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Further information: Outline of psychology and Index of psychology articles

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3.5 Developmental 3.4 Comparative 3.3 Cognitive 3.2 Clinical 3.1 Biological 2.9 Biopsychosocial model 2.8 Cognitivism 2.7 Existentialism 2.6 Gestalt 2.5 Humanism 2.4 B haviorism 2.3 Psychoanalysis 2.2 Functi nali 2.1 St Contents
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3.6 Educational and school 3.7 Industrial organi ational 3.8 Personality 3.9 Social 3.10 Professional Psychology

4 Research methods

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4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research 4.2 Controlled experiments 4.3 Survey questionnaires 4.4 Longitudinal studies 4.5 Observation in natural settings 4.6 Qualitative and descriptive research 4.7 Neuropsychological methods 4.8 Computational modeling 4.9 Animal studies

5 Criticism

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5.1 Theory 5.2 Practice 5.3 Systemic Bias

6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

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he st dy of psychology in a philosophical conte t dates ack to the ancient ci ili ations of gypt, Greece, E

[edit] Structurali

Main article: Structuralism (psychology)

German physician Wilhelm W ndt is credited ith introd cing psychological disco ery into a oratory setting. Kno n as the la

foc sed on reaking do n mental processes into the most asic components.Ed ard itchener as another major str ct ralist thinker. [edit] Functi

nali m

Main article: Functional psychology

d
F nctionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the str ct ralist school of tho ght and as hea ily infl enced y the ork

of the American philosopher and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology sho l d ha e practical al e, and that

conditioning and applied to h m an eings.

the meantime.

oth responded to and reacted against strains of tho ght incl ding psychodynamics and eha iorism

that had de eloped in

constit t ed a part of the

ider cogniti e science.

In its early years, this de elopment had een seen as a re ol t ion,

ue q

e perimental psychology ecame increasingly cogniti e concerned

ith information and its processing

and, e ent ally,

[ ]

dd

ue

Starting in the

s, the e perimental techni

es set forth y W ndt, James, E

ingha s, and others

the R ssian So iet physiologist I an Pa lo ,

ho disco ered in dogs a learning process that

as later termed classical

o l d e reiterated as

re

e perimental st dy ofmemory,

ho de eloped

antitati e models of learning and forgetting at the Uni ersity of Berlin; and

pe

dd

g jsi

Other

th cent ry contri

t ors to the field incl de the German psychologist ermann E

f nctionalist thinkers incl ded John De ey and

ar ey

arr. ingha s, a pioneer in the

in

, he laid the fo ndations for many of the

estions that psychologists

o ld e plore for years to come. Other major

psychologists sho l d find o t ho

the mind can f nction to a person's enefit. In his ook, Principles of Psychology,

fe

father of e perimental psychology,

he fo nded the first psychological la oratory, at eip ig Uni ersity, in

his De Anima treatise ,

as the first significant ody of

ork in the West to e rich in psychological tho ght.

and Persia.

i storians point to the

ritings of ancient Greek philosophers, s ch as hales, Plato, and Aristotle especially in

s r

of scientific in

iry independent of the disciplines philosophy and iology.

Wilhelm W ndt seated

ith colleag es in his psychological la oratory, the first of its kind. W ndt is credited

ed

ith setting p psychology a field as

bg

o ig

g ji h

hina, India,

W ndt

lished

as it

[edit] P

choanal

Main article: Psychoanalysis

| z
c

of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially nconscio s conflict. Fre d's psychoanalytic theory

interpretation.

][

Jones, Sndor Ferenc i.

incl ded eno gh ad hoc safeg ards against empirical contradiction to keep the theories o t side the realm of scientific

ecome e perimentally oriented, marginali ing Fre dian theory and regarding it as a desiccated and dead historical

[edit] Behaviori

Main article: Behaviorism

z

scientific gro nds,

hile scholars of the h m anities maintained that Fre d

as not a scientist at all,

t ... an interpreter.

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artifact.

ean hile, ho e er, researchers in the emerging field of ne ro psychoanalysis defended some of Fre d's ideas on
[ ]

not

ithstood e perimental tests. By the

th cent ry, psychology departments inAmerican ni ersities had

z

in

i ry.

By contrast, Eysenck maintained that altho gh Fre dian ideas co l d e s

j ected to perimental science, they had e

and Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, arg ed that Fre d's, as

ell as Alfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy

ere critici ed y psychologists and philosophers s ch asB.F. Skinner,

di erse schools of tho ght, most of

hich may e classed asNeo Fre dian.

ans Eysenck,

| |

Fromm, John Bo l y and Sigm nd Fre d's da ghter, Anna Fre d. hro gho t the

th cent ry, psychoanalysis e ol ed into

psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these thinkers

ereErik Erikson,

elanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen

of depth psychology. Other

ell kno n psychoanalytic scholars of the mid

th cent ry incl ded psychoanalysts, psychologists, orney, Erich

Fre d had a significant infl ence on S isspsychiatrist

arl J ng,

hose analytical psychology ecame an alternati e form

Gro p photo

in front of lark Uni ersity. Front ro : Sigm n d Fre d, G. Stanley

a ll,

arl J ng; ack ro : A r aham A. Brill, Ernest

polite society.

linically, Fre d helped to pioneer the method offree association and a therape t ic interest in dream

z

hese

ere largely considered ta oo s

j ects at the time, and Fre d pro ided a catalyst for them o e openly disc ssed in t

z

tackled s

j ects s ch as se

ality, repression, and the nconscio s mind as general aspects of psychological de elopment.

as largely ased on interpreti e methods,introspection and clinical o ser ations. It ecame ery

z   z

in estigation of the mind and the

ay one thinks; a systemati ed set of theories a o t h m an eha ior; and a form

From the

s ntil his death in

v x {x

v yxw 

, the A strian physicianSigm nd Fre d de eloped psychoanalysis, a method of

| |

ellkno n, largely eca se it

} 

Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical in ention to a t omate the task of rogrammed instr ction. p

lassical conditioning as an early eha iorist model. It posited that eha ioral tendencies are determined y immediate

associations et een ario s en ironmental stim li and the degree of pleas re or pain that follo s. Beha ioral patterns, then,

sophisticated.

manifest.

h m an agency co l d affect patterns and cycles of en ironmental stim li and eha ioral responses.

[edit] Humani

Main article: umanistic psychology

psychology, ho e er, ga e

ay to a ne

dominant paradigm: cogniti e approaches.

perhaps in part eca se it generated s ccessf l practical applications.

he fall of eha iorism as an o erarching model in

o t comes learned helplessness that opposed the predictions of eha iorism.

decline of eha iorism's prominence.

artin Seligman and colleag es disco ered that the conditioning of dogs le to d
][ ]

B t Skinner's eha iorism did not die,

ing i st Noam

homsky's criti

e of the eha iorist model of lang age ac

i sition is

idely regarded as a key factor in the

conditioning to the de eloping h m an child, and Skinner's notion ofoperant conditioning,

hich ackno ledged that

Among the eha iorists' most famo s creations are John B. Watson's ittle Al ert e periment,

hich applied classical

nderlies na areness, they spoke of the contingency shaped eha iors in

hich na areness ecomes o t ardly

deemphasi ed d alistic e planations s c h as mind or conscio sness ; and, in lie of pro i ng an

nconscio s mind that

eha ior as a f nction of the organism interacting

ith its en ironment. Beha iorists s ally rejected or

st dy of o ser a l e eha ior.

e foc sed on eha ior en ironment relations and analy ed o ert and co ert i.e., pri ate

elie ed that the contents of the mind

ere not open to scientific scr t iny and that scientific psychology sho ld emphasi e t he

Skinner's eha iorism shared

ith its predecessors a philosophical inclination to ard positi ism and determinism.

research consisted of la oratory ased animal e perimentation,

hich

as increasing in pop l arity asphysiology gre

e ert infl ence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the pre io s intensity of their associated pain or pleas re.

ere nderstood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stim li in their en ironment. he stim li

en ironments to eha e in certain

ays.

ere held to ch more

later B.F. Skinner. heories of learning emphasi ed the

ays in

hich people might e predisposed, or conditioned, y their

early

th cent ry y John B. Watson, and em raced and e tended y Ed ard horndike,

lark .

ll, Ed ard

In the United States, eha iorism ecame the dominant school of tho ght d ring the

s. Beha iorism

as fo nded in the . olman, and

de eloped client centered therapy. ater, positi e psychology opened p h m anistic themes to scientific modes of e ploration. [edit] Gestalt

Main article: Gestalt psychology

Wolfgang Kohler, a Wertheimer and K rt Koffka co fo nded the school of Gestalt psychology. his approach is ased pon holes. his approach to psychology egan in Germany and A stria

different than the s m of its parts.

psychology. [edit] Existentialism

Main article: Existential therapy

Infl enced largely y the ork of German philosopher artin eidegger and Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard, hich

y myths, or narrati e patterns,

and that it can e enco raged y an acceptance of the free

ill re

isite to ana t hentic,

psychologists emphasi ed the h m anistic themes of death, free

ill, andmeaning, s ggesting that meaning can e shaped

in their comparati ely ne t ral ie

of h m an nat re and in their relati ely positi e assessment of an iety.

E istential

incl ded e istential therapy, in the

s and

s. E istential psychologists differed from others often classified as h m anistic

psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo

ay pioneered an e istential ranch of psychology,

Gestalt psychology sho ld not e conf sed

ith theGestalt therapy of Frit Perls,

hich is only peripherally linked toGestalt

eha ior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the

hole of e perience is important, and the

d ring the late

th cent ry in response to the molec lar approach of str ct ralism. Rather than reaking do n tho ghts and hole i s

the idea that indi id als e perience things as nified

American psychologists A raham

aslo ,

ho form l ated a hierarchy of h m an needs, and arl Rogers,

ho created and

concern for positi e gro th rather than pathology.

[citation needed]

Some of the fo nders of the h m anistic school of tho ght

and meaning. he h m anistic approach

as disting ished y its emphasis on s

j ecti e meaning, rejection of determinism, and ere

ni

ely h m an iss es, s ch as indi id al free

ill, personal gro th,self act ali ation, self identity, death, aloneness, freedom,

person

not j st the fragmented parts of the personality or cognit e f nctioning. i

m anism foc sed on f ndamentally and

sing phenomenology, inters

j ecti ity and first person categories, the h m anistic approach so ght to glimpse the

m anistic psychology as de eloped in the

ater etc.

efore higher order needs can e met.

s in reaction to oth eha iorismand psychoanalysis.

[citation needed]

By hole

Psychologist A r aham

aslo

in

posited that h mans ha e a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to f l fill the asic ne first food, eds

al eit often an io s, regard for death and other f t re prospects. A strian e istential psychiarist and oloca sts r i or Viktor t

Bins anger and American psychologist George Kelly may e said to elong to the e istential school. [edit] Cognitivism

This section needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(June 2010)

Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology) and Cognitive psychology

Baddeley's model of

orking memory

ogniti e psychology is the ranch of psychology that st dies mentalprocesses incl ding ho

people think, percei e,

remem er, and learn. As part of the larger field of cogniti e science, this ranch of psychology is related to other discipli nes incl ding ne roscience, philosophy, and ling i stics.

the eha iorist position that all eha ior i ncl ding lang age is contingent pon learning nd reinforcement. a

o ser ant s

j ect.

theorists, s ch as Al ert Band ra, arg ed that the child's en ironment co ld make contri

t ions of its o n to the eha iors of an



manner. he post l ation that h m ans are orn

ith the instinct or innate facility for ac

iring lang age posed a challenge to

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Social learning



la oratory

co ld e applied to comple h m an eha ior, most nota l y lang age ac

i sition, in only a ag e and s perficial

 

response, and reinforcement, arg i ng that s ch ideas

hich Skinner had orro ed from animal e periments in the

Noam

homsky helped to ignite a cogniti e re ol t ion in psychology

hen he critici ed the eha iorists' notions of stim l s,

ariety of e istential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to

ay and Frankl, S iss psychoanalyst

Frankl dre

e idence of meaning's therape t ic po er from reflections garneredfrom his o n internment,

and he created a d ig

the rain. With the rise ofcomp t er science and artificial intelligence analogies ,

ere dra n et een the processing of

information y h m ans and information processing y machines. Research in cognition had pro en practical sinceWorld War II,

dominant paradigm of mainstream psychology, andcogniti e psychology emerged as a pop l ar ranch. Ass m ing oth that the co ert mind sho l d e st died and that the scientific method sho ld e sed to st dy it, cognite i

mind or the eha ioristic contingency shaped eha iors. Elements of eha iorism and cogniti e psychology c synthesi ed to form the asis of ogniti e eha ioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techni American psychologist Al ert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron . Beck. ogniti e psychology

ere

es de eloped y ith

other disciplines, s ch as philosophy of mind, comp t er science, andne roscience, nder the m rella discipline of cogniti e science.

[edit] Biopsychosocial

model

Main article: Biopsychosocial model

The i opsychosocial model is an integrated perspecti e to ard nderstanding conscio sness, eha ior, and social interaction. It ass m es that any gi en eha ior or mental process affects and is affected y dynamically interrelated i ological, psychological, and social factors. The psychological aspect refers to the role that cognition and emotions play in any gi en psychological phenomenon for e ample, the effect of mood or eliefs and e pectations on an indi id al's reactions to an n e ent. The biological aspect refers to the role of i ological factors in psychological phenome a for e ample, the effect of the prenatal en ironment on rain de elopment and cogniti e a i lities, or the infl ence of genes on indi id al dispositions. The socio-cultural aspect refers to the role that social and c lt ral en ironments play in a gi en pschological phenomenon for y e ample, the role of parental or peer infl ence in the eha iors or characteristics of an indi id al. [edit] S

fields

Main article: Subfields of psychology Further information: List of psychology topics and List of psychology disciplines
Psychology encompasses a ast domain, and incl des many different approaches to the st dy of mental processes and eha ior.

[edit] Biological

Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, and Cognitive neuroscience

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ller yer ill sion. Psychologists make inferences a o t mental processes from shared phenomena s ch as optical ill sions.

t ypically rats to st dy the ne ral, genetic, and cell l ar mechanisms that nderlie specific eha iors s ch as learning and ogniti e ne roscientistsin estigate the ne ral correlates of psychological processes in h m ans

sing ne ral imaging tools, andne ropsychologists cond ct psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific

aspects and e tent of cogniti e deficit ca sed y rain damage or disease. [edit] Clinical

Main articles: Clinical psychology and Counseling psychology

linical psychology incl des the st dy and application of psychology for the p rpose of nderstanding, pre enting, and relie ing j ecti e ell eingand personal de elopment.

practice are psychological assessment andpsychotherapy, altho gh clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, cons ltation, forensic testimony, and program de elopment and administration. Some clinical psychologists may
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co ntries, clinical psychology is a reg l ated mental health profession.

intended to form a therape t ic alliance, e plore the nat re of psychological pro l ems, and enco rage ne

ays of thinking,

therape tic approaches and practices are associated

ith different theoretical perspecti es and employ different proced res

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There are different specialties

ithin eha ioral ne roscience. For e ample,physiological psychologists se animal models

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Biological psychology or eha ioral ne roscience is the st dy of the i ological s

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feeling, or eha ing. Fo r major theoretical perspecti es are psychodynamic, cogniti e eha ioral, e istential h m anistic, and systems or family therapy. There has een a gro ing mo ement to integrate the ario s therape t ic approaches, especially ith an increased nderstanding of iss es regarding c lt re, gender, spirit ality, and se alorientation. With the ad ent of more

[edit] Cognitive

Main article: Cognitive psychology

Green Red Blue Purple Blue Purple

Blue Purple Red Green Purple Green

The Stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of

ords is easier and

ogniti e psychology st dies cognition, the mental processes nderlying mental acti ity. Perception,learning, pro l em lassical cogniti e psychology is

sol ing, reasoning, thinking, memory, attention, lang age and emotion are areas of research.

mental f nction, informed y f nctionalismand e perimental psychology. On a roader le el, cogniti e science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cogniti e psychologists, cogniti e ne roscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, ling ists, h m ancomp t er interaction, comp t ational ne roscience, logicians and social

[edit] Comparative

Main article: Comparative psychology

The common chimpan ee can se tools. This chimpan ee is sing a stick in order to get food.

for st dying the f nctional organi ation of the mind

hereas ne roscience pro ides meas res of rain acti ity.

scientists.

omp t ational models are sometimes sed to sim l ate phenomena of interest.

o mp t ational models pro ide a tool

associated

ith a school of tho ght kno n as cogniti ism,

hose adherents arg e for an information processing model of

and psychologists are no

adopting an eclectic therape t ic orientation.

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effecti eness,

ith the key common element eing a strong therape t ic alliance.

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Beca se of this, more training programs

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st research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is e idence that most of the major therapies are a o t of e

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Comparati e psychology refers to the st dy of the eha ior and mental life ofanimals other than h m an eings. It is related to disciplines o t side of psychology that st dy animal eha ior s c h asethology. Altho gh the field of psychology is primarily

comparison or ia animal models of emotional and eha ior systems as seen in ne roscience of psychology e.g.,affecti e ne roscience and social ne roscience . [edit] Developmental

Main article: Developmental psychology

ainly foc sing on the de elopment of the h m an mind thro gh the life span,de elopmental psychology seeks to nderstand people come to percei e, nderstand, and act ithin the orld and ho these processes change as they age. This may ho st dy children se a n m er of ni

research methods to make o ser ations in nat ral settings or to engage them in e perimental tasks. S ch tasks often resem l e e specially designed games and acti ities that ar oth enjoya l e for the child and scientifically sef l, and researchers ha e e en de ised cle er methods to st dy the mental processes of small infants. In addition to st dying children, de elopmental psychologists also st dy aging and processes thro gho t the life span, especially at other times of rapid change s ch as

research. [edit] Educational

and school

Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology

An e ample of an item from a cogniti e a i lities test sed in ed cational psychology.

adolescence and old age . De elopmental psychologists dra

on the f ll range of psychological theories to inform their

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practices. Ed c ational psychology is often incl ded in teacher ed c ation programs, in places s ch as North America, A stralia , and Ne Zealand.

School psychology com i nes principles from ed c ational psychology and clinical psychologyto nderstand and treat st dents ith learning disa i lities; to foster the intellect al gro th of gifted st dents; to facilitate prosocial eha iors in adolescents; and

other ise to promote safe, s pporti e, and effecti e learning en ironments. School psychologists are trained in ed c ational nd a eha ioral assessment, inter ention, pre ention, andcons ltation, and many ha e e tensi e training in research.
[ ]

[edit] Industrialorganizational

Main article: Industrial and organizational psychology

Ind strial and organi ational psychology IO applies psychological concepts and methods to optimi e h m an potential in the

[edit] Personality

Main article: Personality psychology

to aspersonality. Theories of personality ary across different psychological schools and orientations. They carry different ass m ptions a o t s ch iss es as the role of the nconscio s and the importance of childhood e perience. According to Fre d, personality is ased on the dynamic interactions of theid, ego, and s per ego.
[ ]

Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analy e

personality in terms of a discrete n m er of key traits ythe statistical method of factor analysis. The n m er of proposed traits

personality: e tra ersionintro ersion, ne roticism, and psychoticism.Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of

personality

[edit] Social

Social psychology st dies the nat r e and ca ses of social eha ior.

factors. The Big Fi e, or Fi e Factor

odel, proposed y e is Gold erg, c rrently has strong s pport among trait theorists.

has aried

idely. An early model proposed y ans Eysenck s ggested that there are three traits that comprise h m an

Personality psychology is concerned

ith end ring patterns of eha ior, tho ght, and emotion in indi id als, commonly referred

and management styles on

orker moti ation, jo satisfaction, and prod cti ity.

and e al ating

orkers. IO psychology's other s

f ield, organi ational psychology, e amines the effects of

[ ]

ork en ironments

orkplace. Personnel psychology, a s

field of IO psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting

Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard

skin and Jerome Br ner has een infl ential in creating teaching methods and ed c ational

the psychology of teaching, and thesocial psychology of schools as organi ations. The

ork of child psychologists s c h as e

Ed c ational psychology is the st dy of ho

h m ans learn ined c ational settings, the effecti eness of ed c ational inter entions,

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researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data,

Q alitati e psychological research methods incl de inter ie s, first hand o ser ation, and participant o ser ation. Q alitati e

Q antitati e psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Q antitati ely oriented research designs

and operationali ation of important constr cts is an essential part of these research designs. Statistical methods incl de the Pearson prod ctmoment correlation coefficient, the analysis of ariance, m ltiple linear regression, logistic regression, str ct ral e [edit] Controlled ation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.

experiments

Main article: Experiment

from the CONSORT Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials

Statement

on E perimental psychological research is cond cted in a la oratory nder controlled conditions. This method of research relies the application of the scientific method to nderstand eha ior. E perimenters se se eral types of meas rements, incl ding rate of response, reaction time, and ario s psychometric meas rements. E periments are designed to test specific hypotheses ded cti e approach or e al ate f nctional relationships i nd cti e approach . Atr e

aspects of eha ior and the en ironment. In an e periment, one or more aria l es of interest are controlled y the e perimenter independent aria l e and another aria l e is meas red in response to different conditions dependent aria l e . E periments

are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, partic l arly cogniti e/psychonomics, mathematical psychology,psychophysiology and i ological psychology/cogniti e ne roscience.

e periment

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missed if only more c rsory e aminations ha e een made. [edit] Neuropsychological

methods

Main article: Neuropsychology

Phineas P. Gage s r i ed an accident in hich a large iron rod as dri encompletely thro gh his head, destroying m ch of his r ain's left frontal lo e, and is remem ered for that inj r y's reported effects on his personality and eha ior.

ne ropsychology and cogniti e ne ropsychiatry st dy ne rological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and rain f nction. This typically in ol es looking for differences in patterns of remaining a ility kno n as

a single cogniti e mechanism.

eha ioral e periments, rain scanning or f nctional ne roimaging, sed to e amine the acti ity of the rain d ring task

to re eal their importance in mental operations. [edit] Computational

modeling

Artificial ne r al net ork ith t o layers, an interconnected gro p of nodes, akin to the ast net ork of ne r ons in the h man r ain.

performance, and techni

es s ch as transcranial magnetic stim l ation,

hich can safely alter the f nction of small rain areas

In addition, e perimental techni

es are often sed to st dy the ne ropsychology of healthy indi id als. These incl de

f nctional disassociations

hich can gi e cl es as to

hether a ilities are composed of smaller f nctions, or are controll y ed

g g

Ne ropsychology seeks to connect aspects of eha ior and mental acti ity

ff c

ith the str ct re and f nction of the rain. Cogniti e

i i

of the richness of e eryday eha ior and

ith the hope of disco ering and nderstanding phenomena that might ha e een

research is descripti e research that is foc sed on o ser ing and descri i ng e ents as they occ r,

ith the goal of capt ring all

indi id als is kno n as descripti e research. Descripti e research can e

alitati e or

antitati e in orientation. Q alita e ti

X Y X

Research designed to ans er

estions a o t the c rrent state of affairs s ch as the tho ghts, feelings and eha iors of

s p r

ccb

is ali e hypotheses a o t the f nctional organi ation of mental e ents that co ldn't e directly o ser ed in a h m an.

Se eral different types of modeling are sed to st dy eha ior.Connectionism ses ne ral net orks to sim l ate the rain.

modeling incl de dynamic systems and stochastic modeling. [edit] Animal

studies

memory.

physiologist I an Pa lo famo sly sed dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non h m an primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats and other rodents are often sed in psychological e periments. Ideally, controlled e periments introd c e only

generali ing findings from animal st dies to h m ans altho gh animal models can e helpf l in de eloping an nderstanding of h m an eha ior e.g., addiction research . [edit] Criticism [edit]Theory Criticisms of psychology often come from perceptions that it is a soft science. Philosopher of science Thomas K hn's
[ ]

sciences s ch as chemistry and physics.

psychology is not an o j ecti e science. Other phenomena that psychologists are interested in, s ch as personality, thinking,

i s ses of hypothesis testing in psychology, and the se of hypothesis testing at all iscontro ersial. Research

[which?]

oq

doc m ented that many psychologists conf se statistical significance ith practical importance. Statistically significant

and emotion, cannot e directly meas red

and are often inferred from s

j ecti e self reports,

hich may e pro l ematic. has t

n m

Beca se some areas of psychology rely on research methods s ch as s r eys and

estionnaires, critics ha e asserted that

][

criti

implied psychology o erall

as in a pre paradigm state, lacking the agreement on o erarching theory fo nd in mat re

ji

pon so many factors, that it is diffic lt to control important aria l es for h m an s

j ects. Of co rse, there ar pitfalls in e

appro imated est in la oratory settings. In contrast, h man en ironments and genetic ackgro nds ary so

one independent aria l e at a time, in order to ascertain its ni

e effects pon dependent aria l es. Thee conditions are s idely, and depend

Animal learning e periments aid in in estigating the i ological asis of teaching, memory and eha ior. In the

A rat ndergoing a

orris

ater na igation test sed in eha ioral ne r oscience to st dy the role of the hippocamp s in spatial learningand

Another method is sym olic modeling,

hich represents many different mental o j ects sing aria l es and r l es. Other types of

s, R ssian

sim l ations can e r n in a short time, allo ing for a great deal of statistical po er.

odeling also allo s psychologists to

eha ior sing a comp t er. This method has se eral ad antages. Since modern comp t ers process e tremely

ickly, many

Comp t ational modeling

is a tool often sed in mathematical psychology and cogniti e psychology to sim l ate a partic l ar

less pro a ility inindependent replications, ass m ing the tr t h of the n l l hypothesis of no difference et een the treatments .
[citation needed]

s ch as clinicians. In recent years, and partic l arly in the U.S., there has een increasing ate a o t the nat re of therape t ic de

also arg ing that controlled st dies often do not take into consideration real orld conditions. [edit] Practice Some o ser ers percei e a gap et een scientific theory and its application in partic l ar, the application of ns pported or nso nd clinical practices. Critics say there has een an increase in then m er of mental health training programs that do not One skeptic asserts that practices, s ch as facilitated comm nication for infantile a t ism ;

analysis of eha ior.

ould iolate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research In ol ing , umans, and the Belmont Report. Current ethical guidelines state that using nonhuman animals for scientific purposes is only

Current ethical standards of psychology

ould not permit the follo ing studies to e conducted today. These human studies

electro shock generator,

hich played pre recorded so nds for each shock le el etc.

tho gh in reality there

ere no s ch p nishments. Being separated from the s

ject, the confederate set p a tape recorder tegrated in

),

ho is act ally an actor and confederate. The s

ject elie es that for each rong ans er, the learner

as recei ing act al electric shocks, ith the

The e perimenter E orders the teacher T),the s

ject of the e periment, to gi e

hat the latter elie es are painf l electric shocks to a learner

e en dangero s, despite their pop l arity. In

, Allen Ne ringer had made a similar point

[vague]

regarding the e perimental

memory reco ery techni

es incl ding ody

ork; and other therapies, s ch as re irthing and reparenting, may e d

instill scientific competence.

i o s or

r {

s~

side

[who?]

points to recent research s ggesting that all mainstream therapies are of a o t e

al effecti eness,

that some therapies

[which?]

are ased on discredited theories and are ns pported y empirical e idence. The other
[citation needed]

effecti eness and a o t the rele ance of empi ically e amining psychotherape t ic strategies. r

One arg m ent

[by whom?]

states

hile

r {

t {

Sometimes the de ate comes from

ithin psychology, for e ample et een la oratoryoriented researchers and practitioners

~r

is deemed statistically significant if an effect of that si e or larger

o l d occ r

ith % or

z s

of effect si e statistics, rather than sole reliance on theFisherian p < .

significance criterion

here y an o ser ed difference

yx

practically nimportant res lts are common

ith large samples.

ut

Some psychologists ha e responded

ith an increased se

r {

{ {

r |

ork.

Researchers in psychology must gain appro al of their research projects before conducting any e periment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals. [edit] Systemic In No ember
[ ]

Bias

, Ne Scientist aga ine reported a systemic bias in psychology studies to ards WEIRD

[edit] See

also

Psychology portal

Mind and Brain portal

Philosophy portal

Book:Psychology

Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

    

Artificial intelligence Consciousness i st of psychologists i st of psychology organi ations i st of publications in psychology

the results that differ significantly bet een WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures, including

ller yer illusion.

Ne

Scientist claimed that

% of psychology studies are performed on WEIRD subjects. The article ga e e amples of

educated, industrialised, rich and democratic ) subjects. Although only / peo le p

orld ide fall into the WEIRD classification,

Uni ersity psychology departments ha e ethics committees dedicated to the rights and

e destroyed y destroying their social ties.

rites that

arlo

made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his

ell eing of research subjects.

their nonhuman primates decade after decade, in aria l y pro ing

hat

e all kne

posture.

In

, American literary criticWayne C. Booth rote that,

arry

arlo

arlo

also de ised

hat he called a rape rack, to

hich the female isolates

Wisconsin adison in the

s.

The aim of the research

as to produce an animal model of clinical depression. ere tied in normal monkey mating and his colleagues go on torturing

inad ance that social creatures can

estern,

arry

arlo dre

condemnation for his pit of despair e periments on rhesus maca ue monkeys at the Uni ersity of

ho instructed them to perform acts that con flicted

ith their personal conscience.

emotional stress suffered y the participants. It measured the

illingness of study participants to o ey an authority figure

An e periment y Stanley

i lgram raised uestions a out the ethics of scientific e perimentation ecause of the e treme

this in mind, psychologists can use on animals research techni ues that

ould not necessarily e performed on humans.

accepta l e

hen the harm physical or psychological) done to animals isout eighed y the enefits of the research. Keeping


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