Escuela de Formación Continua

Lic. en Matemática Aplicada

Inglés III (3122)
DOCUMENTO DE CLASE
Clase N°: 1 y 2

1. Objetivo/s de la clase:
• Comprender textos escritos en el área de la especialización.
• Identificar vocabulario específico.
• Decodificar textos complejos de la especialidad
2. Mapa conceptual de la clase:
• Revisión de contenidos de niveles previos. Ejercitación.
3. Desarrollo:
Lectura de documento (abajo) y completamiento de ejercicios.
4. Bibliografía:
 *Guía de Trabajos Prácticos (elaborada ad hoc)
 LONGMAN ACTIVE STUDY DICTIONARY, Longman.
 SIMON AND SCHUSTER´S INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH-
SPANISH DICTIONARY, Macmillan.
 Materiales reales (Internet)
 www.wordreference.com
 www.britishcouncil.com
5. Actividad pedagógica:
El alumno deberá leer las instrucciones y realizar los ejercicios de cada paso de la clase. El
material está incluido en este documento.
Luego, durante la clase, podrá consultar dudas y repreguntar en el foro que estará activo en
el horario correspondiente a su comisión.
6. Material complementario de la clase:
 www.wikipedia.com

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  https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_jaina_frames
et.htm
 https://www.britannica.com/science/number-theory/Pierre-de-Fermat

Parte 1
Revision Exercises

Lea el artículo sobre Teoría de Números y realice los siguientes ejercicios:

1. Marque 5 sustantivos que reconozca por su morfología.

2. Marque 5 adjetivos que reconozca por su morfología.
3. Busque y transcriba 5 frases verbales simples y caracterícelas.
4. Busque y transcriba 5 frases verbales compuestas y caracterícelas.
5. Marque 5 conectores, clasifíquelos e indique qué ideas conectan.
6. Indique tres premodificadores (diferentes entre sí) de un núcleo de frase nominal.
7. Indique tres postmodificadores (diferentes entre sí) de un núcleo de frase nominal.
8. Interprete “Number Theory”; “Classical Indian Number Theory”; “Twentieth
Century Developments”

NUMBER THEORY: A SELECTION OF DEFINITIONS, FIELDS AND

HISTORICAL DATA.

Number theory (or arithmetic or higher arithmetic in older usage) is a branch of pure
mathematics concerned with the properties of numbers in general, and integers in
particular, as well as the wider classes of problems that arise from their study.

Number theory may be subdivided into several fields, according to the methods used and
the type of questions investigated.

The older term for number theory is arithmetic. By the early twentieth century, it had been
superseded by "number theory". (The word "arithmetic" is used by the general public to
mean "elementary calculations"; it has also acquired other meanings in mathematical logic,
as in Peano arithmetic, and computer science, as in floating point arithmetic.) The use of
the term arithmetic for number theory regained some ground in the second half of the 20th

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century, arguably in part due to French influence. In particular, arithmetical is preferred as
an adjective to number-theoretic.

Fields

Elementary tools

The term elementary generally denotes a method that does not use complex analysis. For
example, the prime number theorem was first proven using complex analysis in 1896, but an
elementary proof was found only in 1949 by Erdős and Selberg. The term is somewhat
ambiguous: for example, proofs based on complex Tauberian theorems (for example,
Wiener–Ikehara) are often seen as quite enlightening but not elementary, in spite of using
Fourier analysis, rather than complex analysis as such. Here as elsewhere, an elementary
proof may be longer and more difficult for most readers than a non-elementary one.

Number theorists Paul Erdős and Terence Tao in 1985, when Erdős was 72 and Tao was 10.

Number theory has the reputation of being a field many of whose results can be stated to the
layperson. At the same time, the proofs of these results are not particularly accessible, in part
because the range of tools they use is, if anything, unusually broad within mathematics.

Analytic number theory

In mathematics, analytic number theory is a branch of number theory that uses methods from
mathematical analysis to solve problems about the integers. It is often said to have begun
with Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet's 1837 introduction of Dirichlet L-functions to give the
first proof of Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions. It is well known for its results
on prime numbers (involving the Prime Number Theorem and Riemann zeta function) and
additive number theory (such as the Goldbach conjecture and Waring's problem).

Algebraic number theory

Algebraic number theory is a branch of number theory that uses the techniques of abstract
algebra to study the integers, rational numbers, and their generalizations. Number-theoretic
questions are expressed in terms of properties of algebraic objects such as algebraic number
fields and their rings of integers, finite fields, and function fields. These properties, such as
whether a ring admits unique factorization, the behavior of ideals, and the Galois groups of

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fields, can resolve questions of primary importance in number theory, like the existence of
solutions to Diophantine equations.

Geometric number theory

Geometry of numbers is the part of number theory which uses geometry for the study of
algebraic numbers. It incorporates all forms of geometry.

The geometry of numbers has a close relationship with other fields of mathematics, especially
functional analysis and Diophantine approximation, the problem of finding rational numbers
that approximate an irrational quantity.

Combinatorial number theory

Combinatorial number theory deals with number theoretic problems which involve
combinatorial ideas in their formulations or solutions. Paul Erdős is the main founder of this
branch of number theory. Typical topics include covering system, zero-sum problems,
various restricted sumsets, and arithmetic progressions in a set of integers. Algebraic or
analytic methods are powerful in this field.

Computational number theory

In mathematics and computer science, computational number theory, also known as

algorithmic number theory, is the study of computational methods for investigating and
solving problems in number theory and arithmetic geometry, including algorithms for
primality testing and integer factorization, finding solutions to Diophantine equations, and
explicit methods in arithmetic geometry

HISTORY

Vedic number theory

Mathematicians in India were interested in finding integral solutions of Diohantine equations

since the Vedic era. The earliest geometric use of Diophantine equations can be traced back
to the Sulba Sutras, which were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Baudhayana (c.
800 BC) fund two sets of positive integral solutions to a set of simultaneous Diophantine

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equations, and also used simultaneous Diophantine equations with up to four unknowns.
Apastamba (c. 600 BC) used simultaneous Diophantine equations with up to five unknowns.

Jaina number theory

Like the Vedic mathematicians, the Jainas had an interest in the enumeration of very large
numbers, which was intimately tied up with their philosophy of time and space. All numbers
were classified into three groups, each of which was in turn sub-divided into three orders.
enumerable (lowest, intermediate and highest), innumerable (nearly innumerable, truly
innumerable and innumerable innumerable) and infinite (nearly infinite, truly infinite,
infinitely infinite). The Jainas also classify numbers into odd and even categories.

Hellenistic number theory

Number theory was a favorite study among the Hellenistic mathematician of Alexandria,
Egypt from the 3rd century CE, who were aware of the Diophantine equation concept in
numerous special cases. The first Hellenistic mathematician to study these equations was
Diophantus.

Diophantus also looked for a method of finding integer solutions to linear indeterminate
equations, equations that lack sufficient information to produce a single discrete set of
answers. The equation x + y = 5 is such an equation. Diophantus discovered that many
indeterminate equations can be reduced to a form where a certain category of answers is
known even though a specific answer is not.

Classical Indian number theory

This period is often known as the golden age of Indian Mathematics. This period saw
mathematicians such as Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I, Mahavira,
Bhaskara II, Madhava of Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji give broader and clearer
shape to many branches of mathematics. Their contributions would spread to Asia, the
Middle East, and eventually to Europe. Unlike Vedic mathematics, their works included both
astronomical and mathematical contributions. In fact, mathematics of that period was
included in the 'astral science' (jyotiḥśāstra) and consisted of three sub-disciplines:
mathematical sciences (gaṇita or tantra), horoscope astrology (horā or jātaka) and divination
(saṃhitā). This tripartite division is seen in Varāhamihira's 6th century compilation—
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Pancasiddhantika (literally panca, "five," siddhānta, "conclusion of deliberation", dated 575
CE)—of five earlier works, Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta,
Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta, which were adaptations of still earlier works
of Mesopotamian, Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy. As explained earlier, the
main texts were composed in Sanskrit verse, and were followed by prose commentaries.

Islamic number theory

Mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries,
was built on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics
(Aryabhata, Brahmagupta). Important progress was made, such as the full development of
the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of
algebra (named for The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing by
scholar Al-Khwarizmi), and advances in geometry and trigonometry.

Arabic works also played an important role in the transmission of mathematics to Europe
during the 10th to 12th centuries.

Dr. Sally P. Ragep, an historian of science in Islam, estimates that "tens of thousands" of
Arabic manuscripts in mathematical sciences and philosophy remain unread, which give
studies which "reflect individual biases and a limited focus on a relatively few texts and
scholars".

Early European number theory

Number theory began in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, with François, Viète, Bachet
de Meziriac, and especially Fermat, whose infinite descent method was the first general proof
of diophantine questions. Fermat´s last theorem was posed as a problem in 1637, a proof of
which wasn´t found until 1994. Fermat lso posed the equation 61x² + 1 = y² as a ´problem in
1657.

In the 18th century, Euler and Legrange made important contributions to number theory. Euler
did some work on analytic problem and found a solution to Fermat´s equation 61x² + 1 = y².

Legrange found a solution to the more general Pell´s equation together with Euler, by means
of continued fractions, though this was more difficult than the Indian chakravala method.

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Beginnings of modern number theory

Of immense significance was the 1801 publication of Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Carl

Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). This became, in a sense, the holy writ of number theory. In it
Gauss organized and summarized much of the work of his predecessors before moving boldly
to the frontier of research. Observing that the problem of resolving composite numbers into
prime factors is “one of the most important and useful in arithmetic,” Gauss provided the
first modern proof of the unique factorization theorem. He also gave the first proof of the law
of quadratic reciprocity, a deep result previously glimpsed by Euler. To expedite his work,
Gauss introduced the idea of congruence among numbers—i.e., he defined a and b to be
congruent modulo m (written a ≡ b mod m) if m divides evenly into the difference a − b. For
instance, 39 ≡ 4 mod 7. This innovation, when combined with results like Fermat’s little
theorem, has become an indispensable fixture of number theory.

Prime number theory

In number theory, the prime number theorem (PNT) describes the asymptotic distribution of
the prime numbers among the positive integers. It formalizes the intuitive idea that primes
become less common as they become larger by precisely quantifying the rate at which this
occurs. The theorem was proved independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la
Vallée Poussin in 1896 using ideas introduced by Bernhard Riemann (in particular, the
Riemann zeta function).

Number theory in the 20th Century

The next century saw an explosion in number theoretic research. Along with classical and
analytic number theory, scholars now explored specialized subfields such as algebraic
number theory, geometric number theory, and combinatorial number theory. The concepts
became more abstract and the techniques more sophisticated. Unquestionably, the subject
had grown beyond Fermat’s wildest dreams.

One of the great contributors from early in the 20th century was the incandescent genius
Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920). Ramanujan, whose formal training was as limited as his
life was short, burst upon the mathematical scene with a series of brilliant discoveries.
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Analytic number theory was among his specialties, and his publications carried titles such as
“Highly composite numbers” and “Proof that almost all numbers n are composed of about
log (log n) prime factors.”

A legendary figure in 20th-century number theory was Paul Erdős (1913–96), a Hungarian
genius known for his deep insights, his vast circle of collaborators, and his personal
eccentricities.

Two later developments deserve mention. One was the invention of the electronic computer,
whose speed has been advantageously applied to number theoretic questions.

Second, number theory acquired an applied flavor, for it became instrumental in designing
encryption schemes widely used in government and business. These rely upon the
factorization of gigantic numbers into primes—a factorization that the code’s user knows and
the potential code-breaker does not. This application runs counter to the long-held perception
of number theory as beautiful but essentially useless. (See cryptology: Cryptography.)

Twentieth-century number theory reached a much-publicized climax in 1995, when Fermat’s

last theorem was proved by the Englishman Andrew Wiles, with timely assistance from his
British colleague Richard Taylor. Wiles succeeded where so many had failed with a 130-
page proof of incredible complexity, one that certainly would not fit into any margin.

(Texto extraído de los siguientes sitios web con propósitos educativos

• www.wikipedia.com

• https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_jaina_frameset.htm

• https://www.britannica.com/science/number-theory/Pierre-de-Fermat