RLC Circuit

2.1 syQn`k`r wrAg (Sine-wave)

cEm|bkyk~ (magnet) km|bQ qMryk~ asl xYmny kL@h`w~ qMr@y~ pYw&`vr\wk vQ.g`.b.yk~
(A.C. e.m.f.) jnny@v|. @mm vQ.g`.b. XSn&@yn~ a#rBW iw` @ktQ k`lykqW uprQm agy
@wk~ kYm`nEkSlv v#dQvW n#vw XSn&y @wk~ adE@v|. in~psE qQX`v m`r#vW n#vww~ @pr prQqQm
sQqE@v|. @my pYs~}`rQkv nQr$pny kL@h`w~ 2.1 r$p@y~ q#k~@vn ayEr# wYQ@k`~NmQwQ@yhQ en
syQn-vkYyk~ l#@b|. @my iw`m v#qgw~ sh iw`m srl wrAg s~vr$py @v|.

2.1 r$py
r$p@y~ wrAg a`y`my @ls qk~v` a#w~@w~ ek wrAgyk~ @hvw~ ek ckYyk~ @v|. ek
wrAgyk~ s[h` gwvn k`ly k`l`vr\wy @hvw~ a`vr\w k`ly (period) @lsq,
ww~prykqW nQkOw~vn wrAg gnn sAK&`wy (frequency) @lsq h#[Qn~@v|. sAK&`wy mnQnE
lbn~@n~ ww~pryt ckY cycles per second (c/s) @hvw~ hr\t|s~ Hertz (Hz) nm#wQ
e~kk@ynQ. vQX`l agyn~ s[h` kQ@l`~ hr\t|s~ kilo Hertz (kHz), @mg` hr\t|s~ Mega Hertz
(MHz) sh gQg` hr\t|s~ Gega Hertz (GHz) x`vQw @k@r\.
1000 Hz = 1 kHz
1000 kHz = 1 MHz
1000 = 1 GHz

2.1.1 a@nkOw~ wrAg vr\g

jl p^;~t@y~ qk~nt l#@bn wrAg, Xb|q wrAg, gOvn~vQqElQ wrAg, a@l`~k wrAg yn`qW
vQvQ{ wrAg vr\g a#w. vWN`vk ek~ wwk~ km|pny kQrW@mn~ nQkOwv ~ n Xb|q wrAgyq,
btnl`vk ek~ s~vrykQn~ nQkOw~vn Xb|q wrAgyq, syQn-wrAgyk~ nQr$pny kryQ. mQnQs~
kthV iw` sAkWr\N wrAg vlQn~ smn~vQwy. @vnw~ sAkWr\N wrAg nm|, kQyw~q#wQ
wrAg,(saw tooth wave) wYQ@k`~N`k`r wrAg,(triangular wave) hwrFs~ wrAg,(square
wave) yn`qQyyQ. o|n$m a`k`ryk sAkWr\N wrAgyk~, syQn wrAg kQsQym| sAK&`vk
(kWpyk~ @h`~ ann~w sAK&`vk~) sAyEk~wyk~ bv @pn~vQy h#k.

2.2 r$py

2.3 r$py

2.2 pYw&`vr\w vQqElQ@y~ {`r`v vQ.g`.b. sh ]mw`v

2.2.1 pWk~ agy (peak value)

ihw 2.1 @C~q@yhQ s[hn~vR prQqQ pYw&`vr\w {`r`@v| @h`~ @v`~l~tWyw`v@y~ pYs~}`r@y~ ihLm
XWr\;@yhQ agy @h`~ phLm XWr\;@yhQ agy ”peak value” @ls h#[Qn~@v|. @my 2.4 r$p@y~
@v`~l~t| 325 k agyk~ @ls sthn~kr a#w. @mm ag@yhQ @qgONy, enm| ihLm XWr\;@y~ sQt
phLm XWr\;y @wk~ agy “peak to peak value” @ls h#[Qn~@v|. @myq em r$p@y~m 650V
@ls sthn~kr a#w.

2.2.2 ]NQk agy (instantaneous value)

pYw&`vr\w vQqElQ@y~ {`r`v sh @v`~l~tWyw`v @m`@h`wQn~ @m`@h`w @vns~vn b#vQn~ o|n$m
@m`@h`wk pvwQn agy ]NQk agy @ls h#[Qn~@v|. 2.4 r$p@y~ A vlQn~ q#k~@vn
@m`@h`@w~ ]NQk @v`~l~tWyw`v AB vlQn~ nQr$pny @v|
 2.4 r$py
2.2.3 R.M.S. agy ( R.M.S. value)
@my gNQwmy sQq~{`n~w anEv lb`gw~ agyk~ b#vQn~ ehQ p`rQx`;Qk vcny vr\g m{&n& mRl
agy (root mean square) nm|@v|. R.M.S. ynE ehQ @ktQ @yqEm @v|. @m| pQlQb[ v#dQqEr
a{&yny @mm vQXy sWm`v ik~mvn nmEw~ ehQ a#wQ pY`@y`~gQk v#qgw~km iw` pY@y`~jnvw~y.
pYw&`vr\w vQqElQ@y~ @v`~l~tWyw`vyk~ @h`~ {`r`vk~, @v`~l~t|mWtryk~, a#mWtryk~ @h`~
ml~tQmWtryk~ x`vQw@yn~ mnQnE l#bEv@h`w~ ehQ p`T`Aky @ls l#@bn~@n~ R.M.S. agyyQ.
@my ihw 2.4 r$p@y~ “230 rms voltage” ynE@vn~ s[hn~v a#w.
wvq, pY{`n vQqElQ@yn~ kYQy` krn @m`~tr vlt sm|bn~{ {`rQwYk (capacitor) @hvw~
@k`n~@dn~sr (condenser) a`@r`~pny vW@m|qW R.M.S agy vn 230v @n`v pWk~ agy vn
325v qk~v` a`@r`~pny@v|. eb#vQn~ e~v` @v`~ 325 k~ qk~v` o@r`w~wO qQyyEwO @v|. nmEw~ v#dQ
pY@v|sm s[h` @v`~. 350 @h`~ 400 yn agyn~ x`vQw @k@r\.

RMS agy sh pWk~ agy awr sm|bn~{w`v

@m|v` awr srl sm|bn~{w`vk~ a#w enm|:
RMS value = 0.707 x peak value
enm|, RMS agy = pWk~ ag@yn~ 70.7%
ey @m@s~q q#k~vQyh#k.
enm| pWk~ agy = 1.414 x RMS agy

2.2.4 pYw&`vr\wk vQqElQ prQp}yk ]mw`vy (power)

]mw`vy s[h` ]nQk agyk~ @h`~ RMS agyk~ s[hn~ kQrW@m| ar\}yk~ n#w. ]mw`vy
ynE ww~prykqW v#yvn Xk~wQyyQ, nmEw~ ey @vns~ @vmQn~ pvwQn b#vQn~ nQymQw k`l
sWm`vk~ wOl pvwQn s`m`n& agy slk` b#lQyh#k. e~ anEv,
 ]mw`vy = RMS {`r`v x RMS @v`~l~tWyw`vy
yn sm|bn~{y apt l#@b|.

uq`hrN:-
vQqElQ bvEw~ ekk~ 240V pY{`n vQqElQ s#pyEmt sm|bn~{ kLvQt gln {`r~v 125mA k~ nm|, ehQ
]mw`vyw~, ehQ w`pn qMr@y~ pYwQ@r`~{yw~ @s`yn~n.

vQs[Em:-
240V sh 125mA ynE RMS agyn~ bv p#h#qQlQy. pYw&`vr\w vQqElQy s[h` s`m`n&#yn~
s[hn~ krn~@n~ RMS agyn~ pmNQ. eb#vQn~
]mw`vy = @v`~l~tWyw`vy x {`r`v
= 240 x 0.125 , (125mA = 0.125 A)
= 30 @v`t| , (30W)

o|m|@g~ nQymy anEv

V = IxR @hvw~ R = V/I
eb#vQn~ em avs~}`@v|qW pYwQ@r`~{y = 240/0.125
= 1920 o|m|

2.3 {`rQw`v (capacitance)

2.3.1 {`rQwYky (capacitor) @hvw~ @k`n~@dn~sry (condenser)

2.5 r$py
@l`~h whdE @qkk~ ekQ@nkt s~pr\; @n`vn @lsQn~ iw` LMQn~ wb` a#w#yQ sQwmE. (2.5 r$py)
q#n~ @m|v` km|bQ mgQn~ b#trQykt sm|bn~{ kL@h`w~ ]nQkv, {n agYyt sm|bn~{ whdEv
{n @lsw~ a@nk s^N @lsw~ a`@r`~pny @v|. @mhQqW a#w~w vX@yn~ sQqE vn~@n~ ihL
whdE@v| a#wQ nQqhs~ i@lk~@tY`~n b#trQ@y~ {n agYyt a`kr\Xny @vmQn~ em whdEv {n @ls
a`@r`~pny vWmw~, em {n a`@r`~pQw whdEv mgQn~ phL whdE@v| a#wQ nQqhs~ i@lk~@tY`~n wm`
@vw a`kr\;ny krmQn~ phL whdE@vhQ ek~rFs~ vWmw~y.
@mhQqW i@lk@tY`~n vl clQwy sQqEvn~@n~ r$p@y~ IhQ@sn~ q#k~@vn @qst pYwQvQr#q~{ qQX`vty.
eyt @h~wOv nm| s$mvQtm IhQskQn~ qk~vn~@n~ {`r`@v| qQX`v vWmy. {`r`@v| qQX`v @ls ar\}
qk~v` a#w~@w~ {n a`@r`~pn gmn~krn qQX`vyQ.
i@lk~@tY`~n ek~ qQX`vkt gmn~kQrWm {n a`@r`~pn vQr#q~{ qQX`vt gmn~ kQrWm @ls s#lkQy
h#kQy.
ihw vQs~wr@yn~ q#k~vR@y~ whdE @qkQn~ s`q`gw~ @k`n~@dn~sry a`@r`~pny krgw~
a`k`ryyQ. ehQqW {`r`vk~ gln~@n~ prQp}y sm|bn~{ kL ]N@y~qW pmNQ. ey myQ@kY` ww~pr
kWpyk~ vQy h#kQy.
in~psE b#trQy ivw~ kLq em a`@r`~pny e@lsm pvwW. q#n~ whdE vlt sm|bn~{ km|bQ @qk
lEhEvw~ (ekQ@nk s~pr\X kQrWm) kl@h`w~ kOd` vQqElQ pELQMOvk~ @p@n~. @mhQqW sQqEvn~@n~ km|bQ
@qk ekQ@nk s~pr\; vWmt @m`@h`wkt @pr iw` LMQn~ pQhQtQ {n sh s^N a`@r`~pn
ekQ@nk a`kr\Xny vW uq`sWn vWmyQ.
@mm prW]Ny s`r\}k vWmt nm| whdE @qk iw` vQX`lvq, e~v` awr prwry iw` kOd`vq,
wQbQy yEwOy. ey pY`@y`~gQk @ls aphsE b#vQn~, 10,000µF @k`n~@dn~sryk~q, 9v @h`~ 12v
b#trQyk~q x`vQw kLh#kQy.

2.3.2 @k`n~@dn~sr vl l]N (properties of condensers)

@k`n~@dn~sryk pvwQn pY{`n l]N nm|,
1. vQq&Ew~ Xk~wQy gbd` kQrWm
2. srl {`r` ey wOlQn~ gl`@n`y`m
3. pYw&`vr\w {`r` ey wOlQn~ gl`yn bv @pnWm
@k`n~@dn~sryk pY{`nm l]Ny vn~@n~ vQq&Ew~ a`@r`~pn gbd` kQrW@m| h#kQy`vy, enm|
vQq&Ew~ Xk~wQy gbd` kQrW@m| h#kQy`vyQ. 2.6 r$p@y~ (a) h` (b) prQp}y mgQn~ @my p#h#qQlQ
kLh#kQy. (a) r$p@y~ a#wQ s~vQcy A t sm|bn~{ kL s#@nkQn~ ]NQkv {`r`vk~ gln bv
mQlQa#mWtr@yn~ @p@n~. enm| mWtr@y~ qr\Xky ek~ p#w~wkt clny vW @m`@h`wkQn~ a`psE “” “0”
”@vw p#mQ@n~. mQn~ p#h#qQlQ vnE@y~ a`@r`~pn @k`n~@dn~sry wOlt gl` gQy bv sh aKn~d

2.6 r$py
{`r`vk~ ey wOlQn~ gl` @n`yn bvw~y. enm| srl {`r`vk~ ey hrh` @n`yyQ. 2.6(b) r$p@y~
s~vQcy B t sm|bn~{ vR s#nQn~ klQn~ gQy {`r`vt vQr#q~{ @qst ]NQk {`r`vk~ gl`@g`s~
@m`@h`wkQn~ a`psE “”“0” @vw p#mQ@n~. mQn~ p#h#qQlQ vnE@y~, @k`n~@dn~sr@y~ w#n~pw~v wQbR
a`@r`~pny vQr#q~{ qQX`vt gl`@g`s~ ]NQkv vQsr\jny vR bvy. @mhQqW kQsQvQtkw~ ey wOlQn~
a`@r`~pn gl` @n`yyQ. enm| srl {`r`vk~ @k`n~@dn~sry hrh` gl` @n`yyQ.
@my vd`w~ phsE@vn~ obtm prW]` klh#kQ s#k#s~mk~ 2.6 (c) r$p@y~ q#k~@v|. @mhQqW
2.6(a) sh 2.6(b) r$p vl a#wQ mQlQa#mWtry @vnEvt kOd` (6V, 1W) bl~byk~q, 1000µF
{`rQw`v shQw @k`n~@dn~sryk~q, 9v @h`~ 12v b#trQyk~q, x`vQw kLh#k. s~vQcy A t
sm|bn~{ vR @m`@h`@w~qW b#trQ@yn~ ]NQk {`r~vk~ gl`@g`s~ @k`n~@dn~sry a`@r`~pny@v|.
@mhQqW bl~by @m`@h`wkt pmNk~ yn~wmQn~ q#l~vW nQvWyyQ. in~psE s~vQcy Bt sm|bn~{ kLvQt
em a`@r`~pny pYwQvQr#q~{ @qst ]NQkv gl`@g`s~ @k`n~@dn~sry vQsr\jnyvn b#vQn~
bl~by ]NQkv yn~wmQn~ q#l~vW nQvWyyQ.
pYw&`vr\wk {`r`vk~ @k`n~@dn~sry hrh` gl`yn bv @pn~vWmt 2.6 (d) r$p@y~
a#wQ s#k#s~m x`vQw kLh#kQy. ehQ q#k~@vn agyn~ shQw upkrN x`vQw kLvQt bl~by
aKn~dv q#l~@v|. eb#vQn~ pYw&`vr\wk {`r`vk~ @k`n~@dn~sry hrh` gl`yn bv apt
nQgmNy kLh#k. nmEw~ ey sQqEvn a`k`ry ap p#h#qQlQv vth`gw yEwOy. @mhQqWq, @pr
prQqQm @k`n~@dn~sry wOlQn~ a`@r`~pn gl`@n`yyQ, nmEw~ b`hQr prQp}y wOlQn~ {`r`vk~
glyQ. pYw&`vr\wk vQqElQ s#pyEm, ww~pryt 50 v`ryk~ qQX`v m`r#krn b#trQyk~ @ls
s#lkQyh#k. ey ek~ qQX`vkt a#wQ @m`@h`@w~qW It anEr$p @ls @k`n~@dn~sry a`@r`~pny
@v|. eb#vQn~ e~ @m`@h`@w~ bl~by q#l~vW nQvW yyQ, nmEw~ ey nQvWy`mt @pr enm| ww~pr 0.01
kqW s#pyE@m| qQX`v m`r#vW @k`n~@dn~sry vQr#q~{ qQX`vt a`@r`~pny @v|. eb#vQn~ e~
@m`@h`@w~q, bl~by ]NQkv q#l~@v|. @mm kYQy`vlQy ww~pryt 100 v`ryk~ sQqEvn b#vQn~
bl~by aKn~dv q#l~@vn~n`k~@mn~ apt @p@nyQ. eb#vQn~ AC {`r`vk~ @k`n~@dn~sry wOlQn~
gl` yn bv @p@n~. nmEw~ @k`n~@dn~sr@y~ ek~ agYyk sQt a@nk~ agYy @vw ey wOlQn~
{`r`vk~ @n`yn bv ap wr@y~ sQhQ wb`gwyEwOy.

2.3.3 f#rd| {`rQw`@v| e~kky (Farad – unit of capacitance)

@k`n~@dn~sryk pYm`Ny s[hn~ kQrW@m|qW iw`m v#qgw~ vn~@n~ ehQ {`rQw`vyQ. @mhQ
nQym ar\}y nm| @k`n~@dn~sr@y~ agY awr @v`~l~tWyw`v @v`~l~t| 1k~ vWm s[h` eyt
lb`qQyyEwO a`@r`~pnyyQ (kS@l`~m| gnn). @my “f#rd|” ekk~ @ls h#[Qn~@v|. @mm e~kky
pY`@y`~gQk vX@yn~ awQvQX`l pYm`Nyk~ vn b#vQn~ kOd` e~kk vn n#@n`~ f#rd|,(nF) myQ@kY`
f#rd| (µF) sh pQ@k`~ (pF) f#rd| x`vQwy phsEy. e~v` awr sm|bn~{w`v phw q#k~@v|.
1000 pF = 1 nF
1000 nF = 1 µF
1000,000 µF = 1 F
@vL[@p`@l~ a#wQ smhr {`rQwYk vl myQ@kY` f#rd| (µF) yn~n mfd @lsQn~q s[hn~ kra#w.
wvw~ smhrk agy 102, 203, 471 a`qW vX@yn~ aAk wOnkQn~ pmNk~ smn~vQw vQ@X~;Qw
a`k`rykt s[hn~kr a#w. ehQ wOn~v#nQ aAk@yn~ bQAqE gnn nQr$pny vn awr e~kky
pQ@k`~f#rd| @v|.( pF )

uq`hrn @ls:-
102 = 1000 pF = 0.001 µF
203 = 20000 pF = 0.02 µF
471 = 470 pF = 0.00047 µF
2.3.4 {`rQw`vt blp`n s`{k (Factors affecting for the Capacitance)
@k`n~@dn~sryk n#w@h`w~ {`rQwYkyk {`rQw`v @k@rhQ phw s[hn~ kr#NE blp`nE a#w.
1. whdE vl sPl vr\gPly
2. whdE awr prwry
3. whdE awr a#wQ prQv`rk qYv&@y~ p`rvQq&Ew~ nQywy (Dielectric constant)
whdE vl vr\g Ply v#dQ kL@h`w~ {`rQw`vq v#dQ @v|. e~v` awr prwry v#dQ kL@h`w~
{`rQw`v adE@v|.

2.3.4.1 p`rvQq&Ew~ nQywy (Dielectric constant)

@k`n~@dn~sryk whdE awr avk`Xy ym| prQv`rk qYv&ykQn~ (Gn @h`~ qYv) pQrvR vQt ehQ
{`rQw`v v#dQ@v| e@s~ v#dQvn anEp`wy, em qYv&@y~ p`rvQq&Ew~ nQywy (Dielectric constant)
@ls h#[Qn~@v|.

2.3.4.2 bQ[v#tW@m| @v`~l~tWtw`v (Breakdown Voltage)

@k`n~@dn~sryk agY awrt a{Q @v`~l~tWyw`vyk~ @y`qv` ey kYm@yn~ v#dQkL@h`w~
ek~wr` avs~}`vkqW prQv`rkyt h`nQvW ey hrh` a{Qk {`r`vk~ gl` y`@mn~ ey pQLQs~sW @h`~
pEpEr` y` h#kQy. em @v`~l~tWyw`v bQ[v#tW@m| @v`~l~tWyw`v @ls h#[Qn~@v|. s`m`n&@yn~ in~
adkt sm`n uprQm sWm`vk~ s[hn~ kr a#w. nQwrm em uprQm agy @n`ik~mvn prQqQ e~v`
x`vQwyt gwyEwy O . bQ[v#tW@m| @v`~l~tWyw`v prQv`rk qYv&y mw sh ehQ gnkm, enm| whdE
awr prwry mw r[`pvwW.
@k`n~@dn~sr s[h` x`vQw @k@rn prQv`rk qYv& smhrk qw~wyn~ phw q#k~@v| .

prQv`rk qYv&y p`rvQq&Ew~ nQywy bQ[v#tW@m| @v`~l~tWyw`v

(V/µm)
v`wy 1.0
@tf~@l`~n~ (Teflon) 2.1 39 - 78
kdq`sQ 3.0 7.8
wQr#v`n (Quartz) 3.8 39
@f`~mQk` (Formica) 4.6 –- 4.9 17.7
vWqEr# (pyQ@rk~s~) (Pyrex) 4.8 13.2
vWqEr# (s`m`n&) 7.6 - 8 7.9 –- 9.8
@p`~sQ@l~n~ (Porcelain) 5.1 –- 5.9 1.5 –- 3.9
myQk` (wl`wOmQnQrn~) (Mica) 5.4 150 - 220
fyQbr\ (Fiber) 5 -– 7.5 5.9 - 7

2.3.5 sm`n~wr whdE {`rQwYky

@k`n~@dn~sr @n`@yk~ a`k`ryt nQX~p`qny krnE l#@b|. nmEw~ e~v` awO@rn~ srlm a`k`ry
nm| sm`n~wr whdE @k`n~@dn~sryyQ. phw s[hn~ srl sRwY@yn~ q#k~@vn ayEr# sm`n~wr
whdE @k`n~@dn~sryk {`rQw`v gNny kLh#kQy.
@mhQ K= whdE awr a#wQ qYv&@y~ p`rvQq&Ew~ nQywy
A= ek~ whdEvk vr\gPly (v.@s.mW) (sq.cm.)
d = whdE @qk awr prwry (mQ.mW) (mm.)
C = {`rQw`v (pQ.f#.) (pF)

2.3.6 @k`n~@dn~sr vr\g

pY{`n vX@yn~ @k`n~@dn~sr @qvr\gykt @vn~kLh#kQy. enm| vQcl& {`rQwYk (variable
capacitors) sh s~}Qr {`rQwYk (fixed capacitors) vX@ynQ.

2.3.6.1 vQcl& {`rQwYk

s`m`n&@yn~ @m|v` whdE k`N~d @qkkQn~ smn~vQwy. ek~ k`N~dyk~ aclv svQkr a#w.
a@nk clny kQrW@mn~ whdE vl sPl vr\gPly @vns~krnvQt {`rQw`v @vns~ @v|.
@m|v`@y~q, vr\g @qkk~ a#w.
1. tQyEnQA @k`n~@dn~sr
@m|v` @n`b| ekk~ svQkr awQn~ krk#vQyh#kQ ayEr# s`q` a#w. s`m`n&@yn~
@m|v`@y~ p`rvQq&Ew~ m`{&y v`wyyQ.

2. tQYmr\ @k`n~@dn~sr
@m| vr\gy svQkrn~@n~ {`rQw`v nQwr @vns~ kLyEwO n#wQ s~}`n vlty.
is~kOr#p~pE nQynk~ mgQn~ krkv` avX& pYm`Nyt sks~kr w#bQy h#kQy. @m|v`@y~
p`rvQq&Ew~ m`{& @ls v`wy @h`~ myQk` @h`~ p~l`s~tQk~ pwOr# x`vQw @k@r\.

2.3.6.2 s~}Qr {`rQwYk – Fixed Capacitors

@m|v`@y~ {`rQw`v @vns~ kL@n`h#k. s`m`n&@yn~ ehQ {`rQw`v sh p`vQc|cQ kLh#kQ uprQm
@v`~l~tWyw`v s[hn~ kr a#w. smhr e~v`@y~ @mm agyn~ sA@k~w`nEs`r@yn~ s[hn~ kr
a#w’. @m|v` phw s[hn~ ayEr# vr\g kWpykt @vn~kLh#k.
1. myQk` @k`n~@dn~sr (Mica Condenser)
2. @srmQk~ @k`n~@dn~sr (Ceramic Condenser)
3. kdq`sQ @k`n~@dn~sr (Paper Condenser)
4. t#n~tlm| @k`n~@dn~sr (Tantelum Condenser)
5. i@lk`@tY`lyQtQk~ @hvw~ c`jQn~ @k`n~@dn~sr (Electrolitic Condenser)
myQk` @k`n~@dn~sr, a{Qk @v`~l~tWyw`vyk~ a#wQ s~}`n vlt @y`~g&y @v|. e~v`@y~
p`rvQq&Ew~ m`{&y, wOnW myQk` pwOr# vlQn~ yEk~wy.
@srmQk~ @k`n~@dn~sr, adE @v`~l~tWyw`vyk~ a#wQ s~}`n vlt x`vQw @k@r\. e~v`@y~
p`rvQq&Ew~ m`{&y, @ls pQMn~ m#tQ x`vQw @k@r\.
 kdq`sQ @k`n~@dn~srq, adE @v`~l~tWyw`vyk~ a#wQ s~}`n vlt x`vQw @k@r\. e~v`@y~
p`rvQq&Ew~ m`{&y, @ls vQylQ kdq`sQ x`vQw @k@r\.
t#n~tlm| @k`n~@dn~sr pYmQwQ@yn~ uss~ vn awr nQrvq&w`vyq v#dQ b#vQn~ mQL
a{Qk@v|.
i@lk`@tY`lyQtQk~ @hvw~ c`jQn~ @k`n~@dn~sr vl p`rvQq&Ew~ m`{&y, @ls vQq&Ew~
vQc|@C\qk qYvyk~ x`vQw@k@r\. eb#vQn~ @m|v`@y~ {`rQw`v a{Qk agyk~ gnW. wvq @m|v`@y~ agY
{n sh s^N vX@yn~ @vn~@vn~v s[hn~kra#w.

2.3.7 {`rQwYk sAyEk~w kQrWm –- smk {`rQw`v Equivalent Capacitance

{`rQwYk @qkk~ @h`~ kWpyk~ ekQ@nkt @vns~ ayErQn~ sm|bn~{ kQrW@mn~ ekQ@nkt
@vns~ pY}QPl lb` gwh#kQy. sm`n~wrgw sh @XY~NQgw ynE@vn~ srl sm|bn~{ kYm @qkk~
a#w. o|n$m a`k`ryk @k`n~@dn~sr sAyEk~wyk~ @vnEvt @yqQyh#kQ wnQ @k`n~@dn~sr@y~
agy, em sAyEk~w@y~ smk {`rQw`v @ls h#[Qn~@v|

2.3.7.1 sm`n~wrg sAyEk~wy - Parallel Combination

@k`n~@dn~sr o|n$m gnnk~ sm`n~wrgw @ls sm|bn~{ kLvQt e~v`@y~ smk
{`rQw`v, e~ sQyl~@lhQm ekwOvt sm`ny. @my 2’.7 r$p@yn~ q#k~@vyQ.

2.7-r$py

uq`hrn:- 100 pF, 0.001 µF sh 1.5 nF yn agyn~ shQw @k`n~@dn~sr wOn

sm`n~wrgw @ls sm|bn~{ kLvQt smk {`rQw`v @s`yn~n.

vQs[Em:- C1 = 100 pF, C2 = 0.001 µF

= 0.001 x 1000,000 pF
= 1000 pF

C3 = 1.5 nF
= 1.5 x 1000 pF
= 1500 pF

C = C1 + C2 + C3
= 100 + 1000 + 1500
= 2600 pF = 2.6 nF = 0.0026 µF
2.3.7.2 @XY~NQgw sAyEk~wy - Series Combination

3.8-r$py
@k`n~@dn~sr kWpyk~ @XY~NQgw @ls sm|bn~{ kLvQt e~v`@y~ smk {`rQw`v ihw 3.8 r$p@y~
q#k~@vn ayEr# @v| enm|,

yn sRwY@yn~ q#k~@vn ayEr# @v|.

2.3.7.3 @k`n~@dn~sr @qkk @XY~NQgw sAyEk~wy

@k`n~@dn~sr @qkk~ pmNk~ @XY~NQgw @ls sm|bn~{ kLvQt ihw sRwy
Y ,

s#. yE.:- @XY~NQgw sAyEk~wyk smk {`rQw`v, ehQ a#wQ avm agytw~ vd` adE agykQ.

uq`hrn:- 100pF sh 150pF yn {`rQwYk @qk @XY~NQgwv sm|bn~{ kLvQt l#@bn

sAyEk~w@y~ smk {`rQw`vy @s`yn~n.

vQs[Em:- C = (C1xC2) / (C1+C2)

= (100x150) / (100+150)
= (100x150)/250
= 60 pF

2.3.7.4 sm`n @k`n~@dn~sr r`XQyk @XY~NQgw sAyEk~wy

ekm ag@yn~ yEk~w @k`n~@dn~sr gnn`vk~ @XY~NQgw @ls sm|bn~{ kLvQt smk {`rQw`v
vnE@y~ ekk agy @k`n~@dn~sr sAK&`@vn~ @bqRvQt l#@bn {`rQw`vy@v|.

uq`hrN:- 0.022 µF agy shQw @k`n~@dn~sr 10 k~ @XY~NQgw @ls sm|bn~{ kLvQt smk
{`rQw`v @k`pmNq?
vQs[Em :- smk {`rQw`v = 0.022 / 10
= 0.0022 µF

2.3.8 @k`n~@dn~sryk w#n~pw~ vn Xk~wQy

2.9-r$py
2.9 r$p@y~ q#k~@vn prQp}@y~, C @k`n~@dn~sry E b#trQyt sm|bn~{ kra#w~@w~ M m#q
XSn&y shQw mQlQa#mWtry sh S s~vQcy hrh`y. s~vQcy b#trQyt sm|bn~{kL vh`m s#@nkQn~
@k`n~@dn~sry a`@r`~pny @v|. e~ bv mWtr@y~ ]NQk uw~kYmn@yn~ p#h#qQlQ@v|. enm| ym|
vQq&Ew~ Xk~wQyk~ b#trQ@y~ sQt @k`n~@dn~sry wOlt gl`@g`s~ ehQ w#n~pw~@v|. s~vQc@y~ qQX`v
m`r#kLvQt mWtr@y~ pYwv Q Qr#q~{ qQX`@vhQ ]NQk uw~kYmnyk~ sQqEvW XSn& kr` p#mQ@n~. mQn~
p#h#qQlQ vn~@n~ klQn~ ehQ w#n~pw~ vR Xk~wQy a`psE p#mQNQ bvy. prQp}y os~@s~ gl` y`@m|qW
em Xk~wQy w`py bvt pw~vW h`nQ @v|.
phw s[hn~ sRwy Y anEv em Xk~wy Q gNny kLh#kQy.

E = ½ CV²

@mhQ, E = Xk~wQy (jRl~ - Joules )

C = {`rQw`v (f#rd| - Farads )
V = “C” hrh` a#wQ @v`~l~tWyw`v, enm| “E” hQ vQ.g`.b @v`~l~t| vlQn~.

uq`hrn-1 :-
1000 µF agy shQw @k`n~@dn~sryk~ @v`~ 100 kQn~ a`@r`~pny kLvQt ehQ w#n~pw~ vn
Xk~wQy @k`pmNq?

vQs[Em:-
C = 1000 µF
= 1000/1000,000 F
= 0.001 F

V = 100

E = 0.001 x 100 x 100 / 2

= 5 jRl~
uq`hrn-2 :-
1000 µF k~ vR {`rQwYkyk jRl~ 1 k Xk~wy
Q k~ w#n~pw~ kLvQt ehQ agY awr pvwQn
@v`~l~tWyw`vy @k`pmnq?

vQs[Em :-
C = 1000μF = 0.001 F, E = 1 J yn agyn~ ihw sRwy
Y t a`@q~X kLvQt
1 = 0.001xV²/2
V²= 2/0.001 = 2000
V = √2000
= 44.7 @v`~’.

2.4 vQq&Ew~ cEm|bk @pY~rNy Electro-magnetic Induction

2.4.1 {`r`@v| cEm|bk Pl

p^}QvQ@yhQ pvwQn cEm|bkw~vy @h~wO@k`t@gn cEm|bk m`lQm`vk~ s$mvQtm uwOr -qkON

qQX` os~@s~ pQhQtn bv ap qn~n` kr#nkQ. vQqElQ {`r`vk~ @gnyn sn~n`ykyk~ avt cEm|bk
@]~wy Y k~ s$@qn bv iw` srl prW]NykQn~ apt av@b`~{ krgw h#kQy.

2.10-r$py
ihw 2.10-a r$p@y~ q#k~@vn~@n~ cEm|bk m`lQm`v s`m`n&@yn~ uwOrt h#rW pvwQn a`k`ryyQ.
q#n~ srl {`r`vk~ (DC) @gnyn sn~n`ykyk~ ey aslt @gn`vQt 2.10-b r$p@y~ q#k~@vn
prQqQ m`lQm`v n#@gnhQr @h`~ bthQr @qst kOd` uw~kYmnyk~ a#wQ kryQ. ihw kW sn~n`yky
qMryk a`k`ryt ow` a#w~nm| 2.10-c r$p@y~ q#k~@vn ayEr# @prt vd` v#dQ uw~kYmnyk~
l#@bn bv nQrW]Ny kLh#kQy. {`r`@v| qQX`v m`r#kL@h`w~ uw~kYmny vn qQX`vq m`r#vn
bv p#h#qQlQ@v|. enm|, klQn~ bthQr @qst h#r#@n~ nm| q#n~ h#@rn~@n~ n#@gnhQr @qstyQ.
@mhQ q#k~@vn ayEr# cEm|bk m`lQm`vk~ @s`y`g#nWm aphsE nm| sQhQn~ nRlkQn~ wQrs~
@ls el~l` a#wQ i[QktEvk~ vEvq x`vQw kQrW@mn~ em nQrW]Nyn~m l#@b|.
@mm prW]N@yn~ apt p#h#qQlQvnE@y~ vQqElQ {`r`vk~ @gnyn sn~n`ykyk~ avt
cEm|bk @]wYyk~ s$@qn bvy.
2.4.2 @pY~rNy Induction
q#n~ ihw q#k~vR cEm|bk m`lQm`v @vnEvt M g#l~v@n`~mWtryk~ sm|bn~{ krnlq L2
km|bQ qMryk~ 2.11 r$p@y~ q#k~@vn ayEr# wb` a#w#yQ sQwmE. 2.11-a r$p@y~ q#k~@vn ayEr# s
s~vQcy q#mRvQt (switched on ) L2 qMr@y~ ]NQk {`r`vk~ ek~ awkt gl` @g`s~ ]y vn
bv p#h#qQlQ@v|. psEv s~vQcy nQm`q#mR (switch off) vh`m ]NQkv vQr#q~{ @qst {`r`vk~
gl`@g`s~ ]yvn bv p#h#qQlQ@v|. @mm sAsQq~{Qy vQq&Ew~ cEm|bk @pY~rny ynE@vn~ h#[Qn~@v|.

2.11r$py
enm| sn~n`ykyk~ wOlQn~ gln {`r`vk @vnsk~ (v#dQvWm @h`~ adEvWm) sQqEvnvQt ey
asl a#wQ @vnw~ sn~n`ykyk~ wOl {`r`vk~ @pY~rNy @vyQ. e@mn~m sn~n`ykyk~ asl a#wQ
cEm|bkyk~ clny vnvQt enm| cEm|bk @]wY@y~ @vnsk~ sQqEvn vQt sn~n`yky wOl {`r`vk~
@pY~rNy@v|. vQqElQjnky, dyQn@m`~v @hvw~ o|l~t@n~try (Generator, Dynamo, Alternator)
nQpqv` a#w~@w~ @mm mRl{r\my anEvm@v|.

2.4.3 @pY~rw`v Inductance

ihw s[hn~ sAsQq~{Qyt aq`l wvw~ sEvQ@X~sW avs~}`vk~ a#w. 2.12 (a) r$p@y~
q#k~@vn prQqQ S s~vQcy q#mR vh`m {`r`v XSn&@y~ sQt uprQm agy qk~v` v#dQvWm mQlQ-ww~pr
kWpykqW sQqE@v|. @m| @ktQ k`l sWm`v wOl ym| @m`@h`wkqW pYxv@yn~ gln {`r`v I @ls
gnQmE. {`r`v @vns~vn b#vQn~ htgn~n` cEm|bk @]wYyq @vns~ @vmQn~ pvwW @m| @h~w@O vn~
@vnw~ i {`r`vk~ qMry wOl @pY~rny @v|. @mm @pY~rQw {`r`v pYwQvQr#q~{ qQX`@v| b#vQn~ emgQn~

2.12 r$py
pYxv@yn~ gln {`r`v mn~qny @k@r\ enm| uprQm agyt eLBWm wrmk~ pm` @k@r\. 2.12
(b) r$p@y~ prQqQ S s~vQcy nQv` q#mR vh`m {`r`v XSn&y qk~v` adE vn b#vQn~ avt a#wQ
cEm|bk @]wYyq adE@v|. eb#vQn~ n#vww~ @pY~rQw {`r`vk~ htgnW. nmEw~ ey @prkW qQX`vt
vQr#q~{ qQX`@vhQ b#vQn~ pYxv@yn~ gln {`r`@vhQ adEvWm mn~qny kryQ ehQ pY}Qplyk~ @ls
{`r`v XSn&y kr` lM`vWm pm`@k@r\. @mm kQYy`vlQyt blp`n s`{ky @pY~rw`v @ls
h#[Qn~@v|. ey qMr@y~ mQnEm| mw r[`pvwW. enm| qMr@y~ qQg , vQX~km|xy, @p`tvl~ gnn sh
m`{&@y~ cEm|bk p`rgm&w`v (permiability) yn s`{kyn~y. @pY~rw`vk~ shQw upkrnyk~
(@mhQqW qMry) @pY~rkyk~ (inductor) @ls h#[Qn~@v|. @pY~rw`v mnQn e~kky @hn~rQ (Henry)
ynE@vn~ h#[Qn~@v|. @my pY`@y`~gQkv wrmk~ vQX`l e~kkyk~ b#vQn~ mQlQ @hn~rQ (mH) sh
myQ@kY` @hn~rQ (µH) yn kOd` e~kkq x`vQw @k@r\. @m|v` awr sm|bn~{w`v phw q#k~@v|.
1000 µH = 1 mH
1000 mH = 1 H

2.4.3.1 @pY~rw`v mw blp`n s`{k

km|bQ qMryk @pY~rw`v mw blp`n s`{k phw s[hn~@v|.
1. vt gNn
2. qMr@y~ vQX~km|xy (ax&n~wr sh b`hQr)
3. qMr@y~ qQg
4. qMry m{&@y~ a#wQ qYv&@y~ p`rgm&w`v (Permeability )
qMryk a`k`r@yn~ n#wQ km|bQyk vEvq iw` kOd` @pY~rw`vk~ wQbQy h#kQy.

2.4.3.2 @pY~rw`v gNny kQrWm

s~}r gNn`vk~ shQw qMr s[h` wrmk~ sAkWr \N sRwY a#ww~, p`rgm&w` m`{&y @ls
v`wy shQw ek s~}ryk~ shQw km|bQ qMryk @pY~rw`v phw s[hn~ sRwY anEv gNny
kLh#kQy.

L = r²n²/(229r+254b)

r = qMr@y~ ary mQmW vlQn~

 b = qMr@y~ qQg mQmW vlQn~
n = vt gNn
L = @pY~rw`vy myQ@kY` @hn~rQ vlQn~ (µH)

L = r²n²/(9r+10b)

r = qMr@y~ ary aMl~ vlQn~

b = qMr@y~ qQg aMl~ vlQn~
n = vt gNn
L = @pY~rw`vy myQ@kY` @hn~rQ vlQn~ (µH)

uq`hrN:-
vQX~km|xy mQmW. 20 k~ sh qQg mQmW. 25 k~ vR nLyk km|bQ vt 20 k~ ow` a#w. ehQ @pY~rw`v
gNny krn~n.
r = 20/2 = 10 mm.
b = 25 mm.
n = 20
L = 10²x20²/(229x10 + 254x25)
= 100x400/(2290 + 6350)
= 40000/8640
= 4.6 µH

2.4.4 @pYr~ k@y~ pY`@y`~gQk x`vQw

srl {`r` prQp} vlqW @p~Yrkyn~hQ ewrm| PlpY@y`~jnyk~ @n`m#w. It @h~wOv,
{`r`v a`rm|xvn @m`@h`@w~ sh vQsn~{Qvn @m`@h`@w~ pmNk~ ehQ blp$mk~ wQbWmy. srl
{`r` s[h` a#wQ v#qgw~m uq`hrny nm| @m`~tr\ r} vl x`vQwvn @pY~rn qMryyQ.(induction
coil). nmEw~ pYw&`vr\wk {`r` x`vQw@y~qW in~ l#@bn PlpY@y`~jn awQmhw~y. in~ smhrk~
phw s[hn~ @v|.
1. prQn`mk (transformer)
2. @c`~k~ @k`yQl~ (choke coil)
3. @pY~rn @m`~tr (induction motor)
4. vQqElQ jnk @hvw~ o|l~t@n~tr\ (generator, alternator)

2.4.5 @pY~rkyn~hQ @X~NQgw sm|bn~{y

@pY~rk kWpyk~, e~v`@y~ cEm|bk @]~wY awr a@n&`n& blp$mk~ a#wQ @n`vn prQqQ @XY~NQgw
@ls sm|bn~{kr a#w~nm| pq~{wQ@y~ smk @pY~rw`v ek~ ek~ @pY~rw`vyn~hQ @ek&yt sm`n
@v|.
L = L1 + L2 + L3
2.4.6 @pY~rkyn~hQ sm`n~wrgw sm|bn~{y

@pY~rk kWpyk~, e~v`@y~ cEm|bk @]~wY awr a@n&`n& blp$mk~ a#wQ @n`vn prQqQ
sm`n~wrgw @ls sm|bn~{kr a#w~nm| pq~{wQ@y~ smk @pY~rw`v phw s[hn~ ayEr# gNny
kLh#kQy. ( pYwQ@r`~{ vl a`k`ryt @v|)
1/L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3

@pY~rk @qkk~ pmNk~ sm`n~wrgwv sm|bn~{kr a#w~nm| phw s[hn~ ayEr# vd`w~ srl
sRwYyk~ x`vQw kLh#kQy.
L1 x L2
L =
L1 + L2

2.4.7 a@n&`n& @pY~rw`v (mutual Inductance) sh

s~vyA @pY~rw`v (self Inductance)
qMr @qkk~ ekm a]@y~ sQtQn prQqQ eklMQn~ s#ksRvQt ek~ qMryk gl`yn {`r`v nQs`
htgn~n` cEm|bk @]wYy @qv#nQ qMry wOlQn~ gl`y`m nQs` ehQ @pY~rQw vQ.g`.blyk~ htgnW.
2.16-(a) r$p@y~ q#k~@vn ayEr# srl {`r`vk~ x`vQw k@L~ nm|, {`r`v a`rm|xvn
@m`@h`@w~qW @qv#nQ qMr@yhQ ek~ qQX`vkt ]NQk {`r`vk~ gln awr, {`r`v nvwQn
@m`@h`@w~qW a@nk~ qQX`vt ]NQk {`r`vk~ gl` yyQ. @my sQqEvn~@n~ qMr @qk awr
pvwQn a@n&`n& @pY~rw`v @h~wO@k`t@gny.
2.16-(b) r$p@y~ q#k~@vn prQqQ ek~ qMrykt pYw&`vr\wk vQ.g`.b.yk~ s#pyR@v| nm|
@qv#n~@nhQ aKn~dv pYw&`vr\wk vQ.g`.b.yk~ @pY~rny @v|. pLmE qMr@y~ a#wQvn sm|pRr\N
cEm|bk sY`vym @qv#n~n hrh` yyQ nm| a@n&`n& @pY~rw`v ehQ uprQm agy lb`gnW.
prQn`mkvl ek~ qMryk~ mw a@nk ewW@mn~ @mm ww~vy uq`krgnW.

@mhQ qMr @qkk~ @vnEvt wnQ qMryk~ x`vQw k@L~ nm| 2.4.3 @C~q@y~ vQs~wrkL
prQqQ pYwQvQr#q~{ vQ.g`.b.yk~ (back E.M.F.) htgnW. e~ anEv htgn~n` @pY~rw`v
s~vyA@pY~rw`v @ls h#[Qn~@v|.

2.4.8 @pY~rkyk~ wOl gbd`vn vQq&Ew~ Xk~wQy

2.17 r$py
2.17-(a) r$p@y~ q#k~@vn prQqQ “L” @pY~rky “E” srl {`r~ pYxvykt sh “S” sEvQcyt
sm|bn~{ kr a#w. sEvQcy v#sR s#@nkQn~ pYwQvQr#q~{ qQX`@vhQ a#wQvn @pY~rQw vQ.g`.b.yt
e@rhQv {`r`v gl` y`mt ym| vQq&Ew~ Xk~wQyk~ v#y @v|. @mm Xk~wQy @pY~rky wOl w#n~pw~v
pvwW. sEvQcy vQv^wkL s#@nkQn~ @mm Xk~wQy mEq`hrQnE lbn~@n~ sEvQc@y~ agY hrh` a#wQvn
pELQMOvk~ @lsQn~y. ehQqW nQpq@vn a`@l`~ky, Xb|qy, w`py h` gOvn~vQqElQ wrAg bvt em
Xk~wQy prQvr\wny@v|.
sEvQcy hrh` sEqEsE pYm`N@y~ {`rQwkY yk~ sm|bn~{ k@L~ nm| @pY~rk@y~ gbd`vR Xk~wQy
{`rQwYkyt hEvm`r#@v|. @mvn~ avs~}` vlqW vQqElQ pELQMOv nQs` sEvQc@y~ agY K`qny vWm
v#l#k~vWm s[h` {`rQwYk x`vQw @k@r\.
@pY~rk@y~ w#n~pw~@vn Xk~wQy gNny kQrWm s[h` phw s[hn~ sRwYy x`vQw @k@r\.

@mhQ, E = @pY~rk@y~ w#n~pw~ vR Xk~wQy (jRl~)

L = qMr@y~ @pY~rw`v (@hnrQ)
I = s~}`vr avs~}`@v| gln {`r`v ( a#m|.)

2.5 k`l nQywy (Time Constant)

2.5.1 C-R prQp}yk k`l nQywy

{`rQwYkyk~ srl {`r` pYxvykt sm|bn~{ kL@h`w~ ey ]NQkv a`@r`~pny vW agY awr
@v`~l~tWyw`v pYxv@y~ vQ.g`.b.yt sm`n@v|. @mm prQp}@y~ ym| pYw@Q r`~{yk~ pvwW nm|,
a`@r`~pQw {`r`v pYwQ@r`~{y mgQn~ sWm` @k@r\. {`rQwk
Y @y~ agY awr @v`~l~tWyw`v pYxv@y~
vQ.g`.b.yt sm`n vWmt gwvn k`ly @@sq~{`n~wk Q v ann~wy @vyQ. enm| @mm kYQy`vlQ@y~
avs`nyk~ sQqE @n`@v|. nmEw~ pY`@y`~gQk @ls m#nQy @n`h#kQ wrm| kOd` {`r`vk~ l#@bnvQt
ehQ avs`ny @ls pQLQgw h#kQy. 2.18 – (a) r$py bln~n.
@mhQqW sQqEvn vQ@X~; kr#Nk~ nm|, o|n#m avs~}`vk {`rQwYk@y~ @v`~l~tWyw`vy 63.2% kQn~
v#dQvWmt gwvn k`ly nQyw agykQ. e@Lsm a`@r`~pQw {`r`v 63% kQn~ adEvWmt gwvn
k~lyq eym @v|. (63.2% ynE gNQwmy vQX~@l~XnykQn~ l#@bn agykQ) wvq em k`ly RC
gONQwyt sm`n @v|. pYwQ@r`~{y o|m| vlQn~q, {`rQw`v f#rd| vlQn~q gw@h`w~ k`ly l#@bnE@y~
ww~pr vlQnQ.
2.18-(b) r$p@y~ q#k~@vn prQqQ {`rQwYky vQsr\jny kL@h`w~ @v`~l~tWyw`vyw~ {`r`vw~
adEvn~@n~q ihw s[hn~ a`k`rytm @v|.
T = RC

T = k`l nQywy (ww~)

C = {`rQw`v ( f#rd|)
R = pYwQ@r`~{y (o|m|)
uq`hrn:-
2F {`rQwYkyk~ sh 1.5 M pYwQ@r`~{yk~ shQw prQp}yk k`l nQywy @k`pmnq?

pLmE kYmy:-
T = R x C
T = 1.5x1000000 x 2/1000000
= 1.5 x 2
= 3 ww~.

@qv#nQ kYmy :-
T = R ( M ) x C ( F)
= 1.5 x 2
= 3 ww~.

@mm uq`hrn@y~ prQqQ 2F {`rQwYky sh 1.5 M pYwQ@r`~{y sm|bn~{kr @v`~.

100 k srl {`r` s#pyEmkt sm|bn~{ k@L~ nm|, ww~pr 3 kqW {`rQwYk@y~ agY awr
@v`~l~tWyw`v @v`~. 63.2 k~ @v|. ww~pr 6 kqW ey 86.5 k~ @v|. enm| 63.2 + (100-63.2) n~
63.2%. ww~ 30 kt psEv ey @v`~. 99.9 k~ @v|.
@m@ls @v`~. 100 kt a@r`~pny krnlq {`rQwk Y y em pYwQ@r`~{y hrh` vQsr\jny
kL@h`w~ ww~pr 3 kqW @v`~l~tWyw`v 63.2% kQn~ adE@v|. enm| ww~. 3kt psEv {`rQwYk@y~
agY awr @v`~l~tWyw`v 36.8 kQ. ww~. 30 kt psE ey @v`~. 0.1 k~ @vyQ.
2.5.2 L-R prQp}yk k`l nQywy
@pY~rkyk~ sh pYw@Q r`~{yk~, srl {`r` pYxvyk~ smg @XY~NQgw @ls (2.19-a r$py)
sm|bn~{ kLvQt {`rQwYk vlt sm`n sAsQq~{Qyk~ htgnW. @mhQqW @pY~rk@y~ pYw@Q r`~{yk~
pvwQn nQs` amwr pYwQ@r`~{yk~ aw&vX&m @n`@v|.
sEvQcy v#sR vh`m {`r`vk~ g#lWm a`rm|x @vn b#vQn~ @pY~rk@y~ cEm|bk @]wYyk~ htgnW. em
cEm|bk @]wY@y~ @vns~vWm @h~w@O k`t@gn vQ.g`.b.yk~ sh {`r`vk~ @pY~rny@v|. @mm {`r`v
pYxv@yn~ gln {`r`vt pYwQvQr#q~{ qQX`@v| b#vQn~ mEl~ {`r`v mn~qny kryQ. eb#vQn~
prQp}@y~ {`r`v ]nQkv v#dQ @n`vW 2.19-b r$p@yn~ q#k~@vn ayEr# ym| k`l sWm`vkt psE
uprQm agyt LM`@v|. @mm uprQm ag@yn~ 63.2% @vw LM` vWmt gwvn k`ly prQp}@y~
k`l nQywy @ls h#[Qn~@v|. wvq ey L/R agyt sm`n bv @pn~vQy h#k.

2.19-c r$p@yn~ q#k~@vn prQqQ, S sEvQcy A sQt B @wk~ ]nQkv m`r#k@L~ nm|, {`r`v
pYwQvQr#q~{ qQX`@vhQ uprQm ag@y~ sQt XSn& qk~v` adEvn~@n~ 2.19-d r$p@y~ q#k~@vn
ayEr#y. @mhQqWq, uprQm ag@yn~ 63.2% k~ adEvWmt gwvn k`ly k`lnQywy vn L/R
agyt sm`n @v|.
 @mhQ T = k`lnQywy (ww~)
L = @pY~rw`v (@hn~rQ)
R = pYwQ@r`~{y (o|m|)

uq`hrN:-
@pY~rw`v 5H sh pYwQ@r`~{y 200Ω k~ vR qMryk k`lnQywy @k`pmNq? ey 12 V srl
{`r` s#pyEmkt sm|bn~{ kLvQt prQp}@y~ gln s~}`vr {`r`v @k`pmnq?

k`l nQywy = L/R

= 5/200
= 0.025 ww~ = 25 mS.

srl {`r` s#pyEmkt sm|bn~{ s~}`vr avs~}`vt p#mQNQ psE @pY~rw`v@y~ blp$mk~ n#w.
eb#vQn~ o|m|@g~ nQymy x`vQw kLh#kQy.

I = V/R
= 12/200
= 0.06 A. = 60 mA.

*******************************************************