Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316-328

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Química de Alimentos

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sacha inchi ( Plukenetia volubilis L.): Composición nutricional, actividad biológica, y los usos

sunan Wang una , si , fan Zhu si , • , Yukio Kakuda C

una Instituto Canadiense Comida y Vino, Niagara College, 135 Taylor Road, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario L0S 1J0, Canadá
si Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, Nueva Zelanda
C Departamento de Ciencia de los Alimentos, Universidad de Guelph, 50 de piedra camino del este, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canadá

INFORMACIÓN DEL ARTÍCULO RESUMEN

palabras clave: sacha inchi ( Plukenetia volubilis L.) es nativa de la Amazonía peruana y se reconoce en otras partes del mundo como un cultivo sostenible con aplicaciones
especies infrautilizadas comerciales viables. En los últimos años, ha habido un creciente interés en el desarrollo de la planta de sacha inchi como una nueva fuente de aceite rico
Omega-3 Aceite comestible en ácidos grasos insaturados. Esta opinión se presenta información sobre los mayores y menores componentes químicos, salud e ff ECTS y la utilización de
ácido graso insaturado
di ff partes Erent (semillas, cáscaras de semillas y hojas) de esta planta. En particular, se describen las propiedades fisicoquímicas y la estabilidad oxidativa
nutrición Bioactive fitoquímico
del aceite de semilla sacha inchi. Toda la planta sacha inchi se ha utilizado para generar productos alimenticios, cosméticos y farmacéuticos, con el objetivo
humana
de maximizar su valor económico. La planta inchi sacha puede llegar a ser un recurso valioso para los compuestos de alto valor añadido utilizados en
muchos productos de diversa alimenticios y no alimenticios.

1. Introducción
sacha inchi ( Plukenetia volubilis L.) de la familia Euphorbiaceae es
también conocido como cacahuete sacha, cacahuete montaña, tuerca de Inca o de cacahuete Inca ( Follegatti-Romero,
la formación de biomasa y el rendimiento de semilla y la calidad ( Cai et al., 2012 ). La diversidad
Piantino, Grimaldi, y Cabral, 2009; Guillén, Ruiz, Cabo, Chirinos y Pascual, 2003 ). Es originaria de la
selva tropical de la región amazónica de América del Sur que incluye partes de Perú y el noroeste de
Brasil ( Duque y Vásquez, 1994 ). Representantes de otras especies reportadas del género plukenetia incluiruna forma sostenible.
P. brachybotrya, P. polyadenia, P. loretensis, y P. huayllabambana. Sus propiedades morfológicas y
fisicoquímicas di ff er de P. volubilis ( comúnmente conocido como inchi sacha) ( Chirinos, Pedreschi,
Domínguez, y Campos, 2015; Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al, 2016.; Rodríguez et al., 2011a ). Sacha inchi
está siendo desarrollado en otras partes del mundo (por ejemplo, el Sudeste de Asia) debido
su gran potencial como cultivo económico
( Chandrasekaran y Liu, 2015; Gutiérrez, Segura, Sánchez-Reinoso, Díaz, y Abril de 2017 ).
Sacha inchi tiene una cápsula de fruta en forma de estrella (3 - 5 cm). A medida que la fruta madura,
el color cambia de verde a marrón negruzco. Las cápsulas de frutas contienen semillas ovales de color
marrón oscuro comestibles (1,5 - 2 cm) ( Figura 1 UNA) ( Fu et al, 2014.; Sathe, Hamaker, Sze-Tao, y
Venkatachalam de 2002 ). Estas
semillas germinan típicamente a una temperatura óptima entre 25 y 30 ° C ( Da Silva, Vieira, Boneti,
Melo, y Martins, 2016 ). La planta sacha inchi ha aclimatado a condiciones de crecimiento de alta luz
en altitudes que van de 200 a 1500 m ( Cai, 2011 ). Elevación y una temporada ff ect fotosíntesis hoja,
genética de las plantas sacha inchi del Amazonas peruano ha sido registrado ( Ocelák et al., 2015 ).
La información detallada sobre la ecología y el cultivo de esta planta es esencial para la utilización de
La cantidad de cada componente químico varía en di ff partes Erent de la planta sacha inchi. Las
semillas contienen lípidos (35 - 60%) (incluyendo ω- 3,
6, y 9 ácidos grasos), proteínas (25 - 30%) (incluyendo aminoácidos esenciales tales como cisteína,
tirosina, treonina y triptófano), vitamina E, polifenoles, minerales, y otros ( Cai, 2011; Cai, Yang, Tang,
y Dao, 2011; Chirinos et al, 2013.; Fanali, Dugo, Cacciola, Beccaria, y Grasso, 2011; Prado et al.,
2011; Sathe et al., 2002 ). Cuando se compara con el núcleo de la semilla, la carcasa tenía un mayor α-
nivel de tocoferol y cantidades iguales de ω- 6 y ω- ácidos grasos 3 ( tabla 1 ) ( de Souza et al., 2013 ).
hojas inchi Sacha son una fuente de terpenoides, saponinas, y compuestos fenólicos ( Florida flavonoides)
( Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, Debut, 2014A, 2014b ). Debido a estos nutrientes, semillas tostadas, hojas
cocidas y

abreviaturas: ABTS, 2,2 '- azino-bis (ácido 3-etilbenzotiazolina-6-sulfónico; ALA, α- ácido linolénico; BHT, hidroxitolueno butilado; CE, catequina; CFPP, frío fi filtro de punto de obstrucción; DHA, ácido docosahexaenoico; DPPH,
2,2-difenil-1-picrilhidracilo; EPA, ácido eicosapentaenoico; FRAP, ion férrico reducción de la potencia antioxidante; GAE, de equivalente de ácido gálico; HDL, lipoproteína de alta densidad; IDF, dietética insoluble fi ber; LD, dosis letal; MUFA,
ácido graso monoinsaturado; ORAC, oxígeno capacidad de absorción de radicales; PUFA, el ácido graso poliinsaturado; SDF, dietética soluble fi ber; TAG, triacilglicerol; TE, Trolox equivalente; TLCK, tosil- L- clorhidrato de lisil-clorometano; TNF α, factor
de necrosis tumoral- α; TPC, el contenido fenólico total; TPCK, tosilo fenilalanil clorometil cetona

• Autor correspondiente.

Dirección de correo electrónico: fzhu5@yahoo.com (F. Zhu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.05.055
Recibido el 15 de diciembre de 2017. Recibido en forma 2 revisada de abril de de 2018; 10 de mayo de 2018 Aceptado

0308-8146 / Crown Copyright © 2018 Publicado por Elsevier Ltd. Todos los derechos reservados.
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316-328

UNA

si

granos de semillas granos de semillas granos de semillas granos de semillas

(crudo) (ligeramente tostado, 75 81 (tostado medio, 83 86 ° (altamente tostado, 99 102

° C, 9 min) C, 10 min) ° C, 10 min)

aceite de semilla aceite de semilla (de aceite de semilla (de aceite de semilla (de

(de semillas crudas) ligeramente asado tostado medio muy tostado

semillas) semillas) semillas)

Figura 1. ( A) Sacha inchi semilla entera (imagen de la izquierda) y el núcleo (imagen de la derecha). El núcleo está embalado dentro de una cáscara dura de color marrón oscuro con un revestimiento de tejido blanco suave interior ( Sathe et al.,

2002 ). (B) Sacha inchi núcleos (Top imágenes) y Sacha aceite inchi (imágenes inferiores) a partir de semillas tostados y crudos ( Cisneros et al., 2014 ). Las figuras se reproducen con permisos de los editores.

aceite de semilla son parte de las dietas tradicionales en Perú ( Guillén et al., 2003 ). aceite de Sacha
inchi es un ingrediente basado planta utilizada para la alimentación, medicinal y aplicaciones
cosméticas. Comercialmente disponible de aceite de sacha inchi es valorado por su beneficio fi propiedades
para la salud ciales y pro sensorial única fi Les (sabor y Florida Avor) ( Garmendia, Pando, y Ronceros,
2011 ). biomasa shell inchi Sacha ( Figura 2 Una hoja ( Figura 2 B) y aceite ( Figura 2 C) son prometedores
ingredientes naturales para la síntesis de nanopartículas ( Kumar et al., 2014A, 2014b, Kumar, Smita,
Cumbal, debut, 2016, Kumar, Smita, Sánchez, Stael, y Cumbal, 2016 ). De acuerdo con microscópico
electrónico de transmisión análisis (TEM), las nanopartículas sintetizadas fabricados utilizando sacha
inchi eran de forma esférica con un tamaño de partícula que varía de 4 a 25 nm ( Figura 2 ).
Farmacéuticamente, aceite de sacha inchi se ha utilizado tradicionalmente para el cuidado de la piel
para suavizar la piel, curar heridas y tratar las picaduras de insectos e infecciones de la piel ( Moser,
Freis, Gillon, y Danoux de 2007 ). Las preparaciones cosméticas y farmacéuticas que contienen las
proteínas y aceites (nativas o modificadores fi ed) de sacha inchi se han desarrollado y patentado
propiedades y usos es más bien dispersos. Una revisión sistemática es necesaria para proporcionar
una base para apoyar la explotación actual de este cultivo aceite único.
Esta opinión Panorámicas del la composición química y la actividad biológica de di ff partes Erent
(semilla y de la hoja) de sacha inchi. Características físico-químicas, estabilidad a la oxidación y los
aspectos sensoriales de aceite de sacha inchi se resumen. También se revisan los usos alimentarios
y no alimentarios de la planta. Esta revisión proporciona un científico fi c base para el desarrollo de
sacha inchi como una planta económico sostenible para la nutrición humana, la salud y el uso
cosmético.
2. Composición química de las semillas de sacha inchi

continuamente. Sacha petróleo inchi productos cosméticos relacionados antibacteriano exhibido, antiin Florida
inflamatoria, estiramiento de la piel y contra el envejecimiento e ff (ECTS González-Aspajo, Belkhelfa, 2.1. lípidos

Haddioui-Hbabi, Bourdy, y Deharo, 2015 ). Sacha hojas inchi han demostrado actividad antioxidante y
antiproliferativa contra ciertas células cancerosas pero eran tóxicos para las células normales ( Nascimento Lipid es el componente principal encontrado en las semillas de inchi sacha con cantidades que

et al, 2013.; Quino et al., 2016 ). En general, la planta inchi sacha está experimentando un oscilan entre 33 al 54% ( tabla 1 ) ( Chirinos et al, 2013.; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez,

recrudecimiento de interés como una nueva fuente prometedora de aceite y otros ingredientes Rosada, y Jiménez, 2011; Hamaker, Valles, Gilman, Hardmeier, y Clark, 1992 ). El contenido en

funcionales. Hasta el momento, la información de sacha inchi aceite de las semillas es comparable a la de Florida axseeds (34 - 45%), las semillas de amapola
(50%), semillas de perilla (40%), sa ffl ower semillas (30 - 40%), canola (38 - 44%), y maní (44 - 56%) ( Bozan
y Tenelli, 2008; Ciftci, Przybylski, y Rudzinska, 2012; Morris & Vaisey-Genser, 2003; Smith, 2007;
Przybylski, Mag, Eskin, y McDonald, 2007; Pattee de 2007 ).

317
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

tabla 1
Composición química de las semillas, cáscara de semilla, hoja y aceite de semilla de sacha inchi.

Semilla 1 cáscara de la semilla Hoja Aceite de semilla

escala de laboratorio Comercialmente disponible

Proximate composition (%)

Moisture 3.3 – 8.32 8.4 N.A 4.3 – 3.3 N.A
Lipid 33.4 – 54.3 1.24 N.A 99.3 – 100.0 99.8
Protein 24.2 – 27.0 N.A 0.49 – 4.98 N.A N.A
Carbohydrate 13.4 – 30.9 N.A N.A N.A N.A
Dietary fi ber (% carbohydrate) 72.4 N.A N.A N.A N.A
Ash 2.7 – 6.46 N.A N.A N.A N.A

Fatty acids ( g/100 g sample or % oil) Total

saturated fatty acids 7.9 – 9.1 1.79 N.A 6.74 – 7.70 6.19 – 7.4
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 1.6 – 2.1 1.19 N.A 4.67 – 6.30 3.65 – 4.8
Stearic acid (C18:0) 1.1 – 1.3 0.58 N.A 2.96 – 3.81 2.54 – 3.4
Total monounsaturated fatty acids 8.4 – 13.2 1.40 N.A 7.50 – 10.71 8.28 – 10.1
Oleic acid (C18:1, ω 9) 3.5 – 4.7 1.40 N.A 8.41 – 10.45 8.28
Vaccenic acid (C18:1, ω 11) 0.23 – 0.29 N.A N.A N.A N.A
Gadoleic acid (C20:1) N.A N.A N.A 0.16
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids 77.5 – 84.4 8.17 N.A 78.15 – 84.49 80.9 – 85.41
Linoleic acid (C18:2, ω 6) 12.4 – 14.1 4.02 N.A 32.66 – 36.80 36.80 – 37.7
α- Linolenic acid (C18:3, ω 3) 12.8 – 16.0 4.08 N.A 45.20 – 50.41 42.4 – 48.61
ω- 6/ ω- 3 ratio 0.81 – 1.12 0.99 N.A 0.72 – 0.76 N.A

Tocopherols ( mg/100 g)
α- Tocopherol 1.13 – 1.27 1.84 N.A 0.08 N.A
ß-Tocopherol 0.67 – 0.95 N.A N.A 0.02 N.A
γ- Tocopherol 56.8 – 81.4 0.57 N.A 127.6 – 149.0 N.A
δ- Tocopherol 29.2 – 67.8 N.A N.A 60.0 – 84.0 N.A
Total tocopherol 78.6 – 137.0 3.06 N.A 209 – 211.8 N.A

Phytosterols ( mg/100 g)
Campesterol 7.1 – 8.8 N.A N.A 15.3 N.A
Stigmasterol 21.2 – 26.9 N.A N.A 34.61 – 58.7 N.A
β- Sitosterol 45.2 – 53.2 N.A N.A 43.46 – 127.4 N.A

References, for seed: Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012; Sathe et al., 2002; Chirinos et al., 2013, Chirinos et al., 2015; de Souza et al., 2013; Takeyama & Fukushima,
2013; Sterbova et al., 2017 . For seed shell: de Souza et al., 2013 ; For leaf, Nascimento et al., 2013 , For seed oil: Hamaker et al., 1992; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Prado et al., 2011;
Maurer et al., 2012; Zuleta et al., 2012; Takeyama & Fukushima, 2013; Cisneros et al., 2014; Chirinos et al., 2015; Zanqui et al., 2016; Gutiérrez et al., 2017

1 Raw or processed seeds; N/A, not available; commercially available seed oil from a local market in Lima, Peru ( Vicente et al., 2015 ).

En comparación con el pistacho (50,4 - 58%) ( Arena, Campisi, Fallico, y Maccarone, 2007 ) Y las encontrado en el aceite de sacha inchi, seguido de ácido linoleico ( ω- 6, 33,4 - 36,2%) y ácido oleico ( ω-
nueces de macadamia kernel (63,0 - 71,8%) ( Wall, 2010 ), La semilla sacha inchi tiene un menor 9, 8.7 - 9,6%) ( Guillén et al., 2003; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Chirinos et al., 2013 ). Se detectaron
contenido de lípidos ( Chirinos et al., 2013 ). Sin embargo, en comparación con la soja (16,5 - 17,5%) ( Yoshida,
trazas de ácido mirístico y ácido eicosanoico en las semillas de sacha inchi durante su etapa de
Hirakawa, Murakam, Mizushina, y Yamade de 2003 ) Y Chia ( Savila hispánica) semillas (26,7 - 35,0%) ( Ciftci
germinación temprana (3 días) ( Chandrasekaran y Liu, 2015 ). Un nivel muy bajo de ácido gadoleico
et al., 2012 ), Las semillas tienen un contenido de lípidos superior ( Chirinos et al., 2013 ). Algunos de (C20: 1, ω- 11, 0,16%) se detectó en las semillas ( Follegatti-Romer et al., 2009 ). El nivel de ALA de
los estudios que se mencionan aquí sólo se empleó 1 genotipo. Cabe señalar que la variación aceite de semilla de sacha inchi era comparable a la de la semilla de chía (58,2%) y Florida axseed
genética puede dar lugar a una superposición de los contenidos de lípidos entre los di ff oleaginosas (59,6%) ( Ciftci et al., 2012 ). Sacha aceite inchi tenía aproximadamente dos veces la cantidad de ω- 6
Erent. ácidos grasos de Florida aceite axseed ( Guillén et al., 2003; Maurer et al., 2012 ). los ω- 6 / ω- 3 ácidos
grasos relación del aceite varió desde 0,81 hasta 1,12 ( Chirinos et al, 2013.; Gutiérrez et al., 2011;
Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012 ). En comparación con aceite de semilla de sacha inchi, los
El aceite de semilla de sacha inchi contiene lípidos neutros (97,2%), ácidos grasos libres (1,2%), aceites de canola (2.22), de oliva (7,69), la soja (6,66) y las nueces (5.0) tienen mayor ω- 6 / ω- 3 ratios
y fosfolípidos (0,8%) ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011 ). Los lípidos son altamente insaturado con solamente 6,8 - 9,1%( BELITZ y Grosch, 1999 ). los Florida axseed (0,27) y semillas de chia (0,26 - 0,34) aceites tienen una
de los ácidos grasos siendo saturada ( Chirinos et al, 2013.; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez menor ω- 6 / ω- 3 ratios ( Ixtaina et al., 2011; Ciftci et al., 2012 ). En general, una relación de 1: 1 para ω- 6
et al., 2011; Maurer, Hatta-Sakoda, Pascual-Chagman, y Rodríguez-Saona, 2012 ). Las cantidades de / ω- 3 se considera óptimo para la salud humana ( Simopoulos, 2011 ). De hecho, la proporción de
ácidos grasos poliinsaturados (PUFA) y ácidos grasos monoinsaturados (MUFA) en las semillas son aceite de semilla de sacha inchi está cerca de 1: 1.

77,5 - 84,4% y 8,4 - 13,2%, respectivamente ( Chirinos et al, 2013.; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009;
Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012 ). La composición de la saturada, PUFA y MUFA en las
semillas de chía es
8,6%, 80,4% y 10,9%, respectivamente, y en Florida axseeds la composición es de 7,8%, 73,6% y
18,5%, respectivamente, que es similar a los de sacha inchi semillas ( Chirinos et al, 2013.; Ciftci et
al., 2012 ). semilla inchi Sacha tiene un contenido más bajo de ácidos grasos saturados totales de las
y Liu, 2015; Zanqui, da Silva, de Morais, Santos, y Ribeiro, 2016 ). Algunos estudios han demostrado
semillas de canola, sol Florida ower semilla, Florida aceites axseed, maíz, oliva y semilla de algodón ( Chirinos
et al, 2013.; De Souza et al, 2013.; Fanali et al., 2011; Guillén et al., 2003; Gutiérrez et al., 2011;
Maurer et al, 2012.; Ruiz, Díaz, Anaya, y Rojas, 2013 ).
α- El ácido linolénico (ALA, ω- 3, 46,8 - 50,8%) es el principal ácido graso
La variación en la composición lipídica de las semillas depende de varios factores, incluyendo la
genética y las condiciones de crecimiento (por ejemplo, la actitud y temperatura), el procesamiento
(por ejemplo, el tostado antes de la extracción) y las condiciones de extracción (por ejemplo,
temperatura y presión de extracción subcrítica con norte- propano) ( Cai et al, 2012.; Chandrasekaran
que di ff cultivares Erent tenían mínima en Florida influencias sobre el contenido de lípidos de las
semillas ( Cai et al, 2012.; Chirinos et al., 2013 ), Lo que sugiere que más genotipos debe ser
evaluado para seleccionar un cultivar con un alto rendimiento de aceite. plantas de sacha inchi
cultivadas a una altitud

318
S. Wang et al.
of >900m had a higher lipid content with a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids than those
grown at an altitude of<900m ( Cai et al., 2012 ). Lower growing temperatures for the plant decreased
the content of saturated fatty acids (e.g., palmitic and stearic acids), while increasing the content of
unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. oleic and linolenic acids) ( Wang & Liu, 2014 ). Seed germination (for 30
days) increased the content of oleic acid, a major mono-saturated fatty acid in seed oil ( Chandrasekarana
& Liu, 2015 ). γ- Irradiation at doses of 0, 1, 5 and 8 kGy or roasting treatments did not a ff ect the fatty
acid pro fi le of the seed oil ( Cisneros, Paredes, Arana, & Cisneros-Zevallos, 2014; Gutiérrez et al.,
2017 ). The lipid composition of sacha inchi oil as a ff ected by the extraction methods is discussed in
the Section 5.1.1 below.
2.2. Protein
The protein content of the raw sacha inchi seeds was 24.2 – 27.0%
( Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Hamaker et al., 1992 ). The protein content of defatted seeds ranged from 27
to 59.1% (dry basis) ( Hamaker et al., 1992; Sathe et al., 2002; Ruiz et al., 2013; Chirinos et al., 2016 ).
The protein level of sacha inchi seeds (27%) was slightly lower than that of soybeans (28%),
cottonseeds (33%), and higher than that of sun fl ower seeds (24%) and peanuts (23%) ( Hamaker et
al., 1992 ). The protein content is dependent on the extraction method and the protein assay used. In
a comparison study, enzyme-assisted extraction [54.2 °C, 5.6% enzyme (alcalase), 50:1 (v/w)
solvent-to-sample ratio, pH 9.0,
40.4min] gave a protein yield of 44.7% from defatted sacha inchi seeds. In contrast, the yield of
protein from an alkaline extraction [54.2 °C, 42:1 (v/w) solvent-to-sample ratio, 1.65M NaCl, pH 9.5,
30min] from defatted seeds was only 29.7% ( Chirinos et al., 2016 ). According to Hamaker et al.
(1992) , leucine (64%) is the pre-
dominant essential amino acid of the seed protein, followed by tyrosine, isoleucine, lysine, threonine
and valine (55, 50, 43, 43, and 40mg/g, respectively). Seed proteins contain sulfur amino acids
(methionine+cysteine) by 37mg/100 g and phenylalanine by 9mg/g ( Hamaker et al., 1992 ). In the fl our
made from hexane-defatted seeds, albumin (43.7%) is the pre-dominant aqueous soluble protein,
followed by glutelin (31.9%), globulin (27.3%), and prolamin (3.0%) ( Sathe et al., 2002 ). The soluble
seed fl our proteins are mainly composed of 32 – 35 kDa and ∼ 60 – 62 kDa monomeric polypeptides ( Sathe
et al., 2002 ). These seed proteins have disul fi de linked polypeptides ( Sathe et al., 2002 ). The albumin
is a basic protein (pI ∼ 9.4) containing all the essential amino acids required by adult humans. Heat
denatured sacha inchi seed albumin was shown to be highly digestible by tosyl phenylalanyl
chloromethyl ketone (TPCK)-trypsin, tosyl- L- lysyl-chlor-
omethane hydrochloride (TLCK)-chymotrypsin, and pepsin using in vitro assays ( Sathe et al., 2002 ).
Therefore, sacha inchi seed proteins are of good nutritional quality and can be developed for human
nutrition, especially in the rising gluten free food market.
2.3. Carbohydrate
The carbohydrate contents of sacha inchi seeds ranged from 13.4 to
30.9%. According to, peanuts (18.8%) have a higher carbohydrate content than sacha inchi seeds
(13.4%). The dietary fi ber content of the seeds [water insoluble dietary fi ber (IDF), 72.4%; and soluble
dietary
fi ber (SDF), 9.0%] was higher than that of peanuts (IDF, 37.2%, and SDF, 2.1%). Information on seed
carbohydrates is very limited. The composition of the fi ber and the existence of starch in the seeds
remain to be studied.
2.4. Tocopherol, carotenoid, and phytosterol
The total tocopherol contents of sacha inchi seeds ranged from 78.6 to 137.0mg/100 g seed ( Table
1 ) ( Chirinos et al., 2013; FollegattiRomero et al., 2009 ). The total tocolpherol contents of the seed oils
were 2.39 (by Soxhlet extraction) and 2.79 (by cold pressing) g/kg oil
319
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
( Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009 ). The total tocopherol and δ- tocopherol contents in sacha inchi seeds
are higher than fl axseeds, Brazil nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans and pistachios ( Oomah,
Kenaschuk, & Mazza, 1997; Kornsteiner, Wagner, & Elmadfa, 2006; Bozan & Tenelli, 2008;
Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; da Costa et al., 2010; Chirinos et al., 2013 ). Sacha inchi seeds have a
higher γ- tocopherol content than Brazil nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans and pistachios,
and a higher β- tocopherol content than cashews, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans and pistachios.
Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (40 °C/400 bar) slightly increased the tocopherol content of
sacha inchi seed oils (3.07 g/kg oil), compared to the Soxhlet extraction and cold pressing (2.39 and
2.79 g/kg oil, respectively) ( FollegattiRomero et al., 2009 ). Therefore, the processing had no e ff ects
on this nutrient of the oil.
The total carotenoid content of seeds from 17 sacha inchi cultivars has a range of 0.07 – 0.09mg
of β- carotene equivalent per 100 g of seed ( Chirinos et al., 2013; Hamaker et al., 1992 ). The
carotenoid content in
fl axseeds was approximately 8.4 μ g/g fresh weight of seeds ( Fujisawa et al., 2008 ). Crude sun fl ower
and rapeseed oils contained 24.7 and
63.6mg β- carotene per kg, respectively ( Kreps, Vrbikova, & Schmidt, 2014 ). The speci fi c type of
carotenoids in sacha inchi seeds still needs to be identi fi ed and quanti fi ed.
Sitosterol (45.2 – 53.3mg/100 g of seed) is the predominant phy-
tosterol in the seeds, followed by stigmasterol (21.2 – 26.9mg/100 g of seed) and campesterol (7.1 – 8.8mg/100
g of seed). The sum of these 3 phytosterols ranged from 73.5 to 89mg/100 g seed ( Chirinos et al.,
2013 ). Sacha inchi seeds appear to have a lower content of phytosterols when compared to the
composite range of common oil rich nuts and seeds such as whole and ground fl axseeds, almonds,
Brazil nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pistachios and black walnuts (95 – 270mg/100
g) ( Phillips, Ruggio, & Ashraf-Khorassani, 2005 ).
2.5. Polyphenol
The total phenolic contents (TPC) of seeds from 16 sacha inchi cultivars vary over a wide range
[64.6 – 80.0mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g seed, wet basis] ( Chirinos et al., 2013 ). The contents
of total methanol soluble and acidi fi ed methanol soluble phenolics in defatted fl ours were 0.117 and
0.112 g/100 g fl our, respectively ( Sathe et al., 2002 ). Phenyl alcohol, fl avonoid, secoridoid, and lignan
type phenolics have been identi fi ed in sacha inchi seed oil ( Fanali et al., 2011 ). The quanti fi cation of
many more speci fi c phenolics in these seeds is needed. When compared to sacha inchi seeds,
almonds, macadamias and pine nuts showed lower TPC (32 – 47mg GAE/100 g). However, sacha
inchi seeds tend to have a lower TPC than some common nuts (Brazilian nuts, cashews, hazelnuts,
peanuts, pecans, pistachios, walnuts) (112 – 1625mg GAE/100 g) and oil seeds ( fl ax seeds and sa ffl ower
seeds) and 383 – 559mg GAE/100 g) ( Bozan & Tenelli, 2008; John & Shahidi, 2010; Kornsteiner et al.,
2006 ). The TPC varied when the seeds were processed with di ff erent thermal treatments such as
open boiling, pressure boiling, vacuum boiling, low-temperature (125 °C), high-temperature (197 °C),
and honey roasting (175 °C). The highest TPC was achieved with honey roasting (103mg GAE/100
g), followed by high-temperature roasting (55.7mg GAE/100 g), pressure boiling (40.9mg GAE/100 g),
lowtemperature roasting (22.7mg GAE/100 g), vacuum boiling (17.4mg GAE/100 g), and open boiling
(16.0mg GAE/100 g) ( Sterbova, Cepkova, Viehmannova, & Cachique, 2017 ). The mechanism
responsible for the altered levels of total phenolics after thermal treatment has not been studied.
2.6. Mineral
In the sacha inchi seeds from Colombia, potassium (5563.5mg/kg) was the most dominant
mineral, followed by magnesium (3210mg/kg),
S. Wang et al.
calcium (2406mg/kg), iron (103.5mg/kg), zinc (49.0mg/kg), sodium (15.4mg/kg), and copper
(12.9mg/kg) ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011 ). Saf-
fl ower seed has a similar level of calcium (2140mg/kg) to sacha inchi seed.
3. Chemical composition of sacha inchi seed shell and leaf
There is much less information on the composition of sacha inchi seed shell and leaf as
compared to the seed, though they can be better utilized as by-products. The amount of total lipids in
the seed shell (1.24%) was reported ( de Souza et al., 2013 ). The involvement of seed shell
polysaccharides (i.e. cellulose, pectin) in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles has been reported ( Kumar,
Smita, et al., 2016, Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, & Debut, 2017 ). The silver nanoparticles have unique size
and shape with special optical, antimicrobial, and electrical properties. They potentially have a variety
of applications such as for foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics ( Firdhouse & Lalitha, 2015 ). A
more thorough chemical examination of these polysaccharides is needed to determine their identity
and quantity in the seed shell. The seed shell contains 74.56mg GAE/g total phenolics. Condensed
tannins (69.42mg cyanidin equivalents/g) were the predominant phenolic compounds, followed by
hydrolysable tannins (3.28mg GAE/g), lignans (0.84mg secoisolaricirecinol diglucoside/g), bound
phenolic acids (0.40mg GAE/g), fl avonoids (0.36mg quercetin equivalents/g), fl avanoids [mg
0.15 CE (catechin)/g], and free phenolic acids (0.11mg GAE/g) ( Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al., 2016;
Chirinos, Necochea, Pedreschi, & Campos, 2016 ). Cinnamic protocatechuic, hydroxycinnamic, p- coumaric g TE/g oil), and oil extracted form unroasted seeds (18.2 TE/g oil) ( Cisneros et al., 2014 ). Commercial
types are the most predominant phenolic acids in the seed shells ( Chirinos, Necochea, et al., 2016 ).
Total carbohydrate content in leaf extracts of sacha inchi was determined by the phenol-sulfuric
acid method. Ethanol extracts displayed the highest total carbohydrate content (94%), followed by
methanol, aqueous, hexane, and chloroform (84%) extracts ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ). The type of
carbohydrates in the leaf is unknown. Based on the Bradford dye-binding method, total protein
content in the extracts from the fresh leaves of sacha inchi followed the order: chloroform extract
(4.98%) > hexane extract (3.60%) > ethanol extract (1.23%) > methanol extract (1.04%) > aqueous
extract (0.49%) ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ). There is no clue on what types of proteins in the leaf
extracts. Chloroform and hexane extract lipids and membrane proteins. No information about the lipid
contents in these extracts is available. The TPC varied in the extracts with di ff erent extraction
solvents. The chloroform extract (10.8%) had the highest TPC, followed by hexane (9.46%), aqueous
(8.02%), methanol (6.09%), and ethanol (5.34%) extracts ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ). Again, the
identity of the phenolics is unknown.
4. Biological activity of sacha inchi
Di ff erent parts of sacha inchi plant (seed, seed shell and leaf) have di ff erent antioxidant,
antibacterial, antidyslipidemic, and anticancer properties ( Table 2 ).
4.1. Antioxidant properties
The antioxidant capacity of sacha inchi is a ff ected by many factors, including quanti fi cation and
processing methods, and antioxidant composition and chemical properties of constituents in the
material ( Apak et al., 2013 ). Processing methods should be optimized to maximize the antioxidant
potential of the resulting sacha inchi products.
4.1.1. Seed
The in vitro antioxidant activities of (raw or processed) sacha inchi seed extracts and seed oil
were determined by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging and ORAC (oxygen
radical absorbance capacity) assays ( Chirinos et al., 2013; Sterbova et al., 2017 ). The
320
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
ORAC values of the extracts from the raw seeds of 16 sacha inchi cultivars varied from 6.5 to 9.8
µmol trolox equivalent (TE)/g of seed, of which the hydrophilic and lipophilic ORAC values were 4.3 – 7.3
and
1.0 – 2.8 µmol TE/g of seed, respectively ( Chirinos et al., 2013 ). The DPPH value for the methanol
extract of sacha inchi seeds (without processing) was 241mmol TE/100 g of seeds ( Sterbova et al.,
2017 ). Sacha inchi seeds (raw or processed) and seed oil contain di ff erent levels of antioxidant
components, including phenolics, α, β, γ, & δ- tocopherols and carotenoids. The antioxidant activity
ranking (highest to lowest) for the seed tocopherols are γ > δ > α > β ( Schmidt & Pokorný, 2005 ).
The antioxidant activities of the seeds or seed oil were much dependent on the type of thermal
treatments of sacha inchi seeds ( Cisneros et al., 2014; Sterbova et al., 2017 ). Unlike roasting,
pressure boiling had minimal in fl uence on the DPPH values. Vacuum boiling (100 °C) increased the
DPPH value by 6%. Low-temperature roasting resulted in the highest DPPH loss (23% loss), followed
by honey roasting (12% loss), high-temperature roasting (10% loss), and open boiling at atmospheric
pressure (10% loss) ( Sterbova et al., 2017 ). The loss in antioxidant capacity was found to be higher
for seeds that underwent the thermal treatments with low water activity (e.g., hightemperature and
honey roasting) than those of seeds after open and vacuum boiling ( Sterbova et al., 2017 ). The
changes in the antioxidant capacities (DPPH or ORAC values) of sacha inchi seeds were strongly
connected with the changes in the content/composition of tocopherols and phenolics brought on by
thermal processing ( Sterbova et al., 2017 ). DPPH based radical scavenging capacity of sacha inchi
oil was positively correlated with the intensity of seed roasting ( Cisneros et al., 2014 ). Oil extracted
from highly roasted seeds had the highest DPPH value (95.0 μ g TE/g oil), followed by the oil
extracted from medium roasted seeds (47.6 μ g TE/g oil), oil extracted from slight roasted seeds (23.8 μ
fl axseed oil had a DPPH value of 17.5 μ g TE/g oil ( Cisneros et al., 2014 ). The varying degrees of
roasting of sacha inchi seeds changed the seed and oil color ( Fig. 1 B). Maillard reaction products
formed during seed roasting possibly possess a degree of antioxidant capacity. Sacha inchi oil from
roasted seeds exhibited an increased resistance to oxidation, due to the formation of phenolic
compounds induced by the roasting process and a slight increase in the tocopherol content ( Cisneros
et al., 2014 ). Therefore, suitable sample conditions and processing methods should be selected to
maximise the antioxidant activity of the seed products.
4.1.2. Seed shell
ABTS (2, 2 ′- azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)) radical scavenging, FRAP
(Ferric ion reducing antioxidant power), and ORAC antioxidant assays were used for estimating
antioxidative potential of seed shell extracts. The antioxidant capacities of the extracts from seed
shells measured by ABTS (34.1 – 93.9 µmol/TE g), FRAP (45.0 – 114.0 µmol/TE g), and ORAC (92.5 – 192.6
µmol/TE g) assays varied when six di ff erent extraction solvents were used ( Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al.,
2016; Chirinos, Necochea, et al., 2016 ). The highest ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC values were obtained
with acetone/water/ acetic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v), acetone/water/acetic acid (80/19/1, v/ v/v), and
ethanol/acetone/water/acetic acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v), respectively. This re fl ects that di ff erent assays
probe di ff erent aspects of the antioxidant activity of the samples.
4.1.3. Leaf
The leaf of sacha inchi contains terpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds ( fl avonoids) and
other components responsible for its antioxidant activity. The total antioxidant capacities and DPPH
values for leaf extracts were 59.31 – 97.76 ascorbic acid equivalent/g and
62.8 – 88.3%, respectively ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ).
 Table 2
Biological activity of seed, seed shell, seed oil and leaf of sacha inchi.
S. Wang et al.

Bioactivity Plant part Co. Sample type Evaluation assay Major fi ndings References
(No.)

Antioxidative Seed Peru Methanol (hydrophilic) and dichloromethane (lipophilic) extracts ORAC assay Seeds of 16 cultivars varied in hydrophilic, lipophilic and total antioxidant capacity, Chirinos et al., 2013
(16) which ranged from 4.3 – 7.3, 1.0 – 2.8 and
6.5 – 9.8 µmol trolox equivalents/g seed, respectively. Hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant
capacities were correlated with total phenolic and total carotenoid contents, respectively.
The α-, β-, γ-, δ-, and total tocopherol contents minimally in fl uenced the lipophilic
antioxidant capacity

Seed Peru Raw or thermal-treated seeds DPPH assay Raw and processed seeds varied in DPPH values. Speci fi cally, DPPH value of raw, open Sterbova et al., 2017
(1) boiled, pressure boiled, vacuum boiled, low temperature roasted, high temperature
roasted, and honey roasted seeds were 2.4, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 1.9, 2.2, and 2.1mmol TE/100 g,
respectively. Process temperature and water activity of seeds in fl uenced the DPPH values

Seedshell Peru Methanol/water/acetic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v) , acetone/ water/acetic acid
(1) (80/19/1, v/v/v), ethanol/water/acetic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v),
methanol/acetone/water/acetic acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v),
ethanol/acetone/water/acetic acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v),
ethanol/methanol/water/ acetic acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v) extracts
ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC assays
Antioxidant capacity by ABTS, FRAP and ORAC assays (34.1 – 93.9, Chirinos et al., 2016
45.0 – 114.0, and 92.5 – 192.6 µmol TE/g, respectively) varied in the shell extracts using di ff erent
the extraction solvents. Acetone/ water/acetic acid, acetone/water/acetic acid, and
ethanol/acetone/ water/acid acetic yielded the highest ABTS, FRAP and ORAC values,
respectively. Condensed tannins, free and bound phenolic acids, hydrolyzable tannins, fl avonoids
and fl avonoids were the antioxidative bioactives in seed shells

Seed Ecuador Gold nanoparticles made from seed oil based system DPPH assay Antioxidant activity (DPPH) varied (21 – 16%) among the gold nanoparticles made at the di ff Kumar, Smita,
(1) erent sunlight exposure time (30, 45, 60 and 75min) Sánchez, Stael, &
Cumbal, 2016

321
Leaf Ecuador Leave extract and silver nanoparticles made from the extract based DPPH assay Antioxidant activity DPPH varied (11 – 22.5%) among the silver nanoparticles. DPPH Kumar et al., 2014b
(1) system values of leaf extracts ranged from 6 to 19%
Leaf Brazil Aqueous, methanol, ethanol, chloroform, hexane extracts TAC* and DPPH assays TAC) and DPPH of leaf extracts ranged from 59.31 to 97.76 ascorbic acid equivalents/g Nascimento et al., 2013
(1) and 62.8 – 88.3%, respectively. Terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds ( fl avonoids)
represent antioxidative bioactives in the leaves

Antibacterial Seed Peru Commercially available extra virgin oil Antibacterial activity was tested on human Gonzalez-Aspajo et al., 2015
Oil was non-toxic to keratinocytes nor human explants, and was not bactericide for Staphylococcus
(1) keratinocyte cells and human skin explant discs aureus. Oil impaired adherence of S. aureus to keratinocytes (preventive e ff ect) and
removed S. aureus
from keratinocytes and human skin explants (curative e ff ect)
Anticancer Seed Peru Seed oil Anticancer activity was tested on Walker 256 Sacha inchi oil diet (1 g/kg body weight, daily, for 4 weeks) reduced tumor mass and
(1) tumor-bearing rats proliferation of Walker 256 tumor Cells ex vivo, and COX-2 expression in Walker 256 tumor
tissue. The oil diet increased lipoperoxidation in the tumor tissue. Oil diet reduced
hypertriacylglycerolemia, hypoglycemia, body weight loss, plasma levels of in fl ammatory
cytokines [tumor necrosis factor- α ( TNF- α)]

and interleukin IL-6 of Walker 256 tumor-bearing rats

Leaf Brazil Aqueous, methanol, ethanol, chloroform, hexane extracts Anticancer activity was tested on 2 normal cells Leaf extracts inhibited cancer cells HeLa (cervical cancer cells) and A549 (tumor cells Nascimento et al., 2013
(1) (3T3, CHO) and 2 tumor cells (HeLa, A549) by from lung tissue). Terpenoids, saponins, and
MTT assay fl avonoids represent leaf bioactives with anti-proliferative activity against certain cancer
cells. Methanol extract has the highest antipoliferative e ff ect. Leaf extract induced
apoptosis (early and late stages) of cancer cells

Antidyslipidemic Seed Peru Seed oil Antidyslipidemic activity were tested on humans 24 patients with dyslipidemia orally received 5 or 10mL oil for 4months. The oil intake Garmendia et al., 2011
(1) decreased total cholesterol and nonesteri fi ed fatty acids, while increasing and HDL.
The oil (10mL) intake increased the insulin levels
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

( continued on next page)

S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

4.2. Antibacterial properties

4.2.1. Seed In vitro studies have shown that commercially available virgin sacha inchi oils were not
bactericide for Staphylococcus aureus. However, these oils were capable of preventing the
attachment of S. aureus to keratinocytes and e ffi ciently detaching S. aureus from human skin
References

explants ( Gonzalez-Aspajo et al., 2015 ). S. aureus is one of the most important pathogens that can
cause various super fi cial and systemic infections. The molecular mechanisms behind these functions
remain unclear.
improved liver function by reducing the levels of cholesterol, triglycerides and increasing
Male Holtzman rats received the oil at 0.5mL/kg of rat body weight for 60 days. Oil diet

4.3. Antidyslipidemic properties

4.3.1. Seed
The consumption of sacha inchi seed oil at 0.5mL/kg body weight by male Holtzman rats for 60
Co., country origin; No., number of cultivars analysed in the study; HDL, High-density lipoproteins; MTT, (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide); ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity;

days improved their liver function by reducing the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides along with an
increase in the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels ( Gorriti et al., 2010 ). In 24 human subjects with
TAC, total antioxidant capacity is determined from the reduction of Mo+ 6 to Mo+ 5 by the plant extracts and subsequent formation of green phosphate/Mo+ 5 complexes at acidic pH. TE, trolox equivalent.

dyslipidemia, the consumption of sacha inchi oil appeared to have a bene fi cial e ff ects on their lipid pro fi
les, but the e ffi cacy and safety have to be evaluated in randomized clinical trials ( Gonzales &
Gonzales, 2014 ).
the HDL of rats
Major fi ndings

4.4. Anticancer properties

4.4.1. Seed
In animal trials, the seed oil was shown to have potential anticancer activity. Speci fi cally, a sacha
Antidyslipidemic activity was tested on rats

inchi oil based diet (1 g/kg body weight, daily, for 4weeks) reduced tumor mass and proliferation of
Walker 256 tumor cells ex vivo, and lowered the expression of COX-2 in the tissue. The diet increased
lipoperoxidation in Walker 256 tumor tissues and reduced hypertriacylglycerolemia, hypoglycemia,
plasma levels of in-

fl ammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor- α ( TNF- α)] and interleukin IL-6 in Walker 256
Evaluation assay

tumor-bearing rats.

4.4.2. Leaf
It was shown in cell culture test that the extracts from sacha inchi leaves were able to induce the
apoptosis (early and late stages) of cancer cells ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ). The leaf extracts inhibited
the HeLa (cervical cancer cells) and A549 (tumor cells from lung tissue) cancer cells. Methanol
extract produced the highest antiproliferative e ff ect. Terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds ( fl
avonoids) are the main bioactive compounds found in the leaf with antiproliferative activity against
certain cancer cells ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ).

4.5. Toxicity and side e ff ects

4.5.1. Seed In vitro studies showed that the commercially available sacha inchi oil was non-toxic to
keratinocyte cell lines and human skin explants ( Gonzalez-Aspajo et al., 2015 ). Additional in vivo studies
indicated that the oil was in general safe for rodents ( Gorriti et al., 2010 ) and humans ( Gonzales &
Sample type

Gonzales, 2014 ). The lethal dose (LD 50) of raw sacha inchi oil in male mice of the Balb C57 strain was
Seed oil

approximately 37 g/kg mice body weight, which is similar to that of fl axseed oil ( Gorriti et al., 2010 ). In
a human study, 13 men and 17 women were given a daily dose of sacha inchi oil in 10 or 15mL
aliquots for 4months. Self-reported side-e ff ects occurred within the fi rst four-weeks of the oil
consumption but after that the side-e ff ects subsided. During the 1st week, nausea was the most
(No.)

Peru
(1)

reported adverse e ff ect followed by eructation, hot

Plant part Co.
Table 2 ( continued)

fl ash, headache, cramping, and constipation. At the 17th week, one reported nausea, a second
person reported headache and nausea ( Gonzales & Gonzales, 2014 ). According to evidence-based
Bioactivity

evaluation of 372 di ff erent causes of allergic work-related asthma ( Baur & Bakehe, 2014 ), the level
required
*

322
S. Wang et al.
to cause an allergic occupational asthma attack by sacha inchi seed was very low. However, there
have been cases of allergic reactions including anaphylaxis reported for sacha inchi seeds ( Bueso et
al., 2010 ). Also, in vivo allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and bronchial asthma have been linked to sacha
inchi seed protein (10 kDa). The molecular weight of this protein was similar to that of the 2S albumin
storage protein Ric c1, a major allergen from Ricinus communis ( castor-oil-plant). The reduced level
of Ric c1 gave a reduced allergenic potential. However, both native and reduced content of the sacha
inchi seed protein (10 kDa) gave the same allergenicity ( Bueso et al., 2010 ). The allergenic agents in
sacha inchi seeds have not been conclusively identi fi ed.
Sacha inchi seeds are susceptible to damage by pest infestation and mold contamination during
postharvest storage. In the production regions, the climatic conditions and the agricultural practices
are very favourable for fungal proliferation with the resulting loss in quality and possible production of
a fl atoxins, a carcinogenic contaminant in seed related products, such as crude or lightly processed
oils ( Stefano, Pitonzo, Cicero, & D ’ Oca, 2014 ). Therefore, correct postharvest practice should be
enforced to ensure the food safety.
4.5.2. Leaf
Leaf extracts were found to be non-cytotoxic to normal cells, 3T3 ( fi broblast cells from the Swiss
mouse) and CHO (ovary cells from the Chinese hamster) ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ).
5. Food uses of sacha inchi
5.1. Edible oil
Sacha inchi oil is a vegetable oil like olive, avocado, wheat germ, rice bran, and argan oils, and
is valued for its useful physicochemical properties and good sensory attributes (taste and fl avor). The
oil can be used as a functional food ingredient due to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids and a
favourable ω- 6/ ω- 3 ratio as described in the
Section 2.1 . The ALA in the oil can be converted into eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
(DHA) acids and could serve as an alternative to fi sh oil ( Rodrigo et al., 2014; Calder & Yaqoob, 2009 ).
One advantage sacha inchi seed oil has over fi sh oil is the absence of a fi shy taste.
5.1.1. Extraction of sacha inchi seed oil
E ffi cient extraction technology is essential for improving the yield and quality of sacha inchi oil.
Sacha inchi oil is extracted from seeds using cold pressing (commercial oil press), Soxhlet extraction,
and supercritical CO 2 methods (laboratory and pilot scales) ( FollegattiRomero et al., 2009; Prado et
al., 2011; Triana-Maldonado, TorijanoGutiérrez, & Giraldo-Estrada, 2017 ). Industrial production of
sacha inchi oil based on pressing and extraction still faces challenges in securing su ffi cient supplies
and industrial engineering or technological processes ( CBI, 2016 ). Cold pressing is mostly used for
the production of commercially-available sacha inchi oils (typically virgin sacha inchi oil). Virgin sacha
inchi oil is derived from the seeds by a mechanical pressing process (without any chemical re fi nement).
Extracting oil through cold-pressing involves crushing the dried seeds, followed by processes
consisted of letting impurities settle out for several days and possibly a fi ltering, in order to remove
press cake particles ( Nusselder & Cloesen, 2014 ). Drying seeds prior to pressing minimizes the
moisture content and reduces the risk of microbial contamination. Maintaining appropriate time in
pressing is critical, as the highly unsaturated sacha inchi oil oxidizes easily. Any additional re fi ning
treatment, which may cause deterioration in the quality of the oil, would be avoided for high quality
products ( Nusselder & Cloesen, 2014 ). A patented method for preparation of cold pressing vegetable
oil aims at protecting major bioactive substances from being damaged and at preventing the
generation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ( Shin, 2011 ). Suitable temperatures of 20 – 40 °C and
20 – 25 °C are the appropriate for oil seed
323
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
drying and cold pressing, respectively.
The cold-pressed oil from sacha inchi seeds has a unique refreshing
fl avor, a light texture, and a substantial amount of ω- 3 fatty acids. The yield (35.4%) of cold-pressed
oil from the seeds was similar to that of sa ffl ower (35.8%) and was higher than that of soybeans
(19%) and cottonseeds (16%), while being lower than that of peanuts (45%) and canola (48%) ( Bodwell
& Hopkins, 1985; Carvalho, Miranda, & Pereira, 2006 ). Compared to cold pressing, Soxhlet extraction
gives higher oil yields, a greater risk for thermal degradation and the possibility of contaminating the
oil with toxic residues from hexane or petroleum ether used as the extraction solvents. Supercritical fl uid
(CO 2) extraction minimizes the thermal degradation of most of the labile compounds, and nulli fi es any
chance of toxic solvent residues remaining in the oil. Supercritical extractions were performed on
sacha inchi ground seeds using optimal conditions (60 °C, 450 bars pressure, CO 2 fl ow at 1270
g/min). The results showed that the total yield reached 60%, which was higher than Soxhlet (54.3%)
and cold pressing extraction (38.4%) ( Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Triana-Maldonado et al., 2017 ).
The composition of the oils may vary with the extraction conditions implemented ( Follegatti-Romero et
al., 2009; Triana-Maldonado et al., 2017; Zanqui et al., 2016 ). Zanqui et al. (2016) reported di ff erent
fatty acid pro fi les of the oils from lipid subcritical extraction with pressurized n- propane and Soxhlet
method. Another study showed that no signi fi cant di ff erence was observed in the fatty acid pro fi les of
seed oils obtained by supercritical CO 2 extraction and by Soxhlet method using hexane ( Follegatti-Romero
et al., 2009 ). At the present time, supercritical CO 2 extraction is only a technique in the laboratory and
pilot plant settings, while the industrial scale supercritical extraction process is in the developmental
stage.
5.1.2. Physicochemical properties of sacha inchi oil
Physicochemical properties of sacha inchi oils that were extracted in research laboratories or in
commercial facilities are summarised ( Table 3 ). The physicochemical properties listed can be used to
characterize the quality and to expose possible adulterations of sacha inchi oil ( Vicente, de Carvalho,
& Garcia-Rojas, 2015 ). Solid fat content determines sensory and physical properties of the oil, such
as spreadability, fi rmness, mouthfeel, processing applications and stability. The e ff ect of heating on
the physicochemical properties of oil can be re-
fl ected by smoke, fl ash and fi re points, which determine the feasibility of the oil to withstand thermal
processes, such as baking or frying. However, there is very little information on the solid fat content,
melting, smoking, fl ash, and fi re points and rheology of sacha inchi oil and oil blends ( Gutiérrez et al.,
2011 ). Some of the thermal properties of the oil such as speci fi c heat capacity have been studied. For
hexane extracted sacha inchi oil, the speci fi c heat capacity of the crude oil (1.1 – 3.3 J/g °C) varied in
the temperature range of − 50 to 40 °C. Salmon, soybean, linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, sa ffl ower
and peanut oils had similar speci fi c heat capacities. Sacha inchi oil has a lowtemperature
endothermic transition at about − 45 °C, followed by another endothermic transition at − 18.5 °C and a
melting enthalpy change of 23.2 J/g ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Sathivel, 2005; Tochitani & Fujimoto, 2001 ).
Sacha inchi oil had slightly higher densities (0.920 – 0.930 g/cm 3 at 25 °C) than corn oil,
cottonseed oil and soybean oil ( O ’ Brien et al., 2007 ). This is because the density increases as the
unsaturation degree increases. Sacha inchi oil had higher refractive indexes (approximate
1.480 at 25 °C) than corn oil, soybean oil and sun fl ower oil. The refractive index increases as the
number of double bonds increases. The refractive index of sacha inchi oil (1.475) appeared to be
rather similar to that of olive oil (1.467), soybean oil (1.473), sun fl ower oil (1.473), corn oil (1.473) and
cottonseed oil (1.468) ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011 ). The color of sacha inchi oil ranges from clear pale to
dark pale yellow ( Paucar-Menacho, Salvador-Reyes, Guillén-Sánchez, Capa-Robles, & Moreno-Rojo,
2015 ). According to CIELAB, sacha inchi oil ( L*= 78) was darker than olive oil ( L*= 84.47) and lighter
than fi sh oil
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

Table 3
Physicochemical properties of sacha inchi seed oil.

Property Type No. Country of origin Value References

Yield (%, w/w) R 1 Peru 35.4 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, & Campos, 2015

R 1 Colombia 18.8 (Soxhlet extraction), 30.0 (subcritical extraction with n- propane) Zanqui et al., 2016
Color (CIELAB) R 1 Peru L* ( 77.73), a* ( − 0.43), b* ( 42.1), C ( 4.47), H ° (96.34) Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
Density R 14 Peru 0.920 – 0.930 g/cm 3, 25 °C Chasquibol et al., 2014
R 1 Peru 0.928 (relative density) Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 0.9207 g/cm 3, 20 °C Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 0.9187 g/cm 3, 25 °C Gutiérrez et al., 2011
Viscosity R 14 Peru 38.9 – 44.0mm 2/ s, 20 °C Chasquibol et al., 2014
R 1 Colombia 34.5mPa·s, 20 °C Gutiérrez et al., 2011
Refractive index R 14 Peru 1.480 – 1.481, 1.481 – 1.482 Chasquibol et al., 2014
R 1 Peru 1.475, 20 °C Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 1.475, 20 °C Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 1.479, 25 °C Gutiérrez et al., 2011
Average molecular weight C 1 Peru 863.5 g/mol Vicente et al., 2015
Oxidative stability index R 1 Peru 20.512, 4.645, 1.590, 0.493 h at 80, 90, 100, 110 °C, respectively (air Rodríguez et al., 2011b
fl ow, 15 L/h)
R 14 Peru 2.0 – 3.4 h Chasquibol et al., 2014
Shelf life R 1 Peru 3.29, 1.79, and 0.79 years at 20, 25 and 30 °C, respectively Rodríguez et al., 2011b
Activation energy R 1 Peru 137.9 kJ/mol Rodríguez et al., 2011b
Acid value R 1 Peru 0.37mg/g Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
C 14 Peru 0.5 – 4.7; 0.5 – 4.7 Chasquibol et al., 2014
C 1 Peru 2.4mg KOH/g Vicente et al., 2015
Acid (%) R 1 Peru 1.08% (oleic acid) Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 1.19% (linolenic acid) Vicente et al., 2015
Peroxide value R 1 Peru 2.90meq O 2/ kg Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 3.4meq O 2/ kg Maurer et al., 2012
R 1 Peru 4.3meq O 2/ kg Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
R 14 Peru 1.5 – 19.1, 2.1 – 5.6meq O 2/ kg Chasquibol et al., 2014
C 1 Peru 7.36 (meq/kg) Vicente et al., 2015
p- Anisidine value R 1 Peru 1.41 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
R Peru 0.29 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
K 270 R 14 Peru 0.10 – 0.28, 0.14 – 0.23 Chasquibol et al., 2014
Free fatty acids R 1 Peru 0.19% oleic acid Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 0.36% oleic acid Maurer et al., 2012
Conjugated dienes R 1 Peru 10.3 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
R 1 Peru 1.22 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
Conjugated trienes R 1 Peru 0.28 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
Iodine value C 1 Peru 192.5 g I 2/ 100 g Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 193.1 g I 2/ 100 g Gutierrez et al., 2011
R 1 Peru 198 g I 2/ 100 g Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009
Saponi fi cation value C 1 Peru 190.5mg KOH/g Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 185.2mg KOH/g Gutiérrez et al., 2011
R 1 Peru 193mg KOH/g Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009

Type, sample type, C, commercially available oil, R, oil produced in a research laboratory scale; No., number of cultivars analysed in the study.

( L*= 65.32). Sacha inchi oil ( a*= − 0.43) was less green than olive oil ( a*= − 1.75) and fi sh oil ( a*= − 2.66).5.1.3. Shelf life of sacha inchi oil
The oil ( b*= 42.1) was also less yellow than olive oil ( b*= 63.2) and fi sh oil ( b*= 77.01) ( PaucarMenacho Lipids can be readily and rapidly degraded by a combination of oxidative, enzymatic and
et al., 2015 ). The microencapsulation of sacha inchi oil was made using a spray drying process with hydrolytic processes. Microbial lipase possibly involves the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol (TAG)
modi fi ed starch (Hi-Cap 100) and maltodextrin in a mass ratio of 75:25 ( Sanchez-Reinoso & molecules into free fatty acids; microbes thus degrade fats and plant oils during storage ( Dudd,
Gutiérrez, 2017 ). The color of encapsulated sacha inchi oil depends primarily on the color of the wall Regert, & Evershed, 1998 ). The moisture content (3.9 – 7.5%) for sacha inchi seed was in a range (0 – 13%)
materials ( Sanchez-Reinoso & Gutiérrez, 2017 ). that lessened the likelihood of microbial degradation of TAG during storage. Sacha inchi oil contains
high levels of PUFA, speci fi cally linolenic ( ω- 3) and linoleic ( ω- 6) fatty acids. These PUFA are
susceptible to peroxidation even under mild environmental conditions ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer
et al., 2012 ). Various approaches to improve the oxidative stability of sacha inchi oil have included
Chemical attributes of the sacha inchi oil include fatty acid pro fi le and oxidative stability ( Tables 1 roasting seeds before oil extraction, adding antioxidants, such as plant extracts, butylated
and 3 ). Oxidative indicators are acid value, free fatty acids, iodine value, peroxide value (measures hydroxytoluene (BHT), encapsulating the oil, and oil blending ( Zuleta, Rios, & Benjumea, 2012 ; SanchezReinoso
primary oxidation products), p- anisidine value (measures secondary oxidation products) and saponi fi cation & Gutiérrez, 2017 ). Roasting modi fi ed the levels of phenolic compounds and developed Maillard
number. The saponi fi cation number (185 – 193mg KOH/g) and iodine value (193 – 198 g I 2/ 100 g) have reaction products, which may contribute to a more stable oil ( Cisneros et al., 2014 ). Sacha inchi oil,
been reported for sacha inchi oil ( Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., 2011 ). The iodine when microencapsulated by spray drying with Hi-Cap 100 (modi fi ed starch) and maltodextrins in a
value measures the degree of unsaturation of sacha inchi oil. The iodine value of sacha inchi oil was mass ratio of 75:25, exhibited less oxidation. The water activity of the microencapsulated oil ranged
higher than that of soybean (131.5 g I 2/ 100 g), corn (115.5 g I 2/ 100 g), sun fl ower (126.5 g I 2/ 100 g), from
cottonseed (109 g I 2/ 100 g) and fl axseed (177 g I 2/

100 g), and similar to that of canola oil (191.5 g I 2/ 100 g) ( Knothe, 2002; Vicente et al., 2015 ). This is
in accordance with the chemical composition of the sacha inchi oil as described in the Section 2.1 . 0.206 to 0.352, a range of water activity being associated with minimum lipid oxidation rates ( Sanchez-Reinoso
& Gutiérrez, 2017 ).

324
S. Wang et al.
The spray-drying microencapsulation procedure using a mixture of the two biopolymers (ovalbumin
and xanthan gum, or ovalbumin and pectin) increased the thermal resistance of encapsulated sacha
inchi oil and the stability of ω- 3 fatty acids of the oil to simulated human gastric conditions ( Vicente et
al., 2017 ). The biopolymers increased the crystallinity of the oil and decreased the surface area of the
oil droplets exposed to gastric conditions, thus reducing hydrolysis and the release of fatty acids ( Vicente
et al., 2017 ). Lipophilic antioxidants or antioxidant rich plant material are e ff ective in slowing down
lipid oxidation. The desired functional and nutritional properties of vegetable oils and their oxidative
stability can be achieved by blending di ff erent type of oils, or by physical, chemical and enzymatic
modi fi cations ( Hashempour-Baltork, Torbati, Azadmard-Damirchi, & Savage, 2016 ). Further studies
on oil blends using sacha inchi oil are required to better understand the role blending has on oxidative
stability. Improving the oxidative stability and the shelf life of sacha inchi oil remains an ongoing
challenge for all parties involved in expanding and promoting the use of this new oil.
5.2. Sacha inchi in food formulations
The quality of food products incorporating sacha inchi derived ingredients must meet the
consumer ’ s expectations in terms of sensory attributes, physicochemical properties, level of
microbiological and toxicological contamination, and shelf life. Lard was blended with 10% sacha inchi
oil to form a paste. The paste was mixed with lean beef to form ground hamburger meat with a new
fat phase. The resulting hamburger patties had improved nutritional quality, compared to the
traditional hamburger ( Clavijo, Rodríguez, & Estupiñán, 2015 ). Apart from the attractive nutritional
value, sacha inchi oil can also deliver other functional bene fi ts. For example, highly unsaturated
sacha inchi oil from fractionation process completely melts at − 5°C ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011 ). This
temperature in fl uences the melting properties, stability and mouth feel of food products containing the
sacha inchi oil. Sensory attributes are important in determining the acceptance or rejection of a
product by consumers. In depth rheology and sensory evaluation of sacha inchi oil and food products
remain to be carried out to support the product development. Optimized roasted seeds from other Plukenetia
species, such as P. huayllabambana, were processed into snacks. The snacks contained high levels
of bioactives and were less susceptible to oxidative degradation ( Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al., 2016 ).
Sacha inchi seeds may be roasted at optimized conditions, which may be considered as alternative
choices for a healthy snack.
6. Non-food uses of sacha inchi
6.1. Nanoparticle
Nanoparticle production using sacha inchi oil, shell biomass, and leaves have been achieved on
a laboratory scale ( Fig. 2 ) ( Kumar et al., 2014a, 2014b, 2017, Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, 2016; Kumar,
Smita, Sánchez, et al., 2016b ). The oil was used for photosynthesis of distorted cube/square silver
nanoparticles with an average size of 60 nm ( Kumar et al., 2014a ), and synthesis of gold nanocatalyst
(5 – 15 nm) ( Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, et al., 2016 ). The former nanoparticles photo-catalytically
decomposed methylene blue (acute toxic to human). Methylene blue is a thiazine dye used in the
textile industry and as an anti-malarial or chemotherapeutic agent in the microbiological and medical fi elds
( Kumar et al., 2014b ). The latter nanoparticle (gold nanocatalyst) has radical scavenging activity
against DPPH and could be an e ff ective biosorbent for removing Pb 2+ and Cu 2+ from aqueous
solutions ( Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, et al., 2016 ).
Sacha inchi shell biomass was used to synthesize silver nanostructured particles with an
average particle size of 7.2 nm, which was used as a photocatalyst for the remediation of methyl
orange ( Kumar et al., 2017 ) ( Fig. 2 ). Methyl orange is an acidic/anionic dye used in the
325
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
textile industry and is known to be a human carcinogen ( Mittal, Malviya, Kaur, Mittal, & Kurup, 2007 ).
Sacha inchi shell biomass can also be used as a biosorbent for selective removal of Pb 2+ and Cu 2+
from aqueous solutions. This could be due to the electrostatic attraction between the negatively
charged surface of sacha inchi shell biomass and the positively charged Pb 2+ and Cu 2+ ( Kumar,
Smita, Sánchez, et al., 2016 ).
Sacha inchi leaf extracts were also used to construct silver nanoparticles (4 – 25 nm), to use as
non-toxic reducing agents with DPPH radical scavenging activity ( Kumar et al., 2014b ). The leaf
phytochemicals might get adsorbed onto the active surface of the nanoparticles, possibly contributing
to the DPPH radical scavenging activity ( Kumar et al., 2014b ). Terpenoids, saponins, and fl avonoids
represent the antioxidants in the leaves ( Nascimento et al., 2013 ). Industrial application of sacha inchi
related nanoparticles requires more research. Furthermore, comparative studies are needed to reveal
if sacha inchi based products are more suitable for such applications than the other plant based
systems.
6.2. Cosmetic and pharmaceutic products
Cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations containing sacha inchi proteins and oils have been
patented [Patent number, US2007264221 (A1)]. Those products are applied on the skin for anti-in fl ammatory,
skin tightening and anti-aging e ff ects. Hanssen and Schmitz-Huebsch (2011) proposed the use of
sacha inchi oil for medical treatments of coronary heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, attention de fi cit
hyperactivity disorder, and in fl ammatory skin diseases. Clinical studies de-
fi nitely are required to assess the e ff ectiveness of these health claims.
6.3. Biodiesel
Zuleta et al. (2012) studied the blends of biodiesel from palm and sacha inchi oils and
determined their induction time (oxidative stability indicator) and cold- fi lter plugging point (CFPP) (cold
fl ow property indicator). An induction time greater than 6 h and a CFPP below 0 °C were set as quality
criteria. Oxidative stability depended mainly on polyunsaturated methyl esters content ( Zuleta et al.,
2012 ). Sacha inchi based biodiesel contained a signi fi cant amount of methyl esters of linoleic and
linolenic acids and is more prone to oxidation, because of the presence of double-allylic moieties in
their chains ( Zuleta et al., 2012 ). Binary blends of biodiesel from palm and sacha inchi were made at
25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 ratios, namely P25/S75, P50/S50 and P75/S25. Decreasing palm oil dose
decreased the induction time of the resulting blends. Induction time decrease indicated a loss of
stability (consumption of antioxidant). Oxidation stability varies in the order of P25/ S75 (1.68 h
induction time) < P50/S50 (2.52 h induction time) < P75/S25 (4.54 h induction time). None of the palm
and sacha inchi oil blends satis fi ed the quality standard of oxidative stability. As for the cold fl ow
properties, only P25/S75 had a CFPP lower than 0 °C, which satis fi ed the quality criteria for CFPP ( Zuleta
et al., 2012 ). CFPP was uncorrelated with the structural indices (allylic position equivalent, bisallylic
position equivalent, saturated methyl esters content, monounsaturated methyl ester content and
polyunsaturated methyl ester content) ( Zuleta et al., 2012 ). Blends of biodiesel containing sacha inchi
and other oils or the use of additives to achieve the desired physicochemical properties required by
the oil related biodiesel remain to be determined.
7. Conclusions
There are many valuable chemical compounds distributed throughout the various parts of the
sacha inchi plant. Sacha inchi seeds are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, and
tocopherols. The major compounds found in these three chemical categories are α-
linolenic acid, β- sitosterol, and γ and δ- tocopherols, respectively.
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

Visual appearance TEM micrograph

(A) AgNPs from sacha inchi shell biomass

a) 1 mM AgNO 3 solution
b) AgNPs

(B) AgNPs synthesized by sacha inchi leaf

a) 1 mM AgNO 3 solution,
b) leaf extract of sacha inchi
c) AgNPs after 2 h storage
d) AgNPs after 22 h storage
e) AgNPs after 96 h storage
f) AgNPs after 168 h storage

(C) AgNPs synthesized by sacha inchi oil

U.V.-vis graph of AgNps synthesized

(D) Emulsion-induced reduction/stabilization of AgNPs synthesized by sacha inchi oil

Fig. 2. ( A) Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized from sacha inchi shell biomass ( Kumar et al., 2017 ); (B) AgNPs synthesized from sacha inchi leaves ( Kumar et al., 2014b ); (C) AgNPs synthesized from
sacha inchi oil ( Kumar et al., 2014a ); (D) emulsion-induced reduction/stabilization of AgNPs based on sacha inchi oil ( Kumar et al., 2014a ). Figures are reprinted with permissions from the publishers.

Condensed and hydrolysable tannins, lignans, fl avonoids, and phenolic acids are the bioactives in
sacha inchi seed and the shell. Terpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds ( fl avonoids) are the
bioactive components in the leaves. The factors in fl uencing the concentrations of these constituents
in the sacha inchi plant and its products are the cultivar, agricultural practice, postharvest processing,
extraction methods, and the quanti fi cation assays. Because of these diverse nutrients present in
sacha inchi, di ff erent parts of the sacha inchi plant showed a range of bioactivities. Varying levels of
antioxidant activity were measured using in vitro antioxidant assays on the seed oil, leaf, and seed
shell biomass. The oil and leaf showed antibacterial, antihyperlipidemic, and antiproliferative
capacities.
The unique fatty acid pro fi le of sacha inchi seed oil is particularly attractive to the food,
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Sacha inchi oil plays an important role in the structure,
aroma and stability, as well as the nutritional quality of related food products. Each product
formulation requires the right sacha inchi ingredient with the right physicochemical properties in order
to ensure that the end product acquires the optimal structure, stability and/or sensory attributes.
Sacha inchi shell biomass, oil and leaf were used to produce functional nanoparticles in research
laboratories. Biodiesel based on sacha inchi oil appeared to have potential for further development.
The following are suggestions for future studies to better develop sacha inchi as a sustainable
crop. (1) To develop technology to create high-quality oils with desired functional (e.g., shelf life)
and/or nutritional properties by oil modi fi cation or blending of sacha inchi oil with other oils; (2) to
investigate health e ff ects of protein and oil of sacha inchi seeds and leaves; (3) to investigate the
molecular mechanisms responsible for the health bene fi ts of the bioactive compounds found in the
sacha inchi plant; (4) to develop innovative products for food, medicine and cosmetic uses from all
parts of the sacha inchi plant with a particular focus on the underutilized parts such as leaf, stem, and
seed

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shell. Consumer acceptance of the new products should be studied for commercial applications.
Declaration
The authors declare no con fl ict of interest.
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