Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
CONTENIDO
Volumen 4, Número 2
Morelia, Michoacán, México. Diciembre, 2008
Sotomayor Castellanos, J.R.; Cruz de León, J. 2003. Ancient Wood Structures Evaluation
Methodology. In: proceedings of the IAWPS2003 International Conference on Forest
Products. International Association of Wood Products Society. pp:458-469. South Korea.
Sotomayor Castellanos, J.R.; Cruz de León, J. 2003. Ancient Wood Structures Evaluation
Methodology. ISBN: 968-7469-50-1. UMSNH. 18 p. México.
Derechos reservados.
© Laboratorio de Mecánica de la Madera de la División de Estudios de Posgrado de la
Facultad de Ingeniería en Tecnología de la Madera.
2
CARACTERISTICAS MECÁNICAS DE LA MADERA
Y SU APLICACIÓN EN LA INDUSTRIA DE LA CONSTRUCCIÓN
RESUMEN
ABSTRACT
Wood mechanical characteristics find their technical application in the design of wood
structures. At the present time, engineers and architects can consider that wood works as an
elastic solid, a macroscopic homogeneous material and regarding to the strength of
materials laws, and within certain limits of quality and variability, wood can be a reliable
material for the edification. The principal wood mechanical characteristics for application
in construction are: Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rigidity, Modulus of Rupture and
Strength at the Elastic Limit. This assumption is incomplete without establishing wood
physical properties and variables when determining the mechanical data: Density, Moisture
Contain, Temperature and the real conditions in service. Indeed, the wood construction
industry requires reliable and standard information concerning the technological quality of
wood. This conclusion leads to proposal that research concerning the mechanical behavior
of wood should be oriented to the needs of the construction industry.
3
INTRODUCCIÓN
La ventaja para el constructor al utilizar la madera, radica en que puede escoger, - entre
muchos tipos -, la especie y calidad que más conviene a las necesidades del proyecto.
Lamentablemente, debido a su origen biológico, existe la incertidumbre de la eficiencia del
material una vez que la madera está en servicio.
Una posible solución a esta paradoja, es la adecuada caracterización técnica del material,
así como el desarrollo de productos compuestos de madera para la utilización en la
industria de la construcción. Por ejemplo, respecto a su caracterización, la práctica
intensiva de utilizar la densidad de la madera como un indicador de su resistencia
mecánica, demuestra que la relación de su fortaleza con respecto a su densidad es una
importante ventaja constructiva de la madera. Cuanto más densa o pesada sea una madera,
su resistencia mecánica será mayor (Kollmann y Côté, 1968).
4
columna cuasi redonda y fija en el suelo. Esta estructura natural está sometida
cotidianamente a esfuerzos internos de crecimiento y a fuerzas externas tales como vientos,
peso de nieve o agua de lluvia. Este modo de crecimiento ocasiona que el árbol se pueda
imaginar como una columna empotrada y sometida a cargas de flexión lateral a su eje
principal debido al efecto del viento.
Por otro lado, el árbol funciona mecánicamente como una columna requerida en
compresión debido a la carga ocasionada por su propio peso y los fluidos contenidos en su
tronco, en sus ramas y en sus hojas. La fisiología de crecimiento del árbol, determinará
varios fenómenos en el comportamiento mecánico de la madera, tales como la aparición de
deformaciones debidas a la liberación de esfuerzos de crecimiento y un ajuste natural al
cambio en el tipo de solicitaciones (Mattheck y Kubler, 1997).
Además, el crecimiento fisiológico del árbol en el sentido horizontal que se refleja como
anillos de crecimiento determinado por ciclos anuales, son característicos a la madera. Esta
propiedad resulta en una manifestación particular de anisotropía en sus direcciones. Es
decir, el comportamiento mecánico de la madera es diferente según el sentido de la fuerza
aplicada en el plano transversal al eje de crecimiento del árbol o siguiendo el hilo de la
madera.
En el mismo orden de ideas, se puede teorizar que las células de tejido parenquimatoso
almacenan materia orgánica y que ocasionan una importante variabilidad de la respuesta
mecánica del material. La presencia de poros y vasos en algunas especies son los
encargados de la conducción de agua y se pueden imaginar como válvulas que regulan la
presión osmótica del árbol, la cual es importante para su fisiología. Estos vasos en una
escala microscópica pueden ser la causa de una discontinuidad en la textura de la madera,
provocando una caracterización particular para cada especie (Brown y col. 1952).
Por otra parte, en una escala intermedia de observación, los tejidos o capas de crecimiento
vegetal están acomodados en anillos en el plano transversal respecto al eje de crecimiento
del árbol, estas peculiaridades implican una actuación diferente de la madera según la
cercanía al centro del árbol y haciendo de la madera un material compuesto de capas
múltiples.
5
molecular, las cuales son celulosas y hemicelulosas. Estas funcionan como componentes
elásticos en un modelo reológico aceptado comúnmente para el estudio de la madera. La
madera contiene además otro constituyente químico: la lignina, la cual asegura una limitada
rigidez estructural y funciona como pegamento y preservador natural.
Por otra parte, las condiciones reales de servicio de una estructura, pueden influir en la
respuesta mecánica de la madera: una edificación expuesta a un clima húmedo puede
afectar el contenido de humedad de ésta y disminuir su utilidad práctica. Esto debido a que
la madera puede almacenar humedad en su interior, ya que es un material higroscópico. El
incremento del nivel de humedad en la madera en el dominio higroscópico (entre 0 y 30 %
de contenido de humedad), trae como consecuencia la reducción en la resistencia mecánica.
Una madera húmeda puede ser susceptible del ataque de insectos y hongos, es decir, la
madera es un material biodegradable (Kollmann y Côté, 1968; Panshin y de Zeeuw, 1964).
Esta peculiaridad, sin una adecuada prevención, puede disminuir el atractivo de la madera
para su aprovechamiento en la edificación. En la actualidad existen técnicas para disminuir
el impacto de las condiciones climáticas en la vitalidad mecánica de la madera. Una buena
noticia para el usuario es que la aplicación de prácticas de preservación se hace cada vez
más extensiva.
La utilización de vigas compuestas de tablas que funcionan como láminas, además del uso
adecuado de pegamentos para madera, es una solución generalizada en la construcción de
estructuras que requieren de elementos muy largos y diseños que demandan grandes
resistencias. Estos productos se llaman comúnmente vigas laminadas. Es importante señalar
que esta tecnología va acompañada del desarrollo de adhesivos, uniones mecánicas y
recubrimientos para madera.
6
Una vía prometedora para la investigación en Ciencias de la Madera, es el desarrollo de
productos compuestos de madera, utilizando especies y procesos industriales regionales,
que sean útiles a la industria de la construcción.
Desde un punto de vista simplificado de la resistencia de materiales, se puede decir que las
estructuras de madera están compuestas de vigas y columnas unidas por dispositivos. Los
mecanismos pueden ser de dos tipos: uniones utilizando substancias adhesivas, es decir,
aplicando extensivamente pegamentos, o empleando conectores mecánicos conocidos como
pernos, placas y anillos conectores.
Las vigas y columnas están normalmente solicitadas por fuerzas que tienden a aumentar o a
disminuir su geometría y tratan de modificar su equilibrio estructural.
Cuando una fuerza aplicada induce el alargamiento en dimensiones, la madera tiene una
reacción interna que trata de impedir esta deformación. Esta resistencia es conocida como
esfuerzo a la tensión. Así mismo, cuando la fuerza aplicada trata de comprimir el material,
el caso se conoce como esfuerzo a la compresión. Existe un hecho interesante: cuando una
viga esta apoyada en sus extremidades y está solicitada en la dirección transversal a su eje
longitudinal, tienden a aparecer esfuerzos de compresión en la parte superior de la viga y en
la parte inferior se manifiestan esfuerzos de tensión. La combinación de estos dos esfuerzos
se llama esfuerzo a la flexión. Consideraciones más precisas sobre Resistencia de
Materiales se pueden consultar en Faherty y Williamson (1989).
Otro tipo de esfuerzo básico en estructuras de madera es el cortante, que aparece cuando la
línea de acción de las fuerzas en tensión o compresión no coinciden en el eje de aplicación.
Esta situación se presenta comúnmente en los nodos de estructuras y en los detalles de
conectores constitutivos.
La madera es un material que resiste muy bien cuando es solicitada en tensión pero es un
poco menos eficaz al esfuerzo de compresión, particularmente en el sentido longitudinal de
la fibra. Respecto a su resistencia a esfuerzos cortantes, la madera trabaja mejor en el
sentido transversal a la dirección de la fibra que a lo largo de su eje longitudinal.
Dicho para una referencia geométrica local, las células de la madera están colocadas como
pequeños tubos ordenados en la dirección longitudinal de la madera. Este ordenamiento
resulta en un caso de ortotropía material de tipo cilíndrico. Asimismo, en una escala
geométrica superior al volumen elemental de materia mecánicamente admisible, la madera
7
se puede considerar como un medio continuo y macroscópicamente homogéneo. Este
modelo de la madera ideal simplifica en gran medida el estudio de su caracterización
mecánica (Guitard, 1987).
La observación detallada de una estructura en madera a través del tiempo, revela un cambio
en su geometría aparente. Si las condiciones de humedad y temperatura de la estructura no
varían de manera manifiesta, la madera posee intrínsecamente un comportamiento temporal
respecto a su resistencia a cargas de larga duración. Amplios estudios y diferentes modelos
reológicos han sido desarrollados en ingeniería de la madera para solucionar prácticamente
este problema (Kollmann y col. 1975; Bodig y Jayne, 1982). El diseño experimentado con
madera considera este efecto mecánico diferido, ya que este tipo de solicitación hace
referencia a un comportamiento particular del flujo de deformaciones y relajamiento de
esfuerzos.
El Módulo de Ruptura, parámetro que expresa el esfuerzo máximo en el momento que falla
mecánicamente un elemento en un proceso de carga – deformación.
Esta definición es incompleta al no mencionar que para cada madera en particular, sus
características mecánicas son delimitadas por:
8
La tabla 1, adaptada de Sotomayor (1987), presenta un esquema general para identificar
una característica mecánica y su significado físico.
Del examen de los textos sobre construcciones con madera de Robles y Echenique-
Manrique (1983) y de Sotomayor (1987), amén de la recopilación de información
tecnológica presentada por Zizumbo (1998), notamos que las características mecánicas
propuestas para la industria de la construcción no prevén los casos de diseño para regiones
de riesgo a sismos. Igualmente, la inalterabilidad de estas características a través del tiempo
no está muy estudiada aun en publicaciones especializadas. Una propuesta interesante de
investigación básica en la filial experimental sobre estructuras de madera, es el estudio del
comportamiento dinámico y diferido de materiales compuestos de madera, relacionado con
condiciones de servicio excepcionales tales como vibraciones y temperaturas elevadas.
La madera proviene de árboles que han crecido en ecosistemas forestales y en climas que
van desde la tundra, en latitudes extremas, hasta regiones de selva cálida–húmeda cerca de
las costas y trópicos. Como consecuencia, existe una gran diversidad cualitativa de madera,
producto de esta pluralidad de ecosistemas y particularidades climáticas.
Para resolver esta paradoja, las características tecnológicas de la madera son obtenidas
aplicando ensayos normalizados y en otras ocasiones los investigadores utilizan
procedimientos o ensayos exploratorios destinados a dar respuesta a dificultades
particulares de diseño o análisis.
9
Los ensayos normalizados son los procedimientos aceptados por la comunidad científica e
industrial que garantizan la calidad de las conclusiones al utilizar rigurosos muestreos
estadísticos y controlando los factores o variables que pudieran distorsionar los resultados.
Estas prácticas establecen las reglas acerca de cómo la madera debe ser preparada y
sometida a experimentos para medir su comportamiento en condiciones de laboratorio o
campo. Las normas son prescritas por instituciones académicas, asociaciones acreditadas y
otras veces por las mismas industrias. Las normas utilizadas frecuentemente son las normas
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials, 2000), las normas DIN (Deutches
Institut Für Normung, 1988) y las normas ISO (International Organization for
Standardization, 1975).
10
¿DÓNDE Y CÓMO SE EMPLEAN LAS CARACTERÍSTICAS MECÁNICAS
DE LA MADERA?
De acuerdo con las proposiciones de Breyer (1980) y del American Institute of Timber
Construction (1974), la aplicación práctica se desarrolla de la manera siguiente:
Este procedimiento facilita proyectar las dimensiones correctas de la estructura, así como la
selección conveniente de la especie y la calidad de la madera a utilizar, optimizando así el
tiempo y costo del proceso constructivo.
La ecuación general que contiene los coeficientes usados para ajustar los datos provenientes
de pruebas mecánicas, y que sirve también para calcular un esfuerzo permisible, es
conforme a la relación sugerida por la American Society of Civil Engineering (1975),
Bodig y Jayne (1982) y la American Society for Testing and Materials (2000), y tiene la
forma:
F* = F x kT x ks x kp x kd x kg x kc x kf (1)
Donde:
11
kT = Factor de corrección para la duración de la carga, debido al comportamiento mecánico
diferido de la madera. Generalizando se puede afirmar que la rigidez de la madera es mayor
cuando la velocidad de solicitación es grande y su resistencia puede verse disminuida con el
transcurso del tiempo. Este coeficiente prevé el diseño a través del tiempo y advierte
posibles alteraciones futuras en la estabilidad estructural del proyecto.
Los valores de los coeficientes no son fijos. Para condiciones de trabajo específicas, para
diferentes especies y para diseños con productos compuestos, la relación (1) debe
adecuarse. Cada factor de esta ecuación, se transforma para cada caso en particular. Es
recomendable la consulta de la bibliografía al respecto: Breyer (1989) y Faherty y
Williamson (1989), donde se proponen tablas con valores con arreglo a la calidad de la
madera y particularidades del proyecto de diseño.
Otras aplicaciones importantes del calculo propuesto por la ecuación (1), es el diseño de
vigas laminadas y placas estructurales y en general, en soluciones arquitectónicas para
proyectos complejos.
Existen además otros métodos o formas de cálculo para madera y sus derivados, como se
puede consultar en el manual editado por el American Institute of Timber Construction
(1974). Sin embargo, los datos utilizados provienen mayoritariamente de madera ideal,
12
cuando el componente utilizado realmente por el constructor es la madera comercial,
producida industrialmente y a veces, conteniendo anomalías de crecimiento.
CONCLUSIONES
Una primera conclusión de este esbozo acerca de las características mecánicas de la madera
y su aplicación en la industria de la construcción, es que la madera tiene una vocación
natural para su incorporación en el proceso constructivo. Sus características tecnológicas le
permiten funcionar mecánicamente como un material de uso estructural. Estos datos
provienen de ensayos normalizados y cuando son correctamente ajustados, son confiables
para el cálculo estructural.
Es importante señalar que, si bien los criterios de diseño y calculo tienen por vocación
prevenir las posibles alteraciones en la resistencia de la madera una vez instalada en
servicio, la madera requiere necesariamente de mantenimiento continuo para preservar
dentro de limites razonables, su integridad estructural
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
American Society for Testing and Materials. 2000. Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
Section Four; Construction, Volume 04.10, Wood. USA. 707 p.
American Society of Civil Engineers. 1975. Wood Structures: A Design Guide and
Commentary. New York, USA.
13
Bodig, J.; Jayne, B.A. 1982. Mechanics of Wood Composites. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company. USA. 711 p.
Brown, H.P.; Panshin A.J.; Forsaith C.C. 1952. Textbook of Wood technology. Volume II.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. USA. 783 p.
Deutches Institut Für Normung (DIN). 1988. Normen über Holz. Beuth Verlag. Berlin-
Köln. B.R.D. 240 Seiten.
Faherty, K F.; Williamson, T.G. 1989. Wood Engineering and Construction Handbook.
Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. USA.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1975. ISO 3129-1975 (E). Wood –
Sampling methods and general requirements for physical and mechanical tests. Publicado
en Internet, disponible en www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.openerpage.
Kollmann, F.F.P.; Côté, W.A. 1968. Principles of Wood Science and Technology. Volume
I: Solid Wood. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. 592 p.
Kollmann, F.F.P.; Kuenzi, E.W.; Stamm, A.J. 1975. Principles of Wood Science and
Technology. Volume II: Wood Based Materials. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. 703 p.
Mattheck, C.; Kubler, H. 1997. Wood – The internal Optimization of Trees. Springer, New
York, USA. 129 p.
14
ANCIENT WOOD STRUCTURES EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
SUMMARY
During the evaluation of ancient wood structures already erected, the restorer takes the
responsibility of working with a framework built using old technology. This paper reviews
literature and criteria pertaining to wood structures, with an emphasis on diagnosis of the
wood technological condition, the mechanical state of the structure and its preservation,
consolidation and maintenance. The aim of this essay is to contribute to the establishment
of methodological criteria for the evaluation of wood functioning as a structural element in
historical and cultural patrimony edifices. The objective of the methodology is to help to
restorer with the background necessary to realize the restoration tasks and maintain the
historical and cultural value of the structure. The methodology has three components: the
diagnosis of the state of the structure; the evaluation of the structural system and the
restoration treatments required to preserve the system’s vitality. This synthesis includes the
key elements necessary to carry on anatomic, physical and mechanical examinations of
wood. It includes as well, the therapeutic criteria for restoration and conservation. Some
concepts and technical propositions could be applied –within certain limits- to the study of
ancient wood furniture, window and door frames, wooden art objects, archeological
objects, paintings on wood boards and wooden altars. Laboratory and experimental tests on
the validity of the fundamental methodology’s hypothesis should be adapted to every
specific case in study.
Keywords: Wood Structures, Wood Decay, Wood Restoration, Wood Preservation, Wood
Structures Evaluation, Technical Diagnosis, Wood Structures Maintenance.
INTRODUCTION
During the evaluation of structures already erected, the restorer takes the responsibility of
working with a framework built using old technology, and many times the project
employed empiric design criteria. To achieve the renovation, it is often necessary to apply
modern technology, but in some cases it is better to conform to the native treatments
applied when the original edifice was created. The employment of many of these
techniques is difficult nowadays because many have been forgotten. The aim of this essay
is to contribute to the establishment of methodological criteria for the evaluation of wood
functioning as a structural element in historical and cultural patrimony buildings.
The objective of the methodology is to help the restaurateur with the background necessary
to realize the restoration tasks and maintain the historical and cultural value of the structure.
15
In addition, the methodological aim is to secure the structural stability of the edifice and to
guarantee the users’ safety. Also, the method proposes –for every case of study- a
maintenance program to avoid any future deterioration of the wood. The outcome of the
technique employed should provide the stabilization structure for its contemporary use. At
the same time, the restorative methods should corroborate the structure’s original and
technological condition.
The methodology has three components: the diagnosis of the state of the structure; the
evaluation of the structural system and the restoration treatments required to preserve the
system’s vitality. (Figure 1). This paper is presented using tables and conceptual maps to
synthesize the criteria of evaluation and the information for restoration strategies. The
description of techniques and methods are fully explained in the references cited.
DIAGNOSIS
EVALUATION
DIAGNOSIS
The objective of the diagnosis is to identify the technical condition of the structure in
relation to the past and present service conditions. The diagnosis is divided into three
approaches: constructive antecedents, system characteristics, and execution needs (Figure
1). Wood structures evaluation and restoration techniques references can be found in
[4][13][16][25][26][27][28][35][36][38][42][46][49][55].
The destructive agencies that attack wood can be classified as follows [22]: mechanical
wear, decomposition by fire or prolonged heating, chemical attack, fungal decay, insect
attack and attack by marine borers, birds, etc. Figure 2, adapted from [46], shows stressing
16
elements, influence factors and weathering effects that contribute to wood-finishing
performance, and should be taken into account for diagnostic purposes.
Stressing elements
Influence factors
- Water exposure
- Time
Wood performance - Wood properties
(finished or unfinished) - Quality of design
- Properties of finish
- Maintenance
Weathering effects
Figure 2. Stressing elements, influence factors, and weathering effects in wood-finishing
performance.
Constructive antecedents
Time factors, biodeterioration and changes in the use of the building modify the initial
design condition [19]. In regard to the constructive antecedents, it is recommendable to
study the original structural and architectural layouts. It will help to compare the ancient
and the present characteristics of the structure with the objective of not destroying the
integrity of the structure, its aesthetics, and its research potential [20][21]. Further, it will
help to identify problems or modifications done to the building that have affected the wood.
Regional weather information, seismic and flood histories help to understand the periodic
or sporadic physical factors which have acted on the structure and the consequent
appearance of biological agents stressing the wood. Insect attack often follows fungal decay
and both types of damage may be found in the same piece of wood. Conditions leading to
fungal decay often encourage attack by insects, and partially decayed wood appears to be
particularly attractive to many kind of beetles. Since the treatment required to eradicate
insects is different from that needed to arrest fungal decay, it is important to be able to
17
distinguish between the two types of attack, and to determine which is still active when the
curative measures will be applied [22]. There are occasions when the damage caused by
chemical attack may simulate fungal decay. An emphasis should therefore be put on the
need for accurate diagnosis of the cause of deterioration before any remedial measures are
taken.
System characteristics
A detailed inspection of the wood members and the structural connections with
edification’s walls and columns is recommended. A preliminary identification of weakened
members or fragile connections and the extent of general system damage should be
forecasted. A specialist should do this task.
The principal wood structure components to check are [39]: embed elements, unions and
connectors, ground contact parts, humidity and liquids conducts, roof covers and exterior
windows and doors. The system characteristics to be outlined in the diagnostic report are:
structure geometry, member dimensions and spans, apparent load capacity, lateral
connections with walls and basements and the association of wood with other materials.
Execution needs
Execution needs relate to financial requirements for material and wood to restore the
system. A cost analysis will lead to different scenarios: if it is a live attack (presence of
deterioration agents) or a dead attack, or if it is necessary to renovate or to substitute certain
accessories from the structure. A budget elaboration with the laboratory, specialist and
viaticum fees should be carefully considered.
Also, at this time a first evaluation of techniques and the equipment required to carry out
the restoration in the evaluation phase is suggested. In addition, a plan concerning wood
species and qualities necessary to repair or to substitute damaged members should be
established.
The result of the diagnosis is a report containing the historical uses, reparations and
constructive modifications done to the building. The report should outline the system
characteristics and to propose the operation’s program containing the budget, techniques
18
and the timing necessary to evaluate the full process. A photographic record file should go
with the dossier. Legal issues are also important to assure good restoration project
development.
EVALUATION
To carry out a technical evaluation of ancient structures built with wood, an abstraction is
necessary of the aesthetic, architectural, ambience and functional meanings of the edifice.
Nevertheless, a wood structure not can be evaluated as an independent practice without
considering other structural parts of the facility. The scope of this proposal is limited to the
technological condition of wood, concentrating on the mechanical state of the structure.
The objectives of the evaluation phase are to render precise the technological condition of
the wood members, to calculate the mechanic state of the structure and to evaluate the
stability of the contiguous system that could influence the framework in study. The
evaluation phase consists of three approaches: technological wood condition evaluation,
structure mechanical state study and contiguous systems condition inspection. Evaluation
practices information can be found in [24][43][44][47].
Natural wood durability and variability properties are two factors to consider in ancient
material evaluation, along with tree growth conditions and natural anomalies in wooden
19
elements which require technological considerations to assess wood quality [9][34].
Additionally, ancient wood buildings present a wide variety of constructive genera,
architectural styles and constructive system categories. In effect, it is difficult to
determinate the deterioration state of a structure. Every case of study should be evaluated in
accordance to specific criteria for each case. The evaluation phase output should to confirm
the structure degradation condition (type of attack identification and the spread magnitude),
to determinate the appropriate restoration treatment. Table 1 summarizes objectives, criteria
and techniques useful in wood structures examination. This table also shows where test
development is recommended: in situ using the equipment adequate, and if necessary, in a
laboratory which specializes in wood analysis.
Concerning the wood’s technological condition, the first procedure is to identify the wood
species constituting the structure using identification keys and archive material of wood
samples and complementing this information with wood micro-anatomy and image
treatment techniques. Wood botanic specie identification is useful for determining
technological properties and strength characteristics with regard to the wood condition and
mechanical vitality of the structure [12]. Wood does not deteriorate as a result of aging
alone, but if timber is exposed to consistently damp conditions it will sooner or later,
assuredly become decayed. Moisture content in critical frame positions is a parameter to
consider during evaluation. Hygrometers and acoustics techniques are useful [10]. The
technological condition of every wooden member should be evaluated. Also, weathering
effects, decay presence, type of attack and its extent, physical properties (density, moisture
content); dry defects (checks, twist, and fissures) should be checked.
The combined effect of all these factors on wood condition promotes poor vitality of the
material forming the structure’s resistant elements, with its consequential loss of structural
stability and mechanical wood strength, and the loss of aesthetics [54]. Figure 3 shows a
simplified diagram of the decay process of wood. Table 2 is adapted from [56], and shows
the mayor types of wood damage, their descriptions and the criteria of prevention or
control.
Wood decay detection techniques, wood evaluation, standard destructive tests and non-
destructive tests are documented in the literature [2][18][32][41]. Acoustic and stress wave
techniques [24][43][44], computer assisted and traditional anatomy analyses [12][15], and
the presence of microorganisms in wood using chemical indicators techniques [45][52].
20
Table 3, adapted from [56], presents the applicability of various wood-inspection
techniques for detection of incipient, early, intermediate or advanced stages of internal
decay. When decayed timber is discovered in a structure, the first step is to find out which
factors or agents have caused the problem. A through and careful survey must be made to
find out which fungus has been responsible and how far the fungus has spread.
Wood decay
Regarding the mechanical state of the structure, modern reliability-based design criteria of
wood structures should be utilized [7][37][48]. Likewise, ancient wood quality must be
evaluated the same as a new, sound and performing wood [54]. Wood mechanics and
structures behavior information can be found in [3][6][23][51].
Concerning the structure’s efficiency, the parameters to estimate are: load charges and
deflection requirements in building codes; span between frames forming the system;
fasteners; interior and lateral supports; basement state; and framework embedded [53].
Concerning wood performance, the principal modifications to evaluate are weight loss,
dimension variation and rigidity decrease, changes in hygroscopicity and permeability
attributes and in electrical and acoustic properties [33]. In fact, a comparative study of
original or optimal mechanical stability of the structure and the actual conditions will lead
to an evaluation of the performance of the structure.
The inspection of the contiguous systems condition of the structure, such as walls,
platforms, plafonds, doors, windows and stairs is recommended. Also, the verification of
electrical, heating and air-conditioned systems could play an important roll in the
21
structure’s behavior. Additionally, noise control and fire security installations and thermal
isolation and roof covers should be checked [8].
22
RESTORATION
Concerning the structure’s restoration proposal, the following criteria should be considered
[46]: respect for the material and historic authenticity of the framework; the application of
reversible restoration techniques; maintaining the essential nature of the cultural good as a
historical testimony and the scientific rationalization of the cultural interpretation for the
object.
Table 4. Ancient wood structures evaluation criteria.
Performance Strategy or action proposed
Feature or propriety
& criteria Consolidation Substitution Preservation Maintenance
Incipient - - - Necessary
Weathering & Decay State Intermediate Suitable - Advised -
Technological wood condition
Advanced - Necessary - -
Less that 5 Suitable - - -
Wood Weight Lost
5 - 10 - - - Necessary
(%)
More that 10 - Advised Advised -
Less that 8 - - - -
Wood Moisture Content
8 – 18 - - Suitable Necessary
(%)
More that 18 - - Necessary Necessary
Acceptable - - Suitable Advised
Shrinkage and Swelling
Out standards Necessary Advised - Necessary
Colorless - - - Advised
Surface state & Appearance
Roughened - Suitable Advised Advised
Steady Suitable - - Advised
General Stability
Unsteady - Suitable - -
efficiency
Structure
Allowable Advised - - -
Stress & Deformations
Unallowable - - - Necessary
Fissures Advised - Advised Necessary
Material Discontinuity
Knots-Holes Advised - - Necessary
Walls, Floors, Windows, Deteriorated Advised Suitable Advised Necessary
Contiguous
23
Preservation treatments
Table 5, adapted from [39], presents several examples of specific cases of timber usage in
building, the risk categories and methods of preservation. These risk categories are the
Preservation Essential (PE), which applies when timber is exposed to a continually
hazardous environment and can not be protected by design, when building regulations
prescribe treatment, and when there is a high risk of decay or insect attack in structures, the
collapse of which would constitute a serious danger to persons or property. The
preservation desirable (PD) applies where experience has shown that there is a high risk of
decay, whether due to the nature of the design or the standard of workmanship and
maintenance, and when there is a substantial risk of decay or insect attack, which, if it
occurs, would be difficult and expensive to remedy. The preservation optional (PO) applies
when there is a low risk of decay or insect attack, or where remedial action or replacement
is simple. The criteria proposed in the table should be treated as guidance notes rather than
inviolate rules. The desirable degree of penetration for a particular risk category and
treatment is also proposed in table 5: Penetration Superficial (PS): 1-2 mm. from surface;
Penetration Medium (PM): 50% into the transversal section; Penetration Deepest (PDS):
90-100% into the transversal section.
The most used types of preservatives for wood structures can be listed as [30][50]: Oil-
borne (Creosote, Pentachlorophenol, Tributylin oxide, among others), waterborne
(Chromated cooper arsenate and ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate) and new biocides.
Another approach to wood preservation is biocontrol using microorganisms rather that
toxic chemicals. Currently, all commercial wood preservative formulaes contain chemicals
that are toxic to microorganisms and insects [50]. In order to be commercially viable wood
preservatives, biocide formulations must have the following characteristics: cost
effectiveness, good permanence in the wood under all conditions, no significant effect on
the strength properties of wood, low corrosivity to metal fasteners, good penetration
properties, safe to handle and use, low mammalian toxicity and non detrimental effects on
the environment.
24
Table 5. Examples of timber usage in buildings, risk categories, treatments of preservation
and desirable degree of penetration.
Examples Risk category Acceptable treatment Penetration
CCA (5-3 kg/m3). Medium
Boron diffusion. Medium
Roof timbers in house longhorn beetle areas PE
Double vacuum OS. Deepest
10 min OS immersion Superficial
Timber embedded in ground concrete PE CCA (5-3 kg/m3). Medium
Timber in ground cills in contact with brickwork or
PE CCA (5-3 kg/m3). Medium
concrete below damp-proof course.
3
CCA (5-3 kg/m ). Medium
Timber ground plates directly on top of damp proof course PE Boron diffusion. Deepest
Double vacuum OS. Deepest
Pitched roof timbers in normal and domestic cases PO - Superficial
Wall plates in normal and domestic cases PO - Superficial
Tiling battens in normal and domestic cases PO - Superficial
CCA (5-3 kg/m3). Medium
Pitched roof timbers with high condensation risk PD Boron diffusion. Deepest
Double vacuum OS. Deepest
CCA (5-3 kg/m3). Medium
Wall plates in case with high condensation risk PD Boron diffusion. Deepest
Double vacuum OS. Deepest
Tiling battens in roofs with high condensation risk PO - Medium
CCA Medium
Exposed timbers in chemical or corrosive atmospheres PE
Double vacuum OS Deepest
CCA (5-3 kg/m3). Medium
Flat roof joist, shallow depth, ordinary ceiling, little or no
PD Boron diffusion. Deepest
ventilation
Double vacuum OS. Deepest
Ditto but with ample through-ventilation of roof space PO - Superficial
Flat roof joist, deep beams, with ventilation of roof PO - Superficial
Ground floor joist PO Double vacuum OS. Medium
Timber in external and internal stud walls PO Double vacuum OS. Medium
PE: Preservation Essential; PO: Optional; PD: Desirable. CCA: Cooper-Chrome-Arsenic; OS: Organic Sales.
PS: Penetration Superficial: 1-2 mm; Medium: 30-50% transversal section; Deepest: 90-100% transversal section.
Consolidation works
The ideal purpose of the consolidation works is to bring to the optimal design strength
performance the real structure’s stability, deterioration conditions and the state of the
allowable stress and strain [23][31]. However, the building’s contemporary function or its
cultural value could reduce the reconstruction strategy’s scope. The shape rectification
should try to reallocate the charges to correct deformations and in that way, avoid fragile
structure stability. Also, calibrating fasteners and fixing supports are recommendable
assignments. Partial or total truss replacement is another strategy: their substitution could
be with consolidated wood elements, plastic, metal or composite materials. If reparation
requires substituting an ancient wooden member, it should be done using wood from
similar specie with an equivalent performance and technological quality. Also, the legal
building construction codes must be observed, and if the case requires, a special
engineering study should be proposed to the authorities.
25
exothermal resins; water-soluble adhesives and mineral waxes, as well as seed oils, can
help consolidate some dysfunction properties of deteriorated wood. Concerning
waterlogged wood, there are some treatments that can be adapted to recover ancient wood
structures, and they are [50]: on-site preservation (sodium borate, boric acid); classic
impregnation treatments (glycerin, aluminum potassium sulfate); consolidation using
water-borne chemical (sugar, salts, polyethylene glycol, tetraethyl ortho silicate, phenol);
sucrose treatment; acetone-rosin treatment; alcohol-ether treatment; and in-situ
polymerization treatment, among others. Remedial measures are [26] replacement of
members, reinforcement and fumigant treatments. Concerning dimensional treatments,
there are those that reduce the extent of swelling and may or may not alter the rate of water
absorption. Furthermore, techniques for dimensional stabilization of wood in use are
reported in the literature [47], such as cross-lamination, water-resistant coatings,
hygroscopicity reduction, cross-linking and bulking treatments.
Maintenance tasks
Maintenance tasks in a historical structural system avoid further wood deterioration and
structural deficiency, and at the same time preserve historical value. This can be
accomplished using a preventive maintenance program for decay agents and deterioration
factors control. Building external enveloping protection to control environment variables
(relative humidity, light, temperature and biological agents’ presence), and pollution agents
(dust and air), will maintain the structure clean. Also, building internal modifications (for
example, appropriate draw and air circulation facilities) will maintain the structure’s health
[36].
Much of the deterioration that occurs in a wood structure is due to failure to give wood the
prior treatment and upkeep necessary for the particular purpose at hand. Decayed timber
should never be accepted as inevitable. If the wooden parts of any structure decay while the
rest of it is still serviceable, one must conclude that the wood was not adequately protected
or preserved. Some precautions should be included in the maintenance program [22], and
the condition of all guttering and down pipes should be regularly examined. It should be
seen to that overflow pipes do not drip onto walls, that the soil level is not allowed to rise
above the damp-proof course in any part of the building, and that the opening in air bricks
ventilating the sub-floor spaces are kept free from obstruction.
The recommendations for preventing decay in buildings are [56]: use bright, kiln-dried
lumber; protect lumber from wetting during construction; provide adequate roof overhang
(> 0.60 m); provide gutters; use well-drained building sites; install preservative-treated still
plates (> 0.20 m) above grade; install ground covers on soil in craw spaces; ventilate crawl
spaces (opening 1/160 of surface area); flash wood where it is exposed in a horizontal
position; use pressure-treated wood for exposed design features, such as posts or rails;
maintain coatings, such as paints or stains, and recaulk joints regularly; periodically inspect
building for signs of moisture; and use exterior finishes that shed water.
26
CONCLUSION
This paper reviewed literature and criteria pertaining to ancient wood structures evaluation,
with an emphasis on diagnosis, technological wood condition, mechanical state of the
structure and preservation, consolidation and maintenance. Based on our review and
experience, we conclude that this synthesis has the key elements necessary to carry on
anatomic, physical and mechanical examinations of wood. It also includes the therapeutic
criteria for restoration and conservation. Some concepts and technical propositions could be
applied –within certain limits- to the study of ancient wood furniture, window and door
frames, wooden art objects, archeological objects, paintings in wood boards and wooden
altars. Laboratory and experimental tests of the validity of the fundamental methodology’s
hypothesis should be adapted to every specific case. Research efforts and their application
in practical cases would advance state-of-the-art evaluation techniques considerably. This
methodology involves three components that are made up of three factors. Each factor has
two aims: one is synthesis, and should be considered independent. The other is analysis,
which should be interrelated within the whole of the process.
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LABORATORIO DE MECÁNICA DE LA MADERA
DE LA DIVISIÓN DE ESTUDIOS DE POSGRADO
DE LA FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA EN TECNOLOGÍA DE LA MADERA
Por otra parte, el laboratorio tiene el equipo y el personal especializado para efectuar
estudios de análisis de calidad de la madera en medio ambiente industrial. El laboratorio
organiza también seminarios y cursos de capacitación para profesionales en Ingeniería y
Arquitectura.
32