4 to 5.9, thus revealing a large variation in the H+ concentration of thermal springs
separated by less than 3 m from each other. It cannot be ruled out that geological factors, such as a
local structural control, could be involved in the chemistry of the thermal waters and therefore in
the variations documented above mentioned.The chemical composition of the thermal waters is
characterized by relative high contents of SO4-- (206-881 ppm), and lower concentrations of Ca++
(29-140 ppm), Mg++ (6-65 ppm) and Cl- (0.2-16 ppm), being therefore classified as acid-sulfate
waters according to their major anion concentrations. Furthermore, the SO4---Cl--HCO3-- ternary
diagram implies that the spring fluids correspond to steam-heted waters (Giggenbach, 1991;
Giggenbach and Goguel, 1989), commonly documented in hydrothermal systems associated to
volcanic systems.
Fluid inclusions were analyzed in quartz, calcite and anhydrite veins associated to the
second and third stages of the mineral paragenesis. Microthermometric measurements were
performed only in liquid-rich FIAs of primary origin with consistent liquid-to-vapor ratios. Only
in the case of STG 3 anhydrite, liquid-rich FIAs of pseudosecondary and secondary origin were
analyzed in order to further constraint the physicochemical conditions associated to STG 4 of the
paragenetic sequence. All the homogenization temperatures (Th) and final ice melting temperatures
(Tm) are reported in Table 2. Nonetheless, only Th with a temperature range < 20 ºC for 90% of
the FI measured were considered for further analysis (Bodnar et al., 1985; Goldstein and Reynolds,
1994). First ice melting temperatures –22ºC suggest the presence of mostly H2O-NaCl fluids,
while the absence of halite daughter crystals in all of the FIAs examined limits salinities to < 23
wt.% NaCl eq. No clathrate formation was observed during the microthermometric runs thus
denoting dissolved CO2 concentrations < 3.7 wt% (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985). The
aforementioned considerations allow to model the paleo hydrothermal fluids as pure H2O-NaCl for
further analysis.
FI hosted in calcite and quartz veins were analyzed regarding the second stage of the
mineral paragenesis. All fluid inclusions hosted in quartz crystals presented an irregular shape,
were bi-phase and liquid-rich. Both rhombic and lattice bladed calcite were observed in veins
associated to this stage. Fluid inclusions in rhombic calcite presented triangular, negative crystal
and irregular shapes, with coexisting liquid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions; pseudosecondary
inclusions were irregular, monophase and vapor-rich; secondary inclusions presented oval shapes,
were bi-phase and liquid-rich (Fig. 10.B-C). Fluid inclusions in bladed calcite presented a
triangular shape, with coexisting liquid and vapor-rich inclusions (Fig. 10.A). Homogenization
temperatures for this stage range between 140 and 254 ºC (Table 2), plotting above the boiling
curve for pure water. Th associated to this stage which fall out of the trend mentioned spam from
160 to 230 m-depth. Documented salinities range between 0.2 and 3.14 wt. % NaCl eq (Table 2).
Regarding the third stage of the paragenetic sequence, FI were analyzed in anhydrite and
calcite veins. Associated to this stage, only rhombic calcite was observed, presenting bi-phase
liquid-rich primary FIAs of irregular shape. Secondary inclusions presented a rounded shape, with
coexisting liquid and vapor-rich inclusions, and also liquid-rich inclusions present. Primary fluid
inclusions hosted in anhydrite crystals presented rectangular shapes, were bi-phase and both liquid-
rich and liquid and vapor-rich (Fig. 10.D). Pseudosecondary inclusions observed displayed a
squared shape and were bi-phase and vapor-rich (Fig. 10.E). Secondary inclusions were bi-phase
17
liquid-rich and presented a rectangular shape (Fig. 10.F). Homogenization temperatures recorded
ranged from 155 to 228 ºC (Table 2), showing an overall diminishment of the temperature
compared to stage 2 Th, and being more closely related to the present-day temperatures measured
in the borehole. Secondary inclusions recorded in this stage showed a slightly increase in
temperature. Salinities measured ranged from 0.2 to 6.4 wt. % NaCl eq. (Table 2).
2.6. DISCUSSION
The survey of Nieblas-1 drill core revealed a complex hydrothermal evolution in the NCGS
with a paragenetic sequence outlined by four distinct mineral assemblages (Fig. 11). STG 1,
defined by the presence of iron oxides, mafic phyllosilicates, microcrystalline quartz and
chalcedony, documents the initial heating of the hydrothermal system (Fig. 7.A ,11). The existence
of breccias cemented by this mineral assemblage alongside with the presence of microcrystalline
quartz and chalcedony in veins, both silica phases entailing a high degree of silica supersaturation
(Dong et al., 1995; Fournier, 1985; Shimizu, 2014), suggest and earlier brecciation in the system
with boiling due to the loss of confining pressure (Dong et al., 1995; Moncada et al., 2012).
Decompression in hydrothermal systems has been interpreted as the result of glacier retrieval, flank
collapse in volcanoes and hydraulic fracturing due to an increase in fluid pressure (Marks et al.,
2010; Moore et al., 2002; Ruggieri and Gianelli, 1999), all scenarios being possible in this case.
However, the lack of constraints regarding the timing of the hydrothermal alteration does not allow
to further limit the processes associated to this stage. Towards the end of STG 1, the presence of
alunite in alteration halos denotes the circulation of highly acidic hydrothermal fluids (Hemley et
al., 1980; Moore et al., 2000; Rye et al., 1992). The physicochemical characteristic of these types
of fluids in hydrothermal systems are due to the input of rising steam emanated from a boiling
hydrothermal reservoir and/or as a result of an influx of primary magmatic volatiles (Rye, 2005)
into shallow, relatively oxygenated aquifers. In the case of the NCGS, considering its geologic
context outlined by the presence of volcanic activity since the Pliocene, and taking into account its
spatial and genetic association with the ALFS, it is most likely that the role of the primary magmatic
source involves both, a rise in the geothermal gradient and a mass transfer when considering the
chemical composition of the shallow aquifer.
The second stage of the mineral paragenesis, characterized by the presence of calc-silicate
minerals, mixed-layer I/S and illite clay minerals, and calcite (Fig. 11), records the development of
a high-temperature fluid-dominated system. This mineral assemblage is characteristic of near
neutral chloride waters whose composition is fixed by water-rock interactions close to full
equilibrium in a deep reservoir (Giggenbach, 1984; Moore et al., 2008; Reyes, 1990; Simmons and
Browne, 2000). After attaining such conditions, increasing fluid/rocks ratios lead to the
development of alteration assemblages mainly controlled by the chemistry of the hydrothermal
fluid. Correspondingly, the presence of the interstratified I/S relates to potassium metasomatism
and Al availability (Giggenbach, 1984; Kübler and Goy-Eggenberger, 2001). The widespread
presence of bladed calcite (Fig. 7.B), indicative of boiling conditions (Simmons and Christenson,
1994), suggests that during this stage temperatures were limited by the BPD curve. Moreover, the
presence of garnet in geothermal systems has been considered as an indicator of temperatures of
the order of 300 ºC (Bird et al., 1984; Reyes et al., 1993; Stimac et al., 2015). Hence, vesicles
infilled by garnet crystals in the deeper end of Nieblas-1 imply that high temperatures were attained
during this stage, in accordance with the temperature range estimated by the BPD curve. However,
18
due care must be paid when considering temperatures 300 ºC due to the presence of garnet, as
hydrothermal fluids with high Ca++ activity can also be related to the presence of garnet under
lower temperature conditions (Fig. 12.B).
The third stage, established by the appearance of wairakite, anhydrite, quartz and calcite
(Fig. 11, 7.C), records the influx of steam heated waters deep in the system (Akaku, 1990; Moore
et al., 2008; Reyes et al., 1993). The presence of calcic zeolites, such as wairakite, instead of epidote
and prehnite denotes a change in the temperature and /or pH conditions in the system (Fig 12.B).
Furthermore, the presence of anhydrite and rhombic calcite, both minerals with retrograde
solubilities (Blount and Dickson, 1969; Ellis, 1959; Simmons and Christenson, 1994), indicates
the input of shallower fluids, with higher contents of SO42-, Ca2+ and CO2, such as seen in steam-
heated waters (Gherardi et al., 2002; Stimac et al., 2015; Wrage et al., 2017). The presence of
quartz crystals with comb textures rimming STG 3 calcite veins suggest that toward the end of this
stage the system had equilibrated once again and returned to mildly changing conditions (Dong et
al., 1995; Moncada et al., 2012; Shimizu, 2014).
The last phase observed, composed of laumontite, epidote, quartz and magnetite (Fig. 8),
suggests a new adjustment of the physico-chemical conditions in Nieblas-1, particularly near the
base of the well where this mineralogical assemblage is better developed (Fig. 7.D). At this depth,
between STG 3 and STG 4, a local brecciation event seems to have taken place given the presence
of laumontite as cement of hydrothermal breccias (Fig. 7.E-F). This event itself could have caused
the differences needed in the temperature and/or pH of the system (Ruggieri and Gianelli, 1999)
for the development of STG 4 mineralogical assemblage (Fig. 12.B), however, other factors such
as an increase in the volcanic activity, viewed not only as the heat source of this type of systems in
the Andes (Sánchez et al., 2013), could also be responsible for an increase in temperature and/or
changes in the chemical composition of the hydrothermal fluid (Caracausi et al., 2005).
The vertical distribution of the clay minerals in the drill core (Fig. 6) shows interstratified
C/S and I/S located at shallower levels with respect to Chl and Ilt. This zonation according to depth
reflects an overall decrease in the percentage of expandable layers in response to increasing
temperatures (Inoue, 1995; Meunier, 2005), reported in numerous hydrothermal systems (Inoue et
al., 1992; Inoue and Utada, 1991; Mas et al., 2006; Maza et al., 2018; Simmons and Browne, 2000;
Simpson and Mauk, 2011; Vázquez et al., 2016). Regarding the smectite-to-chlorite transition
series, commonly reported temperatures for Co, C/S and Chl range between 20 – 110ºC, 40 – 175ºC
and 25 – 220ºC, respectively (Inoue and Utada, 1991; Kristmannsdottir, 1979; Robinson and
Santana De Zamora, 1999; Schiffman and Fridleifsson, 1991). At NCGS, the absence of samples
with smectite at low temperatures (< 80ºC), and the presence of Co, C/S and Chl at 20 – 110ºC, 40
– 175ºC and 25 – 220ºC (Fig. 6), respectively, represent uncommon features when compared to
other geothermal systems. Nonetheless, considering the temporal association of these minerals to
the first stage of the paragenetic sequence (Fig. 11), we maintain that the dissimilarities described
are due to the physicochemical conditions present early on in the development of the NCGS.
Taking into consideration that the transformation from Smc-to-Chl responds not only to the thermal
gradient, but also to the enviromental permeability conditions, among others (Robinson et al., 2002;
Schmidt and Robinson, 1997), we argue that an initial high fluid/rock ratio allowed the widespread
distribution of Co and Chl in the system, without the presence of mixed-layer C/S
(Kristmannsdottir, 1982; Laverne et al., 1995; Shau and Peacor, 1992). Later on, a progressive
19
decrease regarding the secondary permeability, and therefore lower fluid/rock ratios, gave way to
the development of C/S (Schiffman, 1995; Schiffman and Fridleifsson, 1991), marking the outset
of the clay cap development at the NCGS. In turn, the lower permeability conditions allowed the
preservation of these clay minerals throughout the remaining stges of the hydrothermal evolution,
enabling their presence at different temperatures from those commonly documented.
The chemical composition of the surface manifestations in the study area (Table 1)
resembles that of thermal waters spatially associated to volcanic centers and/or hosted by
stratovolcanoes (Gherardi et al., 2002; Minissale et al., 1997; Pope and Brown, 2014; Reyes, 1990).
The thermal springs, located on the southeast flank of the currently active Nevados de Chillán
volcanic complex, are assessed as acid-sulfate steam-heated waters. Such waters are originated by
the condensation of rising steam and volatiles, emanated from a deeper boiling reservoir and/or
magmatic source, into shallower, relatively oxygenated groundwaters (Giggenbach, 1991; Henley
and Ellis, 1983). In this scenario the oxidation of H2S to H2SO4, and the latter dissociation of the
20
sulfuric acid, leads to the highly acidic character of the hydrothermal fluids, which in turn promotes
the dissolution of the surrounding rocks translating into the addition of cations to the thermal
waters. Previous studies of these waters have revealed 𝛿D and 𝛿18O values in the range of -74.6 to
-51.9 and -9.65 to -6.18, respectively, concluding that fluids in the NCGS are predominantly of
meteoric origin, with a slight deviation towards andesitic waters due to the input of magmatic
volatiles and the intense water-rock interaction processes above mentioned (Wrage et al., 2017).
Common products of the interaction between the kind of fluids above-described and
andesitic rocks include sulfate minerals, clay minerals such as smectites and chlorite, quartz, pyrite
and iron oxides, among others (Fig. 12.A) (Moore et al., 2004; Sánchez et al., 2013). The presence
of interstratified C/S, quartz, pyrite, iron oxides and alunite observed between 170 to 250 m,
manifests the circulation of this type of fluids at these depths, consistent with the existence of a
shallow, steam-heated aquifer accountable for the recharge of the surface discharges.
Notwithstanding the absence of direct measurements of water samples from well Nieblas-
1, a general characterization of the hydrothermal fluids and conditions present in the deeper parts
of the NCGS was attained taking into account both the mineralogical constraints previously
discussed and the petrography and microthermometry of STG 2 and STG 3 FIAs (Table 2, Fig.
10).
The sight of primary, liquid-rich FIAs in quartz crystals associated to the early phases of
the second paragenetic stage shows initial non-boiling conditions. However, the coexistence of
primary liquid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions in calcite crystals illustrates the establishment of a
gentle-boiling event later on STG 2 (Bodnar et al., 1985; Moncada et al., 2012; Van Den Kerkhof
and Hein, 2001). This feature is in accordance with the presence, at several levels of depth, of
lattice-bladed calcite (Simmons and Christenson, 1994) in the drill core. Furthermore, the
homogenization temperatures recorded at this stage are restricted by the boiling point vs. depth
curve for pure water (Fig. 14) (BDP, Haas, 1971), in line with the prior considerations, though
samples between 160 – 230 m-depth deviate from this trend. Notably, in the case of samples at 160
m-depth an exact fit with the BPD curve is attained when considering fluids with salinities higher
than 20 % wt. NaCl eq. (Fig. 14). Nevertheless, the absence of halite crystals in the fluid inclusions
and the range of salinities documented for this stage, between 0.2 and 3.14 wt. % NaCl eq. (Table
2, Fig. 15), dismiss this option. We argue that for these samples, regardless of the apparently
primary character of the FIAs analyzed, the presence of a shallow, steam-heated aquifer, between
170-230 m-depth, could have cause a re-equilibration of the inclusions. The aforementioned
observations, and those attained from the alteration mineralogy related to this stage, outline the
presence of a near-neutral chloride fluid with low salinity and relatively moderate-to-low
concentrations of dissolved CO2 that, during the development STG 2 maintained temperatures
resembling those of the BPD curve for pure water, being noticeable higher than the present-day
temperatures measured in Nieblas-1.
Regarding STG 3, two distinct contexts were identified. In the central part of the drill core,
primary, liquid-rich inclusions were observed in calcite veins rimmed by comb quartz, both
features validating non-boiling conditions (Bodnar et al., 1985; Dong et al., 1995; Moncada et al.,
2012; Shimizu, 2014; Van Den Kerkhof and Hein, 2001). Differently, at ~ 950 m-depth, coexisting
liquid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions in anhydrite veins entail gentle-boiling conditions. Moreover,
21
pseudosecondary vapor-rich inclusions in anhydrite imply that flashing conditions were attained at
these depths (Moncada et al., 2012). Flashing at this level was most likely the result of a minor
brecciation event, as manifested by the local presence of later STG 4 laumontite as cement of
hydrothermal breccias (Fig. 7.E-F). The vertical change of conditions, and particularly the boiling
and flashing of the hydrothermal fluids in the deeper levels is also consistent with the wider range
of salinities recorded for this stage (Table 2, Fig. 15). In a boiling scenario, the separation of a
steam-phase from the hydrothermal fluid is related to a fractionation of volatiles, such as CO2, H2S,
among others, and relative volumetric changes between the steam and fluid phases, therefore
inducing changes in the physicochemical characteristics of the residual hydrothermal fluids, such
as a variation in their salinities (Cruz-Pérez et al., 2016; Drummond and Ohmoto, 1985; Schmidt
et al., 2017). Unlike STG 2, lower homogenization temperatures were recorded in STG 3 (Fig 14),
these being consistent with the present-day temperatures and implying a widespread cooling of the
NCGS. This variation in the thermal behavior of the system has been documented in numerous
geothermal systems (Hedenquist, 1990; Marks et al., 2010; Milicich et al., 2018; Moore et al.,
2008, 2000). A falling water table, waning and shift of the heat source and incursion of cold waters
have been interpreted as possible causes for the lower temperatures (Hedenquist et al., 1992).
Particularly, at NCGS no evidence indicates a recent change in the water table, and despite not
being able to directly dismiss a waning and/or shift of the heat source, the most compelling
explanation involves the infiltration of cooler waters, as revealed by the alteration mineralogy.
The initial heating, and most likely over-pressurization of the system, triggered a
brecciation event where the loss of confining pressure lead to the boiling and oversaturation of the
hydrothermal fluids, the later in turn furthering the precipitation of secondary minerals whose
chemistry was likewise controlled by the chemical signature of the host rock. The fluctuations
regarding secondary permeability during this phase are also reflected in the shift from the initial
precipitation of Co and Chl, correlated to high fluid/rock ratios, to the later progression of the C/S
mineral series, associated to lower fluid/rock conditions, the latter marking the outset of the clay
cap. It is most likely that at the end of this stage the separation and upward migration of a steam
phase along with volatiles from a primary magmatic source condensed into shallow groundwaters
and prompted the formation of an acid-sulfate steam-heated aquifer perched above the developing
clay cap.
The continuous interaction between the hydrothermal fluids and the primary host rocks
gave rise to the settlement of a fluid-dominated environment in the deepest sector of the system,
where relatively moderate concentrations of dissolved CO2 favored the precipitation of calc-
silicates minerals and later carbonates (Fig. 12.A) as the hydrothermal fluids migrated up to the
steam-heated aquifer level. Afterward changes in the fluid/rock ratios endorsed potassium
22
metasomatism and the subsequent inception of the I/S mineral series. Accordingly, the
development of the clay cap was further enhanced, and the circulation of the hydrothermal fluids
was further routed through fractures. The highest temperatures recorded at NCGS were reached
during this phase, with the upward-migrating fluids boiling (Fig. 14, 15). This last event entailed
the loss of CO2, thus supporting the ensuing precipitation of Ca zeolites (Fig. 12.A).
The boiling episode and high temperatures were likely quenched by descending, steam-
heated waters that upon migration were mixed with the deeper hydrothermal fluids and heated (Fig.
15), precipitating Ca-zeolites, carbonates and sulfate minerals along the fluid circulation pathways,
effectively sealing the system. Presumably, the boiling of the mixed waters in the deepest levels
reached by Nieblas-1, along with the surrounding enclosed conditions due to the presence of the
clay cap and the mineral precipitation in veins, drove the system to over pressurization conditions
and occasioned a new, local fracturing of the host rock and flashing of the hydrothermal fluids.
Temperatures recorded in the above described phase are largely resembled by the present
thermal profile at NCGS (Fig. 14), suggesting relative stable conditions ever since. Nonetheless,
the development of a modern hydrothermal alteration assemblage, whith the direct precipitation of
secondary minerals restricted to open veins seemingly formed during the last hydraulic fracturing
event, and the high temperatures documented in secondary inclusions of STG 3 anhydrite (Table
2, Fig. 14), reveal the outset of new conditions in the system mostly developed at depths below ~
700 m, i.e. underneath the clay cap.
The long-term evolution outlined above has framed the present architecture of the Nevados
de Chillán geothermal system (Fig 16), where the steam-heated aquifer, the clay cap and deep,
near-neutral chloride fluids are the key elements. Particularly, the emplacement of the clay cap has
been a determining factor in this structure, acting not only as seal regarding the temperature and
pressure conditions of the system, but also perching and isolating the steam-heated aquifer domain
from the deep reservoir realm, and limiting the fluid circulation to permeable channels.
The conceptual model ascertained for the NCGS largely agrees with those established for
geothermal systems associated to active volcanism in zones of high relief. In this system, located
on the flank of the active NCVC, boiling of deep reservoir waters and probably also volatiles
derived from a primary magmatic source further the development of acid-sulfate steam-heated
waters that overlay the upflow zone. The steep topography and the presence of permeable channels
allow the descent of these waters, which quench the boiling process and mix with the deeper
reservoir fluids, along the vertical segment delimited by the clay cap.
23
2.8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study was funded by FONDAP project 15090013 “Centro de Excelencia en
Geotermia de los Andes, CEGA”. The microthermometry analytical work was supported by
CONICYT-FONDEQUIP instrumentation grant EQM140009. We thank Geotérmica del Norte
(GDN) for granting access to sample Nevados de Chillán drill core, Nieblas-1, and for providing
additional borehole data.
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North Shore Volcanic Group, Minnesota. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 109, 683–697.
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Sepúlveda, F., Dorsch, K., Lahsen, A., Bender, S., Palacios, C., 2004. Chemical and isotopic
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the Cordón Caulle Region , Southern Chile. World Geotherm. Congr. 2005 24–29.
Shau, Y.H., Peacor, D.R., 1992. Phyllosilicates in hydrothermally altered basalts from DSDP Hole
504B, Leg 83 - a TEM and AEM study. Contrib. to Mineral. Petrol. 112, 119–133.
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32
2.10. FIGURES
Figura 4: Location and geological setting of the Nevados de Chillán Geothermal System (NCGS). A) Regional-scale
context of the NCGS. Main structures in the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) taken from Cembrano and Lara
(2009), Pérez-Flores et al. (2017a) and Pérez-Flores et al. (2017b) . Major geothermal areas in the SVZ as depicted in
Aravena et al. (2016). B) Local geology of the Nevados de Chillán Volcanic Complex (NCVC), after SERNAGEOMIN
(2002) and Naranjo et al. (2008). Structures modified from Muñoz and Niemeyer (1984). Location of thermal
manifestations as indicated in Hauser (1997). C) Detail of hydrothermal manifestations in the Las Termas subcomplex,
showing the location of Nevados de Chillán-1 and Nieblas-1 exploration wells. ALFS: Arc-oblique Long-lived Fault
System, LOFS: Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault System.
33
Figura 5: NCGS surface thermal manifestations at Las Termas subcomplex. A) Fumarolic discharges, with
temperatures reaching 85-95ºC. B) Fumaroles and thermal springs accompanied by intense acid-sulfate hydrothermal
alteration. C) Acid-sulfate thermal spring. D) Sulfur precipitation in fumarolic vents. E) Hydrothermal alteration
surrounding thermal springs, with clay, silica and sulfur precipitation.
34
Figura 6: Simplified lithological column of Nieblas-1 drill core and spatial distribution of hydrothermal minerals, as
documented by optical petrography, XRD and SEM analysis. Temperature profiles for Nevados de Chillán-1 and
Nieblas-1 exploration wells measured by Geotérmica del Norte. M.b.s: meters below surface.
35
Figura 7: Polarized light images of representative vein assemblages. A) STG 2 bladed calcite-pyrite vein, crosscutting
STG 1 microcrystalline quartz-chalcedony-chlorite/smectite vein (sample NB 193.75). B) STG 2 vein depicting the
complex relationships of secondary minerals during this stage, later overgrown by STG 3 wairakite (sample NB
406.85). C) STG 3 vein with rhombic calcite encapsulated by anhydrite and wairakite selvage (sample NB 906.35). D)
STG 4 vein with laumontite selvages and remaining void spaces with precipitation of fine grained epidote-quartz-
magnetite<<pyrite (sample NB 719.00). E) Highly altered angular clasts of hydrothermal breccia, cemmented by STG
4 laumontite (sample NB 906.35). F) Cross-polarized image of photomicrograph in E) depicting laumontite as breccia
cement. Anh=anhydrite, Calc=calcite, Calc BLD=bladed calcite, Chal=chalcedony, C/S=chlorite/smectite, Ep=epidote,
Lau=laumontite, Mgt=magnetite, Prh=prehnite, Py=pyrite, Qtz=quartz, Wai=wairakite.
36
Figura 8: Representative XRD patterns of clay minerals under aire dried (red line), ethylene-glycol solvated (blue line)
and heated (green line) conditions. A) Argillic alteration zone, sample NB 60.00. B) Sub-propylitic alteration zone,
sample NB 440.40. C) Propylitic alteration zone, sample NB 719.00. Chl/Smc=chlorite/smectite, Chl=chlorite,
Co=corrensite, I/S-R3=illite/smectite with R=3 ordering.
37
Figura 9: Backscattered electron (BSE-SEM and CBS-FESEM) images depicting the distribution and textural features
of clay minerals in the NCGS. A) Quartz rimmed amygdule, infilled with chlorite and latter rhombic calcite. Sample
NB 276.05. B) Detail of sample NB 276.05, showing clusters of chlorite crystals without preferred orientation. C)
Slightly curled, flake-like chlorite/smectite particles infilling quartz rimmed amygdule. Sample NB 476.48. D) Curved,
lens-shaped morphology and no preferred orientation of illite/smectite mixed-layered minerals in quartz vein. Sample
NB 276.05. E) Plagioclase phenocryst with sulfide and illite precipitation in voids. Sample NB 935.35. F) Detail of
sample NB 935.35, depicting filamentous texture of unoriented illite crystals growing in plagioclase voids.
Calc=calcite, Chl=chlorite, C/S=chlorite/smectite, I/S=illite/smectite, Ilt=illite, Plg=plagioclase, Qtz=quartz.
38
Figura 10: Fluid inclussion assemblages (FIAs) types at NCGS. A) Triangular primary inclusions in STG 2 bladed
calcite. Sample NB 193.75. B) Irregular primary inclusions in STG 2 rhombic calcite. Sample NB 227.40. C) Irregular
secondary inclusions in STG 2 rhombic calcite. Sample NB 227.40. D) Squared primary inclusions in STG 3 anhydrite.
Sample NB 961.00. E) Blocky pseudosecondary inclusions in STG 3 anhydrite. Sample NB 947.60. F) Rectangular
secondary inclusions in STG 3 anhydrite. Sample NB 961.00.
Figura 11: Paragenetic sequence of hydrothermal minerals at NCGS, outlined by four alteration stages. Dashed lines
illustrate the estimated timing of mineral formation, with some uncertainty due to the lack of cross-cutting and/or
overprinting relationships.
39
Figura 12: Activity diagrams of calcium and potassium aluminosilicate minerals. A) Mineral stability at quartz
saturation in the CaO-Al2O3-K2O-H2O system, as a function of log(aK+/aH+) vs. log(aCa2+/a2H+). Black and grey lines
depict mineral stabilities at 250 and 300ºC, respectively. Dotted red lines depict calcite saturation at 0.01mCO 2 and
0.1mCO2, following calculations in Henley et al. (1984). The two horizontal areas show conditions under which calcite
precipitation supersedes the formation of aluminosilicates. The composition of plotted thermal waters are presented in
Table 1, with water of pH<3.1 outlined by the shaded area. B) Mineral stability at quartz saturation in the system CaO-
Al2O3-SiO2-H2O, as a function of log(aCa2+/a2H+) vs. temperature. Dotted red lines portray the composition of thermal
waters in Table 1. Arrows A and B depict the general transition trends from STG 2-to-STG 3 and STG 3-to-STG 4,
respectively.
40
Figura 13: Illite% variation in mixed-layered illite/smectite minerals as a function of Nieblas-1 measured temperature.
Sample NB 193.75, containing 55% illite, is excluded from the sigmoidal trend as corresponds to interstratified
illite/smectite directly precipitating in veins. Dots with tie-lines portray samples containing interstratified illite/smectite
minerals with different illite %.
Figura 14: Paleo-fluid temperatures at NCGS, ascertained from fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures (T h).
Boiling point with depth curves, for pure water (red line) and for a 25 wt.% NaCl eq. fluid (dotted red line), after Haas
(1971). Nieblas-1 borehole temperature (blue line) is shown for comparison. The upper and lower permeable zones, as
defined by core logging of Nieblas-1, are also displayed.
41
Figura 15: Paleo-fluid apparent salinities at NCGS, established from fluid inclusion final ice melting temperatures
(Tm). Boiling and gass loss, boiling and, mixing and dilution trends (light grey arrows) after Hedenquist and Henley
(1985).
42
Tabla 1
Chemical composition of thermal springs from the NCGS.
2.11. TABLES
Cl- SO42- HCO3- Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2 SiO2 Major anions Cl- - SO42-- - HCO3-
+
ternary diagram¥
NCh-03 89.4 3.7 0.5 333.6 - 88.9 13.2 121.9 54.1 180.0 42.6 acid-sulphate steam-heated
NCh-04 88.3 5.9 0.6 374.8 18.0 39.6 8.1 68.5 29.5 184.0 -0.3 acid-sulphate steam-heated
RV 68.0 3.9 0.2 552.0 - 56.0 21.4 105.4 33.1 370.0 -1.3 acid-sulphate steam-heated
CR 82.0 2.6 16.6 293.7 - 20.0 4.4 10.0 6.1 178.0 -1.8 acid-sulphate steam-heated
43
OM 91.0 2.4 11.8 881.7 - 58.1 26.6 81.3 52.0 290.0 -13.5 acid-sulphate steam-heated
Ch.1 92.0 2.4 3.0 206.0 - 58.0 19.0 140.0 65.0 339.0 78.3 acid-sulphate steam-heated
Ch.2 85.0 2.9 1.3 335.0 - 40.0 8.3 29.0 6.3 201.0 -3.0 acid-sulphate steam-heated
Ch.3 88.0 5.9 1.5 450.0 - 55.0 16.0 86.0 28.0 215.0 -0.1 acid-sulphate steam-heated
Ch.4 89.0 3.1 1.1 373.0 - 31.0 8.4 68.0 18.0 130.0 6.1 acid-sulphate steam-heated
δ
Wrage et al., 2017
§
Lahsen, 1978
¥
Giggenbach, 1991
Tabla 2
Microthermometric measurements of STG 2 and STG 3 FIAs
Sample FIA ID n§ Host Stage Th(ºC) Tm(ºC) Salinity Comments
crystal¥ wt.% NaCl eq.
range average range average
NB 160.00 C2.A 5 CalcRBC STG 2 231.8 to 241.6 235.4 -1.5 to -1.3 -1.4 2.5 Crystal core
C2.B-2 8 CalcRBC STG 2 232.9 to 246.9 236.9 -1.05 -1.05 1.8 Crystal rim
C2.B-1 3 CalcRBC STG 2 227.1 to 246.6 239.0 -1.05 -1.05 1.8 Crystal rim
2AD 6 CalcRBC STG 2 229.9 to 241.4 234.4 -0.56 -0.56 0.9
C3 3 CalcRBC STG 2 236.5 to 241.2 239.5 -0.47 -0.47 0.8
C4 3 CalcRBC STG 2 243.7 to 245.1 244.4 -1.1 -1.1 1.9
C5 7 CalcRBC STG 2 228.5 to 240.4 233.1 -1.3 -1.3 2.3
44
NB 193.75 C4 5 CalcBLD STG 2 138.5 to 143.2 140.3 0.09 0.09 0.1
NB 227.40 C7 2 CalcRBC STG 2 193.0 to 193.2 193.1 -1.3 -1.3 2.3
C8.E-1 2 CalcRBC STG 2 182.6 to 186.7 184.6 -1.2 to -1.1 -1.1 1.9
C20 3 CalcRBC STG 2 197.8 to 199.2 198.6 -1.8 -1.8 3.1 Crystal core
C20.E1 5 CalcRBC STG 2 173.8 to 178.0 175.5 -2.2 to -1.8 -1.8 3.1 Crystal rim
C28.I 4 CalcRBC STG 2 179.9 to 194.0 186.9 -1.5 to -1.4 -1.5 2.6
C28.II 6 CalcRBC STG 2 131.7 to 195.4 175.7 -1.6 -1.6 2.8 Th not valid
NB 348.20 C3 8 Qtz STG 2 232. to 251.5 243.1 -0.8 to -0.7 -0.8 1.4
NB 440.45 C3.I 3 CalcRBC STG 3 159.8 159.8 -1.1 -1.1 2.0
C3.III 3 CalcRBC STG 3 157.3 to 161.9 160.2 -1.0 to -0.9 -1.0 1.7
C3.E-1 3 CalcRBC STG 3 151.4 to 160.7 155.3 -1.0 to -0.9 -1.0 1.7
Tabla 2 (continued)
Sample FIA ID n§ Host Stage Th(ºC) Tm(ºC) Salinity Comments
crystal¥ wt.% NaCl eq.
range average range average
C3.E-2 5 CalcRBC STG 3 150.1 to 160.1 156.1 -0.8 -0.8 1.5
C3.E-3 3 CalcRBC STG 3 159.5 to 160.0 160.0 -0.9 -0.9 1.6
NB 456.60 C1 C1 CalcRBC STG 2 253.5 to 254.5 254.0 -1.2 to -1.1 -1.1 1.9
NB 947.60 C2 5 Anh STG 3 176.8 to 202.7 193.8 -0.9 -0.9 1.5
C3 5 Anh STG 3 198.3 to 204.1 200.6 -0.1 -0.1 0.2
C7.5 4 Anh STG 3 205.7 to 209.2 207.7 -0.9 -0.9 1.5
C9-UP 7 Anh STG 3 196.0 to 218.0 208.1 -0.4 to -0.1 -0.2 0.3
C9-DP 8 Anh STG 3 207.2 to 211.1 209.9 -0.2 -0.2 0.4
45
C10 8 Anh STG 3 203.2 to 207.6 205.1 -1.2 to -1.0 -1.0 1.8
NB 961.00 C3 7 Anh STG 3 211.9 to 217.6 215.3 -2.5 -2.5 4.2
C4 6 Anh STG 3 206.8 to 224.2 214.4 -2.3 -2.3 3.8
C5.A 3 Anh STG 3 197.8 to 212.4 205.3 -1.4 -1.4 2.4
C5.B 5 Anh STG 3 201.5 to 208.2 205.3 -1.7 -1.7 2.9
C6 6 Anh STG 3 201.8 to 215.1 210.2 -1.6 to -1.5 -1.5 2.5
C6.C 3 Anh STG 3 204.9 to 208.9 206.6 -1.2 to -1.1 -1.1 1.9
C8 4 Anh STG 3 225.5 to 230.5 228.2 -3.9 -3.9 6.4
C10 3 Anh STG 3 201.3 to 207.9 204.7 -1.2 to -0.9 -1.1 1.9
C7-L 3 Anh STG 3 207.0 to 208.3 208.2 -1.2 to -1.1 -1.2 2.1 Secondary
C7-B 6 Anh STG 3 239.0 to 239.2 239.1 -1.2 to -1.1 -1.2 2.1 Pseudo sec
CAPÍTULO 3: DISCUSIONES
La etapa inicial del sistema, relacionada a un primer evento de calentamiento, esta marcada
por la presencia ubicua de oxyhydroxidos de Fe, filosilicatos máficos y cuarzo microcristalino,
documentándose calcedonia en forma puntual. Tal asociación mineralógica, y particularmente la
presencia de Co, Chl/Smc y Chl, sugieren que en una primera instancia el desarrollo del sistema
estuvo fuertemente controlado por las características composicionales de las rocas primarias
mediante procesos de recristalización isoquímica (Giggenbach, 1984; Robinson et al., 2002). Por
otro lado, la documentación de estos minerales a lo largo de todo el pozo de exploración y en
diversos dominios sugiere una libre circulación de los fluidos hidrotermales (Fig. 17.A-B).
Adicionalmente, la presencia de brechas hidrotermales correlacionadas a esta asociación
mineralógica indican un evento temprano de brechización. Tal suceso, y la subsecuente pérdida de
presión confinante, habrían gatillado la ebullición y sobresaturación de los fluidos hidrotermales
(Fournier, 1985), favoreciendo la precipitación de determinados minerales de alteración y por
consiguiente disminuyendo la permeabilidad secundaria. Los cambios en lo que refiere a la
permeabilidad secundaria a lo largo de esta etapa también se ven evidenciados en la precipitación
inicial de Co y Chl y posterior C/S, lo cual refleja una transición desde mayores a menores tasas
fluido/roca, respectivamente (Laverne et al., 1995; Schiffman, 1995; Shau and Peacor, 1992). El
progresivo desarrollo de los minerales interstratificados de C/S y la disminución relativa de la
permeabilidad marcan el inicio del desarrollo del clay cap en el SGNC.
46
silicatados a calcita, y posteriormente a ceolitas cálcicas (Simmons and Browne, 2000), observada
a lo largo de la segunda y tercera etapa de la paragénesis mineral.
Figura 17: Modelo conceptual de la evolución hidrotermal del SGNC, etapas uno y dos. A) Etapa 1: Inicio de la actividad
hidrotermal. El cuerpo intrusivo se configura como una fuente de calor y de volátiles magmáticos. La circulación de los
fluidos hidrotermales no es restringida a un dominio en particular. B) Detalle de la mineralogía de alteración, la
distribución de las isotermas y la circulación de los fluidos hidrotermales durante la etapa 1. C) Etapa 2: Desarrollo del
sistema geotermal de alta temperatura. Destaca un corrimiento de las isotermas, la consolidación del acuífero somero
calentado por vapor y la capa sello, y la restricción respecto de la circulación de los fluidos hidrotermales. D) Detalle de
la mineralogía de alteración, la distribución de las isotermas y la circulación de los fluidos hidrotermales durante la etapa
2. NC-1=Nevados de Chillán-1, NB-1=Nieblas-1, ALFS=Arc-oblique Long-lived Fault System, P=inclusion primaria, L-
R=inclusion rica en líquido, V-R=inclusion rica en vapor, CalcBLD=calcita hojosa, Chl=clorita, C/S=clorita/esmectita,
Co=corrensita, Ep=epidota, FeOx*=oxihidróxidos de Fe, I/S=illita/esmectita, Ilt=illita, Py=pirita, Qtz=cuarzo.
Figura 18: Modelo conceptual de la evolución hidrotermal del SGNC, etapas tres y cuatro. A) Etapa 3: Infiltración de
fluidos ácidos-sulfatados someros, corrimiento de las isotermas y, sobrepresurización y apertura de nuevas microfracturas.
B) Detalle de la mineralogía de alteración, la distribución de las isotermas y la circulación de los fluidos hidrotermales
durante la etapa 3. C) Etapa 4: Desarrollo de nuevas condiciones fisicoquímicas en el sistema, con un potencial aumento
de temperatura en subsuperficie. D) Detalle de la mineralogía de alteración, la distribución de las isotermas y la circulación
de los fluidos hidrotermales durante la etapa 4. NC-1=Nevados de Chillán-1, NB-1=Nieblas-1, ALFS=Arc-oblique Long-
lived Fault System, P=inclusion primaria, P-S=inclusion pseudosecundaria, S=inclusion secundaria, L-R=inclusion rica
en líquido, V-R=inclusion rica en vapor, Anh=anhidrita, Calc=calcita, Chl=clorita, C/S=clorita/esmectita, Co=corrensita,
Ep=epidota, I/S=illita/esmectita, Ilt=illita, Lau=laumontita, Mgt=magnetita, Py=pirita, Qtz=cuarzo.
48
Las temperaturas de homogenización registradas en inclusiones asociadas a la tercera etapa
de la secuencia paragenética se asemejan a las temperaturas medidas en el pozo Nieblas-1. Lo
anterior sugiere que desde la tercera etapa de la paragenesis mineral, condiciones relativamente
constantes han imperado en el sistema. Sin embargo, la presencia de una nueva asociación mineral,
compuesta por laumonita con posterior epidota y magnetita, desarollada principalmente en vetillas
asociadas al último evento de brechización descrito, indican el desarrollo de nuevas condiciones
fisicoquímicas en el sistema. Más aún, las altas temperaturas registradas en inclusiones secundarias
en cristales de anhidrita, y la transición desde la precipitación de laumontita a posterior epidota-
quarzo-magnetita, bajo los 700 m de profundidad (Fig. 18.D), dejan entrever un posible aumento
de temperatura en los niveles más profundos del SGNC (Fig. 18.C).
49
CAPÍTULO 4: CONCLUSIONES
50
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56
ANEXOS
57
Tabla 6: Distribución vertical y temporal de las muestras analizadas
Profundidad (m.b.s)* Muestra Etapa paragenética
30.00 NB 30.00 Etapa 1 (STG-1)
60.00 NB 60.00 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
100.00 NB 100.00 Etapa 1, 2 y 4 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-4)
130.00 NB 130.00 Etapa 1, 2 y 4 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-4)
160.00 NB 160.00 Etapa 1, 2 y 4 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-4)
193.75 NB 193.75 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
227.40 NB 227.40 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
255.80 NB 255.80 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
276.05 NB 276.05 Etapa 1 y 2(STG-1, STG-2)
307.05 NB 307.05 Etapa 1 (STG-1)
348.20 NB 348.20 Etapa 1, 2 y 4 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-4)
380.03 NB 380.03 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG 3)
406.85 NB 406.85 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
440.45 NB 440.45 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
456.60 NB 456.60 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
476.48 NB 476.48 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
511.20 NB 511.20 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
546.70 NB 546.70 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
553.90 NB 553.90 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
579.00 NB 579.00 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
608.15 NB 608.15 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
637.00 NB 637.00 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
678.50 NB 678.50 Etapa 1 (STG-1)
704.45 NB 704.45 Etapa 2 y 4 (STG-2, STG-4)
719.00 NB 719.00 Etapa 1, 2 y 4 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-4)
745.70 NB 745.70 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
763.80 NB 763.80 Etapa 1 y 3 (STG-1, STG-3)
791.00 NB 791.00 Etapa 1, 2 y 4 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-4)
833.00 NB 833.00 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
865.80 NB 865.80 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
906.35 NB 906.35 Etapa 1, 3 y 4 (STG-1, STG-3, STG-4)
935.35 NB 935.35 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
947.60 NB 947.60 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
953.10 NB 953.10 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
961.00 NB 961.00 Etapa 1, 2 y 3 (STG-1, STG-2, STG-3)
968.00 NB 968.00 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
985.00 NB 985.00 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
999.40 NB 999.40 Etapa 1 y 2 (STG-1, STG-2)
*m.b.s.=metros bajo la superficie
58
A.2. Descripciones petrográficas
Muestra NB 30.00
Figura 19: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 30.00. A) Óxidos de fe y clorita reemplazando fenocristal máfico. B)
Vetilla rellena con cuarzo euhedral, óxidos de fe, cuarzo microcristalino y clorita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica, con fenocristales de plg y px. Masa fundamental compuesta por
microlitos de plg. Baja vesicularidad.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve. Presencia de fe-ox y chl en la masa fundamental. Alteración de plg a calc y chl.
Fenocristales de px alterados a chl y fe-ox en fracturas. Amígdalas con fe-ox y chl.
Vetillas: qtzeu-ox de fe-qtzmc-chl, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.; qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.
Muestra NB 60.00
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg, px y minerales máficos. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve. Presencia de chl en la masa fundamental. Alteración de plg y px a calc y chl,
con menor presencia de I/S en plg. Minerales máficos alterados a chl.
Vetillas: qtz, de espesor ≤0.1 mm; calc, de espesor ≤0.7 mm; ox de fe-chl, de espesor ≤1.0 mm.
59
Muestra NB 100.00
Figura 21: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 100.00. A) Fenocristal de plagioclasa reemplazado por illita/esmectita
y clorita. B) Vetilla de cuarzo microcristalino, clorita, clorita/esmectita y calcita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg. Masa fundamental compuesta por
microlitos de plg. Baja vesicularidad.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Fenocristales de plg alterados a calc, chl e I/S. Alteración de la masa
fundamental a qtz, chl y fe-ox. Amígdalas con chl.
Vetillas: ep, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; calc, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; qtzmc-
chl±I/S-calc-lau, de espesor ≤ 3.0 mm.
Muestra NB 130.00
Figura 22: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 130.00. A) Vetilla rellena con prehnita y laumontita. B) Fenocristales
reemplazados por clorita y clorita/esmectita. Vetilla de laumontita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y px. Masa fundamental compuesta por
microlitos de plg. Baja vesicularidad.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Alteración de plg a calc, chl y menor ep. Fenocristales de px con presencia
de fe-ox en fracturas. Chl y fe-ox en la masa fundamental. Amígdalas con qzmc, chl.
Vetillas: qtz-chl-prh-calc, de espesor ≤ 0.5 mm; lau, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm., preh-lau, de espesor
≤ 0.1 mm., calc-lau, de espesor ≤ 0.5 mm.
60
Muestra NB 160.00
Figura 23: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 160.00. A) Brecha hidrotermal con abundantes óxidos de fe. Cemento
compuesto por cuarzo y matriz de clorita y calcita. B) Vetilla rellena con calcita y posterior laumontita.
Litología Primaria
Brecha hidrotermal. Fragmentos líticos intensamente alterados, con litología obliterada.
Cemento de qzmc-chl con matriz de calcRBC-qzeu.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Abundante presencia de fe-ox, chl y menor qtz, en fragmentos líticos.
Vetillas: calc-lau, de espesor ≤ 1.5 mm.
Muestra NB 193.75
Figura 24: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 193.75. A) Reemplazo de fenocristales por cuarzo y clorita. B) Vetilla
rellena con cuarzo, clorita, clorita/esmectita, cortada por vetilla posterior de calcita y pirita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica, con fenocristales de plg, px y minerales máficos. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg y px. Baja vesicularidad.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Presencia de chl y fe-ox en la masa fundamental. Alteración de
fenocristales de plg, px y minerales máficos a calc, chl y menor ep. Amígdalas con qzmc y chl.
Vetillas: qtzmc-chl-C/S±chal, de espesor ≤ 0.4 mm; calcBLD-py, de espesor ≤ 1.5 mm, con alu y
fe-ox en halo de alteración ≤ 15 mm.
61
Muestra NB 227.40
Figura 25: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 227.40. A) Alteración con óxidos de fe y clorita. B) Vetilla de calcita
cortando alteración previa de clorita y clorita/esmectita.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Abundante presencia de fe-ox y chl distribuidas homogéneamente en la
muestra. Parches de alteración con qtz, calc y menor ep y py. Posibles amígdalas con chl y C/S.
Vetillas: chl, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; calc, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm.
Muestra NB 255.80
Figura 26: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 225.80. A) Vetilla de clorita y calcita con bordes de óxidos de fe y
cuarzo microcristalino. B) Vetilla de epidota y cuarzo, con posterior precipitación de calcita rómbica.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y px. Masa fundamental compuesta por
microlitos de plg.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve. Presencia de fe-ox, chl y menor ep en la masa fundamental. Alteración de plg a
alb, calc y chl.
Vetillas: ox de fe-qzmc-chl, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm.; ep-qz-calc±cpy, de espesor ≤ 0.5 mm.
62
Muestra NB 276.05
Figura 27: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 276.05. A) Brecha hidrotermal con fragmentos intensamente
alterados. B) Detalle del cemento, compuesto por cuarzo y clorita, y de la matriz, de calcita, en la brecha hidrotermal.
Litología Primaria
Brecha hidrotermal. Fragmentos líticos intensamente alterados, con litología obliterada.
Cemento de qzmc-chl, con matriz de calcRBC-qzeu y menor ep.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Abundante presencia de fe-ox y chl en fragmentos líticos.
Vetillas: calc, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm.
Muestra NB 307.05
Figura 28: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 307.05. A) Parches de alteración con prehnita, cuarzo y menor
calcopirita. B) Parche de alteración de prehnita rodeando vetilla de clorita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica, con fenocristales de plg y px. Masa fundamental compuesta por
microlitos de plg y px.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve. Moderada presencia de chl, qtz y menor ep en la masa fundamental. Leve
alteración de plg a prh.
Vetillas: chl-C/S±qtz, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm.
63
Muestra NB 348.20
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y minerales máficos. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg y px.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve a moderada. Abundante presencia de chl en la masa fundamental. Reemplazo de
fenocristales máficos por fe-ox, qtz y chl. Alteración de plg a chl, calc y menor prh.
Vetillas: ep-prh-qtz-calcBLD, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm; chl-qtz, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm; lau, de espesor
≤ 2.0 mm.
Muestra NB 380.03
Figura 30: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 380.03. A) Vetilla de cuarzo microcristalino y clorita, cortada y
desplaza por vetilla de wairakita. B) Asociación de epidota, prehnita y pirita, englobada por wairakita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y baja vesicularidad. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg y vidrio.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve a moderada. Abundante presencia de chl, y menor ep, en la masa fundamental.
Alteración de plg a alb, calc y ep. Amígdalas con qtz y chl.
Vetillas: qtzmc-chl±ep±qtz, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm.; wai±calc, de espesor ≤ 3.0 mm.
64
Muestra NB 406.85
Figura 31: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 406.85. A) Abundante presencia de clorita, óxidos de fe y pirita en
la masa fundamental. B) Vetilla con compleja secuencia mineralógica.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg, minerales máficos. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg orientados y px. Baja vesicularidad.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve a moderada. Presencia de chl, minerales ópacos, qtz y menor calc en la masa
fundamental. Alteración de plg a calc, ep y menor chl. Amígdalas con qtzmc±chl, prh, ep y calc.
Vetillas: calc-lau, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.; chl-qzmc-ep-prh-qtz-calcBLD-wai, de espesor ≤5.0 mm.
Muestra NB 440.45
Figura 32: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 440.45. A) Vetilla de cuarzo y pirita con bordes de illita/esmectita.
B) Cristales de epidota envueltos por illita/esmectita, posteriormente englobados por cuarzo.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Abundante presencia de chl, I/S y qtz, distribuidos homogéneamente en la
muestra. Reemplazo de plg por ep.
Vetillas: qtzmc-I/S±py-qtzcb-clacRBC, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm.
65
Muestra NB 456.60
Figura 33: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 456.60. A) Alteración de plagioclasas a epidota. Vetillas de calcita.
B) Alteración de plagioclasas a clorita y epidota. Vetilla de prehnita y calcita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica, con fenocristales de plg y minerales máficos. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg y vidrio.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Abundante presencia de chl y fe-ox en la masa fundamental.
Alteración de plg a ep y calc. Reemplazo de minerales máficos por fe-ox, qtz y chl.
Vetillas: calc±prh, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; calc±qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.; ep, de espesor ≤ 0.1
mm., qzmc-chl-ep-qtz-calc, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm.
Muestra NB 476.48
Figura 34: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 476.48. A) Vetilla de calcita cortando alteración de clorita-epidota.
B) Reemplazo de fenocristales máficos por óxidos de fe, cuarzo y clorita.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Abundante presencia de chl y fe-ox. Presencia de chl, calc e I/S reemplazando
fenocristales de plg; fe-ox, qtz y chl reemplazando fenocristales máficos.
Vetillas: ep±chl, de espesor ≤ 0.3mm.; calc, de espesor ≤ 0.7 mm; calc±I/S, de espesor ≤ 0.1
mm.
66
Muestra NB 511.20
Figura 35: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 511.20. A) Alteración de la matriz a calcita, cuarzo y menor clorita.
B) Illita/esmectita alterando fenocristales de plagioclasa.
Litología Primaria
Toba vítrea con fragmentos cristalinos de plg y qtz.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Alteración homogénea de la matriz a qtz, y menor chl y ep.
Presencia de calc en la matriz, asociada a parches de qtz. Alteración de plg a I/S.
Vetillas: calc, de espesor ≤ 0.4 mm.
Muestra NB 546.70
Figura 36: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 546.70. A) Vetilla de wairakita cortando alteración de clorita. B)
Amígdala con prehnita y wairakita y bordes de clorita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica vesicular, con fenocristales de plg y px. Fenocristales de plg con
textura glomeropofírica. Masa fundamental vítrea.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Plagioclasas completamente alteradas a chl, ep y menor prh. Alteración de
px a chl y menor fe-ox. Amígdalas con chl, ep, wai, prh±py±cpy.
Vetillas: wai, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; chl-prh±cpy, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm.
67
Muestra NB 553.90
Figura 37: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 553.90. A) Vetilla con compleja secuencia paragenética. B) Detalle
de la vetilla en A), destacando alteración de clorita a illita/esmectita y relleno de clacita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y menor qtz. Masa fundamental compuesta
por microlitos de plg, px y vidrio.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Fenocristales de plg alterados a calc y ep. Presencia de chl y qtz en la
masa fundamental.
Vetillas: calc, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; chl, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; qtz±ep, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.
Muestra NB 579.00
Figura 38: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 579.00. A) Reemplazo de mineral máfico por clorita, óxidos de fe y
cuarzo. B) Vetillas de clorita y epidota, con posterior calcita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg, qtz y minerales máficos. Masa fundamental
compuesta por microlitos de plg, px y vidrio.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Fenocristales máficos y masa fundamental alterados a fe-ox, chl y menor
qtz. Presencia de ep y calc reemplazando fenocristales de plg.
Vetillas: qtz±chl, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm.; chl, de espesor ≤ 0.6 mm., calc, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm;
ep±calc, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.
68
Muestra NB 608.15
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Fenocristales de plg alterados a ep y menor chl. Abundante presencia de chl,
y posibles ceo, distribuidas homogéneamente en la muestra.
Vetillas: ep, de espesor ≤ 5 mm.; calc, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.
Muestra NB 637.00
Figura 40: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 637.00. A) Fenocristales reemplazados por clorita y parches de
epidota. B) Vetilla de cuarzo-epidota-illita/esmectita.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Fenocristales reemplazados por chl, chl-ep. Parches de epidota con
distribución heterogénea. Presencia de I/S en fenocristales de plg.
Vetillas: qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.; ep, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm.; qtz-I/S, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm.; qtz-
calc, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm.
69
Muestra NB 678.50
Figura 41: Microfotografías de la muestra NB678.50. A) Amígdala con clorita y borde de cuarzo. Plagioclasas
alteradas a clorita e illita. B) Vetilla con óxidos de fe ± cuarzo microcristalino, chlorita y calcedonia.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y qtz. Masa fundamental compuesta por
microlitos de plg y px.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Alteración de la masa fundamental a fe-ox y chl. Plg alteradas a chl y calc.
Vetillas: ox de fe-chl, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm.; ox de fe-chl-qzmc-chal, de espesor ≤ 0.5 mm.
Muestra NB 704.45
Figura 42: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 704.45. A) Alteración de la matriz a clorita y cuarzo. Epidota
adyacente a vetilla de laumontita. B) Vetilla abierta de laumontita con precipitación de magnetita de grano fino.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli con fenocristales de plg, qtz y menor presencia de fenocristales máficos.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Qtz y chl con distribución heterogénea en la muestra. Presencia de qtz, chl y
ep reemplazando posibles fenocristales máficos. Alteración de fenocristales de plg a ill.
Vetillas: lau±mgt, de espesor ≤ 3.0 mm.
70
Muestra NB 719.00
Figura 43: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 719.00. A) Presencia de clorita, epidota e illita/esmectita. Vetillas
abiertas siendo rellenadas por magnetita de grano fino. B) Vetilla con calcita hojosa englobada por laumontita.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Parches de chl, ep, e I/S, distribuidos heterogéneamente.
Vetillas: qtzmc-chl-ep, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm.; calcBLD-lau, de espesor ≤ 3.0 mm.; ep-qtz-mgt±py,
de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm.
Muestra NB 745.70
Figura 44: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 745.70. A) Plagioclasas reemplazadas por minerales de arcilla.
Amígdalas con óxidos de fe y clorita. B) Presencia de óxidos de fe, cuarzo y clorita, con posterior alteración de
epidota y wairakita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica vesicular. Fenocristales de plg y px. Masa fundamental compuesta
por microlitos de plg.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Presencia de fe-ox y clorita en la masa fundamental. Amígdalas
con qtz±prh, chl±wai.
Vetillas: fe-ox, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm; qtz-ep-wai-calc, de espesor ≤ 5.0 mm.
71
Muestra NB 763.80
Figura 45: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 763.80. A) Vetillas con bordes de cuarzo microcristalino y clorita,
con posterior precipitación de cuarzo euhedral y calcita rómbica. B) Vetilla de calcita y cuarzo con bordes de clorita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica con fenocristales de plg y menor px. Masa fundamental compuesta
por microlitos de plg y px.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada. Presencia de fe-ox, chl y qz en la masa fundamental. Reemplazo de plg
por alb, calc y ep. Fenocristales de px levemente alterados con fe-ox en fracturas.
Vetillas: calc, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm; qtzmc-chl-anh-qzeu-calc, de espesor ≤ 5.0 mm.
Muestra NB 791.00
Figura 46: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 791.00. A) Intensa alteración con presencia de illita/esmectita, clorita
y parches de epidota. B) Vetilla de calcita y posterior laumontita, con bordes de cuarzo y epidota.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Presencia de calc e ill reemplazando plg. Presencia de qtz, chl y ep,
reemplazando posibles fenocristales máficos. Calc y ep en parches distribuidos
heterogéneamente.
Vetillas: qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm; qtz±ep-calc-lau, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm.
72
Muestra NB 833.00
Figura 47: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 833.00. A) Vetilla de epidota cortando alteración de la matriz a clorita
y cuarzo. B) Alteración de plagioclasas a albita y menor epidota. Vetilla de epidota cortando plagioclasas.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli brechosa con fragmentos cristalinos de plg, qtz y menor feldespato potásico.
Fragmentos líticos monomícticos de andesita basáltica porfírica.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Presencia de chl, ep y qtz en la matriz. Alteración de plg a alb, ep y calc.
Amígdalas con chl y anh.
Vetillas: chl, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm; qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.1 mm, ep y ep-qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.
Muestra NB 865.80
Figura 48: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 865.80. A) Parches de alteración de clorita y epidota. B) Distribución
heterogénea de epidota, clorita, cuarzo y minerales ópacos.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Presencia de parches de clorita con menor cuarzo, y ep de grano medio y ep
microcristalina distribuidas heterogéneamente. Parches de alteración con chl, ep, qtz y zeo.
73
Muestra NB 906.35
Figura 49: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 906.35. A) Intensa alteración con presencia de óxidos de fe y clorita.
B) Vetilla de wairakita y calcita.
Litología Primaria
Obliterada.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración intensa. Abundante presencia de chl y fe-ox distribuidos homogéneamente en la
muestra. Parches de alteración con calc y ep. Posibles fenocristales de plg alterados a ill.
Vetillas: sin relleno, de espesor ≤ 0.3 mm; wai-calc-anh±qtz, de espesor ≤ 5.0 mm.
Muestra NB 935.35
Figura 50: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 935.35. A) Presencia de clorita en la masa fundamental. Amígdala
con clorita, epidota, granate y anhidrita. B) Amígdalas de clorita, cuarzo, epidota, granate y anhidrita.
Litología Primaria
Andesita basáltica porfírica vesicular, con fenocristales de plg y qtz. Masa fundamental vítrea.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración leve. Fenocristales de plg alterados a ill. Masa fundamental alterada a chl, fe-ox y
menor ep. Amígdalas con chl, qtz, ep, grt, anh y menor py y cpy.
74
Muestra NB 947.60
Figura 51: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 947.60. A) Reemplazo de fragmentos cristalinos por epidota y clorita.
B) Alteración de plagioclasa a epidota e illita/esmectita.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli vítrea. Fragmentos cristalinos de plg y qtz. Líticos monomícticos de andesita
basáltica porfírica vesicular.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Plagioclasas alteradas a alb, chl, ep e ill. Fenocristales máficos
reemplazados por fe-ox, qtz y chl. Presencia de chl, qtz y zeo en la matriz. Amígdalas con qtz y
chl.
Vetillas: fe-ox y chalc, de espesor ≤ 0.5 mm.; anh, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm; qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.1mm.
Muestra NB 953.10
Figura 52: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 953.10. A) Reemplazo de la matriz por epidota. Fenocristales de
plagioclasa alterados a albita y clorita. B) Presencia de epidota en vetillas y alterando plagioclasas.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli vítrea con fragmentos cristalinos de plg, qtz y px, con menor presencia de
feldespato potásico. Fragmentos líticos de andesita basáltica porfírica vesicular y diorita
porfírica.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Reemplazo de plg por calc, chl y ep. Amígdalas con chl y anh.
Matriz con presencia de chl y fe-ox.
Vetillas: ep, de espesor ≤ 0.5 mm; anh, de espesor ≤ 1.5 mm.
75
Muestra NB 961.00
Figura 53: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 961.00. A) Vetilla de anhidrita y reemplazo de plagioclasa por clorita.
B) Vetilla de chlorita y epidota.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli lítica con fragmentos cristalinos de plg, qtz y menor feldespato potásico.
Fragmentos líticos de andesita basáltica porfírica.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Reemplazo de plg por calc, ep y chl. Reemplazo de chl por ill.
Presencia de qtz y ep en la matriz.
Vetillas: ep, de espesor ≤ 1.5 mm; y anh, de espesor ≤ 2.0 mm.
Muestra NB 968.00
Figura 54: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 968.00. A) Amígdala con cuarzo, clorita, epidota, prehnita, anhidrita
y pirita. B) Reemplazo de plagioclasa por prehnita y epidota.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli con plg y qtz, con menor presencia de px. Fragmentos líticos polimícticos de
andesita porfírica vesicular y diorita porfírica.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Reemlpazo de plg por calc, chl y ep. Matriz reemplaza por chl.
Amígdalas con qtz, chl, ep, prh, anh y menor py.
Vetillas: ep y ep-qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.4 mm.
76
Muestra NB 985.00
Figura 55: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 985.00. A) Alteración de plagioclasas a albita y epidota. Presencia
de clorita en la matriz. B) Vetilla rellena con epidota y cuarzo.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli y ceniza, cristalina, con plg, px y menor presencia de feldespato potásico.
Fragmentos líticos monomícticos de andesita porfírica.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Reemplazo de plg por chl y ep. Presencia de qtz y zeo en la
matriz.
Vetillas: ep y ep-qtz, de espesor ≤ 1.0 mm.
Muestra NB 999.40
Figura 56: Microfotografías de la muestra NB 999.40. A) Fenocristales de piroxeno reemplazados por calcita, clorita
y epidota. B) Alteración de la matriz y fenocristales de plagioclasa a epidota y zeolitas.
Litología Primaria
Toba de lapilli y ceniza vítrea con fragmentos cristalinos de plg y px, con menor presencia de
feldespato potásico. Fragmentos líticos monomícticos de andesita porfírica.
Alteración hidrotermal
Alteración moderada a intensa. Reemplazo de px por ep, chl y calc. Cristales de plg
reemplazados por ep, chl y zeo. Presencia de ep microcristalina, qtz y zeo en la matriz.
Vetillas: chl y ep-qtz, de espesor ≤ 0.2 mm.
77
ANEXO B: Análisis XRD
Tabla 7: Distribución vertical de los minerales de arcilla y proporciones relativas de los minerales
de arcilla interestratificados.
Muestra Co Chl/Smc Chl% - Chl I/S Ill% - I/S Ilt
Chl/Smc I/S ordering
NB 30.00 X X
NB 60.00 X X 59 X 20 R0
NB100.00 X 61 X X 10 R1
NB 130.00 X X 50 X
NB 160.00 X X 60 X
NB 193.75 X X 60 X 55 R1
NB 227.40 X 60 X
NB 255.80 X
NB 276.05 X X 81 R3
NB 307.05 X X 61
NB 348.20 X 83
NB 380.03 X
NB 406.85 X
NB 440.45 X 61 X X 75 R3
NB 456.60 X
NB 476.48 X 60 X X 77 R3
NB 511.20 X X 89 R3
NB 546.70 X
NB 553.90 X
NB 579.00 X 91
NB 608.15 X 88 X
NB 637.00 X X 98 R3
79 R1
NB 678.50 X X
NB 704.45 X X
NB 719.00 X X 77 R3
NB 745.70 X
NB 763.80 X
NB 791.00 X X
NB 833.00 X
NB 865.80 X
NB 906.35 X X
NB 935.30 X X
NB 947.60 X X
NB 953.10 X
NB 961.00 X
NB 968.00 X
NB 985.00 X
NB 999.40 X
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B.2. Difractogramas de los minerales de arcilla
Figura 57: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 30.00, NB 60.00 y NB 100.00. Condiciones de medición de los
difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 58: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 130.00, NB 160.00, NB 193.75 y NB 227.40. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 59: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 255.80, NB 276.00, NB 307.00 y NB 348.20. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 60: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 380.00, NB 406.80, NB 440.40 y NB 456.60. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 61: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 476.40, NB 511.20, NB 546.70 y NB 553.90. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 62: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 579.00, NB 608.10, NB 637.00 y NB 678.50. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 63: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 704.40, NB 719.00, NB 745.70 y NB 763.80. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 64: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 791.00, NB 833.00, NB 865.80 y NB 906.30. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 65: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 935.30, NB 947.60, NB 953.10 y NB 961.00. Condiciones de medición
de los difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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Figura 66: Patrones XRD de las muestras NB 968.00, NB 985.00 y NB 999.40. Condiciones de medición de los
difractogramas: AD = secado al aire, EG = glicolado, H = calcinado.
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ANEXO C. Análisis químico de aguas termales
Figura 67: Diagrama piper para las muestras de aguas termales superficiales.
Figura 68: Concentraciones relativas de Cl-, SO4-- y HCO3- en las aguas termales superficiales.
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