Perfilaje de Pozos y Evaluación de

Formaciones

MSc. Jorge Dueñas

Facultad de Geología Geofísica y Minas

UNSA
www.unsa.edu.pe
Email: jduenasr@unsa.edu.pe

2021

Introducción básica a la medición de registros

• Caliper
• SP
• GR
• NGT
• Neutron
• Density
• Sonic
• Resistivity
• Induction

1
 Tipos de Registros de Medición

• SP & GR (registrar fenómenos físicos que ocurren

naturalmente en rocas in situ )
• Registros de Porosidad
• Registros sónicos
• Registros de densidad
• Registros de neutrones
• Registros de Resistividad
• Registros eléctricos convencionales
• Registros de inducción

Modelo de Invasión
Lodo

Rm

Zona no
invadida o
virgen

Zona Rt
lavada
Zona de
transición
Rmc Rw
Rxo

Rmf Sw

Enjarre

Sxo
h

2
Registro Caliper
Registro caliper
- Aplicaciones:
• Mida el diámetro del pozo
(geometría del pozo con el caliper
de varios brazos con 2 o 3
separados de 90 ° o 60 ° entre sí).
• Medida importante para los
perforadores: geometría del pozo,
volumen del pozo / cemento.
• Los diámetros del pozo son un
parámetro de entrada importante
para la corrección ambiental de
registros petrofísicos.
• Se utilizan registros de calibrador
de brazos múltiples orientados para
identificar las direcciones de
esfuerzos principales: "registro de
breakouts – elongación de pozo”
- Control de calidad básico:
CALI, C1, C2 Washout: Shale zone? Chequeo del casing; debe leer el
Mudcake: Permeable zone? ID nominal del casing.

SP (Spontaneous Potential Logging)

3
 Spontaneous Potential (SP)

• Lutitas, la curva SP generalmente

define una línea más o menos recta
en el registro llamada Línea de
base de lutitas
• Formaciones permeables, las curvas
muestran desviaciones desde la
línea de base de la lutita; en lechos
gruesos, estas excursiones tienden
a alcanzar una deflexión
esencialmente constante que define
una línea de arena.
• Las deflexiones pueden ser
negativas o positivas dependiendo
principalmente de las salinidades
relativas del agua de formación y
del filtrado de lodo.

• La curva SP no se puede registrar en pozos con lodo no

conductivo, porque dicho lodo no proporciona la continuidad
eléctrica entre el electrodo del SP y la formación.
• Si Rw ~ Rmf => La deflexión SP será muy pequeña (la
curva será sin rasgos distintivos).
• La posición de la línea de base de la lutita en el registro no
tiene un significado útil para fines de interpretación. Se
elige la escala de sensibilidad del SP, y el ingeniero que
ejecuta el registro, establece la posición de la línea de
base de la lutita para que las desviaciones de la curva sigan
la trayectoria del SP.

4
 Origen del SP
Las deflexiones SP son el resultado de la corriente eléctrica que
fluye en el lodo del pozo. Estas corrientes SP se desarrollan
mediante dos tipos de interacciones:
1. Electroquímico
2. Electrocinético

Electroquímico
La interacción electroquímica es causada por la diferencia de
salinidad entre el filtrado de lodo y la formación de agua.

Hay dos tipos de componentes electroquímicos,

potencial de membrana (Em) y potencial de unión líquida (Ej)

There two types of Electrochemical components, Membrane Potential (Em) and Liquid
Junction Potential (Ej)

SP – Membrane Potential
Considere una formación permeable con capas gruesas de lutitas arriba y abajo; Suponga
también que los dos electrolitos presentes, el filtrado de lodo y las aguas de formación
contienen sólo NaCl. Solo los cationes Na+ pueden moverse a través de las lutitas desde
una solución de NaCl más concentrada a una menos concentrada. Las lutitas son
impermeables a los aniones Cl-. Este movimiento de iones cargados es una corriente
eléctrica, y la fuerza que hace que se muevan constituye un potencial a través de la lutita.
Dado que las lutitas pasan solo los cationes, las lutitas se asemejan a una membrana
selectiva de iones y, por lo tanto, el potencial a través de la lutita se denomina potencial
de membrana.

5
 SP - Potencial de unión líquida
Otro componente del potencial electroquímico se produce en el borde de la zona
invadida, donde el filtrado de lodo y el agua de formación están en contacto directo.
Aquí el Na + y el Cl- pueden difundirse (moverse) de una solución a la otra. Dado que el
Cl- tiene mayor movilidad que el Na +, el resultado neto de esta difusión de iones es un
flujo de cargas negativas de una solución más concentrada a una menos concentrada. La
corriente que fluye a través de la unión entre soluciones de diferente salinidad es
producida por una fuerza electromagnética (fem) llamada potencial de unión líquida.

El potencial de unión líquida se produce cuando dos disoluciones de

diferentes concentraciones están en contacto entre sí a través de
una membrana semipermeable. Se origina en la interfase una
diferencia de potencial llamada potencial de unión. Es muy pequeña,
del orden de unos pocos milivoltios. La disolución más concentrada
tendrá una tendencia a migrar hacia la relativamente menos
concentrada y si los iones no difunden a igual velocidad se producirá
una diferencia de potencial.

SP

6
 SP

El potencial de la membrana es
aproximadamente 5 veces el potencial de
unión líquida
El potencial electrocinético SP es
insignificante

Componente electrocinético del SP

• Esto es generado por el flujo de electrolito (del filtrado de lodo)

a través de un medio poroso, no metálico y permeable (enjarre).
• La magnitud depende de la presión diferencial que produce el flujo
y la resistividad del electrolito.
• En la práctica, en realidad se genera poca o ninguna
electrocinética. Solo será importante si hay altas presiones
diferenciales en las formaciones.

7
 SP como indicador de permeabilidad o de lutita

Dado que la invasión solo puede

ocurrir en formaciones
permeables, las desviaciones de
SP se pueden usar para
identificar formaciones
permeables.

La resolución vertical de SP es
pobre y, a menudo, el lecho
permeable debe ser de 30 pies o
más para lograr un SP estático
(línea de base plana).

Rw desde el SSP

En determinadas circunstancias, Rw se R mfeq

puede estimar a partir de SP.
• El valor de SP permanece constante
SSP  K c log
durante al menos 30 pies. Rweq
• El área donde el SP es constante
debe corresponder a una arenisca
R mfeq
muy limpia.
• El valor de Rmf debe permanecer Rweq  SSP
constante en este mismo intervalo..
k c
Estas condiciones son poco frecuentes
10
y pueden ocurrir grandes errores en
la estimación de Rw.
K c  61  0.133T F 
¡Use esta técnica con mucha
precaución! K c  65  0.24TC 

R weq , R mfeq : Chart _ SP .2

8
 Rmfeq desde el Rmf o Rw desde el Rweq

Chart SP-2
Si el Rmf @ 75degF >
0.1 Ohmm entonces el
Rmfeq=0.85 Rmf @ BHT

Si el Rmf @ 75 degF <

0.1 Ohmm entonces el
Rmfeq se toma del chart
sp2

Lo mismo con el Rw

SP como indicador de Rw

SP is more often used

“qualitatively” to predict
whether Rw > Rmf or not.

Rw > Rmf Rmf > Rw

Rmf = Rw
“Saline mud” “Fresh mud”

9
 SP para Correlación

-ve SP +ve SP
deflection deflection

SP para Correlación
Tenga en cuenta que la deflexión de SP depende de Rmf y nunca es un
valor absoluto.

10
 Registro SP

Rmf > Rw?

Dónde está la arena?
Dónde está la lutita?
Qué es el Vshale -Vsh?

SP Estático (SSP)
SSP es la deflexión opuesta al SP
en una formación limpia y gruesa.
La deflexión se mide desde la línea
base de la lutita y su magnitud es:

R mfe
SSP   k log
R we

El valor de SSP se puede

determinar directamente a partir
de la curva del SP, siempre en
cuando el horizonte dado, tiene
capas gruesas, limpias y con agua .

11
 Factores que afectan la medición del SP
• El flujo de corriente y, por lo tanto, la deflexión SP depende de la
diferencia entre la resistividad del agua de formación virgen, Rw,
y la del filtrado de lodo Rmf.
• En casos normales Rw << Rmf, la deflexión SP desde la línea base
de la lutita es negativa (a la izquierda)
• En la condición opuesta, Rw> Rmf, que se encuentra en aguas
dulces de formación, la desviación es positiva (a la derecha)

SP Deflection
Positive Rw>Rmf

SP Deflection
Negative Rw<Rmf

Rmf > Rw
Shale Little deflection
Clean Ss Negative deflection

Rmf < Rw
Shale Little deflection
Clean Ss Positive deflection

12
 Ejemplo del SP

The Minimum point on the SP corresponds

to where all the resistivity curves overlay,
no invasion, a shale.

The Maximum SP deflection in this

example occurs at the same depths
as the resistivity curves show a separation

Rw<Rmf?
Where is Sand?
Where is Shale?
SP reading on Sand?

Aplicaciones del SP

• Indicador de Lutita- El registro de

ejemplo es para el caso en el que Rmf> Rw. Las
líneas de base para 100% arenisca y 100%
lutita se pueden establecer en las desviaciones
máximas y mínimas de SP. El porcentaje de
lutita se puede obtener directamente para
ESSP cualquier profundidad en el registro escalando
linealmente entre las líneas base de la lutita y
arena. Por ejemplo:
• SPshale = -10 mV
• SParena = -40 mV
• SPlog = lectura de SP del registro = -25 mV
• El porcentaje de lutita será (SPlog -
SPsand) / (SPshale - SPsand) = -15 / -30 = .5
o 50% de lutita.

13
 Code/Name

• SP, units = mV

Aplicaciones del SP

•Correlación - La correlación permite que los registros hechos

en un viaje dentro del pozo se vinculen (hacer match con la
profundidad) con los otros hechos en otro viaje. La correlación
se realiza por dos razones principales:
• Correspondencia de profundidad entre viajes separados en el pozo.
• Posicionamiento de herramientas de muestreo de pozo abierto.

•Estimación del Rw under bajo las siguientes circunstancias:

• El valor de SP permanece constante durante al menos 30 pies.
• El área donde el SP es constante debe corresponder a una arenisca limpia.
• El valor de Rmf debe permanecer constante en este mismo intervalo.

14
 Deflexión del SP vs. Salinidad

Rmfe
SSP = -K log
Rwe

Rmf = Rw Rmf <Rw Rmf >Rw

SALINE MUD FRESH MUD

K = 61 + .133*F
K = 65 + .24*C

Rw From SSP (use this technique with care!)

15
 La resistividad cambia con la temperatura

• A medida que aumenta la temperatura de la solución, la actividad

de los iones en la solución aumenta y la resistividad de la solución
disminuye.
• Dado que medimos todas las resistividades a la temperatura de
formación (FT), debemos convertir el Rmf a la temperatura
medida en la superficie a Rmf a la temperatura de formación para
calcular la relación de Rmf a Rw (es decir, SSP).
• Suponemos que la salinidad de la formación no cambia con la
temperatura y usamos el chart Gen.9 de SLB.

• Rw = 0.35 @ 75 grados F
• ¿Cuál es la Rw a 190 grados F? (asumiendo que
la salinidad no cambia con la temperatura)

16
Ex:Rw = .35 @ 75F da una salinidad de 17,000ppm. 17,000ppm @ 190 F genera una resistividad de.135 ohmm.

Ejercicios:
1. Rw = 0.21 ohm-m @ 75 degF.
Cuál es la salinidad? 30000 ppm

Cuál es la Rw @ 200 degF? 0.08 ohm-m

2. Salinidad = 13000 ppm

Cuál es la Rw @ 75 degF? 0.44 ohm-m
Si FT= 180 degF, Cuál es la Rw? 0.19 ohm-m

17
 Cálculo de Rw a partir del SP

• Get Rmf @ meas. Temp from log heading along with BHT.
• Compute FT from BHT.
• Calculate SSP from log at maximum deflection (in a clean, thick,
zone). --- Just read SP from logs for this training
(water-wet)

• Enter Chart SP-1 with SSP, FT., & Rmfe and compute Rmfe/Rwe.
• Compute Rmf @ FT (Gen-9).
• Convert Rmf to Rmfe @ FT. from Chart SP-2  Rwe
• From Chart SP-2 convert Rwe to Rw at formation temperature.

SP Example for Rw

18
SP Example for Rw

SP Example for Rw
SP-1 Chart

19
SP Example for Rw

SP Example for Rw
SP-2 Chart

20
 Ejercicios

• Essp = -100 mV @250 degF

• Rmf = 0.7 ohm-m at 75 degF
• Cuál es la Rw?

Rmf @ 250 F = 0.2 ohm-m, Salinidad = 8000 ppm

Del chart SP-1; Rmfe/Rwe = 11.5

Rmfe = 0.85 * Rmf (in condition if Rmf @ 75 degF > 0.1 ohm-m)

Rmfe = 0.85 * 0.2

= 0.17 ohm-m
De aqui, Rwe = 0.015 ohm-m

Del chart SP-2 ; Rw ~ 0.023 ohm-m

Registro GR (Gamma Ray)

21
 Principio

• The Gamma Ray log is a measurement of the formation’s natural

radioactivity
• Gamma Ray emission is produced by three radioactive series
found in the Earth’s crust
 Potassium (K40) series

 Uranium series

 Thorium series

• Gamma Ray passing through rocks are slowed and absorbed at a

rate which depends on the formation density
• Less dense formation exhibit more radioactivity than dense
formations even though there may be the same quantities of
radioactive material per unit volume

Gamma Ray Interactions

A medida que atraviesan la materia, los rayos gamma experimentan
una pérdida de energía debido a las colisiones con otras partículas
atómicas. Estas colisiones se pueden dividir en tres categorías
básicas:

Producción de pares Dispersión de Compton

Es la conversión de un rayo gamma en un Es la dispersión de un rayo

electrón y un positrón cuando el rayo gamma
entra en el campo eléctrico fuerte cerca del
núcleo de un átomo. Predomina a niveles de
energía de rayos gamma superiores a 10 MeV.
Debido a que el electrón y el positrón tienen
una masa equivalente combinada de 1.02 MeV,
un rayo gamma debe tener al menos esta
cantidad de energía para causar la producción
de pares.
gamma por un electrón
orbital. Como resultado de
esta interacción, el rayo
gamma pierde energía y un
electrón es expulsado de su
órbita. La dispersión de
Compton predomina en el
rango de energía de 75 keV a
10 MeV .

22
 Registro GR y Usos

• Bed definition:
 The tool reacts if the shale is
radioactive (usually the case), hence
Shale
show the sands and shales, the
permeable zones and non-permeable
zones
• Computation of the amount of shale:
 The minimum value gives the clean (100%)
shale free zone, the maximum 100% shale
zone. All other points can then be
calibrated in the amount of shale
Reservoir
Vsh=(GRlog-GRsand)/(GRshale-GRsand)

23
 Application

• Correlation
This is the most widely used application of the GR log. It
permits logs made on one trip into the borehole (openhole,
cased hole or both) to be tied in (depth matched) with those
made on another trip.
Correlation is done for three primary reasons:
 Depth matching between separate trips in the well.

 Positioning of open hole sampling tools.

 Providing the depth control needed for cased hole

perforation.
• General lithology indicator
In areas where certain lithology aspects are already known,
the GR log can be used as a lithology indicator.
• Quantitative shaliness evaluation
The GR log reflects the proportion of shale and, in many
regions, can be used quantitatively as a shale indicator.

Operating Environment

One of the biggest features of the GR log is its wide range of

operating environments. It can be run in almost any logging
situation including cased wells, or in openholes drilled with air,
salt mud, oil-based mud or fresh mud.

24
The Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry (NGS)

Unlike the GR log, which measures only the

total radioactivity, this log measures both the
number of gamma rays and the energy level of
each and permits the determination of the
concentrations of radioactive potassium,
thorium and uranium in the formation rocks.

Principles
Natural Gamma Rays
Gamma ray emission is produced by three radioactive series found in
the Earth's crust.
•Potassium (K40) series, Uranium (U238) series and Thorium (Th 232)
series.

25
 NGT Example

NGT Applications
•Lithology identification
•Study of depositional environments
•Investigation of shale types
•Correlation of the GR for clay content evaluation
•Identification of organic material and source rocks
•Fracture identification
•Geochemical logging
•Study of s rock’s diagenetic history
A major application was to solve North Sea log
interpretation problems in micaceous sands

26
 NGT Elements

• The three radioactive elements measured by the NGT occur in

different parts of the reservoir. If we know the lithology, we can
deduce further information
• In Carbonates:
 U - indicates phosphates, organic matter and stylolites
 Th – indicates clay content
 K – indicates clay content, radioactive evaporites
• In sandstone:
 Th – indicates clay content, heavy minerals
 K – indicates micas, micaceous clays and feldspars

NGT Elements (continued)

• In shales:
 U – in shale, suggest a source rock
 Th – indicates the amount of detrital material or
degree of shaliness
 K – indicates clay type and mica

27
 NGT/GR Parameters

Vertical resolution 18”

• No formation is perfectly
clean, hence the GR readings Depth of investigation 6”-8”
will vary. Limestone is usually
cleaner than the other two Readings in: API units
reservoir rocks and normally Limestone <20
has a lower GR
Dolomite <30
• Anhydrite and salt are normally
very clean, and have very low Sandstone <30
values
Shale 80-300
Salt <10
Anhydrite <10

Code/Name

• GR
• CGR
• SCGR
• POTA
• THOR
• URAN
• *GR

28
 Exercise
What is the VSH from GR
@ 10235 ft?

Approximately
43% Shale

VSH = (GR log – GR sand) /

(GR shale – GR sand)

GR log example

Which has better

vertical resolution,
SP or GR?

29
 Registros de Porosidad

Los principales registros de

porosidad son: : La respuesta de la
 Registros Neutron, n herramienta se ve
afectada por la porosidad
 Registros de Densidad, b
de la formación, el fluido y
 Registros Sónicos, t la matriz. .

Si los efectos del fluido y la matriz son conocidos o pueden

determinarse, la respuesta de la herramienta puede estar
relacionada con la porosidad, por lo que estos dispositivos se
denominan registros de porosidad. .

Registro sónico

30
 Registros sónicos

Principios:
En su forma más simple, una herramienta sónica
consta de:
 Un transmisor que genera un pulso sonoro.

 Un receptor que recoge y registra el pulso

cuando pasa por el receptor.

Es simplemente un registro versus la profundidad del tiempo, t,

requerido para que una onda de sonido atraviese 1 pie de
formación. Conocido como tiempo de tránsito de intervalo, tiempo
de tránsito, t, o lentitud, t es el recíproco de la velocidad de la
onda de sonido.

Ondas sónicas en el pozo

31
 Herramienta Sónica

• Las herramientas sónicas crean una señal acústica y miden cuánto

tiempo se tarda en atravesar una roca.

• Simplemente midiendo este tiempo obtenemos una indicación de las

propiedades de la formación.
• La amplitud de la señal también dará información sobre la formación.

Sónico compensado del pozo (BHC)

• Una herramienta sencilla que utiliza un par de

transmisores y cuatro receptores para compensar
las cavidades y la inclinación de la sonda.
• El espacio normal entre los transmisores y los
receptores es de 3 '- 5'
• Produce una lentitud compresional midiendo los
tiempos de tránsito de la primera llegada
• Usado para:
• Correlación
• Porosidad
• Litología
• Enlace sísmico / conversión de tiempo a profundidad

32
 Long Spacing Sonic (LSS)

• The BHC tool is affected by near borehole altered

zones hence a longer spacing is needed with a larger
depth of investigation
• The tool spacing are 8’-10’, 10’-12’
• The tool cannot be built with transmitters at each end
like a BHC sonde, hence there are two transmitters at
the bottom
• A system called DDBHC – depth derived borehole
compensation, is used to compute the transmit time
• Same as the BHC tool for applications

Array Sonic: Digital Sonic Tool

• Multi-spacing digital tool
• First use STC processing
• Able to measure shear waves and Stoneley waves in
hard formations
• Used for:
 Porosity, lithology
 Seismic tie/ time-to depth conversion
 Mechanical properties (from shear and compressional)
 Fracture identification (from shear and Stoneley)
 Permeability (from Stoneley)

33
Array Sonic: Digital Sonic Tool (cont.)

Sonic Logs

Compr. Shear Stoneley

Rec1

Rec8

Example waveforms from the eight-receiver Array-Sonic tool

34
 Sonic Logs

Sonic velocities In Formations

• In sedimentary formations the speed of sound depends on
many parameters; principally, it depends on the rock
matrix material (sandstone, limestone, dolomite…) and on
the distributed porosity.

• Porosity decreases the velocity of sound through the rock

material and correspondingly, increases the interval
transit time ( t)

POROSITY LOGS SONIC TOOL

Standard display of borehole

compensated sonic log (bhc)
- Primary Logging Curves:
DT … Delta Time or Slowness
[μsec/ft; μsec/m]
TT1 - 4 … Transit Times [μsec] for
Log Quality Control
Integrated Transit Time - Optional Logging Curves:
SPHI … Sonic Porosity [vol/vol]
SVEL … Sonic Velocity [ft/sec;
m/sec]
- Sonic Specific Output:
Integrated Transit Time for
Cycle Skip comparison with Seismic One Way
Time
- Basic Quality Control:
Check for Cycle Skips and TT1 - TT4.
These curves should run in parallel.

35
 POROSITY LOGS SONIC TOOL

Dipole Shear Imager (DSI)

- Primary Logging Curves:
DT4P… DTcomp, Compressional Slowness
[μsec/ft; μsec/m]
DT4S … DTshear, Shear Slowness [μsec/ft;
μsec/m]
- Optional Logging Curves:
VpVs…. Dtshear/Dtcomp
PR…….. Poisson’s Ratio

- Sonic Specific Output:

Integrated Transit Time for comparison with
Seismic One Way Time
- Basic Quality Control:
See display left: Coherency Plot projected
onto Slowness Axis
Reprocessing in the field or Computing
Centre possible.

Application of Sonic Logs

• In common oilfield formations, the

speed of sound depends principally
upon the rock matrix material and
the porosity. The measurement of
compressional and shear wave
slowness can help us estimate:
Porosity (estimated from the
compressional slowness measured
by the sonic log.
Lithology
Presence of natural gas
• Determination of Lithology with
Cross Plot

36
 Application of Sonic Logs
• Detection of the presence of
natural gas

Application of Sonic Logs

• Cement Bond Logs -> used to

evaluate the cement that was put
during the well completion
process.
The Cement Bond Log shows how
the amplitude of the waveform
increases when there is poor
cement and decreases in the
intervals when there is good
cement.

37
 Vertical Resolution:
Sonic Standard STC (BHC,LSS,MSTC) 24”
Parameter 36”
s 6” DT 6”
Depth of investigation BHC(5”) LSS-SDT(12”)
Readings in zero porosity: (With 12 feet spacing)
Limestone (0pu) 47.5 us/ft
Sandstone (0pu) 51-55 us/ft
Dolomite (0pu) 43.5 us/ft
Anhydrite 50 us/ft
Salt / Coal 67 / >120 us/ft
Shale >90 us/ft
Steel (casing) 57 us/ft

Code/Name
• DT
• AC
• DT*

38
 Sonic Porosity
• The porosity from the sonic slowness is different than that from the
density or neutron tools
• It reacts to primary porosity only, I.e. it doesn’t “see” the fracture or
vugs
• The difference between the sonic porosity and the neutron-density
porosity gives a Secondary Porosity Index (SPI) which is an indication
of how much of this type of porosity there is in the formation
• The basic equation for sonic porosity is the Wyllie Time Avearge:

t log  t f  1   t ma

t log  t ma

t f  t ma

Sonic Porosity (continued)

• The Wyllie Time Average equation is very simple with the inputs of a
matrix slowness and a fluid slowness
• There is another possibility for transforming slowness to porosity,
called Raymer Gardner Hunt, this formula tries to take into account
some irregularities seen in the field. The basic equation is:

1

12 
 
t c t ma t f
• A simplified version used on the Maxis is: (C is a constant, usually taken
as 0.67 )

t log  t ma
 C
t log

39
 Sonic Porosity Chart

• Este gráfico muestra la

relación entre el retardo de
la compresión sónica y la
porosidad. Tanto la litología
como la ecuación deben
conocerse antes de usar
esta tabla.
• Esta tabla se ingresa con el
intervalo de tiempo de
tránsito, se mueve hasta la
línea de litología y se lee la
porosidad.

Exercise

• Calculate Sonic
Porosity @10200
ft assuming the
matrix delta is
65 sec/ft and
the fluid delta t
is 189 sec/ft.

40
Density - Lithology

The density logging tool measures the

formation density and formation lithology.

Density Tool History

41
Density

Principles :
Gamma Ray Interactions

Gamma Ray Interactions depend on the current Gamma Ray’s energy le

Gamma Ray Source

•Use of chemical source.
•Gamma Ray energy level is generated in Campton Scattering
range (77 keV – 100 MeV).

Gamma Ray Detection

•Using Scintillation Detector

42
 Formation Density Measurement

•Gamma rays lose their energy when they collide with electrons (Campton Scattering)
•The number of Compton-scattering collision is related directly to the number of
electrons in the formation. Consequently, the response of the density tool is
determined essentially by the electron density. Understanding the relationship
between electron density and bulk density is an essential part of the density
measurement.
Relationship between Electron Density to Bulk Density

Atomic weight (A) - the mass of an atom.

Atomic number (Z) - the number of electrons in a neutral atom.

Rhoe = Rhob * ( 2Z / A ) Rhoe = Rhob

Most cases, 2Z/A = 1

Some conditions that must exist in order to

measure the density of the formation:
•The source must emit gamma rays at an energy level
where Compton scattering predominates.

•The source-to-detector spacing must be as such that

the gamma rays travel farther into the formation
without losing their energy when they reach the
detector.

43
 Porosity from Density

For a clean formation of known matrix density

and fluid density, the porosity density is:

den = (Rhoma – Rhob)/(Rhoma-

Rhof)

Photoelectric Effect Measurement

The basic principle of lithology

measurement is having the
counts of gamma rays drop in
the energy region where
photoelectric interactions
predominates.

• The spectrum represents the energy lost by gamma rays (emitted from the
source) as they interact with the formation.
• Plot 1 shows the different regions of the energy spectrum.

44
Photoelectric Effect Measurement

•Number of electron = atomic number,

Z.
•If you know Z in the given formation,
you can predict the lithology of the
formation.

Photoelectric Effect Measurement

PEF (photoelectric absorption index)

A parameter that links the number of gamma rays that
are absorbed by photoelectric absorption to lithology.

45
 LDT Uses
• The density tool is extremely useful as it has high
accuracy and exhibits small borehole effects
• Major uses include:
 Porosity
 Lithology (in combination with the neutron tool)
 Mechanical properties (in combination with the sonic tool)
 Acoustic properties (in combination with the sonic tool)
 Gas identification (in combination with the neutron tool)
• Borehole diameter - A single axis diameter of the borehole is measured
from the face of the skid pad to the end of the caliper arm that holds
the skid against the formation.

Typical Density Response

46
POROSITY LOGS- DENSITY & PHOTOLECTRIC EFFECT

LDT Parameters
Vertical Resolution:
Standard 18”
Enhanced 6”
Depth of Inverstigation 6”-9”
Readings in zero porosity:

Limestone(0 pu) 2.71

Sandstone(0 pu) 2.65
Dolomite(0 pu) 2.85
Anhydrite 2.98
Salt 2.03
Shale 2.2-2.7
Coal 1.5

47
 Pe Parameters
Vertical Resolution:
Standard 4”

Readings in zero porosity:

Limestone 5.08
Sandstone 1.81
Dolomite 3.14
Anhydrite 5.05
Salt 4.65
Shale 1.8-6

Code/Name
• RHOB
• RHOZ
• DEN
• RHO*
• PEF
• PE

48
  b  Density ma 1   
 f   Porosity

 ma   b

 ma   f
• There are two inputs into the porosity equation: the matrix
density and the fluid density
• The fluid density is that of the mud filtrate

Por-5: Density Porosity

12 p.u

2.46 g/cc

49
 Clean Sand Formation Porosity:
Density
ρb = (1-Φd) * ρma + Φd * ρf
 ma  b
D 
 ma   f

ρ
For ma:
Sandstone: 2.65 g/cc
Limestone : 2.71 g/cc
Dolomite : 2.87 g/cc

Scaling/Porosity
• The density tool is usually run with the
neutron
• To aid quicklook interpretation they are run on
“compatible scales”
• This means that the scales are set such that
for a given lithology the curve overlay

50
 Scaling/Porosity (continued)
• The standard scale is the “limestone compatible” where the
neutron porosity scale is:

• To fit this, the density log has to have its zero limestone point
(2.7 g/cc) on the same position as the neutron porosity zero and
the range of the scale has to fit the neutrons 60 porosity units
hence the scale is:

• Changing to a sandstone compatible scale would put the zero

sandstone density, 2.65, over the neutron porosity zero to give:

Exercise

Calculate Density
Porosity @ 10200
with fluid density =
1.0 g/cc. Assuming
that the lithology is
sandstone
Density Por
~33%

51
Neutron

Neutron tools emit high energy

neutrons from either a chemical
source or a neutron generator
device (minitron) and measure the
response of these neutrons as they
interact with the formation, or in
many cases, the fluids within the
formation. This measured response
is affected by the quantity of
neutrons at different energy levels
and by the decay rate of the
neutron population from one given
energy level to another. A neutron
interacts with the formation in a
variety of ways after leaving the
source, it is the aftermath of these
interactions that is detected by the
tool.

• Neutron logs are used principally for

delineation of porous formations and
determination of their porosity.
• Neutron logs respond primarily to the
amount of hydrogen in the formation. Thus,
in clean formations whose pores are filled
with water or oil, neutron log reflects the
amount of liquid-filled porosity.
• Gas zones can often be identified by
comparing the neutron log with another
porosity log or a core analysis.

52
• Neutrons are electrically neutral particles, each having a
mass almost identical to the mass of a hydrogen atom.
• When emitted from the radioactive source, the neutrons will
collide with nuclei of the formation materials (billiard-ball
collisions). This causes the neutron to lose some energy.
• The loss of energy per collision depends on the relative mass
of nucleus with which the neutron collides. The greater
energy loss occurs when neutron strikes hydrogen nucleus
(having equal mass).
• The slowing of neutrons depend largely on the amount of
hydrogen in the formation.
• When hydrogen concentration in the formation is large, most
of neutrons are slowed and captured within short distance of
the tool. On the contrary, if the hydrogen concentration is
small, the neutrons travel farther from the course before
being captured.

• The response of neutron tools primarily reflects the amount

of hydrogen in the formation. Since oil and water contain
practically the same quantity of hydrogen per unit volume
(HI), the responses reflect the liquid-filled porosity in clean
formations.
• Liquid hydrocarbons have HI close to that of water. Gas,
however, has lower hydrogen concentration, hence neutron log
reads too low a porosity. This characteristic allows the
neutron log to be used with other porosity logs to detect gas
zones and identify gas/liquid contacts.
• A neutron and density log combination provides a more
accurate porosity.

53
Neutron – Principles of
Operation

The Figure shows that the neutron slows down to a thermal

energy level at a fairly quick rate. The slowing down rate is
determined by the hydrogen index (HI) of all components of
the formation and formation fluids that contain a significant
fraction of hydrogen.

Example of NEUTRON LOGS

STANDARD DISPLAY OF
COMPENSATED NEUTRON
LOG (CNL)
- Primary Logging Curves:
TNPH … Neutron Porosity [vol/vol]
(NPHI*… Neutron Porosity [vol/vol])
* obsolete replaced by TNPH

- Optional Logging Curves:

NPOR … Alpha Processed (hi-res)
Neutron Porosity [vol/vol]
TALP … Alpha Processing Quality

- Basic Quality Control:

Neutron Porosity values should be
taken with care in front of bad hole -
washout - values might read too high.
CNL is usually run in combination with
LDT(DNL). Zones of poor density
readings are usually identical with poor
neutron porosity readings.

54
 Typical Density Response

CNT (Compensated NT) Parameters

Vertical Resolution:
Standard (TNPH) 24”
Enhanced 12”
Depth of Investigation 9”-12”
Readings in zero porosity:

Limestone(0%) 0
Sandstone(0%) -2
Dolomite(0%) 1
Anhydrite -2
Salt -3
Shale 30-45
Coal 50+

55
 Code/Name
• NPHI
• TNPH
• CN
• CNL

CNT Uses
• The tool measures hydrogen index
• Its prime use is to measure porosity
• Can be used to detect gas
• Combined with the bulk density, it gives the
best possible answer for lithology and porosity
interpretation
• It can be used in cased hole

56
•
CNT in Cased Hole
The CNT can be run in cased hole for the porosity
• In addition to the standard corrections some others are needed
to take into account the extra elements of casing and cement
• The standard conditions are:
 8 ¾” borehole diameter

 Casing thickness 0.304”

 Cement thickness 1.62”
 Fresh water in the borehole and formation
 No stand-off
 75F
 Atmosphere pressure
 Tool centred in the hole

Clean Sand Formation Porosity:

Neutron Matrix Correction
(Chart)
NPHI = (1-Φn) * NPHIma + Φn * NPHIf

(NPHI – NPHIma)
Φn = ---------------- (Chart Por-13b)
(NPHIf – NPHIma)

If NPHI is in LIMESTONE Matrix

57
 Por-13b: Neutron Porosity

38 p.u in Ss

33.5 p.u in LS

Archie’s Equation
Empirical constant

a Rw
(usually near unity) Resistivity of
formation water,

Sw  n
-m


Water m Cementation
exponent

Rt
saturation,
fraction (usually near 2)
Saturation
exponent
(also usually Resistivity of
near 2) Porosity, uninvaded
fraction formation, -m

58
 Archie Parameters

• Rw = resistivity of connate water

• m = “cementation factor”, set to 2 in the simple case
• n = “saturation exponent”, set to 2 in the simple case
• a = constant, set to 1 in the simple case
• All the constants have to be set
• Two common sets of numbers for these constants are:
 In a simple carbonate, the parameters are simplified to:
 m=2, n=2, a =1

 In a sandstone they become:

 m=2.15, n=2, a =0.62

Saturation Equations
• There are large number of saturation equations, such as:

Indonesia Equation 1 1
Sw  *

 Vcl 
1  2 

Vcl

  Rt
 Nigeria Equation Rcl
 Rw
e

2
1  V 1.4   n
m
2

Waxman-Smiths Equation
  cl
 e
 Sw

Rt  Rcl aRw 
1 Sw2 BQv Sw
 Dual-Water Equation  * 
Rt F Rw F*

Ct 
 t
m
Swtn  S
Cw  wb Cwb  Cw 

a 
 Swt 

 All reduce to Archie’s equation when there is no shale

59
Rw Determination
• Rw from SP

• Rw from porosity and resistivity (wet zone)

Rw=(Φ^m)*Rt

• Rw from resistivity only (wet zone)

Rt*Rmf
Rw = --------------
Rxo
• Rw from client (water chemical analysis)

All the Rw from different sources should be in consistent.

Rmf and Rw
•Rmf and Rw should be corrected by temperature (BHT).

•Chart Gen-9

60
Exercis
e
Rt = 20 ohm-m
Rw = 0.6 ohm-m @ 75 degF
= 0.2 ; Vcl = 0
BHT = 150 degF
M=n=2 ; a = 1
What is water salinity?
10Kppm

What is Rw @ 150 degF?

0.3 ohm-m

What is Sw?0.61

Exercis
e
Rt = 100 ohm-m
Salinity (Cl-) = 45 Kppm
= 0.22 ; Vcl = 0
BHT = 180 degF
M=n=2 ; a = 1
What is salinity (NaCl)?
74 Kppm

What is Rw @ 180 degF?

0.04
ohm-m
What is Sw?0.09

61
 Clean Sand Formation
Workflow
(Density-Neutron)
 ma   b
D 
 ma   f Φd Φn
 dphi
2
  nphi
2

x 
Crossplot porosity Φ1 2
Rw from SP or Rwa   m Rt
Rw

1/ n
 a R 
Sw S   m w 
 
w
Rt 
I  Rt / Ro  1 / Sw m

F  1 / m
 Ro / Rw

Electric Resistivity Logging

62
 Registros de Resistividad

La resistividad es uno de los insumos primarios necesarios

para evaluar el potencial de producción de un pozo de
petróleo o gas natural. Esta medición es necesaria para
determinar Sw, que se necesita para estimar la cantidad
de petróleo o gas natural presente en el pozo.
La resistividad de una formación depende de:
• Resistividad del agua de formación
• La cantidad de agua
• Geometría de la estructura de los poros
Principios (registros eléctricos convencionales)
Se hicieron pasar corrientes a través de la formación
desde los electrodos de corriente y se midieron los
voltajes entre los electrodos de medición.

Enfoque del Registros de Resistividad

Está obligando a las corrientes eléctricas a fluir en la formación en

una situación en la que la resistividad de la formación aumenta.
Los dispositivos laterolog son dispositivos enfocados. El término
laterolog surgió porque la corriente se ve obligada a fluir
"lateralmente" lejos de la herramienta.
Actualmente se utilizan tres tipos de sistemas de enfoque:
• Sistemas de enfoque pasivo: DLL, ARI
• Sistemas de enfoque activo - ARI
• Enfoque calculado - HRLA

63
 Example of Passive Focusing Passive Focusing Systems
Las mediciones de laterolog
comenzaron con un dispositivo
llamado electrodo de deformación.
Para enfocar la corriente medida
lateralmente en la formación, se
colocan electrodos de deformación
por encima y por debajo del
electrodo de medición. Como se
muestra en el gráfico de "Enfoque
pasivo", los tres electrodos emiten
la misma corriente para enfocar la
corriente en la formación. Con esta
disposición, las formas
equipotenciales se distorsionan muy
rápidamente. Esta configuración de
electrodo se llama Laterolog Three
Distortion of
equipotential surfaces (LL3) y se conoce como sistema de
bucking pasivo.

Example of Active Focusing

Active Focusing
Para mantener la forma de las superficies
equipotenciales y asegurar que la
corriente medida fluya lateralmente hacia
la formación en formaciones de
resistividades más altas, se introdujo el
sistema de bucking activo (dispositivo
LL5). Como se muestra en el gráfico de
"Enfoque activo", este sistema coloca dos
electrodos de voltaje, M1 y M2, entre el
electrodo de medición que emite corriente
y el electrodo de deformación. La
corriente medida se ajusta hasta que la
diferencia de voltaje entre M1 y M2 sea
cero. Esto asegura que el área frente a
estos electrodos de monitorización sea
equipotencial y que la corriente de
medición fluya lateralmente alejándose de
la herramienta. Esto se conoce como
medición de laterología profunda (LLD).

64
Computed Focusing
The Laterolog Tool uses the main monitoring condition of M1 - M2 = 0 as the main
control condition.
•Limited Dynamic Range. To maintain M1 - M2 conditions in very high resistivities
requires infinite gain.
•Temperature Variations. Variations in temperature introduce errors in the
measurements.

Continued developments in data processing, transmission, and digital conversion

capabilities have made it possible to take advantage of some electromagnetic
principles, specifically the principles of electromagnetic superposition. These
capabilities allow us to obtain focused measurements through computations instead of
by mechanical means. The principles of computed focusing allow us to maintain the
condition of M1 - M2 = 0 by mathematically combining linear combinations of pairs of
operating modes. These operating modes and the combinations used to obtain the
different depths of investigation are shown in the "Computed Deep Focusing" and the
"Computed Shallow Focusing" diagrams. Array laterolog devices have multiple
operating modes that are combined together to obtain a series of computed focusing
modes with increasing depths of investigation. An in-depth discussion of these modes
is beyond the scope of this text.

Example of Computed Focusing

65
Depth Of Investigation

Different depths of investigation are obtained by varying lengths of

bucking current electrodes.
Shallow Focusing
If the current is returned to the tool body, instead of the surface electrode, the
equipotential surfaces distort very quickly and the resistivity measurement is
influenced by events very close or shallow to the tool. This is known as the
laterolog shallow (LLS) measurement.

Deep Focusing
In this system the currents are returned to the surface electrode instead of the
tool body. This maintains the shape of the equipotential surfaces much deeper
into the formation insuring the measure current is flowing deeper into the
formation than the shallow measurement. To measure both the shallow and
deep depths of investigation simultaneously is very desirable to help estimate
the invasion profile for more accurate measurements. The Dual Laterolog (DLT),
a device that measures at two depths of investigation was developed for this
purpose.
This tool combines the measurement principles of the LLD and LLS into a single
device by having each measurement operate on a different frequency.

Depth Of Investigation
Invaded Zone or Rxo Devices
To complete the borehole description, devices were developed
that measured at very shallow depths of investigation in the
invaded zone (Rxo), also referred to as the flushed zone.
These devices use the principles of active and passive focusing
and change the distance between the emitting electrodes and
the return electrode to achieve very shallow depths of
investigation. Example of the tools are MSFL, Microlog and
MCFL.

Azimuthal Resistivities
Azimuthal resistivities are resistivity measurements made
around the circumference of the borehole. Azimuthal
measurements are very useful in evaluating highly deviated
and horizontal boreholes.

66
Depth Of Investigation

Array Resistivities - HRLA

Laterolog array resistivities are obtained through multi-frequency
operating modes (5 curves) employing a shallow-style measurement.
By taking an array of measurements we are able to solve a formation
model to determine and correct for environmental effects (such as
shoulder bed effects and invasion) and hence calculate the un-
invaded formation resistivity, Rt, which is the main goal of this type
of measurement.

Laterolog Borehole Effects

• Laterologs measure Resistivity in Series

• Laterologs see the borehole environment as
RLL=Rm+Rmc+Rxo+Rt
Best measurement is in salt
saturated, low resistivity mud.
Worst readings obtained in fresh
mud.
Measurement can’t be taken in OBM

Rm: Mud resistivity

Rmc: Mud cake resistivity, usually neglected as very small
Rxo: Flushed zone resistivity, depends on Rmf, needs to be known
Rt: Parameter to be measured, the higher the better

67
 Tornado Charts
• The simple invasion model is used to solve for the three unknowns: Rt, Rxo, di
• Three resistivity measurements are needed
 Deep: ILD,ILDH,LLD,AIT90,RLA5
 Medium: ILM,IMPH,LLS,SFL,AIT30,RLA2
 Shallow: MSFL,AIT10,RLA1
• The equation can be solved using Tornado charts
• Several charts exist: one for each possible configuration of the resistivities. The
correct one must be chosen for each situation
• There are zones on each chart where the solution is impossible, this is where the
tool is being run outside its specifications or the corrections have not been
properly applied

Example Tornado Chart

68
 Code/Name
• Deep: RT,LLD,RLA5,RT*
• Medium: LLS,RLA3
• Shallow: RXO,MSFL,SFLU,RLA1/RLA2

RESISTIVITY - DUAL LATEROLOG LOG EXAMPLE

STANDARD DISPLAY OF
(PHASOR) INDUCTION LOG (PI)
- Primary Logging Curves:
LLD … Deep Laterolog Resistivity [Ωm]
LLS… Shallow Laterolog Resist. [Ωm]
SP*…... Spontaneous Potential
* not shown on this display
- Basic Quality Control:
Dual Laterolog readings for formation
resistivities < 1.0 Ωm become inaccurate -
Induction might have been the better
choice. LLS can be severely affected in
large holes - washouts - and not be in
agreement with LLD (LLD less sensitive to
borehole conditions).

SP……see SP section on log quality

control.

69
 Applications
• Correlation, Water saturation, and Invasion analysis

Because laterolog tools have the ability to control the region of

investigation in
Vertical, radial and azimunthal directions, these tools have
additional apps :

• Evaluate mud cake and mud resistivity for borehole correction using
very shallow measurements.
• Enhance the evaluations of horizontal and or highly-deviated wells using
azimuthal and array measurements.
• Fracture analysis using azimuthal measurements.
• Enhance the evaluations of thin and invaded formation using array
measurements.
• Enhance the accuracy of Rt evaluation in difficult environments such as
Groningen affected areas, high contrasts, thinly bedded formations and
high apparent dip by using array measurements and formation inversion
processes.

Open Hole Formation Evaluation

Section 10:
Induction Logging

70
 Induction Theory
• An induction tool
uses a high
frequency
electromagnetic
transmitter to
induce a current in
a ground loop of
formation
• This, in turn,
induces an
electrical field
whose magnitude
is proportional to
the formation
conductivity

Induction Logs

Induction Principles :
• A high-frequency AC of constant intensity is sent
through a transmitter coil -> magnetic field -> create
currents in the formations as ground loops coaxial with
the transmitter coil -> magnetic field that induces a
voltage in the receiver coil.

• Induction tool works best when the borehole fluid is an

insulator, air or gas, even when the mud is conductive.

71
 Induction: Borehole Effects
• Induction tools measure Conductivity.
• Induction measures resistivity in Parallel
• Thus induction tools see the borehole
environment as:

Cm: Best readings occur in high resistivity mud, OBM is better,

fresh mud is good, salt-saturated mud is worst
Cmc: usually neglected as very small
Cxo: depends on Rmf – needs to be known
Ct: Parameter to be measured, the higher the better

Code/Name
• Deep: RT,ILD,IDPH,AIT90,RT*
• Medium: ILM,IMPH,AIT30/AIT60, A*
• Shallow: RXO,MSFL,SFLU,AIT10/AIT20, A*

72
RESISTIVITY - INDUCTION Log Example

STANDARD DISPLAY OF
(PHASOR) INDUCTION LOG (PI)
- Primary Logging Curves:
IDPH … Deep Induction Resistivity [Ωm]
IMPH… Medium Induction Resist. [Ωm]
SFL* … Spherical Focused Log [Ωm]
SP*…... Spontaneous Potential
* not shown on this display

- Basic Quality Control:

Induction readings for formation
resistivities > 50 Ωm are inaccurate - Dual
Laterolog might have been the better
choice. IMPH (medium induction) can be
severely affected in large holes - washouts -
and not be in agreement with IDPH (IDPH
less sensitive to borehole conditions).

SP……see SP section on log quality

control.

Induction vs Laterolog

Laterolog Induction
OBM no yes
Salt Water Mud Possible in small holes*
yes
Fresh mud No** yes
High resistivity yes no
Air-filled hole no yes
Low resistivity Possible*** yes
Rt<Rxo Induction prefered
Rt>Rxo Laterolog
Prefered

73
FMI image versus core

AUXILIARY LOGS

• TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Vital Input Log Analysis:
Fluid resistivity changes with temperature - Rw (formation water resistivity)
and Rmf (mud filtrate resistivity) vary with temperature.
Temperature/Mud Resistivity Measurements:
- Maximum Thermometer’s: Thermometers tied to the tool string and read once
the string returns to surface. The time the tool string reaches the bottom of the
well is recorded on the log header together with the temperature reached. Using
the maximum recorded temperature a linear temperature gradient is established
to correct mud sample measurements to down-hole conditions.
- Auxiliary equipment such as the Environmental Measurement Sonde (EMS) or
auxiliary sensors on logging equipment such as the Platform Express perform
continuous recording of temperature and mud sample resistivity.

74
LOGGING RESULTS DELIVERABLES

GRAPHICS - Films Prints usually in two different depth scales:

1/200 as main working copy and 1/500 (1/1000) for
correlation purposes.
Certain measurements are being delivered with Log
Quality Displays verifying the quality of the data
recorded.

DIGITAL DATA - usually recorded on DAT (Digital Audio Tape) in DLIS

(Digital Log Information Standard - API RP 22). The
digital records contain raw data and auxiliary allowing
for subsequent re-computation of log parameters.
Other formats such as LIS, BIT, TIF, XTF, DIPLOG,
LAS (Log ASCII Standard) are also used for small
data sets covering primary log information only.

LOG DISPLAY PRINCIPLE COMPONENTS

LOG HEADER - includes all information about the well logged and information
necessary to describe the environment the measurement has been
informed in (e.g. drilling mud parameters). Tool sketches and
remarks informing about specific events during the logging
operation complete the header.

MAIN LOG - main display of measurement performed.

REPEAT SECTION - short section of log to prove repeatability of log or re-log of sections
with measurement anomalies.

LOG TRAILER - includes tool/computation parameter table and calibration records.

75
LOG DISPLAY LOG HEADER 1

LOG DISPLAY LOG HEADER 2

76
LOG DISPLAY LINEAR SCALE

LOG DISPLAY LOGARTIHMIC SCALE

77
LOG DISPLAY LOG TRAILER 1

Tool/Computation
Parameter Table

LOG DISPLAY LOG TRAILER 2

Calibration
and Check
Summary

78
LOG DISPLAY LOG TRAILERS (3)

Tool Calibration
Details

Petrophysical Analysis Results

79
Preguntas?

80