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Introduction to Log Interpretation

Introducción a Interpretación

Schlumberger Private
de Registros

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Introduction to Log Interpretation

Petrofísica: Que es?


• Objetivos de la Petrofísica:
Identificación y cuantificación de los reservorios de
hidrocarburo

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Evaluación del fluido y propiedades de la roca

• Productos:
Descripción del Reservorio Dinamico y Estatico
Distribución del Fluido fuera del diametro de hoyo

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El dilema de la Petrofisica …

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El petrofisico tiene que medir las propiedades de la roca y de los fluidos en el
hoyo. Las medidas que se puede hacer son indirectas. Casi el completo rango de
la física (resistividad, nuclear, acústica, resonancia magnética, etc) se usan para
intentar lograr la meta de cuantificar la roca y las propiedades del fluido abajo en
el hoyo. 3
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Introduction to Log Interpretation

Dimensiones Implicadas

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El petrofísico no sólo usa datos que cubren el rango completo
físico, sino también usa una gama amplia en la escala de
resolución, el analisis microscópico de los nucleos y la sísmica
de pozo con resolucion de hasta cien metros. 4
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Modo de Comunicación
Los registros de hoyo abierto son la
fuente más importante de la información
de la evaluacion del hoyo. Consiste en
bajar un juego de sensores en el pozo
para grabar las propiedades de la

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formación con función de la profundidad.
Se puede realizar:

Después de que el pozo se ha perforado.


Se baja un juego de sensores en un cable
eléctrico (Wireline logging)

Mientras el pozo es perforado. Se


colocan los sensores en la sarta de
perforacion (LWD)

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Propósito…
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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Los datos registrados a hoyo abierto vía Wireline o
LWD se interpretan para revelar la propiedades de la
roca y las propiedades del fluido y su complejidad
pueden variar dependiendo de la formación 6
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Introduction to Log Interpretation

Cómo registramos:Wireline…
Después de una sección de un pozo que
se ha perforado o se ha entubado se
bajan las herramientas en el hoyo abierto
o en la sección del hoyo entubado al final

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de un cable eléctrico. Al ir sacando la
herramienta del pozo las propiedades
diversas de la formación o del
revestimiento son continuamente
medidas como una función de
profundidad. Las curvas de la grabación
se llaman registros de Wireline. Las
mediciones de las propiedades físicas
pueden interpretarse por lo que se refiere
a la litología, porosidad, saturacion de
hidrocarburo, etc. Este proceso se llama
evaluación de registro o interpretación. 7
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Cabina de Registros
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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La unidad de superficie de registros hoy en dia es un laboratorio sumamente
eficaz el cual posee computadoras para la adquisición, procesamiento y
transmisión de los mismos, un alto poder hidráulico (bajar y subir las
herramientas que registran el pozo) y una unidad de cable para medir la
profundidad. La unidad de registro tiene un sistema de cable doble. Un cable con
7 conductores electricos para registro en hoyo abierto y un monocable para
muchos servicios en hoyo entubado. 8
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Como registrar en: Drillpipe


En pozos altamente desviados y
horizontales las herramientas no
pueden bajar en el fondo del pozo por
su propio peso. En tales casos las
herramientas de registros se bajan al

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fondo del pozo por la tuberia del
taladro con las herramientas
conectadas a la punta de la sarta.
Esto es conocido como registro sob
condiciones extremas (TLC). En los
pozos productores se bajan las
herramientas de pozo entubado o las
herramientas de perforacion
enroscadas al final de un tubo
flexible. Esto está conocido como el
registro sob tuberia flexible (CTL).
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Registro Mientras Perforamos

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También pueden adquirirse los registros del hoyo abierto mientras los pozos
están taladrándose, bajando los sensores como una parte de la junta de la sarta
de perforacion. Ésto se conoce como registros mientras se esta perforando
(LWD). LWD se hace más común particularmente en todas las categorías de
pozos desviados, pozos horizontales y de alcance extendido aunque todas las
medidas disponibles con la tecnología del Wireline no están todavía disponibles
con la tecnología de LWD. Cada vez más se están agregándo nuevos sensores
con tecnología que progresa rápidamente. 10
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Profundidad: Primer medicion
Introduction to Log Interpretation

La profundidad es medida a lo
largo del hoyo y por debajo del
suelo de la torre de perforación.
En los pozos verticales: la
profundidad verdadera vertical

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(TVD) = la profundidad del
registro - la elevación de la
Torre de perforación (DFE)
En los pozos desviados: El TVD
necesita ser computado de un
estudio de desviación aplicado
a la profundidad del registro y
corrigido para DFE
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Que aparese en el Registro ?

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El Cabezal
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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Dibujo herramienta y hoyo

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Registro Principal
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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El registro principal contiene los datos del intervalo grabado
contra la profundidad. La seccion repetida contiene los datos de
aproximadamente 60 m que han sido una vez más registrados para
verificar la repetibilidad de los datos con el registro principal para
confirmar el funcionamiento apropiado de la herramienta. 15
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Parametros de Aquisición
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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La sección del registro principal también contiene la
lista de parámetros que se usaron para la adquisición
del registro. 16
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Registro de Calibración

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Las calibraciones de la herramienta se realizan antes
de la salida del registro y después del final del
registro. Ellas se comparan con las calibraciones
hechas en el Laboratorio para confirmar el
funcionando apropiado de la herramienta. 17
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Combinacion de herramientas
Introduction to Log Interpretation

Las herramientas de registro tipicamente corren


en combinación y esto se hace para reducir el
tiempo consumido de registro en el pozo. En
este ejemplo la densidad, Neutrón y Rayos
Gamma se corren juntos en el pozo. Este
resultado es la diferente posicionamiento de

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los sensores de la herramienta en el fondo. los
sensores que no están en el fondo del cordón
de la herramienta no podrá grabar datos del
fondo del pozo. mientras planeando la
profundidad total del pozo. Se debe tener
cuidado para que la cima del sensor en el
cordón de la herramienta pueda grabar datos
de la zona de interés. con el ataque de
tecnología de la transmisión digital, es muy
común correr las herramientaas de Resistivity.
Micro-resistivity, densidad, Neutrón, sónico,
rayos gamma en un solo descenso en el hoyo
con la posición de los sensores mas altos de
la herramienta están a más de 30 m del fondo

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Combinación Moderna: PEX
Introduction to Log Interpretation

El Platform Express (Pex) es el


nombre de Schlumberger para
la tecnología revolucionaria
de re-ingeniería. La cual usa la
más avanzada ingeniería
electrónica y un plan
mecánico innovador. La

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combinacion tradicional
resistivity, densidad, neutrón,
micro y rayos gamma estara
reducido de 90 pies a 38 pies

La herramienta incorpora los sensores más fiables para ser más capaz de obtener alta calidad
de los datos (alta resolución) a una velocidad de registro (3600 ft/hr) que es el doble de la
velocidad con los registros convecionales.
El resultado es:
Un registro de mejor calidad, la eficiencia de registrar a una velocidad significativamente
superior, la reduccion significativa del tiempo del taladro, del equipo abajo y la herramienta que
requiere mucho menos agujero del promedio para ser perforado.
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Introduction to Log Interpretation

Investigación y Resolución
La profundidad de investigación de un
registro es definida por la distancia fuera
del Hoyo que puede ser registrado por la
herramienta. La resolución de un registro
se define como su capacidad para

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distinguir y medir apropiadamente las
capas finas. La herramienta adquiere
registros de datos de la formación usando
la exitación del medio físico particular de
la resistividad, radioactividad, acústica,
resonancia magnética y nuclear.
Dependiendo del diseno de los sensores
y de la medida física utilizada, la
profundidad de investigación y resolución
del registro puede variar de unos milli-
metros a unos metros.
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Resolución y Investigacion dependen…


La profundida y resolución de
investigacion de los reguistros en
general es relativo a :
- El tamaño de los sensores
- El espaciamiento entre los

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sensores
En una herramienta la resolución o
profundidad de investigación
tienen que ser sacrificadas, cuando
se gana en uno se pierde en el otro.
Un tamaño y espaciamiento pequeño de los sensores significa una resolución mejor y
la profundidad de investigación mas pobre.
El tamaño y espaciamiento grande de los sensores significa la resolución más pobre
pero la profundidad de investigacion buena.
La física de medida también dictan la resolución y profundidad de investigación para
algunas herramientas 21
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Potencial Espontaneo

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Introduction to Log Interpretation

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El potencial espontáneo es una medida contra la
profundidad de la diferencia de potencial entre el voltaje de
la pared del hoyo y un electrodo en la superficie.
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Herramienta Short Normal
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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Se mide un Voltaje M y es proporcional a la resistividad de la formación.
Esta configuración de electrodos es de una herramienta Normal.
La distancia entre Los electrodos A y M es el espaciamiento.
El espaciamiento determina la profundidad de investigación y resistividad a ser leida.
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SP Teoría 3
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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Ejemplo Registro-1
La medición del SSP es
cuantitativa
llevandose en cuenta
la desviación vista en

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el SP de la línea base
de arcillas (cero
punto) a la línea base
de arenas (el máximo
de la desviación).

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Ejemplo Registro-2
La desviación del SP
máxima en este ejemplo
ocurre a la misma
profundidad de las

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curvas del resistividad
donde hay separación.

El punto mínimo del SP


corresponde a dónde
toda las curvas de
resistividad estan juntas
donde no hay invasion,
una arcilla.
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Uso del SP
Diferencia las rocas del reservorio potencialmente
porosas y permeables de las arcillas
impermeables.

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Define los límites de la cama.

Da una indicación de arcillosidad (la desviación


máxima está limpia; el mínimo es arcilla).

Determina Rw en lodos frescos y salados.


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Rw a partir del SP
Rw es a menudo conocido por información del cliente o conocimiento
local.

El SP puede usarse para verificar el valor o calcularlo cuando no se

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dispone.

Es especialmente útil cuando hay variaciones a lo largo del Hoyo.

Rmfe
SSP = − k log
K es una constante – depende de la temperatura.
Rwe

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Rw SP-1
Conociendo el SSP (la desviación máxima) del registro y la temperatura, la
proporción de resistividades se obtiene del mapa de interpretación de registro
SP-1.

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Salida =
Rmfe
Rwe

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Rw SP-2

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Rmf es medido, usando la composición del lodo.
Rmfe se computa del mapa de interpretación de Registro SP-2.
Rwe se computa, de la proporción de SP-1 y Rmfe.
El mapa SP-2 proporciona como resultado Rw.
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SP Efectos de pozo -1
Introduction to Log Interpretation

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Linea de cambios base:
Éstos cambios pueden ocurrir cuando hay capas de salinidades
diferentes separadas por una arcilla que no actúa como una
membrana perfecta.
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Rayos Gamma

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Física de Rayos Gamma para Registros

- El uso de Rayos Gamma en Registros

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- La radioactividad y estadística

- Las reacciones y las secciones transversales

- Los principios de interacciones de Rayos Gamma

- La detección de rayos Gamma

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Parametros de descripción de Rayos - γ


Energia, E – medidas en eV, KeV, MeV

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Flujo, φ, -- numero de γ /cm2 – seg
Sección Transversal, σ, relacionado a la probalidad de
interacción con la matriz
Secciones transversales macroscopicas:
µ -coeficiente de absorción de masa
µρ -coeficiente de absorción linear

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Basico de Rayos γ

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Interaccionnes de los Rayos Gamma Introduction to Log Interpretation

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Detección de Radiación

Se procesa en dos pasos:


Los rayos gamma actúan recíprocamente con el
material de detección

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Los rayos gamma transfieren la energía a los electrones vía efecto
fotoeléctrico, diispersion Compton o producción de pares (pair prod.)
El material elegido es de alta probabilidad de absorción

El electrón se convierte en una señal notable


Una señal eléctrica directa con detección gaseoso o de estado-solido
La conversión (para luz) scintillator / photomultiplicador más común

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Naturaleza de los Rayos Gamma


El registro de Rayos Gamma es una medida de radioactividad natural de la
formación.
La emisión de rayos gamma es principalmente producida por tres series
radiactivas encontradas en la corteza de la Tierra.

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La serie de Potasio (K40).
La serie de Uranio (U).
La serie de Torio (TH).
Se retrazan los rayos gamma que atraviesan las rocas y una proporción es
absorvida que depende de la densidad de la formación.
Las formaciones menos densas exhiben más radioactividad que las
formaciones densas aunque puede haber las mismas cantidades de
material radiactivo por unidad de volumen.

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Rayos Gamma-La definición del uso de los


espesores:

Definición de espesores:

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La herramienta reacciona si la arcilla es
radiactiva (normalmente es el caso), que
ampliamente muestre las arenas y arcillas, las
zonas permeables y las zonas non-permeables.
También muestra los intervalos radiactivos no-
arcillosos.

Estimación de la cantidad de arcillas:

Un valor mínimo conveniente estima el limpio


(100%) la zona libre de arcilla, un valor máximo
la zona máxima de arcilla. Todos los otros
puntos se estiman en una relación.
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Algunas preguntas acerca de los registros de


rayos gamma*

Los rayos Gamma => Radioactividad

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¿De dónde viene?
¿Qué elementos son responsables?
¿La actividad de los rayos Gamma natural puede usarse para
identificar los esquistos (arcillas)?
¿De dónde viene la señal?

* Una tecnologia de 70 anos


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Fuentes de actividad natural de Rayos Gamma

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Profundidad de Investigación

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Usos del GR
Los registros de Rayos Gamma son usados para:

Litología/Mineralogía, e.g. arcillosidad.

Correlación:

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El uso mayor de la herramienta es identificar marcadores de capas y así permiter la correlación pozo a pozo.
Los marcadores de capas pueden ser en la cima o en el fondo del yacimiento o en una arcilla específica que
tenga una lectura alta.

Registro de subsidencía:
Se ponen las balas radiactivas con precisión espaciadas en la formación. Una herramienta de rayos gammas
con varios detectores precisamente espaciados registra y anota los picos. Los registros subsecuentes
mostrarán cualquier movimiento.

El registro de trazadores:
Un fluido radiactivo se arroja con una herramienta a un nivel escogido. El movimiento del fluido se supervisa
por el rayos gammas y se muestra donde hay zonas robando fluido o canales en el cemento por detras del
revestidor

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Espectroscopía Natural de Rayos Gamma


La motivación para la medida
político & físico

El Principio de la medida

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Los Efectos medio ambientales
Barita en el lodo
KCL en el lodo
HGNT
(La solución de alta tecnología para un NGT)
Una aplicación para registro ambiental

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NGT
La herramienta NGT mide un espectro que es resultado de tres series naturales
radioactivas

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El Potasio tiene una forma más aguda que los otros dos elementos porque él decai a
través de una sola reacción a un elemento estable. Los otros dos decaimientos son a
través de varios elementos hijos donde cada uno provee alguna contribución a la
imagen final.
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Principio de NGT

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La medida normal de la herramienta es hecha por una medición de varias ventanas fijas
de energía. Tres de éstas ventanas son a niveles más altos por encima de una cresta
característica de cada uno de los elementos.
La naturaleza estadística de la medida es mejorada en parte usando otras dos ventanas
puestas en un nivel más bajo de energía que tiene una tasa más alta de cuentas.

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Registros de NGT

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Las salidas son las cantidades relativas de Thorium, Uranio y Potasio en
la formación.
Las curvas adicionales son rayos gamma total (SGR) y rayos gamma
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NGT FIVE WINDOWS RESPONSE EQUATIONS

WNG1= BAR * [ HC(1,1)*Th + HC(1,2)*U+ HC(1,3)*K] + WPMUD(1) * Pmud


WNG2= HC(2,1)*Th + HC(2,2)*U+ HC(2,3)*K + WPMUD(2) * Pmud
WNG3= HC(3,1)*Th + HC(3,2)*U+ HC(3,3)*K + WPMUD(3) * Pmud

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WNG4= HC(4,1)*Th + HC(4,2)*U+ HC(4,3)*K
WNG5= HC(5,1)*Th + HC(5,2)*U+ HC(5,3)*K

WPMUD (i) = A(i) * (1-Exp (B(i)*(Sd-Cali)))* Exp(C(i)*(Mw-8.34)*(Sd-Cali))


HC (i,j) = H(i,j) 8 [A’(i,j)*Exp(-B’(i,j)*Mw*(Cali-Sd))

Cali = Hole Diameter


Sd = Sonde Diameter
Mw = Mud weight
Pmud = Potassium in mud
A,B,C,A’,B’ are constants
H(i,j) Tool Response Matrix for Mw=1, Cali=7.875, Pmud=0
HC(i,j) Corrected Tool Response Matrix

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Photomultiplier tube 1

Sonda
Detector 1
HNGS

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Stabilization source

Detector 2

Photomultiplier tube 2

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Espectro comun

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200

Formation K
Relative Counting Rate

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100

Borehole K

0
0 1000 2000

Gamma Ray Energy (KeV)

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HNGS-La mejor estadistica

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Element HNGS NGS Radio de
Desviación Comun Desviación Comun Mejoramiento

Torio 0.9 ppm 1.5 ppm 1.6


Uranio 0.4 ppm 0.9 ppm 2.0
Potasio 0.14% 0.25% 1.9

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HNGS y NGS Sensitivo a la Barita

Data Espectral Calculos de Campo

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6.0

1.0 Potassium 5.5


Log
Count rate (Weight
0.9 (count
ratio percent) 5.0
rate)
0.8
4.5

Fresh Natural Barite


0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 water mud mud

Natural mud/fresh water Fresh water HNGS with correction

Barite mud/fresh water Natural mud 13.8 lbm /gal HNGS without correction

Barite mud 13.8 lbm /gal NGT-D with correction

NGT-D without correction

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Usos del HNGT/NGT


Esta herramienta tiene muchas aplicaciones:

El identificación de Litología.
El estudio de ambiente depositional.

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La investigación de tipos de arcillas.
La corrección del GR para la evaluación del volumen de arcilla.
La identificación de material orgánico y origen de la roca.
Identificación de Fracturas.
Registro Geomecanico.
Estudio de la historia diagenetica de la roca.

Una aplicación mayor era resolver los problemas de la interpretación en arenas


del micaceous.

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Usos del HNGT/NGT


Los tres elementos radiactivos medidos por el NGT ocurren en
diferentes partes del yacimiento. Si nosotros sabemos la litología,
nosotros podemos obtener una información mas extensa.

En los Carbonatos:

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U - Indica fosfatos, materia orgánica y stylolites.

TH - Indica volumen de arcilla o los minerales pesados.

K - Indica contenido de arcilla, evaporitas radiactivas.

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Clasticos en HNGT/NGT
En las areniscas:

TH - Indica contenido de arcilla, minerales pesados.

K - Indica micas, arcillas micaceas y feldespatos.

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En las arcillas:

U - Sugiere roca de origen.

TH - Indica la cantidad de material detritico o grado de


arcillosidad.

K - Indica tipo de arcilla y mica.


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Crossplots - 1
Los datos de HNGT se interpretan usando
tres crossplots principales. En el orden de su
complejidad:
Thorium contra el Potasio:
Da el tipo de arcilla

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El factor fotoeléctrico, Pe, contra el Potasio:
Da tipo de arcilla y micas

Pe contra la relación de Thorium/Potassium:


Da el tipo de arcilla y micas

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Modelo Clasico de arcilla

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Parametros del HNGT/NGT/GR


Resolución Vertical 18"

Profundidad de Investigación 6"-8"

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Lecturas en: API units

Caliza <20
Dolomita <30
Arena <30
Arcilla 80-300
Sal <10
Anidrita <10

Ninguna formación está absolutamente limpia, las lecturas del GR


variarán. La caliza está normalmente más limpia que las otras dos
rocas del yacimiento y normalmente tiene el valor más bajo del GR.

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Limites del GR/NGT/HNGT


GR
- Materiales orgánicos (veen el uranio como “arcilla“)
- Micas (ve arenas micaceas como arcillas)
NGT
- Barita en el lodo (reduce la proporción de la cuenta pero puede corregirse

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parcialmente)
- Lodo con KCI (Potasio en el lodo enmascara la respuesta de la formación)
- Los Hoyos grandes disminuyen la proporción de cuentas y aumenta la
estadística
HNGT
- Ningún efecto de barita
- Corrección precisa para el Potasio
- Mejores detectores y estadísticas

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Mediciones de Volumen de Densidad

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Rayos Gamma Scattering para la densidad y


litología
La motivación para la densidad / la medida del lithology

Tecnicas de medición de Densidad


Respuesta a Pb

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Reboque / fuera de compensación
Ejemplo de fallo de la compensación
El principio de reguistro de litología
El factor fotoeléctrico (Pe)
La sensibilidad de Pe a las absorciones fotoeléctricas
La aplicación geoquimica de Pe
TLD (3 -detector la Densidad de Litología)
Modelo primario:
cómo conseguir la densidad (y otros parámetros) 3-detectores
y dispositivo (Platform Express)
ADN
Las complicaciones y beneficios de densidad mientras se perfora es el mapa de
respuesta de imagines 69
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Volumen de Densidad y Porosidad

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Mediciones de Densidad de Volumen

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Fisica de Rayos Gamma - densidad -1


Las Herramientas de Densidad usan una fuente del rayo gamma química
y dos o tres detectores del rayo gamma.
El número de rayos gamma que devuelven al detector depende del
número presente de electrones, la densidad del electrón, ρe.

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La densidad del electrón puede relacionarse a la densidad de volumen
de mineral por una ecuación simple.
ρe = ρ( 2Z/A )

Donde Z es el numero de
electrones por atomo y A
es el peso del atomo.

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Física de Rayos Gamma-densidad 2


La suposición hecha en la interpretación es:
Z/A = 0.5

Esto normalmente es muy raro para la mayoría de elementos encontrados, excepto el


hidrógeno que tiene un efecto pequeño en la medida. Por consiguiente ρe = ρ

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Element Z/A
H 0.9921
C 0.4996
O 0.5
Na 0.4785
Mg 0.4934
Al 0.4819
Si 0.4984
S 0.4989
Cl 0.4794
K 0.4860
Ca 0.499

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Calibración
La herramienta midie la densidad ρb, esta se ha relacionado experimentalmente a la
densidad del electrón;

ρb = 1.0704 ρe - 0.1883

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La herramienta necesita ser calibrada en una condición conocida.
Esta condición es el agua fresca y caliza, las densidades, 1.00 y 2.71 respectivamente.

La densidad de volumen contra la ecuación de densidad de electrón encaja para todos


los minerales comúnes con unas excepciones:

Sal - Densidad Verdadera 2.165


Valor de la densidad de la herramienta 2.03

Sylvite - Densidad Verdadera 1.984


Valor de la densidad de la herramienta 1.862
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Spine and Ribs


El valor representa la línea de densidad de la formación creciente en el
plano de la proporción calculada de largo espaciamiento contra la
proporción calculada de corto espaciamiento.
La presencia de reboque causa una desviación de la línea de una

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manera predecible. Así una corrección puede hacerse para obtener la
verdadera densidad.
1.9

2.0
Mud cake
with barite 2.1

2.2
B
2.3 Increasing
C A Mud cake
2.4
Long Spacing Count Rate

Thickness
Increasing
Mud cake 2.5
Thickness
2.6 Mud cake
without
.
2.7 barite

2.8

2.9

Short spacing Count Rate


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Salidas de Densidad

Las salidas son:


RHOZ / RHOB (ρb), la densidad de volumen corregida.

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DRHO (∆ρ), la corrección a que se ha aplicado ρb(solo LDT).

RHOZ / RHOB es la salida principal

DRHO es una curva de control de calidad (solo LDT).

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Efectos de Hoyo
El LDT es una herramienta de patín con fuente de collimated y
detectores. Experimenta pequeño o ningún efecto ambiental.
En los agujeros grandes, la curvatura del patín contra las causadas en
el agujero generan un error menor que necesita ser corregido.

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Efectos de Hoyo

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Los rugosidad del hoyo pueden afectar la medida.

La fuente y detectores “ ven“ las diferentes formaciones en el pozo.

El efecto es un registro errático e incorrecto.

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Parametros de Densidad
Resolución Vertical:

Comun 18"
Reforzado 6"
Profundidad de Investigación 6"-9"

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Lecturas:

Caliza (0pu) 2.71


Arena (0pu) 2.65
Dolomita (0pu) 2.85
Anhydrita 2.98
Sal 2.03
Arcilla 2.2-2.7
Carbon 1.5

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Interpretación y Usos
La herramienta de densidad es sumamente útil por su alta precisión y exposicion a los
efectos de hoyo pequeño.

Sus moyores usos son:


Porosidad.

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Litología (en combinación con la herramienta del neutrón).

Las propiedades mecánicas (en combinación con la herramienta sónica).

Las propiedades acústicas (en combinación con la herramienta sónica).

Identificación de Gases (en combinación con la herramienta del neutrón).

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Densidad de Porosidad (Formación Limpia)

ρ b = ρ f φ + ρ ma (1 − φ )

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ρ ma − ρ b
φ=
ρ ma − ρ f

Hay dos entradas en la ecuación de porosidad: la densidad de matriz y la densidad


fluido.

La densidad de fluido es del filtrado de lodo.

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Escala de Porosidad
La herramienta de densidad normalmente se corre con el neutrón.
Para ayudar la interpretación rapida se corren en “escalas compatibles”.
Esto significa que las escalas son fijas tal que la litología da un solape de las curvas.

La escala normal es la de "caliza compatible" donde la escala de porosidad del neutrón es:

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Para cuadrar los registros de densidad se tiene que tener un punto cero de caliza (2.7 g/cc) la
misma posición como el cero de porosidad del neutrón y el rango de escala debe cuadrar con el
neutrones en 60 unidades de porosidad, esta debe tener la escala:

Cambiando la escala a arenisca compatible pondrían la densidad de arenisca de cero, 2.65, encima
del cero de porosidad de neutrón para dar:

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Física del Pef


El efecto Fotoeléctrico ocurre cuando la energía baja incidiendo los rayos gamma
esto es completamente absorbido por el electrón.

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Este es un efecto de energía bajo en el índice de Absorción Fotoeléctrico, Pe, es
medido usando la ventana de energía más baja de la herramienta.

Pe está directamente relacionado a Z, el número de electrones por átomo, se


estable para cada elemento.

Pe = ( Z/A )3.6
Estas unidades estan en barns/electron.
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Parametros del Pef


Resolución Vertical:

Comun: 4"

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Lectura:

Caliza 5.08
Arena 1.81
Dolomita 3.14
Arilla 1.8-6
Anhydrita 5.05
Sal 4.65
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La función de densidad
geométria radial para los tres
detectores del nuevo dispositivo

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Pe la funcion geométrica radial
para los tres detectores del nuevo
dispositivo

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Las densidades aparentes contra


el espesor del reboque (mudcake)

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para los tres detectores del nuevo
dispositivo. El LDT que corto-
espaciamiento la respuesta se
muestra para la comparación

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Procesamiento Alfa

La herramienta de densidad Pex usa tres detectores que puede ser procesadores Alfa
de la misma manera que CNT, pero a tres resoluciones verticales.

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Las presentaciones de los registros resultantes da una mejora en la resolución por
encima del rendimiento normal.

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Neutron Porosity

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Neutrons

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Neutron Helium 3 detector

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Thermal Neutron Standard Theory


Neutrons are slowed down from their initial "fast" state by collisions with the
formation nuclei. At each collision there is some energy lost by the neutron.

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The principal element involved in the slowing down is Hydrogen, because it is
close in size to the neutron which loses most energy in these collisions.
The CNT measures the neutron population in the thermal region.
This is why the tool measures the Hydrogen Index.

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Hydrogen Index
Hydrogen Index is the quantity of hydrogen per unit volume.

Fresh water is defined as having a Hydrogen Index of 1.


Hence oil has a Hydrogen Index which is slightly less than that of

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water.

The Hydrogen Index of gas is a much smaller than that of water.

In a formation, the fluids contain hydrogen.

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Early Neutron Tools


The first neutron tools used a chemical neutron source and
employed a single detector which measured the Gamma Rays of
capture

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They were non-directional.

The units of measurement were API units where


1000 API units were calibrated to read 19% in a water-filled
limestone.

The tool was badly affected by the borehole environment.

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Neutron Tools
The second generation tool was the Sidewall Neutron Porosity
(SNP).
This was an epithermal device mounted on a pad.

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The third generation tool is the Compensated Neutron Tool
(CNT).

The latest tool is the Accelerator Porosity Sonde (APS), using an


electronic source for the neutrons and measuring in the
epithermal region.

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Detectors
Two neutron detectors are used to produce a ratio eliminating
some of the borehole effects experienced by single detectors.
The count rate for each detector is inversely proportional to
porosity with high porosity giving low count rates.

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Ratio to Porosity Transform


The count rates are first corrected for the dead time of the
detectors (when the detector is not available to receive counts).

The count rates are calibrated with the master calibration.

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A ratio of these is then taken.

The ratio is translated into porosity using a transform. (This is a


combination of theoretical and experimental work).

The current field output for the thermal neutron porosity is called
TNPH.

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Borehole Effects
The logs have to be corrected for the borehole environment:

Borehole size.
Mud cake.

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Borehole salinity.
Mud weight.

Temperature.
Pressure.
Formation salinity.
Stand-off.

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Formation/Salinity Correction
There are two factors affecting the neutron measurement in the formation:

The chlorine in the formation water.


The rock matrix capture cross-section.

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The simplest method is to assume that the matrix is clean and that the matrix 'Σ'
known.
This leaves salinity (mud filtrate) as the only "variable".

The complete solution is to measure the total formation 'Σ' and use this to
compute the correction.
The correction can be large but is not applied in the field because the lithology is
unknown, hence the 'Σ' unknown.
It is taken into account in the interpretation phase.

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Stand off Correction


Any space between the tool and the borehole wall is seen as 100%
porosity.
The value of the correction depends on the hole size:
Larger holes = more correction

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Stand-off is rarely measured. One method is to use the SA curve
recorded with a PCD.

The chart is entered with the porosity at the top;

Go to the nearest hole size.


Go down to the stand-off value, e.g. 0.5".
Follow the lines to zero.
Read the ∆φ (always negative).
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Standoff Correction Chart

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Thermal Neutron Parameters


Vertical resolution:
Standard (TNPH) 24"
Enhanced 12"
Depth of investigation 9"-12"

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Readings in zero porosity:

Limestone (0%) 0
Sandstone (0%) -2.00
Dolomite (0%) 1.00
Anhydrite -2.00
Salt -3.00

Typical Readings
Shale 30-45
Coal 50+
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Thermal Neutron Interpretation/Uses

The tool measures primarily the hydrogen index, along with


matrix effects.

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Its prime use is to measure porosity.

Combined with the bulk density, it gives a reasonable answer for


lithology and porosity interpretation.

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Alpha Processing
Alpha Processing is a method that enhances the resolution of the
standard measurement.
It utilizes the higher resolution of the near detector to increase the
resolution of the more accurate far detector.

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Alpha Processing
The first step is to depth-match the two detectors' responses.

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The next step is to match the resolution of both detectors.

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Alpha Processing
The difference between the two readings now gives the "high
frequency" information - which highlights thin beds missed by
the far detector.

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Alpha processing

The "high frequency" information is added to the far detector


signal to give the final enhanced log.

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APS Configuration
Sensors Measurements and features
Electronic neutron source
Near-array ratio porosity
• Hydrogen index measurement
Near • Reduced lithology effect
epithermal
detector • No thermal neutron absorber effects
• Reduced environmental effects

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• Improved vertical resolution
Array
epithermal
Epithermal slowing-down time
• Standoff determination
Array
thermal
Thermal neutron decay rate
• Formation capture cross section
Far epithermal of invaded zone
detector

Near-far ratio
• Lithology indicator
• Stand-alone gas indicator

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Neutron Energies Neutron Scattering

2200

Neutron Neutron

Porosity velocity
(cm/µsec)
Epithermal
Light
grain
density
Heavy
grain
density
2.2 Deuterium -tritium

Logging Thermal accelerator


source

0.22

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0.2 eV 10 eV 14 MeV

Elastic Scattering Reaction Elemental Moderating Power

Atomic mass A
1 50
1

Incident Target Ca
Scattered
neutron nucleus Mg Al Si
neutron O
C
Energy
V0 ratio
(E1/E0) Formation effects
v0 = 0 on count rate
Hydrogen index
Grain density
v1 Carbonates
0 H

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Count Rate Sensitivity to HI and Grain Density

Grain density
sensitivity Low grain density

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Medium grain density

Neutron
population High grain density

Hydrogen index Low porosity


sensitivity

Medium porosity
Source Near Array Far
High porosity

Source-to-detector spacing

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APS Sonde

4.0

1
Near-detector
Count Rates vs count rate

HI and Grain Density 1.5

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5

1
Near-detector
count rate

30

1
Far-detector
Effective grain density
count rate
2.00 g/cm (gas sand)
2.65 g/cm (water sand)
3.40 g/cm (shale)
0
0 1

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1.9

Density/ 2.0

Neutron

Ap
pr ga tion
ox s
2.1

im
co

ate
rre
c
Crossplot 2.2

y
sit
ro
Po
2.3

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Bulk Density (g/cm3 )
ne
dsto
n
2.4 Sa
ne
esto
Lim
ite
2.5 olom
D

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9 rite
hyd
An
3.0

0 10 20 30 40
Apparent limestone porosity (p.u.) [APLC]
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APS Lithology Effect


10
APS (APLC) APS (FPLC) CNL (TNPH)
8

6 Sand only

Sand

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4

2 Sand and clays


Delta
0
porosity
(p.u.)
-2

-4
Dolomite
-6

-8

-10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Apparent limestone porosity (p.u.)
True porosity = apparent limestone porosity + delta porosity

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Improved
Porosity X450

Evaluation

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X500

X550

APS APLC

CNL TNPH

Core porosity

“Core” hydrogen index

Glauconite 6 Caliper (LCAL) 16 0 PE (PEFL) 10


(in.)
Bound water 10 Σf 40 2.20 Density (RHOM) 2.88
(c.u.) (g/cm3)
Sand/Shale
0 GR (HCGR) 150 30 Porosities -10
Carbonate (GAPI) (p.u.)

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Standoff
3100

Detection Eccentered run


Standoff

and Correction

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3200

10 Sigma Formation 40 30 APS Porosity Limestone Corrected 0


(c.u.) (p.u.)
6 Caliper 11 30 APS Porosity Limestone Uncorrected 0
(c.u.) (p.u.)
-0.5 APS Standoff 2
(in.)

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APS standoff APS porosity

Caliper Pe Correction
CNL porosity

X150

Improved Gamma ray Bulk density

Lithology X200

Evaluation

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X250

X300

10 LCAL 20 1:240 ft 45 APLC -15


(in.) (p.u.)
10 CALI 20 45 TNPH -15
(in.) (p.u.)
0 LCAL 150 1.95 RHOB 2.95
(GAPI) (g/cm 3)
-1 STOF 9 0 PEF 10 -0.25 DRHO 0.25
(in.) (g/cm 3)

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X880

Improved Producing gas at


1.6 MMcf/D with
12 bbl water/MMcf

Gas Bed
Detection

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X900

APS (APSC)
CNL (TNPH)

6 Caliper 16 0.2 AIT (AO90) 20


(in.) (ohm-m)

0 U free GR 150 0.2 DIL (IDPH) 20

(GAPI) (ohm-m)

-80 SP 20 1.65 Bulk Density 2.65


(mV) (g/cm 3)

10 Σf 40 60 Neutron Porosities 0

(c.u.) (p.u.)

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Gas Detection with


Stand-Alone APS X070m

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X090m

6 Caliper (LCAL) 16
(in.)
0 U free GR (HCGR) 150 1.71 Density (RHOM) 2.71

(GAPI) (g/cm 3)
10 Σ f (SIGF) 40 60 Neutron Porosity Limestone Corrected (APLC) 0
(c.u.) (p.u.)

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x650

Gas Detection x700

with APS
Neutron-Sonic Logs

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x750

Sonic cycle
skipping

x800

APS porosity Delta T

Bulk density x850


AIT resistivities

Gamma ray

Bulk Density 1:240 Ft RXO (DT Comp.FMD)


1.7000 (G/C3) 2.7000 HSGR .2000 (OHMM) 20.000 220.000 (US/F) 70.000
APS porosity 0 150.00 RT APS porosity
60.000 (PU) 0 (GAPI) .2000 (OHMM) 20.000 60.000 (PU) 0
GAS GAS
(g/cm 3)
GAS

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Electrical Resistivity Logs

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Resistivity Theory

The resistivity of a substance is a measure of its ability to impede the flow of


electrical current.

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Resistivity is the key to hydrocarbon saturation determination.

Porosity gives the volume of fluids but does not indicate which fluid is
occupying that pore space.

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Resistivity Theory 2
Current can only pass through the water in the formation, hence the resistivity
depends on:
Resistivity of the formation water.
Amount of water present.
Pore structure.

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Resistivity Model

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Mud Resistivities
The first resistivities encountered are those of the mud, mud
filtrate and mud cake.

The surface measurements to obtain these values are often

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erroneous.

Key points:
The samples must be identical to the mud used in the
logging interval.
Check answers using the Chart Book formulae.
Rmf < Rm < Rmc
Identify the sample source (measured or charts).
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Salinities chart

Grains/gal
10

at 75ÞF
8

ppm
6
5
200
4 10

3 300
15
400
2 20
500
25
600
30

NaCl Concentration (ppm or grains/gal)


700
800
40
Resistivity of Solution (ž - m)

1 0
100
0.8 0 50
120
0
140
0.6
0
170

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0.5 0
200
0.4 100
0
0.3 300
150
0
400
200
0.2 500
0
0 250
6000
00
7 00 300
80
400
00
10,0
0.1 00 500
12,0 0
0.08 14,0
0
00
17,0
0.06 00
20,0 1000
0.05
00
30,0
0.04 1500
0 ,000
4 2000
0.03 50,0
00
0 0 2500
60,0 0 3000
0
70,0 00
0.02 80 ,0
4000
,000
100 5000
,000
,000 120 00
300 0
14 00
,0
,0
170 0
0.01 ,00
200 ,000 10,000
250,000
280 15,000
50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400
20,000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200

Temperature (ÞF or ÞC)

This chart is used to compute salinities from resistivities of solution


e.g. mud, and vice versa.
It is also used to find the resistivities at a given temperature.
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Old Tools
The voltage measured at M is proportional to the formation
resistivity.
This electrode configuration is the Normal tool.
The distance between the A and M electrodes is the spacing.

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The spacing determines the depth of investigation and hence the
resistivity being read.

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Normal and Lateral Tools


The Lateral device used the same
principle.
The difference is in electrode
configuration and spacing.

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Problems came from "thin beds"
when the signature of the curve
was used to try and find the true
resistivity.

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Old Tools 2

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This figure shows some of the "signature curves" for the interpretation of
lateral and normal devices in thin beds.
A library exists plus rules to extrapolate the measured value to the true
resistivity of the bed.
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Laterolog Principle

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A current-emitting electrode, Ao, has guard electrodes positioned symmetrically
on either side.
Guard electrodes emit current to keep the potential difference between them
and the current electrode at zero.
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Tool Types
Various configurations have been used:

LL3
The first tool of its type; single guard electrodes.

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LL5/LL7
Four extra electrodes added, including a feedback loop to keep the bucking
current at an optimal value.

LL9
Two more electrodes added, hence a Shallow Laterolog measurement. Deep and
Shallow measurements were taken sequentially.

DLT
Same as the LL9 but able to run deep and shallow simultaneously.
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Borehole Effects
Laterologs see the borehole environment as:

RLL = Rm + Rmc + Rxo + Rt

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Rm Best measurement is in salt-saturated, low resistivity mud. Worst
readings obtained in fresh mud. Measurements cannot be taken in oil-
based mud.

Rmc Usually neglected as very small.

Rxo Depends on Rmf, needs to be known.

Rt Parameter to be measured, the higher the better. 160


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Laterolog Corrections
The log must be corrected for the effect of mud resistivity.

There are two possible conditions:


Centered.
Eccentred.

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There is only a small difference between the two in most circumstances for the
modern tool DLT-E.
The old tool, DLT-B, could only be run centered.

The correction to the shallow is greater than the deep, especially in large hole
sizes.

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Laterolog Corrections

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Correction Charts

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Bed Correction
The next correction accounts for the effects of adjacent beds which
still occur despite focusing.

If the shoulder bed is highly resistive, the log has to be reduced.

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(Squeeze.)

If the shoulder bed is of low resistivity, the log has to be increased.


(Anti-squeeze.)

LLS has a better definition because it is a shallow device.

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Squeeze/Anti-Squeeze

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Rs is the resistivity of the bed above and below the formation of
interest.
The chart is entered with the bed thickness, moving up the ratio
RLLD/RS.
The correction factor is read on the y-axis. 165
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Squeeze/Anti- Squeeze
The same method is used in this chart for the Shallow Laterolog

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String Effect

Laterolog tools have another problem in conductive beds due to


the frequency of the measurement.

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In long combination tools, the LLD reads too high.

The effect has been commonly seen in low resistivity formations.

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Correction Example
The correction depends on the hole size, Dh, and the mud
resistivity, Rm.

This correction has to be applied before any other borehole

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corrections.

A new chart is needed for each tool combination.

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TLC effect
There are two effects occurring when a Laterolog tool is run
on drill pipe.

1)In TLC operations Laterologs need a special stiff bridle


usually made of three sections of tool housing giving a

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length of 30 feet compared to the normal 80 foot bridle.

2)The total current returns to the pipe which acts as the


return electrode.

The relative error is proportional to /Ra (the apparent resistivity).

This can be up to 200% at low Rt/Rm contrasts and low Rm.


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Example Chart
The chart is used to transform the TLC reading into the reading
theoretically obtained in a vertical well with a bridle.

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Pseudo Geometrical Factor


Once corrected, the log can be evaluated to find Rt.

Neglecting the mud and mud cake resistivities (corrected log),


the tool response equation is:

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Ra = J(di)Rxo + (1-J(di))Rt

Where J(di) is the pseudo-geometrical factor which is a function of


the invasion diameter, di. For large di, J(di) is large reflecting
the important contribution of the invaded zone to the
measurement.

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Depth of Investigation
The plot shows the pseudo-geometrical factor versus di for various tools.
The relative depth of investigation is defined as the invasion diameter for which
the invaded zone contributes to 50% of the signal (J = 0.5).
The relative depth of investigation is computed from the chart.

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For example, it is 35" for the LLS.

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Laterolog Applications
Measures Rt.

Standard resistivity in high resistivity environments.

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Usable in medium-to-high salinity muds.

Good results in high contrast Rt/Rm.

Fair vertical resolution (same as porosity tools).

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Laterolog Limits
Cannot be used in oil-based muds.

Cannot be used in air-filled holes.

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Affected by the Groningen Effect in some environments.

Difficult to model.

Poor when Rxo > Rt.

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DLT Parameters
Vertical resolution: 24"
Maximum reading:
LLD 40000ohm-m LLS 6000ohm-m
Minimum reading:

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LLD 0.2ohm-m
LLS 0.2ohm-m

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Dual Laterolog Measurement

Limitation in approach
Does not account for coupling between

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radial and vertical response
Risk of underevaluating reserves
Overestimated Rt in water zones
Underestimated Rt in thin hydrocarbon-
bearing zones

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Shoulder-Bed Squeeze Effects

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Deep measurement reads too high and All resistivities read lower than Rt and
results in erroneous invasion profile. separation is reduced.

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HRLA Solutions Hardware

Multiple depth of investigation


Clear indication of invasion

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Improved vertical resolution
No need for deep mode or bridle
No Groningen or drillpipe-conveyed-
logging effects and reduced
shoulder-bed effect

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5

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HRLA Solutions Software

Increased inversion with improved


formation models

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2D earth model
More accurate Rt computation
Correction for coupling of radial and
vertical response

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Hardware Solutions Array Laterolog Principle


Mode 2 current lines

Return Electrodes

mode 0 mode 1 mode 2 mode 3 mode 4 mode 5

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24 ft Source Electrodes

0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V Return Electrodes

potential (V)

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Hardware Solutions: Tool Radial Response

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Software Solutions: Answer Products

Borehole corrections + 1D inversion


– Maxis (real-time) processing
– GeoFrame PrePlus module

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2D and 2D+dip inversion
– GeoFrame HRLA 2D module

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Software Solutions: Inversion Processing


Formation Model Inversion Algorithm
HRLA log data

Layer definition

Initial formation

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model parameters

Compute tool response


To formation model

Does computed No Update formation


Response match actual
parameters
Tool response?

Ye
s
Output results

Formation model is updated until there is a good


match between modeled tool response and actual
log data.

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Answer Benefits: No Groningen Effect

Curve separation

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suggests invasion
but is due to
Groningen effect

HRLA resistivities
clearly show zone is
not invaded

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Answer Benefits: Thin-Bed and Invasion Profiling

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Curve separation
Curve separation results
shows invasion
from Groningen effect

High vertical
resolution Groningen effect
in indicator curve

HRLA tool DLL tool 190


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Answer Benefits: Wellsite 1D Inversion

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1D radial model
(invasion)
thick-bed
approximation

HRLA tool HALS tool 1D-Rt comparison

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Answer Benefits: Increased Reserves

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1D and 2D Inversion Comparison

Standard 1D Rt
computation

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Raw
measured
data Rt using 2D
inversion

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Microresistivity Devices
Shallow reading versions of resistivity tools; always pad-mounted.

First was the Microlog which is still in use;


Second was the Micro Laterolog (MLL),

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replaced by Proximity (PL) tool,
replaced by MicroSpherically Focused Log (MSFL), replaced
by Micro Cylindrical Focused Log(MCFL)

Objective is to read Rxo (Invaded Zone Resistivity) only.

Tools are focused to pass through the mud cake.

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Microlog Uses
Microlog is used to identify permeable zones.

2" Micronormal. (A -> M2)


1"x1" Microinverse. (A -> M1)

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(Slightly different depths of investigation).

If the zone of investigation is shale (no invasion), both curves read the same.
If the zone is sand (with invasion), Microinverse reads mud cake plus some of
the formation and Micronormal reads some mud cake plus the formation
(slightly higher).
We are only interested in the separation between these curves and so scales are
chosen to show this and not the rest of the readings.
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MSFL Principle

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This tool uses a set of 5 electrodes which focus the signal into the
invaded zone just beyond the mud cake.
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MSFL Borehole Corrections


In spite of its focusing, the tool still needs to be corrected for the mud cake
thickness and resistivity.
The correction requires an input of mud cake thickness which is not measured
directly.

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It also needs the mud cake resistivity which is either measured or computed
from charts.

The tool focusing has been set assuming there is always some mud cake, hence
the tool always needs some correction.
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Fundamentos de Inducción

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Teoria de la Inducción

El generador de la señal que alimenta la bobina del transmisor inducirá un campo magnético en el centro del

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transformador conductivo. El cambio en el campo magnético en el centro inducirá el voltaje en la bobina
receptora

Si nosotros agregamos un circuito cerrado extra, la corriente se generará en este circuito, que a su vez crea un
campo magnético. Esto es equivalente a agregar la formación alrededor de la herramienta.

El campo magnético que es generado por el circuito cerrado sera recogido por la bobina receptora. Esto es
proporcional a la impedancia de la bobina extra. En la ausencia del centro del transformador conductivo, la
amplitud es también dependiente en la posición relativa de la bobina extra con respecto a la bobina
transmisor-receptor. La calibración principal de la herramienta de la inducción lleva a cabo este principio
usando una impedancia conocida para calibrar la herramienta. 211
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Pincipios de la Inducción – Paso 1

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1.- Campo magnetico primario
creado por la bobina
transmisora

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Pincipios de la Inducción – Paso 1 y 2

2.- El campo magnetico primario


induce una corriente IL en el bucle de
tierra. Esta corriente tiene un angulo
de 90 grados con la corriente del
trasnmisor

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1.- Campo magnetico primario creado
por la bobina transmisora

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Pincipios de la Inducción – Paso 3

3.- El campo magnetico secundario induce un flujo de corriente en la bobina


receptora. La corriente tiene una diferencia de fase de 180 grados. Esta es
conocida como la Señal-R

2.- El campo

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magnetico
secundario es
creado por el bucle
de tierra.

1.- Campo magnetico primario creado por la bobina


transmisora

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Contribucion de la Señal

EL pozo esta compuesto por un numero infinitos de bucles de corriente. La


contribucion de cada bucle individual depende de la relacion geometrica entre
el transmisor y el receptor y del bucle en si mismo

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Inductancia Mutual

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Efecto “SKIN”

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La corriente es empujada hacia fuera desde el bucle
original, efectivamente incrementando la resistividad
aparente

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Induction history
The idea for the tool developed out of mine detector work done by
Henri Doll during the Second World War.

The objective was to measure resistivity in fresh or oil-based muds.

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The first tools had 5 coils to focus the signal.

The next generation of tools employed 6 coils.

Two measurement curves were eventually developed, a medium


and a deep paralleling the Laterolog's shallow and deep
readings.
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AIT principle
The tool measures 28 independent signals from 8 arrays. There is
one transmitter operating at three frequencies. The in-
phase (R) and the quadrature (X) signals are both measured.

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The conductivities are combined using radial and depth functions.

These are software focused to give:

5 depths of investigation:10", 20", 30", 60" 90".

3 vertical resolutions: 1', 2' and 4'.

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AIT depth of investigation


The AIT has set radial depths of investigation which are not
affected by changes in conductivity.

The values are taken as the point where half the signal comes

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from shallower levels.

In comparison to the 10", 20", 30", 60" and 90" of this tool, the
medium and deep of the old tool are around 30" and 60"
respectively.

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AIT Corrections
There are well defined borehole corrections to be applied to the measurement.
These are made in real time by the software. The inputs required are:
Borehole cross section.
Mud resistivity.
Stand-off.

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The tool can compute any of these from its measured signal as well as the
formation resistivity. However, normal practice is to input at least
two of them.

A measurement of the mud can be made with an auxiliary sonde or surface


measurement. The former is best as logs made have shown considerable
heterogeneities in the mud column with depth.

A caliper tool can give the hole dimensions.


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AIT Rt-Rxo-invasion
As the AIT produces five logs with differing depths of investigation, a more
realistic description of the invasion can be made.
The old model is:

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New model:

This model has four unknowns with the addition of a ramp profiled for the
invasion. 224
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AIT independent model


The AIT can be displayed as an image.

The simplest image is of resistivity radial profile starting at the


borehole and going out into the formation.

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This image simply extrapolates the readings of the tool assigning
colour classes to the resistivity level.

It is called an "independent model" because it makes no


assumptions about the resistivity distribution.

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AIT saturation
To obtain a saturation image, some assumptions have to be made
about the resistivity profile.

The inversion model is used to produce the parameters needed for

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a saturation image, Rt, Rxo and an invasion distance.

The r2 radius is taken as the limit of invasion for this calculation.

The image will then show the saturation away from the borehole, a
radial profile.

This image is a more accurate picture of the invasion as long as the


saturation gradient is constant with depth. The porosity is
also assumed to be constant.
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AIT volumes
Variations in formation water, drilling parameters and saturation gradient
obscure comparisons along a well and between wells.

A filtrate invasion profile is constructed and converted to a fluid volume by


multiplying it by porosity.

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Hence the AIT outputs plus the Rmf are all that is needed to compute the
volume of mud filtrate, Vmf.
The result is integrated with depth to give the volume of filtrate per unit depth.
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examples 2

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The invaded volumes computed here show an increase with depth.
The results could be used to plan sampling points or a well test.

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examples 3

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Cable tension (TENS)
10000.0 (LBF) 0.0
90 Inch investigation
SFL unaveraged (SFLU)
.2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 10 Inch investigation
Medium resistivity (ILM) .2 (ohmm) 2000
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0
Deep resistivity (ILD) 20 Inch investigation
0.2 (ohmm) 2000.0 .2 (ohmm) 2000
30 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000
60 Inch investigation
.2 (ohmm) 2000

The AIT logs (2' vertical resolution) read correctly in this zone
giving a hydrocarbon profile.

The DIL logs are ambiguous as the SFL (electrical log) longer
reading shallow because Rxo is less than Rt
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Saturation Computation

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Saturation
The saturation of a formation represents the amount of a given fluid present in
the pore space.

S w =S w irr + S w "free"

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water S o =S o residual + S o "free"

oil

Matrix

The porosity logs react to the pore space.


The resistivity logs react to the fluids in the pore space.
The combination of the two measurements gives the saturation

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Basics 1
Rw = resistivity of water in the pore space.
Define Ro = resistivity of a rock totally filled with water.
R0
F=
Rw

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F: Formation Factor.
At constant porosity F is constant.
As porosity increases, Ro decreases and F decreases.

Experiments have shown that F is inversely proportional to φm.

a
F=
φ m
m: is called the "cementation exponent".
a: is called the "lithology" constant.

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Basics 2
Saturation can be expressed as a ratio of the resistivities:
R0
Sw =
n
Rt
where n is the "saturation exponent", an empirical constant.

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Substituting for Ro:
FR w
Snw =
Rt

Substituting for F:
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ
m
Rt

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Saturation Equation
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ
m
Rt

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The Archie equation is hence very simple. It links porosity and
resistivity with the amount of water present, Sw.

Increasing porosity, φ, will reduce the saturation for the same Rt.

Increasing Rt for the same porosity will have the same effect.

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Invaded Zone
The same method can be applied to the invaded zone. The
porosity is identical, the lithology is assumed to be the same,
hence the constants a, n, m are the same.
The changes are the resistivities which are now Rxo and Rmf.

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Rmf is measured usually on surface and Rxo is measured by the
MSFL tool.

The equation is then:


aR mf
Snxo = m
φ R xo

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Other Relationships
Dividing for Sxo and Sw, with n set to 2
1
Sw  R xo R t 2
= 
Sxo  R mf R w 

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Observations suggest:
≈ S
1
S xo
5
w

Hence: 5
 R xo R t 8
Sw =  
 R mf R w 

providing a quick look saturation answer when porosity is not available.


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Archie parameters
Rw = resistivity of connate water.
m = "cementation factor", set to 2 in the simple case.
n = "saturation exponent", set to 2 in the simple case.
a = constant, set to 1 in the simple case.

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All the constants have to be set.
Two common sets of numbers for these constants are:
In a simple carbonate, the parameters are simplified to:
m = 2, n = 2, a=1
In a sandstone the following values are often quoted:
m = 2.15, n = 2, a = 0.62

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Rw determination
Rw is an important parameter.

Sources include:

Client.

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Local tables / knowledge.

SP.

Resistivity plus porosity in water zone.

RFT sample.

From Rxo and Rt tools.

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Rw from Rwa
If Sw = 1, the saturation equation can become:
R w = φ 2
R t

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Assuming simple values for a, m, n.

Procedure is to:

Compute an Rwa (Rw apparent) using this relationship.


Read the lowest value over a porous zone which

This is the method employed by all computer based interpretation


systems.
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Rw from resistivity
In a water zone Sw = 1, thus the alternative saturation equation
becomes:

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The value of Rmf is measured;

Rxo and Rt are measured, the value of Rw can be calculated.

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Other Archie Parameters


The constants a, m, n are an integral part of Archie's saturation
equation.

They can, and do, vary.

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They are usually taken from local knowledge if at all possible.

n is dependent on the wettability of the rocks; in the common


water wet case it is usually close to 2.

a and m are dependent on the lithology and pore systems of the


rock.
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Effects of parameters
Example of variations in the Archie parameters

a Rw
=
n
S w
φ
m

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Rt

The following are measurements


φ = 25%, Rt = 5 ohm-m, Rw = .02 ohm-m
Assuming a simple formation with
a = 1, m = 2, n = 2
Sw = 25%

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Changing n to 2.5, changes the Sw to 33%
Introduction to Log Interpretation

F Relation chart
2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000
50

40

30
25

20
1
m F R = m
ø

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15
φ, Porosity (pu)

1
F R = 2
ø
10
9
8
2.8
7
6 0.62
F R = 2.15
ø 2.5
5
4
2.2
3 0.81
F R = 2 1.8
ø 2.0
1.6
2

1.4
©Schlumberger

1
2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000

F R , Formation Resistivity Factor

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F-relations

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Computing Saturation

The standard saturation equation can be used with special


attention taken to obtain the correct value for the cement
exponent ‘m’.

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In vuggy formations this will be greater than 2. The resistivity
logs see read higher as the “pathway” is more tortuous.

Saturations calculated with an ‘m’ of 2 will show too much


hydrocarbon

In fractured formations ‘m’ will be less than one as the


resistivity pathways are straight. 245
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Dual Water Model

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Shale and Saturation

The Archie equation has to be changed to take account of the shale effect.

The shale looks like low resistivity so another term is added to the equations.

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The result is an equation which will can be used to compute water saturation in
shaly sands.

All these equations return to Archies equation if there is no shale present.

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Saturation Equations
Indonesia Equation
1 1
S w =  V cl  *
 1 −
 2

 φ R
V cl
R
+ R
e t
cl w

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2
Nigeria Equation
1 V 1 .4
φ e
m
2

=  + 
cl n
S
 
w
R t R cl aR w

2
1 S BQ S
= *
w
+ v
*
w

Rt
Waxman-Smits Equation F R w F

C =
φ t
m
S n
wt 
C +
S wb
(C − C

)
t
a  w
S
wb w

Dual Water Equation wt

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Saturation equations 2

One of the difficulties is the number of equations available


for shaly sands.

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They are often “country” oriented, Nigeria, Venuzeula..

The choice of equation was (is) dictated by local practice.

Waxman-Smits (WS) and Dual Water (DW) approach the


problem from experiments on the clay properties and are
thus more realistic and universal.

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Dual water

The Dual Water Model takes the basic work of Waxman Smits and
expands it for use with logged information

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It divides the formation into solids and fluids.
It splits the clay into dry clay and its associated water, called bound
water

The standard definitions for porosity and saturation to describe the


fractions of fluids in the formation are expanded to include the new
model.
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Dual water model definitions

hydrocarbon φ hy
effective

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porosity
far
total water φ wf
φ e = φ wf+ φ hy

porosity
φ t bound
φ wb
fluids water

dry Vcl
unit Vdcl
clay wet clay
volume
solids

clean
matrix

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Clean to Shale

φ t

Matrix Far Water

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φ t

Matrix

φ t

Matrix Dry Colloid

φ t

Dry Colloid Bound water

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Dual Water definitions 2


The total porosity is given by
φ t = φ e + φ wb = φ t (1 − S wb ) + φ tS wb

the porosities are combined to give the saturations of the fluids present
φ wb
S =

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φ t saturation of bound water
wb

φ wf
S = saturation of far water (this is Sw)
φ t
wf

φ hy
S = Hydrocarbon saturation
hy
φ t

S wt = S wf + S wb Total water saturation is the sum


of the saturations of the two waters
S wt + S hy = 1 total water saturation plus hydrocarbon
saturation must be one
V cl = V dcl + φ t S wb wet clay volume includes the volume of bound 253
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Simplified DWM
Archie Equation can be generalized into the following form;

Rf
S2wt = 2
φt R t

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where;
Swt - total water saturation
ft - total porosity
Rt - true formation resistivity
Rf - resistivity of the water(s)

The equation can be solved if Rf is known.

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Simplified DWM 2
1) Clean water bearing zone

Swt = 1
φt2Rt = Rf

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This is Rwf, the resistivity of Far water

2) Clean 100% shale zone


Swt = 1
φt2Rt = Rf

This is Rwb, the resistivity of Bound water

These are the two end points. To give a universal solution they are combined
linearly using the volume of shale.

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Practical DWM 2

The standard equation for the water saturation is expressed in


terms of the conductivity, as it is linear.

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φ m
S n  S 
C = t wt
 C + wb
(C − C )
 
t wf wb wf
a S wt

This equation is in terms of measured quantities, porosity and


resistivity and parameters that can be found, the far and bound
water conductivities.

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DWM Saturation solution


The solution to the equation is

C F
= + +
2 t 0
S wt x x
C

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w

where

x =
S wb (C w − C wb )
2 C w

and
a
F =
o
φ m

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Practical outputs
The equations give total water saturation Swt and total porosity
φt. These have to be transformed into effective saturation, Sw
and effective porosity, φwf (or φe)

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S wt − S wb
S =
1 − S wb
w

φ wf = φ t (S wt − S wb )

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Dual water equation solution

This derivation of the Dual Water equations is valid for any


rock with any mixture of fluids
It is possible to use the Dual Water Model to make a manual

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computation of a shaly zone.
However computer programs are best equipped to handle the
calculations.
The selection of key parameters is essential to obtain the
correct answers,

Cwf - free water conductivity


Cwb - bound water conductivity
Swb - bound water saturation 259
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A Introduction to Log Interpretation

Shales

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shales
Matrix Shale Porosity

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Clean formation Structural shale

Porosity Porosity

Shale
Matrix Matrix

Laminar shale Dispersed shale

Porosity Porosity Shale


Shale

Matrix Matrix

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clay minerals
ρb φN (thermal) Pe

Kaolinite 2.54 59.6 1.85


Illite 2.52 47.9 3.97
Smectite 2.02 87 1.70

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Chlorite2.73 59.6 4.07

Most shales are comprised of these clay minerals.


Clay minerals frequently occur together in "mixed layers", e.g. Illite -
Montmorillonite.

Kaolinite Al, Si, little K


Illite K, Fe, Mg, Si
Smectite Very high porosity.
ChloriteFe, Mg, no K

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Shale Corrections
The electrical properties of shales greatly influence the
calculation of fluid saturations.

A layer of water close to the clay surface is electrically charged.

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Archie's equation assumes that the formation water is the only
electrically-conductive material in the formation.

The clay layer requires an additional term in the saturation


equation.

Porosity tools can be corrected for the shale effect. An "effective


porosity" can be computed as compared to a "total porosity"
which includes the shale effect.
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Shale Volume 1
The volume of shale must be computed to correct the tool readings.

This is achieved using simple equations such as:


GRlog − GRmin

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Vcl =
GRmax − GRmin

SPlog − SPmin
Vcl =
or SPmax − SPmin

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Shale Volume 2
However, as every tool reacts to shale, each tool is a shale
indicator. For example:
ρ b = ρ w φ S w + ρ h φ (1 − S w ) + ρ ma (1 − φ − V cl ) + ρ cl V cl

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Shale volume can be computed from different sources and from
crossplots of different kinds of log data.

The ideal method of computing shale volume is to use the Neutron


Density plot.
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Single curve - Shale Volume

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