Robotics and Mechatronics

Professor
M. Sc. Luis J. Ricalde Castellanos

References:
Robot dynamics and control
Mark W. Spong,Ed. John Wyley, 1997
Mobile Robots
Jones and Flynn, Ed. Peters, 1997
Mechatronics & Robotics Course
Prof. G. A. Parker
Mechatronic Systems & Robotics Research Group, University of Surrey, UK
 Robotics and Mechatronics

Professor
M. C. Luis J. Ricalde Castellanos

References:
Robot dynamics and control
Mark W. Spong,Ed. John Wyley, 1997
Mobile Robots
Jones and Flynn, Ed. Peters, 1997
Mechatronics & Robotics Course
Prof. G. A. Parker
Mechatronic Systems & Robotics Research Group, University of Surrey, UK
OUR GOAL
Bibliography

− Textbooks
• Craig “Introduction to Robotics”, 1986
• Fu, Gonzalez and Lee “Robotics:”, 1987
• Groover et al “Industrial Robotics”, McGraw Hill, 1986
– periodicals and journals
• IEEE Robotics Magazine
• IEEE Transactions on Robotics & Automation
– TV, film and newspapers
• Sunday Times Innovations section/The Times Interface
• Tomorrows World/Robot Wars
• Terminator/RoboCop/Forbidden Planet etc..
– Internet
 Introduction

• Hoy en día la producción eficiente en costo de componentes electrónicos,

procesadores de señales digitales y microsistemas han llevado la tecnología
por encima de lo esperado.

• Los sistemas actuales están basados en sensores y actuadores de precisión y

alto desempeño.

• Qué es lo que hace la diferencia con respecto a los sistemas diseñados en el

pasado, donde los componentes electrónicos, mecánicos y el control
interactuaban pero con una pobre integración y poca sinergia?

• La sinergía y la integración en la etapa de diseño es lo que separa un sistema

mecatrónico de un sistema multidisciplinario tradicional.
 Definición de Mecatrónica
Mecatrónica
Disciplina integradora que utiliza las tecnologías de la mecánica, electrotecnia,
electrónica, control y las tecnologías de información y comunicación para
conseguir productos, procesos y sistemas mejorados.
Robótica y Mecatrónica

1) Importancia de la robótica en la mecatrónica

2) Desarrollo histórico de la robótica

3) Robots industriales y sus componentes

4) Configuraciones de los robots industriales

5) Clasificación cinemática

6) Aplicaciones industriales

7) Robots móviles
 Enfoque Tradicional y Mecatrónica

Enfoque tradicional: Mecatrónica

• Control centralizado por computadora Procesos distribuidos

• Control secuencial Secciones del proceso capaces de control

individual

• Control analógico, basado en relevadores Microprocesadores y PLC´s proporcionan un

cierto grado de inteligencia

• Inspección y control de calidad al final Inspección en línea, sistemas de visión

del proceso
 Enfoque Tradicional y Mecatrónica

Enfoque tradicional: Mecatrónica

• Mecanismos complejos Procesos simplificados

• Movimientos no ajustables Procesos progamables

• Actuadores de desempeño constante Actuadores de desempeño variable

• Sincronización mecánica Sincronización electrónica

• Control Manual Control automático, sistemas inteligentes

 Enfoque Tradicional y Mecatrónica

Robótica

Enfoque tradicional: Mecatrónica

 Enfoque Tradicional y Mecatrónica

En los últimos 15 años, la investigación en torno a la Mecatrónica clásica ha sido

completada casi por completo; recientemente, la gente en el campo de la mecatrónica
ha tratado de hacer los sistemas mecatrónicos más “inteligentes”.

Donde la Mecatrónica inteligente se puede caracterizar por la fusión entre la

inteligencia artificial (AI) y los sistemas Mecatrónicos.

Esta área de desarrollo se enfrentó a dos grandes dificultades: la investgación en

relación a robótica industrial se ha completado a nivel universitario y que la AI no ha
sido tan prometedora como se esperaba.

Ante dichas dificultades, la Mecatrónica Inteligente Avanzada se dirige hacia la

fusión de informática y mecatrónica.

La meta de dicha fusión es utilizar los robots como interfases entre los humanos y las
máquinas utilizando la inteligencia humana y el uso de las computadoras para ayudar
la inteligencia humana, mediante las redes de comunicaciones.
 Enfoque Tradicional y Mecatrónica

Actualmente la Mecatrónica ha logrado dichas metas. La automatización industrial

donde se reemplazan los obreros humanos por robots industriales casi se ha
completado.

Ahora la automatización de procesos se dirige al CIM (Manufactura Integrada por

Computadora). Esto a pesar de que el número de robots utilizados en el CIM está
disminuyendo.

Los robots, ahora se dirigen a un contacto con la sociedad humana.

Los ingenieros de robótica, principalmente en Japón, han obtenido diversos

resultados en torno a la investigación de robótica avanzada bajo nuevos conceptos,
los cuales describiremos brevemente.
 Avances de la Mecatrònica en Medicina y Cirugía

• Microsistema activo de catéter para neurocirugía

• Artroscopia asistida por computadora
• Cirugía realizada por robots de alta precisión
• Robots asistentes al cirujano
• Instrumentos quirúrgicos mecatrónicos
• Sistema TURPS (Transurethral Resection of the Prostate) para Prostatectomía
• Robot asistente para perforación en operaciones ortopédicas
• Robot manipulador para endoscopia
• Sistemas mecatrónicos para perforación de huesos
• Sistemas mecatrónicos para fisioterapia y rehabilitació en los dedos de la mano
• Equipos de exploración por ultrasonido
• Marcapasos con excitación caótica
• Equipo de control y comunicación de signos vitales para paramédicos
• Nano-robots que recorran las arterias obstruidas para labor de dragado y limpieza
 Robots in the World

Global 770.000
Japan 350.000
European Union 233.000
USA 104.000
The European Markets with Greater Number of
Robots
Germany 105.000
Italy 47.000
France 24.000
Spain 18.000
UK 14.000
Grow of Sales During the First Six Months of the
2003 reaching the 80,000 units
USA 35%
Europe 25%
Others Regions 19%
Japan 18%
What is a robot ?
– “A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
machine designed to manipulate materials, parts,
tools,or specialized devices, through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks."
Robotics Industries Association

– "A robot is an automatic device that performs

functions normally ascribed to humans or a machine
in the form of a human."
Websters Dictionary
Historical development I - the beginning

– The word 'robot' was coined in the early 1920’s by the Czech playwright Karel
Capek (pronounced "chop'ek") from the Czech word for forced labor.

– The term 'robotics' refers to the study and use of robots and was coined and
first used by the Russian-born American scientist and writer Isaac Asimov
(1942). Asimov also created the ‘Three Laws of Robotics’.

– in the early 1940’s MIT developed a numerically controlled (NC) milling

machine (the first NC machine tool)

– In 1961 George Devol created his patent for parts transfer machines. Joe
Engelberger teamed with Devol to form Unimation and was the first to market
robots. As a result, Engelberger has been called the 'father of robotics.'

– The first industrial modern robot - the Unimate - developed by Devol and
Engelberger - was installed at GM (New Jersey) in 1961.
A Unimate serves Devol and A Unimate employed more
Engelberger with a cocktail profitably
Historical development II - computers + sensors

– In 1964 Artficial Intelligence (AI) Labs open at MIT, SRI (Stanford) and
University of Edinburgh
– The mobile robot ‘Shakey’ was developed at SRI in the late sixties.It had a
camera and touch sensors and could move about the lab floor
– SRI develop the ‘Stanford Arm’ - an electrically powered manipulator and then
‘WAVE’ - the first robot programming language. This was subsequently
developed into VAL for use with Unimation robots
– In 1974 ASEA introduce the all electric drive IRb6. Cincinnati Milacron also
introduce computer controlled T3 (The Tomorrow Tool) robot. Kawasaki use
Unimation machines to weld motorbike frames.
– In 1976 Viking I & II space crafts equipped with robot arms land on Mars
– Unimate PUMA’s introduced in 1978. SCARA’s introduced in 1979.
– Vision based workcell demonstrated at University of Rhode Island in 1980
(Kirsch).
Historical development III - the latest

New Techniques
– walking robots
– co-operating arms or AGV’s
– biomedical engineering
– teleoperation
– Internet robotics
– micro and nanorobotics

New Applications
– teleoperated robotics (space, surgery)
– service robots (teaching, retail, fast food outlets, bank tellers, garbage
collection, security guards, cleaning vehicles etc etc…)
– UGV’s and UAV’s for hazardous environments
Robots in sci-fi:
 • Industrial Robot Systems: Overview

Today 90% of all robots used are

found in factories and they are
referred to as industrial robots.

An industrial robot typically has the

following component parts:

– controller
– arm
– drive
– end-effector
– sensors
Components of an industrial robot system:
Controller

– Every robot is connected to a computer controller, which

regulates the components of the arm and keeps them
working together.
– The controller also allows the robot to be networked to
other systems, so that it may work together with other
machines, processes, or robots.
– Almost all robots are pre-programmed using "teaching"
devices or off-line software programs (OLP).
– In the future, controllers with artificial intelligence (AI) could
allow robots to think on their own, or even program
themselves. This could make robots more self-reliant and
independent.
Components of an industrial robot
system:

Arm

– The arm is the part of the robot that positions

the end-effector and sensors to do their pre-
programmed business.
– Many are built to resemble human arms, and
have shoulders, elbows, wrists, even fingers.
– Each joint is said to give the robot 1 degree of
freedom. A simple robot arm with 3 degrees
of freedom could move in 3 ways: up and
down, left and right, forward and backward.
– Most working robots today have 6 degrees of
freedom to allow them to reach any possible
point in space within its work envelope (or
‘working volume’).
– The human arm has 7.
Components of an industrial robot system:
Drive

– The links (the sections between the joints) are moved into their desired
position by the drive.

– Typically, a drive is powered by pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or, most

commonly, electricity.

– hydraulic drives: powerful, deliver large forces, require pumps

– pneumatic: cheap, practical (most factories have air lines), safe, difficult to
control.

– electric: good precision, good accuracy, stepper or DC servo (most

common),
Components of an industrial robot system:

End-effector (or tool)

– The end-effector could be thought of as the

"hand" on the end of the robotic arm.
– There are many possible end-effectors including
a gripper, a vacuum pump, tweezers, scalpel,
blowtorch, welding gun, spray gun, axe, hair
clippers, or just about anything that helps it do its
job.
– Some robots can change end-effectors, and be
reprogrammed for a different set of tasks.
Components of an industrial robot system:
Sensors

– A sensor sends information, in the form of electronic signals back to the

controller.
– Sensors also give the robot controller information about its surroundings
and lets it know the exact position of the arm, or the state of the world
around it.
– One of the more interesting areas of sensor development is in the field of
computer vision and object recognition.
– Other types of sensors include ultrasonic, lasers, force/touch etc.
Components of an industrial robot system:
Classification of joint types

– R - revolute (1 DOF)

– P - prismatic (1 DOF)

– helical (2 DOF)

– cylindrical ((2 DOF) Revolute joint, R Prismatic, P Helical joint, H

– universal (2 DOF)

– spherical (3 DOF)

Cylindrical, C Universal , U Spherical, S

Kinematic Robot Arm Classifications

– Robot arms are usually classified by the design of their mechanical

system and by the shape of their working volume.
– Generally, there are five common robot configurations:
1) Cartesian (or rectangular),
2) cylindrical,
3) spherical,
4) jointed arm
5) SCARA.
– Robots may also be categorised as being either ‘articulated’ or ‘non-
articulated’.
– A further way of describing a robot is by its number of DoF.
Cartesian coordinate robots I

– CCRs are highly configurable, rectilinear robot systems which, in a basic

configuration, include an X and Y axis.
– Three axis CCRs, incorporating an X, Y, and Z axis, are also common for
positioning tools, such as dispensers, cutters, drivers, and routers.
Cartesian coordinate robots II

– Each of the axis lengths are selectable

– Payloads and speeds vary based on axis length and support structures.

– CCRs are typically very repeatable, have better inherent accuracy than a
SCARA or jointed arm, and perform 3D path-dependent motions with relative
ease.
– However,the CCR’s key feature is its configurability – the ability you have to
configure and size the CCR to best meet your application needs.

– A gantry robot is a special type of Cartesian robot whose structure resembles a

gantry. This structure is used to minimize deflection along each axis. Many
large robots are of this type.
Cylindrical Coordinate Robots

– A cylindrical robot has two linear axes and one rotary axis.
– The robot derives its name from the operating envelope
– The Z axis is located inside the base, resulting in a compact end-of-arm
design that allows the robot to "reach" into tight work envelopes without
sacrificing speed or repeatability.
Spherical (or Polar) Coordinate Robots

– A spherical robot has one linear axis and two rotary axes
– Spherical robots are used in a variety of industrial tasks such as
welding and material handling.
Jointed Arm Robots

– A Jointed Arm robot has three rotational

axes connecting three rigid links and a
base.
– An Jointed Arm robot is frequently called
an anthropomorphic arm because it
closely resembles a human arm.
– The first joint above the base is referred
to as the shoulder. The shoulder joint is
connected to the upper arm, which is
connected at the elbow joint.
– Jointed Arm robots are suitable for a
wide variety of industrial tasks, ranging
from welding to assembly.
SCARA Robots I

• SCARA robots are a combination of the articulated arm and the cylindrical robot.
• They are used widely in electronic assembly.
• The rotary axes are mounted vertically rather than horizontally minimising the
robot's deflection when it carries an object while moving at speed. The load is
carried by the joint frame NOT the motor.
SCARA Robots II

• The acronym SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm, a
particular design developed in the late 1970's in the laboratory of Professor
Hiroshi Makino of Yamanashi University, located in Kofu, Japan.

• The basic configuration of a SCARA is a four degree-of-freedom robot with

horizontal positioning accomplished much like a shoulder and elbow held
perfectly parallel to the ground.

• SCARAs are know for their fast cycle times, excellent repeatability, good
payload capacity and a large workspace, shaped somewhat like a donut.
• SCARA’s can be referred to as ‘swivel’ robots
Summary of classifications in terms of joint types:

• Cartesian P-P-P
• Cylindrical R-P-P
• Spherical R-R-P
• SCARA R-R-P
• Jointed/articulated/revolute R-R-R
Advantages and limitations of different configs:

Cartesian:
Pros: Position control is easy.
Rigid structure so high payloads are possible
Cons: Occupies a large volume (low robot to workspace
ratio)
All 3 axes exposed to environment
Used for: pick and place, machine tool loading, electronics

Cylindrical:
Pros: Rigid structure and realtively easy position control.
High payloads are possible.
Cons: Can only operate close to base (or floor)
Used for: Pick and place, palletizing, laboratory testing
Advantages and limitations of different configs:

Polar:
Pros: Versatile - large working envelope.
Cons: More difficult to control end effector position
Large space near the base that cannot be reached
Used for: applications where a small number of vertical actions is
required: loading a press, spot welding etc.

Articulated:
Pros: Extremely flexible - can reach anywhere within workspace.
Joints can be completely sealed.
Cons: Difficult to program - controller must be complex
Payload can be low depending on build
Used for: Almost anything - but good in harsh or clean room conditions.
Advantages and limitations of different configs:

SCARA:
Pros: Fast (3 m/s), high repeatability (0.02mm),
Compact and can operate through 360 degrees (plan).
Cons: Medium to low payload
Limited vertical movement
Used for: Soldering, welding, drilling, electronics assembly.
Almost any ‘table-top’ application.
Components of an industrial robot system:
Classification of end effectors + grippers

An end effector is the device that is fixed to the end of the

robot manipulator mounting flange.

N.B.: Typically the manipulator also has a wrist (often R-R-R).

Power Kinetic Energy

electrical rotational
pneumatic GRIPPER
linear
hydraulic
Uses of robots

– Today 90% of all robots used are found in factories and they are referred
to as industrial robots.

– Ten years ago, 9 out of 10 robots were being bought by auto companies -
now, only 50% of robots made today are bought by car manufacturers.

– Robots are slowly finding their way into warehouses, laboratories,

research and exploration sites, energy plants, hospitals, even outer space.

– Robots are useful in industry for a variety of reasons. Installing robots is

often a way business owners can be more competitive, because robots can
do some things more efficiently than people.
Mobile Robotics

Biologically inspired nonlinear systems

Is this a robot? Stewart platform Robotics camera AGV

 Bipped Robot RABBIT
Laboratoire d'Automatique de Grenoble (LAG)
 Bipped Robot RABBIT
Fundamental research in the general area of automatic control,
legged robots.
A class of nonlinear, hybrid systems that arise in the study of legged
robots.
Relative roles of "Mechanics" on the one hand and "Automation" on
the other for designing an articulated mechanical system and
associated control laws for achieving asymptotically stable motion at
a constant speed with low energy consumption.
From the control design point of view, one of the interesting aspects
of this problem, which is also a great source of analytical difficulty, is
the necessity to use several dynamical models in order to describe the
evolution of the system, with each model corresponding to either a
support phase (one or several legs in contact with the ground), or a
flight phase (no ground contact).
With the exception of a support phase preceding a flight phase, each
phase transition is characterized by an impact of one or more legs
with the ground, necessitating an additional model (generally
discontinuous), which determines the initial conditions of the
succeeding model, as well as the energy dissipated in the impact.

The project has been structured along four principal themes and has
resulted in the realization of a prototype bipedal walker/runner called
RABBIT.

• Modeling
• Determining Optimal Trajectories
• Study of Natural (unforced) Limit Cycles
• Stabilization of Trajectories
 Bipped Robot RABBIT

• The prototype is 1.425 m tall and weighs 36 kg

• Be representative of the fundamental problems
raised in the Scientific Objectives ;
• Simplicity and robustness: The mechanism has
few degrees of freedom (five or seven depending
on the phase of motion), and can stand the
impacts associated with phase transitions ;
• Easily reproduced or copied ;
• Availability to all participants wishing to
experiment with different methods of control
design; and
• Ability to run as well as walk.
Does it walk?
Does it walk?
Does it run?
 Where does Mechatronics enter?

• Could you imagine what would happen if you pushed backward on

Asimo (Honda's famous robot) while he was walking? He would
surely fall down.
• If you push RABBIT backward, he begins to walk backward. It has
programmed a posture principle into the robot: the relative angles of
the knees and the relative angles between the torso and thighs are
controlled as a function of the angle of the center of mass of the robot
with respect to the stance foot. Therefore, if the center of mass moves
backward, the swing leg moves backward, and if the center of mass
moves forward, the swing leg advances forward and prepares for
contact with the ground.
Where does Mechatronics enter?

• The controller creates an asymptotically stable orbit, similar

to that of a van der Pol oscillator, except we have to deal with
the additional problems caused by impacts. When you see the
van der Pol oscillator converge to a periodic orbit, you do
NOT think that this is due to a planned trajectory, you
understand that is due to an inherent stabilizing mechanism in
the oscillator.
• We can compute feedback controllers that are optimal with
respect to almost any cost function, such as minimal energy.
We can even take into account friction at the joints in the
controller design.
 Software Tools

• Matlab
• Maple
• Visual C
• Others
 LINEAR SYSTEMS THEORY

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
T0 = 
1
0 0 1 1
 
0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 − 0.5 1 0 0 − 0.5
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.5  0 1 0 1.5 
T0 = T0 T1 = 
2 1 2
× =
0 0 1 1  0 0 1 0  0 0 1 1 
     
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 

 R23 T23 
T =
2
3

0 1

1 0 0  sin α − sin α 0
R23 = R x ,γ R z ,α = 0 cos γ − sin γ  × sin α cos α 0
0 sin γ cos γ   0 0 1
How to control a Robot?
Robot Classification by Control Method:

Robots can be classified by two different types of control methods:

• Non-Servo Controlled Robots

• Classic manipulators

• Servo-Controlled Robots
• First and second generation systems
• Point-to-point Robots
• Continous-path Robots
 Non-Servo Controlled Robots :

Robot
control
system
Operator
and/or
Gripper
supervising Mechanical and/or
computer arm Workpiece
tool

Also known as ‘limited sequence robots’ or ‘classic manipulators’.

There are only two positions for each individual axis; travel
continues until the end-stops are reached (open loop control)
Programming is difficult to change.
Characteristics of Non-Servo Controlled Robot
Systems :

• Relatively high speed

• Low cost
• Easy to operate and maintain
• Repeatibility of about +/- 0.01"
• Limited flexibility with respect to positioning and programming
Servo Controlled Robots:

• So called ‘first and second generation’ robot systems

• Information about the position and velocity are continuously
monitored and fed back to the control system associated with
each joint
• Controller can perform the transform from real world coordinates
to joint angles (i.e. inverse kinematics)
• Coordinated motion of multiple axes is possible (joint
interpolation)
• Reprogramming is easier
• Higher degree of complexity, therefore more expensive and
potentially less reliable
• Most systems feature electric motor drives
• Path control can be continuous, or point to point.
 1st generation system
positional feedback of joint angles
Robot
control
system
Operator
and/or
Gripper
supervising servo
servo Mechanical and/or
computer control Workpiece
control arm tool

Simplified Servo Control Strategy :

• Obtain actual position of all joints
• Compare actual and desired positions and generate an error signal to
drive the joints
• Manipulator moves and the error signal changes
• When the error signals for all axes are null, the robot is at its destination
2nd Generation Robot Systems:

sensor
sensor sensor
control
control Sensors
systems
system
system
Robot
control
system
Operator
and/or
Gripper
supervising servo Mechanical and/or
computer control arm Workpiece
tool

• Hierarchical, multi-processor computer controlled

• Flexibly programmable by using ‘Off-Line’ simulations
• Integration of sensor outputs and high level decision making into
the control strategy and path generation
• Capable of moderate speeds.
Functional parts of robot servo control :

• kinematic calculations
• trajectory generation
• dynamics calculations

For the scope of this course: path control involves kinematics and
trajectory generation.
Forward and inverse kinematics :

Forward
Kinematic Cartesian
Joint Equations space
space (x,y,z,Ο,
(J1,J2 ..) Inverse Α,Τ)
Kinematic
Equations

• Robot kinematic calculations deal with the relationship between

joint positions and an external fixed Cartesian coordinate frame.
• Dynamics, force, momentum etc. are not considered.
Forward kinematics :
Y
2-dimensional manipulator

J2

TCP ?

J3

J1
X

• Position of end-effector can be determined using the joint angles

and mechanical structure of the manipulator.
• A Kinematic model maps an eligible joint vector into a
corresponding position and orientation of the end-effector
(called the robot pose).
task motion definition

world
x y
Inverse kinematics :
Y

(x,y,z,
ο,α,τ)desired

Which is the correct

robot pose ?

• No single generic procedure exists for calculating the inverse

kinematics of an arm.
• There are often multiple solutions for a given position and
orientation.
• For a 6 DOF robot, there may be as many as 16 solutions.
Inverse kinematics :
Y
(x,y,z, 2-dimensional manipulator
ο,α,τ)desired
J2

J3

J1
X

• First of all: the position/orientation must be reachable.

• Joint angles must be monitored if they are approaching limits -
‘singularities’ can occur
Inverse kinematics in computer graphics :

• Inverse kinematics are used extensively in computer graphics

animation programming.
• One particular area is in the 3D games industry when the
inverse kinematics of characters (humanoids, animals etc.) or
parts of characters (e.g. hands => end effectors) can be used to
achieve smooth motion between two different positions.
• The characters themselves are constructed out of skeletons
which resemble the articulated structures found in robotics.
• Synthetic actors can be used to produce a more natural looking
animation of human figures, which can even provide
suggestions of feelings and emotions
• This can be achieved in real time without the use of ‘key-frame’
techniques.
Trajectory planning :

Path Trajectory in joint space

Trajectory
planner Trajectory in
Constraints
cartesian space

speed other
profile parameters

• Moving from A to B the robot traverses a space curve or ‘path’.

• It is normally necessary to achieve a smooth path both at
individual joints and the end effector.
• A path becomes a trajectory when temporal information is
added.
 Point to point servo control :

• Teach initial and final points; intermediate path is not critical and is
computed by the controller
• Applications: Moving of parts, spot welding, machine loading

Continuous Path Servo-Controlled Robots:

• Used when there is a need to follow a complex path through 3-D space,
possibly at high speeds (spray painting, welding, polishing)
• Points taught by manual lead through with high speed automatic
sampling
• Therefore requires that the controller stores a good deal of data in its
memory.
Point to point motion :

• There are 3 ways a manipulator can move from point to point:

• slew motion
• joint interpolated motion
• straight line motion

• In slew motion all joints move to their required new position as quickly
as possible. All axes therefore begin motion at the same time but arrive
at their destination at different times. This generally results in joint wear
and unpredictable arm motions.
• Joint interpolated motion requires the controller to calculate which joint
will take the longest to arrive at its destination and slow other joints
down accordingly. A separate velocity is calculated for each axis.
Manipulator motion is generally smooth and wear is reduced.
• Straight line motion is, of course, a particular case of continuous path
motion.
Continuous path motion :
• For either straight line or continuous pre-defined (i.e. either off-line
programmed or taught) motion the robot will have a number of
intermediate points stored in memory.
• These points are either calculated as a straight line between the start
and destination, or stored during teach mode.
• The points are often stored in Cartesian NOT joint space therefore
inverse kinematic calculations are required.
• A number of intermediate joint transformations along the path require
computation.
• These transforms are a certain distance apart: the distance determined
to allow enough time to do the joint interploation caculations, arm
kinematic calculations, service any sensors etc.
• Update rate of most industrial robots is between 10-50Hz.
• For standard 6 DoF manipulators continuous path motion is
computationally expensive - composite translations and rotations in 3D
are usually performed using 4-tuple, or quaternion, representations.
Continuous Path or Point to Point Control ?

• seam welding
• spot welding
• paint spraying
• joint glueing
• machine loading
• sheep shearing
• laboratory testing
• laser cutting
• open heart surgery
• table tennis playing
• security (shooting things)
Robot programming:

• teach and learn, guiding etc.

• computer programming methods
• programming levels :
– task level
– object level
– manipulator level
– joint level
• example programming language - VAL II
• robot simulations and OLP
“Teach and Show” Programming:

• One of the simplest programming methods involves leading the robot

through the desired motions, and recording the joint motions for later
playback.
• The robot motions can be input by physically moving the robot end
effector manually, or by moving the robot using a hand-held teach
pendant.
• The robot joint positions can be either recorded automatically at some
sampling rate (eg. for continuous motions such as arc welding), or
recorded manually by the operator (eg. for pick-and-place tasks).
• Once the motions have been saved, the controller simply plays them
back by using the recorded joint values as the control inputs.
• Lead-through programming has the advantage of being relatively
simple. However, this approach is not well suited to complex tasks, and
the programs are difficult to modify without starting over.
Teach-in Programming:

• This is the most popular teaching method and is applied to all types of
robots.
• Under this method, a manual teach pendant or teach box is used by an
operator to move the robot through a series of points.
• During programming, the switches on the manual teach pendent are
depressed by an operator. This in turn causes the end effector to move
to the desired point.
• As the end effector reaches the desired point, the record push-button is
pressed. The position of the joints and the status of the end effector will
be recorded by the controller.
• Significant disadvantage is that the operator has to divert his/her
attention away from the movement of the robot during programming in
order to locate the appropriate push-button to move the robot.
• A joy-stick can go some way to solving this problem
Teach-through (teach-by-show) Programming:

• This method is similar to the teaching-in method in that the robot is also
manually moved along the desired path.
• However, this method requires the joints of the robot to be moved by
the operator instead of the robot's motors.
• During programming, the joint positions are constantly recorded by the
controller. This is done by sampling or taking readings at fixed intervals
of time.
• This method has two limitations. Firstly, the controller must have
sufficient memory to store information on the data points (usually both
joint and cartesian space).
• Secondly, as the robot motor is inoperative, the operator must
overcome the weight of the motor as well as the friction that exits in the
arm joints and gears.
• These limitations make this method unsuitable for medium-size or
larger size robots.
Improvements to Teach-through Programming:

TEACHING THROUGH USING A FORCE SENSOR

• This method is substantially the same as the normal teach-through
method, except that it has a force sensor attached to the end effector.
• During the arm motion, force is exerted at the end effector causing the
sensor to translate the exerted force into electrical signals. These
signals are then used to activate the robot motors.
• This method is superior to the teach-through as little effort is required to
move the robot and thus, a higher degree of precision can be achieved.
• Despite this, this method is not widely used and its application is limited
to experimental models.

TEACHING THROUGH USING POSITION/ORIENTATION SENSORS

• During the learning process, the operator brings the robot to the starting
point of the path and the teaching is then carried out automatically with
the help of the sensor.
Programming languages:

• Robot tasks can also be specified by a sequence of instructions in a

robot programming language. Many proprietary robot languages have
been developed by different vendors.
• These languages typically incorporate many of the features of general-
purpose computer languages along with specific robot commands.
• Using a programming language, the logic and sequence of robot tasks
can be defined off-line.
• However, the robot locations specified in the program must still be
defined on-line using the robot. For example, an instruction in the
program may be
# move B
which instructs the robot to move from its current location to location B.
The controller cannot execute this instruction until the physical location
of B has been defined using the robot itself.
Example Programming Language: VAL II

• developed by Unimation in the 1970’s - incorporated by other

manufacturers (e.g. Adept) into their robot systems.
• typical commands:
# where: display current robot position (joint and world space)
# here: define a position
# move: move to a specified location
# delay: pause for a number of seconds
# calibrate: calibrate the robot
# execute: run a propram
• typical program:
A move PT1
delay (10)
move PT2
goto A
Levels of robot programming :

Task
" assemble a PCB of type A "
level

Object
" pick up IC No. 20 "
level

Manipulator
" move to position X "
level

Joint
" drive joint 3 by 30 degrees "
level

• robots are programmed in joint motions - the real world isn’t !

Task level programming :

• ideally this is the way ALL robots would be progammed using

simple high level languages
• the user would describe a task (task specification) in terms of
objects and composite actions (e.g. make me a cup of tea)
• a task planner would then consult a database (real world model)
and transform the task specification into a robot-level program
(robot program synthesis)
• programming and operator training times are vastly reduced
• unfortunately task level and object level programming are still
largely confined to the research lab.
• most programming of industrial robots remains stuck at the robot
level or even joint level
Robot level programming :

Typical program development steps :-

• workspace is set up and its components (robot, feeders,

conveyoys, jigs etc.) are fixed
• the location (orientation AND position) of the workspace
components are defined using the data structure provided by the
programming language
• the task is partitioned into a sequence of actions which can be
implemented by the programming language (e.g. move, pause,
repeat etc)
• the program is refined and debugged
Robot workcell simulations and Off-Line
Programming (OLP) :

• several interactive, 3D graphic simulation packages for designing,

evaluating, and off-line programming robotic workcells are available
including IGRIP (Deneb), GRASP (BYG), Workspace (CSL Ltd).
• actual robotic/device geometry, motion attributes, kinematics,
clamps, fixtures, and I/O logic are incorporated to produce
extremely accurate simulations.
• systems feature interactive 3D graphics in which to verify production
concepts, workcell designs and manufacturing processes before
implementing them on the shop floor.
• after verification is completed, automated factory floor devices, such
as robots and turntables, can be programmed off-line based on the
CAD data for the part being processed.
Robot workcell simulations and Off-Line
Programming (OLP) :

• The software includes built-in libraries of robots, common

production equipment, and application-specific options that include
tooling such as spot weld guns, and even paint spraying tools.
• These libraries, an integrated CAD system, and data translators for
IGES, DXF, Pro/ENGINEER and other file formats support the rapid
development of accurate simulation models.
• Simulation and analysis functions include automatic collision and
near-miss detection, and automatic adjustment of a robot work
envelope for tool offsets and joint limits.
Robot workcell simulations and Off-Line
Programming (OLP) :

screenshot of IGRIP, by Deneb.

Benefits of OLP:-
– production stops due to new program creation are minimized
– reduced costs due to incorrect equipment purchases
– much faster program creation and modification compared to on-
line programming
– optimized programs due to the powerful analysis tools
– always correct orientation of the used tool
– no unexpected collisions
– easy program editing and modifying
– the quality of the programs is often better compared to programs
created on-line

Drawbacks of OLP:-
– software and host computers (usually UNIX) are expensive
– systems are not easy to use unless operators are trained
– training can be long and costly
Benefits of OLP:-
– production stops due to new program creation are minimized
– reduced costs due to incorrect equipment purchases
– much faster program creation and modification compared to on-
line programming
– optimized programs due to the powerful analysis tools
– always correct orientation of the used tool
– no unexpected collisions
– easy program editing and modifying
– the quality of the programs is often better compared to programs
created on-line

Drawbacks of OLP:-
– software and host computers (usually UNIX) are expensive
– systems are not easy to use unless operators are trained
– training can be long and costly
Robot level programming :

Typical program development steps :-

• workspace is set up and its components (robot, feeders,

conveyoys, jigs etc.) are fixed
• the location (orientation AND position) of the workspace
components are defined using the data structure provided by the
programming language
• the task is partitioned into a sequence of actions which can be
implemented by the programming language (e.g. move, pause,
repeat etc)
• the program is refined and debugged
REVIEW : CAN YOU CLASSIFY THESE ROBOTS?
REVIEW : CAN YOU CLASSIFY THESE ROBOTS?
REVIEW : CAN YOU CLASSIFY THESE ROBOTS?
REVIEW : CAN YOU CLASSIFY THESE ROBOTS?
REVIEW : CAN YOU CLASSIFY THESE ROBOTS?