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Formulario Fundamentos 06 07
Formulario Fundamentos 06 07
Campo Electromagnético
Nombre:
DNI:
Firma:
1
Dpto. de Electromagnetismo y Fı́sica de la Materia -Universidad de Granada
Capı́tulo 1
Z
D(~r 0 ) 0
f (~r) = 1
4π dv = Potencial escalar de F~ (~r)
V00 R
Z ~ r 0) (1.2)
R(~
~g (~r) = 1
4π dv 0 = Potencial vector de F~ (~r)
V00 R
1
2
∂ρ
∇ · ~j + =0 (1.6)
∂t
h i
F~q (~r) = q E(~
~ r) + ~v ∧ B(~
~ r) (1.7)
dF~
F~v = ~ + ~j ∧ B
= ρE ~ (1.8)
dv
~t
~r 0 = ~r − V , ~ = cte
V ~ (1.9)
t0 = t (1.10)
~
~v 0 = ~v − V (1.11)
~0=E
E ~ +V
~ ∧B
~ (1.12)
~0=B
B ~ (1.13)
Capı́tulo 2
Campos estáticos
2.1. Introducción
Z ~
~ r) = 1 R
E(~ ρ(~r 0 ) dv 0 (2.1)
4πε0 V0 R3
~ = ρ
∇·E (2.2)
ε0
~ = ~0
∇∧E (2.3)
1 q
V (~r) = +K (2.4)
4πε0 r
dV = ∇V · d~r ~ · d~r
dV = −E (2.5)
3
4
N
1X
W = qj Vj (2.7)
2
j=1
ρ
∇2 V = − (2.8)
ε0
Z ~
~ r) = µ0
B(~ ~j ∧ R dv 0 (2.9)
4π V0 R3
Z ~
~ r) = µ0 I
B(~ ~ 0∧ R
dl (2.10)
4π L R3
2.3.2. Fuerza
Z
F~ = ~ dv
~j ∧ B (2.11)
V
Z
F~ = I ~ ∧B
dl ~ (2.12)
L
~ =0
∇·B (2.13)
~ = µ0 ~j
∇∧B (2.14)
Z I
~ ≡
Φ(B) ~ · d~s =
B ~ · d~l
A (2.15)
S L
5
2.4. Problemas
2-17.
~ = ρs ~n1
E (2.16)
ε0
2-18.
Q
C≡ (2.17)
V
2-24.
m
~ = I S ~n (2.18)
2-30.
~ = µ0 n I zb
B (2.19)
2-31
~ b)
Φa (B
Mab = (2.20)
Ib
~ a)
Φa ( B
L= (2.21)
Ia
6
Capı́tulo 3
~
∂B
~ =−
∇∧E (3.1)
∂t
Z
~ =
Φ(B) ~ · d~l
A (3.2)
L0
d ~
EL (t) = − Φ(B)(t) (3.3)
dt
~
~jD0 = ε0 ∂ E (3.4)
∂t
~
~ = −∇V − ∂ A
E (3.5)
∂t
~ = ∇∧A
B ~ (3.6)
7
8
~=A
A ~ 0 + ∇Ψ(~r, t)
(3.7)
0∂Ψ(~r, t)
V =V −
∂t
~=0
∇·A
(3.8)
~ + µ0 ε0 ∂V = 0
∇·A
∂t
~ = ρ
∇·E (3.9)
ε0
~
∂B
~ =−
∇∧E (3.10)
∂t
∇·B~ =0 (3.11)
à !
∂ ~
E
~ = µ0 ~j + ε0
∇∧B (3.12)
∂t
Capı́tulo 4
~ + ∂ωem = −~j · E
∇·P ~ (4.1)
∂t
~ = 1E
P ~ ∧B
~ (4.2)
µ0
1 1 2
ωem = ε0 E 2 + B = ωe + ωm (4.3)
2 2µ0
Z Z
1
We = ρV dv = ωe dv (4.4)
2 V0 V→∞
Z Z
1 ~ dv
~j · A
Wm = ωem dv = (4.5)
V→∞ 2 V0
Z
1 ~ · d~l = 1 IΦ
Wm = I A (4.6)
2 L0 2
1 ∂2Φ
∇2 Φ − =0 (4.7)
c2 ∂t2
9
10
∂2V ρ
∇2 V − µ0 ε0 2
=− (4.8)
∂t ε0
~
∂2A
~ − µ0 ε0
∇2 A = −µ0~ (4.9)
∂t2
∂ 2 Φ(x, t) 1 ∂ 2 Φ(x, t)
− =0 (4.10)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
µ ¶
dx
vf = =c (4.11)
dt u=cte
~ =0
~n · E (4.12)
~ = 1 ~n ∧ E
B ~ (4.13)
c
~ = c ε0 E 2 ~n
P (4.14)
Φ = Φ0 cos {k (c t − x) + ϕ} = Φ0 cos (ω t − k x + ϕ) =
½ ¾
t x
= Φ0 cos 2π ( − ) + ϕ (4.15)
T λ
Φ = Φ0 ej (ω t−k x) (4.16)
Z
1 [ρ] 0
VR (~r, t) = dv (4.17)
4πε0 V0 R
Z
~ R (~r, t) = µ0 [ ~j ] 0
A dv (4.18)
4π V0 R
11
µo q 2 2 ³ r´
P (r, t) = a t− (4.21)
6πc c
µ0 q 2 2 ³ r´
I = P r2 = a t − sen2 θ (4.22)
16π 2 c c
12
Capı́tulo 5
1 1
Vd (~r) = p~ · rb (5.1)
4πε0 r2
Z
p~ = ~r 0 ρ(~r 0 ) dv 0 (5.2)
V0
1 1 ¡ ¢
Vc = 5
3xj xk − δjk r2 Qjk (5.3)
24πε0 r
Z
Qjk = (3x0j x0k − δjk r0 2 )ρ(~r 0 ) dv 0 (5.4)
V0
X
Qii = 0 (5.5)
i
1 1
Vc = xj xk Qjk (5.6)
8πε0 r5
Wd = −~ ~ ~0)
p · E( (5.7)
1 ∂Ek (~0)
Wc (~r) = − Qjk (5.8)
6 ∂xj
13
14
p~ = q d~ (5.9)
p cos θ
Vd (~r) = (5.10)
4πε0 r2
~d = p h b
i
E 2 cos θ rb + sen θ θ (5.11)
4πε0 r3
~ d (~r) = 1 1
E [3(~
p · rb) rb − p~ ] (5.12)
4πε0 r3
£ ¤
V2n (~r) = ∇0 V2n−1 (~r, ~r 0 ) ~r 0 =~0 · d~n (5.13)
Wd = −~ ~
p·E
T~ = p~ ∧ E
~ (5.14)
· ¸
1 3(~
p1 · ~r)(~
p2 · ~r)
Wdd = p~1 · p~2 − (5.15)
4πε0 r3 r2
F~ = ∇(~ ~ = −∇(Wd )
p · E) (5.16)
d~
p
P~ = (5.17)
dv
N
X
P~ (~r, t) = p~i δ(~r − ~ri (t)) (5.18)
i=1
m
~ = I S ~n (5.21)
~ d = µ0 1 [3(m µ0 m 1 ³ b
´
B ~ · r
b ) · r
b − m]
~ = 2 cos θ r
b + sen θ θ (5.22)
4π r3 4π r3
1 1 ~ d = −µ0 ∇ Ud
Ud (~r) = m
~ · rb, B (5.23)
4π r2
m ~ , Γ=g q
~ = ΓL (5.24)
2m
T~ = m ~
~ ∧B (5.25)
F~ = ∇(m ~ = −∇Wd
~ · B) (5.26)
Wd = −m ~
~ ·B (5.27)
3
X ∂
T~ = −∇θ Wd , ∇θ = ebi (5.28)
∂θi
i=1
16
Capı́tulo 6
Movimiento de partı́culas en un
campo electromagnético
6.1. Introducción
d~v q ~ q ~
~a = = E, ~v = ~v0 + Et (6.1)
dt m m
q ~ ⇒ d ~v ~ ∧ ~v
~a = ~v ∧ B =Ω (6.2)
m dt
~ ~
~ = − q B = − q Bbb ,
Ω bb = B (6.3)
m m B
~
~v⊥ ∧ Ω v⊥
ρ
~= , ρ= (6.4)
Ω2 Ω
W⊥ b
µ
~ =− b (6.5)
B
2π m
Φ= µ (6.6)
q2
17
18
Ωe
B
Ωdt B
v|| dv r ce
θ v(t+dt)
v(t)
v|
−−
ϕ
Ω + rci
Ωi
(a) (b)
Figura 6.1:
6.2.5.1. ~ yB
E ~ perpendiculares. Deriva ambipolar
~ ∧ bb
E
~vE = (6.7)
B
v E- =v E+
E
Figura 6.2:
19
6.2.5.2. ~ yB
E ~ paralelos. Enfoque magnético
Lineas de campo
Trayectoria
Figura 6.3:
sen2 θ
µ = cte ⇒ = cte (6.8)
B
v
v0 v
θ0 v 0 ^z
(a)
v ||0 v || B max
B0
B
B max
B0 (b)
Figura 6.4:
r
B0
sen θF = (6.9)
Bmax
20
Ecuador
magnetico
eje geomagnetico
1 2 3 4 5 Radios terrestres
10.000 Cuentas
por
segundo
N
1.000
Cinturon
interno Cinturon externo
Figura 6.5:
dm
~ ~L ∧m ~ L = −Γ B
~
=Ω ~ , Ω (6.10)
dt
Capı́tulo 7
Medios polarizables
Q( ∆ x)
a0
Ze
∆x ∆ x<<a 0
-Ze
Figura 7.1:
~
p~m = α E (7.1)
p0
T=T 0
E=0 , p m =0 / ,
E=0 /
p m =0
Figura 7.2:
d~
p
P~ = = n h~
pi (7.2)
dv
21
22
~ = dm
M
~
= n hm
~ i (7.3)
dv
ρP = −∇ · P~ (7.4a)
ρsP = P~ · ~n (7.4b)
·Z Z ¸
1 ρP (~r 0 ) 0 ρsP (~r 0 ) 0
VP (~r) = dv + ds (7.5)
4πε0 V0 R S0 R
ρsP
ρP ρP
Figura 7.3:
dP =0 , ρ =0 dP >0 , ρ <0
P P
dx dx
P
n n
(a) (b)
Figura 7.4:
∂ P~
~P ≡ (7.6)
∂t
∂ρP
∇ · ~P = −
~pol = ~P + ~M ∂t (7.8)
∇ · ~M = 0
Z Z
~ M (~r) = µ0 ~M (~r 0 ) 0 µ0 ~sM (~r 0 ) 0
A dv + ds (7.9)
4π V0 R 4π S0 R
~
~M = ∇ ∧ M (7.10a)
~ ∧ ~n
~sM = M (7.10b)
∆s j sM n
j M =0
Figura 7.5:
~ M (~r) = B
B ~1 + B
~ 2 = µ0 M
~ (~r) − µ0 ∇UM (~r) (7.11)
Z Z
1 ρM 1 ρsM
UM (~r) = dv 0 + ds0 (7.12)
4π V0 R 4π S0 R
~ y ρsM = M
ρM = −∇ · M ~ · ~n (7.13)
24
(a)
M
j sM
ρ
I I sM
S µ M N (b)
0
Figura 7.6:
ρT = ρ − ∇ · P~ (7.14a)
∂ P~ ~
~T = ~ + +∇∧M (7.14b)
∂t
³ ´
~ = 1 ρ − ∇ · P~
∇·E (7.15a)
ε0
à !
~ = µ0 ∂ P~ ~
~ + ε0 ∂ E
∇∧B ~ + +∇∧M (7.15b)
∂t ∂t
~ ≡ ε0 E
D ~ + P~ (7.16a)
~
B
~ ≡
H ~
−M (7.16b)
µ0
~ =ρ
∇·D (7.17a)
~
∂D
~ = ~ +
∇∧H (7.17b)
∂t
25
P~ = ε0 χe E
~ (7.18a)
~ = χm H
M ~ (7.18b)
~
= ε0 (1 + χe ) E
~
D→ ≡ εE~ (7.19a)
≡ε ε E ~
0 r
~
= µ0 (1 + χm ) H
~ →
B ≡ µH~ (7.19b)
≡µ µ H ~
0 r
ε
ε ≡ ε0 (1 + χe ) , εr ≡ = (1 + χe ) (7.20a)
ε0
µ
µ ≡ µ0 (1 + χm ) , µr ≡ = (1 + χm ) (7.20b)
µ0
B (W . m -2 ) (H s,Bs)
(0,Br ) 1.5
Curva
de
primera
0.5 imanacion
(H c ,0)
20 100
-1
H (A.m )
Ciclo
de
histeresis
Figura 7.7:
26
I
~ =ρ
∇·D ⇒ ~ · d~s = Q
D (7.21a)
S
~ = ~0
∇∧E ⇒ ~ = −∇ V
E (7.21b)
I
~ =ρ
∇·E ⇒ ~ · d~s = Q
E (7.22)
ε S ε
+Q -Q p +Q p -Q
E0 Ed E0 D D D
(a) (b)
Figura 7.8:
Ley de Coulomb :
~ r) = q rb ~ r) = q rb
E(~ ⇒ D(~ (7.23)
4π ε r2 4π r2
q 1
V (~r) = (7.24)
4π ε r
Z ~
~ = 1
E
ρR
dv 0 (7.25a)
4πε v0 R3
Z~
~ = 1
D
ρR
dv 0 (7.25b)
4π R 3
v0
Z
1 ρ
V = dv 0 (7.26)
4π ε v0 R
(εr − 1)
ρP = − ρ (7.27)
εr
27
Q p
Figura 7.9:
7.4.2. Magnetostática
I
~ =0
∇·B ⇒ ~ · d~s = 0
B (7.28a)
S
I
~ = ~
∇∧H ⇒ ~ · d~l = I
H (7.28b)
L
~ = ρM
∇·H (7.29)
~ = µ0 (~ + ~M )
∇∧B (7.30)
~ = 0 , ∇∧B
∇·H ~ = µ ~ (7.31)
Z ~ Z ~
~ r) = µ
B(~ ~j ∧ R dv 0 , H(~
~ r) = 1 ~j ∧ R dv 0 (7.32)
4π R 3 4π V 0 R3
V0
Z
~ µ ~
A(~r) = dv 0 (7.33)
4π V 0 R
~M = χm ~ (7.34)
28
M M0
M
M0
M=0
L L
L L j sM
B
B
µ (N/L) I S M0 N
0
I
L L
ρ
H sM
(Β µ0) −M 0
(N/L) I
L L
(a) (b)
Figura 7.10:
ρ sM j sM
M
Lineas de H Lineas de B
Figura 7.11:
Capı́tulo 8
Conductores
p
X
~i = ρi ~ui , ~ = ~i (8.1)
i=1
~
~ui = µi E (8.2)
p
X
~ ,
~ = σ E σ= ρi µi (8.3)
i=1
1
r= = [Ω · m] (8.4)
σ
ε
τ= (8.5)
σ
ρ = ρ0 e−t/τ (8.6)
~i = 0
E (8.7)
Vi = cte (8.8)
~ c = ρs ~n
E (8.9)
ε
29
30
E i=0
E V i =cte
ρ p =οο
Figura 8.1:
ε(x)
ε0
x
-h/2 ∆x h/2
Figura 8.2:
ε0 ε0
n Ec
S1 E pr
’ E pr
S ∆S ρs ρs
pol
Ec
Ec
S2 E le E le
Π
Conductor Dielectrico
(a) (b)
Figura 8.3:
31
dF~ ~c
E 1 2 1
= ρs = ρs ~n = ε Ec2 ~n = ωe ~n (8.10)
ds 2 2ε 2
L L
j E 2
1
(a) (b)
Figura 8.4:
I
EL = ~ R · d~l
E (8.11)
L
Z 2
EL(1→2) = ~ R · d~l
E (8.12)
1L
L
V1 -V
2
2’ ds
1’ 2
1 S
2
S
1 L’
E j dl
Figura 8.5:
Z 2
~ · d~l
E Z 2
1 ~ · d~l
R = Z1 = E (8.13)
I 1
~ · d~s
S2
VR
1 2
I R
Figura 8.6:
32
VR = I R (8.14)
Figura 8.7:
E =V (8.15)
VR
Ι 2
R
Figura 8.8:
V =E −IR (8.16)
VR
2
R Ι
V Re
Figura 8.9:
V = I Re , E = I(R + Re ) (8.17)
Rs = R1 + R2 (8.18)
33
Vs
VR 1 VR 2
I1 R1 I2 R2
Rs
Figura 8.10:
I1 R1
I V
I2 R2
Figura 8.11:
Es = E1 + E2 (8.19)
1 1 1 R1 R2
= + ⇒ Rp = (8.20)
Rp R1 R2 R1 + R2
I2
V Ii
S
I1 IN
Figura 8.12:
N
X
Ii = 0 (8.21)
i=1
M
X M
X
Ei = Ii Ri (8.22)
i=1 i=1
Pj = I E = I 2 R + V I = I 2 (R + Re ) (8.23)
34
L
I1 i Ii
1
M
IM
Figura 8.13:
E R =0
S2 2
j
S1 ds R
j Re
Ι V
dv=d s.d l
S2 1
S1
E R =0
Figura 8.14:
Capı́tulo 9
~ =ρ
∇·D (9.1a)
~
∂B
~ =−
∇∧E (9.1b)
∂t
~ =0
∇·B (9.1c)
~
~ = ~j + ∂ D
∇∧H (9.1d)
∂t
~ =ρ
∇·E (9.2a)
ε
~
∂H
~ = −µ
∇∧E (9.2b)
∂t
~ =0
∇·H (9.2c)
~
∇∧H ~ + ε ∂E
~ = σE (9.2d)
∂t
35
36
~ =ρ
∇·E (9.3a)
ε
~ = −jω µ H
∇∧E ~ (9.3b)
~ =0
∇·H (9.3c)
~ = (σ + jω ε )E
∇∧H ~ (9.3d)
∆S SI
h/2
a
h/2
F1
ρs , j s
n2
Medio 1
base inferior
~2 −D
~n1 · (D ~ 1 ) = ρs (9.6a)
~2 − B
~n1 · (B ~ 1) = 0 (9.6b)
~2 − E
~n1 ∧ (E ~ 1) = 0 (9.7a)
~2 − H
~n1 ∧ (H ~ 1 ) = ~s (9.7b)
∇ · P~ = −ρp , ~ = −ρM ,
∇·M ~ = −~jM ,
∇∧M ~ = ρM
∇·H
∂ρs
~n1 · (~j2 − ~j1 ) = − (9.8)
∂t
37
Medio 2 F2
n1
θ2
θ1 F1
Medio 1
Figura 9.2:
~ y D,
~ ε1
E tan θ1 = tan θ2 , (no conductores) (9.9)
ε2
~ y H,
~ µ1
B tan θ1 = tan θ2 , (no conductores) (9.10)
µ2
~ y ~, σ1
E tan θ1 = tan θ2 , (conductores) (9.11)
σ2
θ2
Medio 2
µ2
µ 1>> µ 2
Medio 1
θ 1 >> θ 2
Figura 9.3:
F~ = −∇f + ∇ ∧ ~g (9.12)
D = ∇ · F~ ~ = ∇ ∧ F~
y R (9.13)
38
V
D, R
Figura 9.4:
[f ]S = fS (9.14)
h i
[~g · ~τ ]S = gτ S ó F~ · ~τ = Fτ S (9.16)
S
~T = E
E ~ +E
~0 (9.17)
~ =E
P ~ ∧H
~
dWem 1~ ~ 1~ ~
ωem = = E ·D+ H ·B (9.18)
dv 2 2
2
~j · E ~ + ∂ωem + j
~ 0 =∇·P (9.19)
∂t σ
Z A
WAA = ~ · δB
H ~
A
39
N M
1 X 1 X
Wem = Qi Vi + Ij Φj (9.21)
2 2
i=1 j=1
2 We 2 Wm
C= 2
, L= (9.22)
V I2
∂V ∂2V ρ
∇2 V − µσ − µε 2 = − (9.23a)
∂t ∂t ε
~
∂A ∂2A~
~ − µσ
∇2 A − µε 2 = −µ~j 0 (9.23b)
∂t ∂t
~ r) − jω µσ E(~
∇2 E(~ ~ r) + ω 2 µε E(~
~ r) = 0 (9.24)
~ r) = 0
∇2 E(~r) + ω 2 µ εc E(~ (9.25)
µ ¶
c 1 ε
ε ≡ε 1−j , Q = ωτ , τ= (9.26)
Q σ
Ondas monocromáticas-planas :
~
d2 E(x) ~ = 0 , Ex = Hx = 0
+ ω 2 µ εc E (9.27)
dx2
µ 2 ¶
d 2 ~
− γ E(x) =0 (9.28)
dx2
γ 2 = −ω 2 µ εc (9.29)
γ = α + jβ (9.30)
40
"µ ¶1 # 21
1 β0 1 2
α= = √ 1+ 2 −1 (9.31a)
δ 2 Q
"µ ¶1 # 12
β0 1 2
β=√ 1+ 2 +1 (9.31b)
2 Q
α/β0
3 β/β0
2.5
1.5
β/β0
1
0.5 α/β0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Q
Figura 9.5:
³ ´
~
E(x, ~
t) = E(x) e jωt = E~ + e −γx + E
~ − e γx e jωt
(9.32)
~ + e −αx e j(ωt−βx) + E
=E ~ − e αx e j(ωt+βx)
ω
vf (ω) = (9.33)
β
vf /v0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Q
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figura 9.6:
dω
vg = (9.34)
dβ
41
∆ω = 0.04 ω 0
1 ∆ω = 0.1 ω 0 1
= 0.1
0.8 0.8
0.6
= 0.2
0.6
z=0 z=z1 z=z 2 z=z 3 = 0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2 t
t 100 200 300 400
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-0.2
(a) (b)
Figura 9.7:
Figura 9.8:
ω(β)
arctg v g
arctg vf
β
Figura 9.9:
42
~ =E
E ~ 0 e −γx e jωt
(9.35)
~ =H
H ~ 0 e −γx e jωt
~ 0 = Z cH
~n ∧ E ~0 , E
~ 0 · ~n = 0 (9.36)
r
c µ ωµ
Z = c
=j (9.37)
ε γ
r
µ0
Z0 = ' 376,6 Ω (9.38)
ε0
^y
t=0
A
t
I
Y
E
Z z^
x^ B
Figura 9.10:
hA ~ 2 (t)i = 1 Re[A
~ 1 (t) × A ~c × A
~ ∗] (9.39)
1 2
2
c 1 ~ ~ ∗ 1 ~ ~∗
ωem = E ·D + H ·B (9.40)
2 2
1 ³ ~ 2 ~ 2
´
hωem i = ε |E| + µ |H| (9.41)
4
~c = E
P ~ ∧H
~∗ (9.42)
c Re[Z c ] ~ 2
~ c = Z |E|
P ~ 2 ~n, ~ =
hPi |E| ~n (9.43)
|Z c |2 2 |Z c |2
Apéndice A
A.1. Introducción
∇2 f (~r) = 0 (A.2)
· ¸
∂ fi
[fi ]S = fiS ó = −FinS
∂n S
N
X
f= λi fi
i=1
N
X
D= λi Di
i=1
N
X · ¸ N
X
∂f
[f ]S = λi fiS ó =− λi FinS
∂n S
i=1 i=1
a-1
a-2
σ=0 I ,σ 0 II ,σ 0 I ,σ 0
S=S 1+S 2
I I I
σ oo
VE VE VE
j = σ0E
Figura A.1:
µ oo I ,µ 0 II ,µ 0 I ,µ 0
S=S 1+S 2
I I I
U=cte
Figura A.2:
a a2
q 0 = −q , b= (A.3)
d d
µ ¶
00 1 q q0 q 00
q = V0 4π ε a , V (~r) = + + (A.4)
4πε |~r − d zb| |~r − b zb| r
a-3
II ,ε I ,ε
R2
R1
r
-q +q x^
(-d,0,0) (d,0,0)
ρ s (y,z)
E(0,y,z)
S
Figura A.3:
R1
r
a
θ R2 ^z
q’’ q’ q
b
I ,ε II ,ε
d
Figura A.4:
V0 y P=(x, y)
R2
R1
a
−λ λ
x a R0 x
c
Figura A.5:
a-4
a2
c= (A.5)
d
λ
V0 = ln(d/a) (A.6)
2π ε
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
∇2 f = + + =0 (A.7)
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
2
+ 2
+ 2
= 0 , kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = 0
X dx Y dy Z
| {z } | {z } | {z } dz
=kx2 =ky2 ) =kz2
A1k e jkx x + A2k e −jkx x , para kx2 > 0
Xk (x) = A1 x + A2 , para kx = 0 (A.9)
A1k e κx x + A2k e −κx x , para κ2x ≡ −kx2 > 0
X q
fG = Xkx (x) Yky (y) Zkz (z) , kz = −kx2 − ky2 (A.10)
∀kx ,ky
µ ¶
1 ∂
2 ∂f 1 ∂2 f ∂2 f
∇ f= ρ + 2 + =0 (A.11)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ ϕ2 ∂ z2
f (ρ, ϕ, z) = R(ρ) Φ(ϕ) Z(z) (A.12)
µ ¶
1 d dR 1 1 d2 Φ 1 d2 Z
ρ + 2 + =0 (A.13)
Rρ dρ dρ ρ Φ dϕ2 |Z {z dz 2}
=k2
a-5
C1k e k z + C2k e −k z , para k 2 > 0
Zk (z) = C1 z + C2 , para k = 0 (A.14)
C1k e jκ z + C2k e −jκ z , para κ2 ≡ −k 2 > 0
µ ¶
ρ d dR 1 d2 Φ
ρ + k 2 ρ2 + =0 (A.15)
R dρ dρ Φ dϕ2
| {z }
v(ϕ)=−n2
µ ¶
d dR ¡ ¢
ρ ρ + k 2 ρ2 − n2 R = 0 (A.17)
dρ dρ
µ ¶
d dR
p p + (p2 − n2 ) R = 0 (A.20)
dp dp
³ p ´n X
∞
(−1)i ³ p ´2i
Jn (p) = (A.22)
2 i! Γ (i + n + 1) 2
i=0
pn
lı́m Jn (p) → (A.24)
p→0 2n n!
2
limp→0 N0 (p) → ln p
π
(A.25)
2n (n − 1)!
lı́mp→0 Nn≥1 (p) → −
π pn
r h
2 ¡ ¢ πi
lı́m|p|→∞ Jn (p) → cos p − n + 21
πp 2
r (A.26)
2 h ¡ ¢ πi
lı́m|p|→∞ Nn (p) → sen p − n + 21
πp 2
a-6
J n (p) N n (p)
1
Jo
J1
J2
0.5
p=k r
2 4 6 8 10 12
No
N1
-0.5
N2
-1
Figura A.6:
(1)
Hn (p) = Jn (p) + j Nn (p)
(A.27)
(2)
Hn (p) = Jn (p) − j Nn (p)
r π
(1), (2) 2 ±j [p−(n+ 12 ) ]
lı́m Hn (p) → e 2 (A.29)
p→∞ πp
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂ 2 ∂f 1 ∂ ∂f 1 ∂2 f
r + 2 sen θ + 2 =0 (A.30)
r2 ∂ r ∂r r sen θ ∂ θ ∂θ r sen2 θ ∂ ϕ2
µ ¶
d 2 dR
r − l(l + 1) R = 0 (A.33)
dr dr
· ¸ · ¸
d 2 dΘ n2
(1 − ξ ) + l(l + 1) − Θ=0 (A.35)
dξ dξ 1 − ξ2
l
L
X (−1)i (2l − 2i)! L= 2
para l par
Pl (ξ) = ξ l−2i , (A.38)
2l i!(l − i)! (l − 2i)!
i=0 L= l−1
para l impar
2
P0 = 1
P1 = ξ
1
P2 = 2 (3 ξ 2 − 1) (A.39)
P3 = 12 (5 ξ 3 − 3 ξ)
1
P4 = (35 ξ 4 − 30 ξ 2 + 3)
8
P( ξ)
P0
1
P3 P1
0.5 P4
ξ
-1 -0.5 0.5 1
P5
-0.5
P2
-1
θ=π θ= π /2 θ=0
Figura A.7:
1 dl 2
Pl (ξ) = (ξ − 1)l (A.40)
2l l! dξ l
a-8
Z +1
2
Pl0 Pl dξ = δl l 0 (A.41)
−1 2l + 1
∞ ³
X ´
f (r, θ) = Al rl + Bl r−(l+1) Pl (ξ) (A.42)
0
Apéndice B
N
X
Vi = Pij Qj (B.1)
j=1
N
X
Qi = Cij Vj (B.2)
j=1
1 X 1 X 1 X
W = Qi Vi = Pij Qi Qj = Cij Vi Vj (B.3)
2 2 2
i i,j i,j
X X
Qi Vi0 = Q0j Vj (B.4)
i j
b-1
b-2
S2 Q 2
Q’’= Q 1 +Q 2
S1 Q3
1 3
2 E1
Q’= −Q 1
Q1
Figura B.1:
F~ = −(∇W )Q (B.8)
T~ = −(∇θ W )Q (B.9)
F~ = (∇W )V (B.10a)
T~ = (∇θ W )V (B.10b)
N N
1 XX
W = Lij Ii Ij (B.11)
2
j=1 j=1
2Wi Wij
Li = 2 y Lij = (B.12)
Ii Ii Ij
Z Z ~ji · ~jj
µ
Lij = dvi dvj (B.13)
4π Vi Vj Ii Ij rij
Z Z ~ji · ~jj
µ
Lij = (d~si · d~li )( d~sj · d~lj )
4π Vi Vj Ii Ij rij
b-3
I I
µ d~li · d~lj
Lij = (B.14)
4π Li Lj rij
Φij
Lij = (B.15)
Ij
N
1 X
W = Φi I i (B.16)
2
i=1
XN µ ¶ XN µ ¶
dIj dLij
Ei = −Lij + −Ij (B.17)
dt dt
j=1 | {z } j=1 | {z }
T G
LS = L1 + L2 + 2M (B.18)
L1 L2 − M 2
Lp = (B.19)
L1 + L2 − 2M
F~ = (∇W )I (B.20a)
T~ = (∇θ W )I (B.20b)
F~ = −(∇W )Φ (B.21a)
T~ = −(∇θ W )Φ (B.21b)
2
X
1 1 µ SN
W = Lij Ii Ij = [N1 I1 + N2 I2 ]2 (B.22)
2 2 L | {z }
i=1, j=1
(a)
b-4
1
I2 = − I1 (B.23)
a
V2 = a V1 (B.24)
Vα
L1
L3
L2
Figura B.2:
Z Z
dl 1 ~ · d~l
Rj ≡ = H (B.25)
Lj µ Sj Φj Lj
X X
ξi = Φj Rj (B.26)
i j
X
Φi = 0 (B.27)
i
l
Rh
µ0
S ξ Re
µ>>µ 0
Figura B.3:
B=f(H)
S
I(t)
N1 N2
V(t)
Figura B.4:
B
Pg
Punto de trabajo
3 Punto
Le optimo 4
Hierro 5 de
µ>>µ 0 P guarda
µ0
B i =f(H i )
S Lh 5
2 4
Iman
Hi 3 B i =H i tg θ
A B
Producto B.H θ
Li
H
(a) (b)
Figura B.5:
Apéndice C
Corrientes cuasiestacionarias.
Teorı́a de Circuitos
C.1. Introducción
v = iR (C.2)
d i(t)
ε(t) ≡ ε12 (t) = −L = −v(t) (C.3)
dt
d i(t)
v(t) = L (C.4)
dt
Q
C= (C.5)
V1 − V2
N
X
ii = 0 (C.6)
i=1
c-1
c-2
P
εi =
P P P
= P vRi + vLi + vC i = (C.7)
= vj
· ¸ · ¸
dn dm
an n + · · · + a0 x(t) = bm m + · · · + b0 y(t) (C.8)
dt dt
| {z } | {z }
LA LB
bm sm + · · · + b0
T (s) ≡ (C.10)
an sn + · · · + a0
1
vR (t) = iR (t) R → iR = R vR (t)
R
vL (t) = L d idLt(t) → iL (t) = 1
L vL (t) dt (C.11)
1
R d vC (t)
vc (t) = C iC (t) dt → iC (t) = C dt
ZR = R
V =IZ , ZL = L s ≡ jω L (C.12)
ZC = C1s ≡ jω1C
YR = R1
1
I=V Y , Y = , YL = L1s ≡ jω1 L (C.13)
Z
YC = C s = jω C
c-3
Zp = Z1 Z2
Zs = Z1 + Z2 ,
Z1 + Z2
C.5.1. Introducción
C.5.2. Equivalencia entre fuentes reales de tensión y de intensidad
Vs = V0 − Is Z0 (C.14)
Is = I0 − Vs Y0 (C.15)
V0 1
I0 = , Y0 = (C.16)
Z0 Z0
X X
X= Ai Yi = Xi (C.17)
i i
Vs = ET − Is ZT (C.18)
Is = IN − Vs YN (C.19)
µ ¶
Vs
ET = (Vs )Is =0 , ZT = − (C.20)
Is Ei =0
µ ¶
ET
ZT = (C.21)
Is Vs =0
c-4
d W (t) d Q(t)
P (t) = = P (t) = i(t) v(t) (C.22)
dt dt
1 1
P (t) = I0 V0 cos ϕ + I0 V0 cos(2ωt + ϕ1 + ϕ2 ) (C.23)
2 2
1
hP (t)i = I0 V0 cos ϕ (C.24)
2
1 1
hP (t)i = Re[V I ∗ ] = Re[I V ∗ ] (C.25)
2 2
d x(t)
e(t) = x(t) + τ (C.27)
dt
r .π
ju u2
T (s) = = , − artg u (C.28)
1+ju 1 + u2 2
q
R C
, circuito serie
1 1 2 L
ω0 = √ , δ≡ = q (C.29)
LC 2Q
1 L
, circuito paralelo
2R C
Á
2δ ju 2δ u π 2δ u
TR (u) = 2
=p , − artg (C.31)
1 − u + 2δ ju (1 − u )2 + (2δ u)2
2 2 1 − u2
Á
1 π u
TR (u) = q , − artg (C.32)
Q2 ( u1 − u)2 + 1 2 Q (1 − u2 )
ω − ω0
∆≡ =u−1 (C.33)
ω0
Á
1 π ∆+1
TR (u) = r h ³ ´i2 , + artg (C.34)
2 Q ∆ (∆ + 2)
1 + Q ∆ ∆+2
∆+1
Á
1 π 1
TR (u) ' q , + artg (C.35)
2 2Q ∆
1 + (2Q ∆)2
f0
B ≡ f2 − f1 = 2 (f2 − f0 ) = 2δ f0 = (C.36)
Q
Apéndice D
Tablas
d-1
d-2
1
Los valores mostrados en las siguientes tablas corresponden a condiciones normales de presión y
temperatura y a baja frecuencia.
d-3
Materiales ferromagnéticos:
D.6. Conductividades
Substancia Conductividad S · m−1
Metales
Aluminio 3.7 107
Cobre 6 107
Hierro 1 107
Mercurio 0.1 107
Oro 4.5 107
Plata 6.3 107
Semiconductores
Rango 10−4 − 104
Germanio intrı́nseco 2.2
Silicio intrı́nseco 4.4 10−4
Otros (valores aproximados)
Aceite de transformador 10−11
Agua de mar 4
Agua destilada 10−4
Agua dulce 10−3
Caucho 10−15
Cuarzo fundido 10−17
Tierra húmeda 10−3
Tierra seca 10−5
Vidrio 10−12
Apéndice E
Formulario matemático
E.1.2. Gradiente
∇(f + g) = ∇ f + ∇ g (E.6)
∇(f g) = f ∇g + g ∇f (E.7)
∇(~a · ~b) = (~a · ∇)~b + (~b · ∇)~a + ~a ∧ (∇ ∧ ~b) + ~b ∧ (∇ ∧ ~a) (E.8)
df 1 1
∇f (r) = rb , , ∇r = rb , , ∇( ) = − 2 rb (E.9)
dr r r
E.1.3. Divergencia
e-1
e-2
E.1.4. Rotacional
E.1.5. Laplaciana
1
∇2 ( ) = −4π δ(~r) (E.22)
r
∇2~a ≡ ∇(∇ · ~a) − ∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ ~a) (E.23)
∂ 2 ax ∂ 2 ay ∂ 2 az
∇2~a = + + , , (Solo en cartesianas)
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2
Z I
∇ · ~a dv = ~a · ~n ds (E.24)
Z V IS
↔ ↔
∇· T dv = ~n· T ds (E.25)
V S
Z I
(∇ ∧ ~a) · ~n ds = ~a · d~l (E.26)
S L
Z I
∇f dv = f ~n ds (E.27)
Z V IS
∇ ∧ ~a dv = ~n ∧ ~a ds (E.28)
Z V IS
~n ∧ ∇f ds = f d~l (E.29)
S L
− Cartesianas: ~r = x x
b + y yb + z zb (E.30)
− Cilı́ndricas: ~r = ρ ρb + z zb = ρ cos ϕ x
b + ρ sen ϕ yb + z zb (E.31)
− Esféricas: ~r = r rb = r (sen θ cos ϕ x
b + sen θ sen ϕ yb + cos θ zb) (E.32)
− Cartesianas: dv = dx dy dz (E.36)
− Cilı́ndricas: dv = ρ dρ dϕ dz (E.37)
2
− Esféricas: dv = r sen θ dr dθ dϕ (E.38)
E.2.5. Gradiente
∂ ∂ ∂
− Cartesianas: ∇=x
b + yb + zb (E.39)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
− Cilı́ndricas: ∇ = ρb + ϕb + zb (E.40)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
− Esféricas: ∇ = rb + θb + ϕ
b (E.41)
∂ r r ∂ θ r sen θ ∂ ϕ
Solo en cartesianas puede utilizarse ∇ como un operador vectorial.
E.2.6. Divergencia
∂ ax ∂ ay ∂ az
− Cartesianas: ∇ · ~a = + + (E.42)
∂x ∂y ∂z
aρ ∂ aρ 1 ∂ aϕ ∂
− Cilı́ndricas: ∇ · ~a = + + + (E.43)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
2 ar ∂ ar aθ 1 ∂ aθ 1 ∂ aϕ
− Esféricas: ∇ · ~a = + + cotg θ + + (E.44)
r ∂r r r ∂θ r sen θ ∂ ϕ
e-4
E.2.7. Rotacional
¯ ¯
¯ x ¯
¯ b yb zb ¯
− Cartesianas: ∇∧~a = ¯¯ ∂∂x ∂∂y ∂∂z ¯
¯ (E.45)
¯ a ay az ¯
x
¯ ¯
¯ ρb ρ ϕ b zb ¯
1 ¯¯ ∂ ∂ ∂
¯
¯
− Cilı́ndricas: ∇∧~a = ¯ ∂ ρ ∂ ϕ ∂z ¯ (E.46)
ρ ¯ ¯
a ρ ρ aϕ az
¯ ¯
¯ rb
¯ ∂ r θb b ¯¯
r sen θ ϕ
1 ¯ ∂ ∂ ¯
− Esféricas: ∇∧~a = 2 (E.47)
r sen θ ¯¯ ∂ r ∂θ ∂ϕ ¯
ar r aθ r sen θ a ¯
ϕ
E.2.8. Laplaciana
∂2 λ ∂2 λ ∂2 λ
− Cartesianas: ∇2 λ = + + (E.48)
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2
µ ¶
2 1 ∂ ∂λ 1 ∂2 λ ∂2 λ
− Cilı́ndricas: ∇ λ= ρ + 2 + (E.49)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ ϕ2 ∂ z2
µ ¶ µ ¶
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂λ 1 ∂ ∂λ 1 ∂2 λ
− Esféricas: ∇ λ= 2 r + 2 sen θ + 2
r ∂r ∂r r sen θ ∂ θ ∂θ r sen2 θ ∂ ϕ2
(E.50)
Solo en cartesianas
∇2 ~a = ∇2 ax + ∇2 ay + ∇2 az (E.51)
En general
∇2 ~a ≡ ∇(∇ · ~a) − ∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ ~a) (E.52)
~ · rb dsr
ds
= 2 = sen θ dθ dϕ ≡ dΩ (E.53)
r2 r
Z π Z 2π
dΩ = 4π (E.54)
θ=0 ϕ=0
e-5
0 para ~r 6= ~r0 Z
δ(~r − ~r0 ) = ,, δ(~r − ~r0 ) dv = 1 (E.57)
V→∞
→ ∞ para ~r → ~r0
1
δ(~r − ~r0 ) = δ(q1 − q10 ) δ(q2 − q20 ) δ(q3 − q30 ) (E.58)
h1 h2 h3
Z x
d
δ(x − x0 ) = u(x − x0 ) ≡ u0 (x − x0 ) , , u(x − x0 ) = δ(x − x0 ) (E.59)
dx −∞
~ = δ(~r − ~r 0 ) = − 1 1 1 1
δ(R) ∇ 02 ( ) = − ∇2 ( ) (E.61)
4π R 4π R
x δ(x) = 0 (E.63)
1
δ(a x) = δ(x , , a > 0) (E.64)
a
Z ∞
δ(x − a) δ(x − b) dx = δa − b (E.65)
−∞
1
δ(x2 − a2 ) = [δ(x − a) + δ(x + a)] (E.66)
2a
Z
f (~r0 ) = f (~r) δ(~r − ~r0 ) dv (E.70)
V→∞
Z ∞
f (x) δ 0 (x − x0 ) dx = −f 0 (x0 ) (E.71)
−∞
Z ∞
f (x) δ (n) (x − x0 ) dx = (−1)n f (n) (x0 ) (E.72)
−∞
X δ(x − xi )
δ[h(x)] = , , xi son los ceros de h(x) (E.73)
x
|dh(xi )/dx|
i
∞
a0 X
f (t) = fd (t) = + (ai cos n ω t + bi sen n ω t) (E.74)
2
n=1
Z t+T0
2
an = f (t) cos n ω0 t dt , , n = 0, 1, 2 · · · (E.75)
T0 t
Z t+T0
2
bn = f (t) sen n ω0 t dt , , n = 1, 2 · · · (E.76)
T0 t
∞
X
f (t) = cn e j n ω0 t (E.77)
n=−∞
Z t+T0
1
cn = f (t) e −j n ω0 t dt (E.78)
T0 t
E.5.2. Transformadas
Z ∞
1
f (t) = F (ω) e j ω t dω (E.79)
2π ω=−∞
Z ∞
F (ω) ≡ F[f (t)] = f (t) e− j ω t dt (E.80)
t=−∞
e-7