1 3 Propagación

ESCUELA POLITCNICA NACIONAL
Comunicaciones Inalmbricas
Estudio del Canal Inalmbrico
Dra. Martha Cecilia Paredes

Tabla de Contenido
1. Propagacin
2. Fading
1. Larga-scale fading
2. Smal-scale fading
IEE8J4@mcparedes ESCUELA POLITCNICA NACIONAL 2

Bibliografa
Yong Soo Cho ... [et al.]. MIMO-OFDM wireless
communications with MATLAB, John Wiley & Sons, USA,
2010.
Cap. 1
Perahia, E., Stacey, R., (2008). Next Generation Wireless

LANs, Cambridge, USA
Cap. 2

Introduccin
El rendimiento de los sistemas inalmbricos
principalmente est gobernado por el comportamiento
del canal inalmbrico.
El canal inalmbrico es dinmico e impredecible
Difcil realizar un anlisis exacto
Complicacin: crecimiento rpido de los servicios de las
comunicaciones mviles.
En comunicaciones inalmbricas, la propagacin radio
hace referencia al comportamiento de las ondas de
radio cuando se propagan entre el transmisor y el
receptor.

Propagacin
Todo sistema de telecomunicacin debe disearse para
que en el receptor se obtenga una relacin seal-ruido
mnima que garantice su funcionamiento.
Para la correcta planificacin de cualquiera de estos
sistemas resulta esencial conocer los factores que
pueden alterar la propagacin electromagntica, su
magnitud y su influencia en las distintas bandas de
frecuencias.

Propagacin
Las ondas de radio son afectadas
por varios fenmenos fsicos:
Reflexin, Difraccin, Dispersin
La intensidad de las ondas
electromagnticas vara en
diferentes ambientes, siendo la
caracterstica comn el
desvanecimiento (fading)
Variacin de la amplitud de la seal en
tiempo y frecuencia
Es una fuente de degradacin distinta
del ruido de la seal que es
caracterizada como un disturbio no-
aditivo del canal inalmbrico

Desvanecimiento (Fading)
El fading puede ser causado principalmente debido a
Multitrayecto (multi-path fading)
Sombra debido a los obstculos (shadow fading)

Multitrayecto

Fading
El fading en el canal inalmbrico fue inicialmente
modelado para canales HF (3-30MHz), UHF (300-3000
GHz) y SHF ( 3-30 GHz) entre los aos 1950 y 1960.
Actualmente, los modelos ms populares se han
establecido para canales entre 800 MHz y 2.5 GHz, las
cuales se han realizado a travs de muchas mediciones
en campo.
Se incluyen en estndares para modelos de canal inalmbrico de
la ITU-R tanto para sistemas SISO (Single Input Single Output)
como para sistemas MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)

Clasificacin de Fading

Tipos de Fading
Large-scale fading
Se produce cuando un mvil se mueve a travs de largas
distancias
Distancia en el tamao de una celda celular
Es causado por las prdidas por trayectoria (path loss) de una
seal en funcin de la distancia y de la sombra (shadowing) de
objetos grandes como edificios, estaciones terrenas y vegetacin
Shadowing es un proceso de desvanecimiento lento (slow fading)
caracterizado por la variacin de la prdida de trayectoria media
entre el transmisor y receptor en localizaciones fijas.
Large-scale fading se caracteriza la prdida por trayectoria media
que decrece con la distancia y las prdidas por sombra que vara a
lo largo de la prdida por trayectoria media

Tipos de Fading
Small-scale fading
Se refiere a la variacin rpida de los niveles de la seal debido a
la interferencia constructiva y destructiva de trayectorias
mltiples de seal (multi-path) cuando la estacin mvil se
mueve a travs de distancias cortas.
Dependiendo de la frecuencia selectiva del canal se puede tener
desvanecimiento por selectividad de frecuencia (frequency-
selective or frequency flat fading) de un canal
Dependiendo de la variacin en el tiempo en un canal debido a la
velocidad mvil (caracterizada por la dispersin Doppler), a corto
plazo el fading puede clasificarse como desvanecimiento rpido
(fast fading) o desvanecimiento lento (slow fading).

Tipos de Fading
Large-scale fading vs. small-scale fading.

Link budget
Importante herramienta para el diseo de sistemas de
radio
Contabiliza todas las ganacias y prdidas a travs del
canal inalmbrico
Permite predecir la intensidad de la seal recibida junto
con el margen de potencia recibido.
Los factores ms importantes a considerer son
Pathloss
Fading

Link budget

Link budget
La media de las prdidas por trayectoria es un factor
determinista que puede predecirse con la distancia entre
el transmisor y el receptor
Mientras que shadow fading y el small-scale fading es un
fenmeno aleatorio
Sus efectos pueden predecirse solamente a travs de la funcin
de probabilidad.
Se define un margn o umbral de los niveles deseados de la seal

Fading
LARGE-SCALE FADING

Prdidas por trayectoria
The free-space propagation model is used for predicting
the received signal strength in the line-of-sight (LOS)
environment where there is no obstacle between the
transmitter and receiver. It is often adopted for the
satellite communication systems.

Let denote the distance in meters between the
transmitter and receiver. When non-isotropic antennas
are used with a transmit gain of and a receive gain of
, the received power at distance , (), is expressed
by the well-known Friis equation.
represents the transmit power (watts),

is the wavelength of radiation (m)
is the system loss factor which is independent of propagation
environment.

(Free-space path loss model)
The system loss factor represents overall attenuation or loss in
the actual system hardware, including transmission line, filter,
and antennas.
In general, > 1, but = 1 if we assume that there is no loss
in the system hardware.
The received power attenuates exponentially with the distance .
The free-space path loss, (), without any system loss can
be directly derived from () with = 1
Without antenna gains (i.e., = = 1), the equation is

reduced to

(Free-space path loss model)

(Log-distance path loss model)
A generalized form of the path loss model can be constructed by
modifying the free-space path loss with the path loss exponent
that varies with the environments.
This is known as the log-distance path loss model, in which the path
loss at distance is given as
0 is a reference distance at which or closer to the path loss inherits the

characteristics of free-space loss.
Determined for different propagation environments.
Typical value for 0 :

is the path loss exponent can vary from 2 to 6, depending on
the propagation environment.
tends to increase as there are more obstructions.
Table - Path loss exponent


(Log-normal shadowing model)
Path loss increases with the path loss exponent . Even if the distance
between the transmitter and receiver is equal to each other, every path may
have different path loss since the surrounding environments may vary with
the location of the receiver in practice. However, all the aforementioned
path loss models do not take this particular situation into account.
A log-normal shadowing model is useful when dealing with a more realistic
situation.
Let denote a Gaussian random variable with a 0dB mean and a
standard deviation of ( ~(0, ) ). Then, the log-normal shadowing
model is given as
This model allows the receiver at the same distance to have a different
path loss, which varies with the random shadowing effect

Log-normal variables
Definition: A random variable is a log-normal variable, if your
logarithmic follows a normal distribution
In communications log-normal variables are power and power ratio (attenuaiton),

which are in dBs (dBm or dBW)
Log-norma distribution Norma distribution

Figure shows path loss that follows the log-normal shadowing model at = 1.5 GHz
with = 3 dB and = 2. It clearly illustrates the random effect of shadowing that is
imposed on the deterministic nature of the log-distance path loss model.


Okumura Model
The Okumura model has been obtained through
extensive experiments to compute the antenna height
and coverage area for mobile communication systems
It was developed during the mid 1960's as the result of
large-scale studies conducted in and around Tokyo.
It is one of the most frequently adopted path loss models
that can predict path loss in an urban area
Covers typical mobile communication system characteristics with
a frequency band of 500-1500MHz, cell radius of 1-100 km, and
an antenna height of 30m to 1000m.

Okumura Model
The path loss at distance in the Okumura model is
where
is the path loss of the free space in dB
is the medium attenuation factor at frequency
and are the antenna gains of Rx and Tx antennas, respectively,
is the gain for the propagation environment in the specific area.
Note that the antenna gains, are merely a function of the antenna height,
without other factors taken into account like an antenna pattern.
and can be referred to by the graphs that have been obtained
empirically from actual measurements by Okumura

Okumura
Model

The value of
is
determined by
graphs that have
been obtained
empirically from
actual
measurements
by Okumura

Okumura Model

The value of
is
determined by
graphs that have
been obtained
empirically from
actual
measurements
by Okumura

Hata Model
The Okumura model has been extended to cover the
various propagation environments, including urban,
suburban, and open area, which is now known as the
Hata model.
Hata model is currently the most popular path loss model.
For the height of transmit antenna, [m], and the
carrier frequency of [MHz], the path loss at distance
[m] in an urban area is given by the Hata model as
is the correlation coefficient of the receive antenna, which

depends on the size of coverage.

Hata Model
For small to medium-sized coverage, is given as
where [m] is the height of transmit antenna.
For large-sized coverage, depends on the range of

the carrier frequency

Hata Model
the path loss at distance in suburban and open areas are
respectively given by the Hata model as

Fading
SMALL-SCALE FADING

Small-scale fading
Small-scale fading is often referred to as fading or fading
in short.
Describes the rapid variation of the received signal level
over a short period of time or short travel distance.
Caused by the effect of multiple signal paths, which cause

interference when they arrive subsequently in the receive
antenna with varying amplitude and phases
Each of the multiple signal paths may undergo changes that

depend on the speeds of the mobile station and surrounding
objects.

Factors Influencing Small-scale
Fading
The following physical factors in the radio propagation
channel influence small-scale fading
multi-path propagation
speed of the mobile
speed of the surrounding objects
the transmission bandwidth of the signal

Effects of Small-scale fading
The three most important fading effects are
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or

time interval
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multi-path signals
3. Time dispersions (echos) caused by multi-path propagation
delays

Multi-path Propagation
The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the
channel creates a constantly changing environment
This results in multiple versions of the transmitted signal that
arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with respect to one
another in time and spatial orientation
The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath
components cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby
inducing small-scale fading, signal distortion, or both
Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for
the baseband portion of the signal to reach the receiver which
can cause signal smearing due to intersymbol interference

Doppler shift
Definition: The shift in received signal frequency due to
motion is called the Doppler shift
It is directly proportional to
the velocity of the mobile
the direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the
direction of arrival of the received wave

Doppler shift
Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity ,
along a path segment having length between points
and
The mobile receives signals from a remote source
Assumptions: is small and is very remote
When the distance of is almost parallel to

The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave
from source to the mobile at points and is
= cos = cos
= time required for the mobile to travel from X to Y
= angle of arrival of the wave, which is the same at and due to the
assumptions

Doppler shift
The transmitted signal can be expressed as
() = {exp[2 ]}
where
= amplitude of the signal
= carrier frequency
The received signal at point is given by

() = {exp[2 ( )]}
where
= propagation delay

Doppler shift
The received signal at point is given by

Doppler shift
From the previous slide, let
Received frequency at point is
where is the Doppler shift due to the motion of the mobile

Note: is positive when the mobile is moving towards the
source S
Doppler shift
If the mobile is moving away from the base station then
Thus the received frequency at is

Power Delay Profile
Power delay profiles (PDP) are
used to derive many multipath channel
parameters
generally represented as plots of relative
received power (2 ) as a function of excess
delay ( ) with respect to a fixed time delay
reference
Power delay profiles are found by

averaging instantaneous power delay
profile measurements over a local area
in order to determine an average
small-scale power delay profile

Time Dispersion Parameters
The time dispersion parameters that can be determined from
a power delay profile are
Mean excess delay
RMS delay spread
Excess delay spread
These parameters are useful channel parameters that provides
a reference comparison among different multipath fading. It
shows a general guideline to design a wireless transmission
system.
The time dispersive properties of wide band multipath
channels are most commonly quantified by their mean excess
delay ( ) and RMS delay spread ( )

Mean Excess Delay
The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay
profile and is defined as
denotes the power at th path

RMS Delay Spread
The RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is defined to be

The mean excess delay and RMS delay spread are
measured relative to the first detectable signal arriving at
the receiver at 0 = 0
Typical values of RMS delay spread are on the order of
microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel
nanoseconds in indoor radio channels

Maximum Excess Delay
The maximum excess delay ( dB) of the power delay profile is

defined to be the time delay during which multipath energy falls
to dB below the maximum
If 0 is the first arriving signal and is the maximum delay at

which a multipath component is with dB of the strongest
multipath signal (which does not necessarily arrive at 0 ), then
the maximum excess delay is defined as

Coherence Bandwidth
The coherence bandwidth, defined as shows the frequency range
in which the channel varies significantly
The RMS delay spread and are inversely proportional to one
another, that is
1

If is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation
function is above 0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is approximately
1

50
where is the RMS delay spread

Coherence Bandwidth
If the definition is relaxed so that the frequency
correlation function is above 0.5, then the coherence
bandwidth is approximately
1

5

Types of Small-Scale Fading
Fading due Time dispersion
Due to time dispersion, a transmit signal may undergo fading over
a frequency domain
1. Frequency nonselective fading or Flat fading
2. Frequency selective fading
Fading due Frequency dispersion

Depending on the extent of the Doppler spread, the received
signal undergoes
1. Fast fading
2. Slow fading

Frequency nonselective fading
Flat Fading is also referred as frequency nonselective fading
A narrower bandwidth implies that symbol period is
greater than delay spread of the multipath channel
As long as is greater than , the current symbol does not affect
the subsequent symbol as much over the next symbol period,
implying that inter-symbol interference (ISI) is not significant.
Even while amplitude is slowly time-varying in the frequency-non-
selective fading channel, it is often referred to as a narrowband
channel, since the signal bandwidth is much narrower than the
channel bandwidth.

To summarize, a transmit signal is subject to frequency-
non-selective fading under the following conditions:
and
where and are the bandwidth and symbol period of
s
the transmit signal, while and denote coherence

bandwidth and RMS delay spread, respectively.

Transmit signal undergoes frequency-selective fading
when the wireless channel has a constant amplitude and
linear phase response only within a channel bandwidth
narrower than the signal bandwidth.
The channel impulse response has a larger delay spread than a

symbol period of the transmit signal. Due to the short symbol
duration as compared to the multipath delay spread, multiple-
delayed copies of the transmit signal is significantly overlapped
with the subsequent symbol, incurring inter-symbol interference
(ISI).

Typical Values
Typical Values:
In building: = 30 300 ns, = 3 30 MHz.
Urban area: = 300 ns 3ms, = 300 kHz 3 MHz.

Open area: = 1 10 ms, = 100 kHz 1 MHz.
Examples:
GSM, 200 kHz
UMTS, 5 MHz.

Frequency selective fading
The term frequency selective channel is used simply because
the amplitude of frequency response varies with the
frequency, as opposed to the frequency-flat nature of the
frequency nonselective fading channel.
The occurrence of ISI is obvious in the time domain since
channel delay spread t is much greater than the symbol
period.
This implies that signal bandwidth is greater than coherence
bandwidth and thus, the received signal will have a different
amplitude in the frequency response (i.e., undergo frequency
selective fading).
Since signal bandwidth is larger than the bandwidth of channel
impulse response in frequency-selective fading channel, it is often
referred to as a wideband channel

Frequency selective fading
The transmit signal is subject to frequency-selective fading under
the following conditions:
> and >
Even if it depends on modulation scheme, a channel is typically
classified as frequency selective when
> 0.1 .

Flat fading vs frequency
selective fading

Fast fading
In a fast fading channel, the coherence time is smaller than
the symbol period and thus, a channel impulse response
quickly varies within the symbol period.
Variation in the time domain is closely related to movement of
the transmitter or receiver, which incurs a spread in the
frequency domain, known as a Doppler shift.
Let be the maximum Doppler shift, which is given by
v
= . =

Then, the bandwidth of Doppler spectrum, denoted as , is
given as
= 2

Fast fading
In general, is inversely proportional to Doppler spread, i.e.,
1

Therefore, > implies < .
The transmit signal is subject to fast fading under the
following conditions:
> and <

Slow fading
Consider the case that channel impulse response varies
slowly as compared to variation in the baseband transmit
signal.
In this case, we can assume that the channel does not change
over the duration of one or more symbols and thus, it is referred
to as a static channel.
The Doppler spread is much smaller than the bandwidth of
the baseband transmit signal.
Transmit signal is subject to slow fading under the

following conditions:
and

Slow fading
In the case where the is defined as a bandwidth with
the correlation of 0.5 or above, the relationship must be
changed to
9 0.179
=
16
This eq. is derived under the assumption that a signal varies very
fast.
The most common definition of coherence time is to use

the geometric mean of above eq.
9 0.423
Tc 2 =
16 fm fm

Fast vs Slow fading
It is important to note that fast or slow fading does not
have anything to do with time dispersion-induced fading.
In other words, the frequency selectivity of the wireless channel
cannot be judged merely from the channel characteristics of fast
or slow fading.
This is simply because fast fading is attributed only to the rate of
channel variation due to the terminal movement.

Summary
Summary of channel fading characteristics
BS Freq. sel. Freq. sel.

TS Fast slow
Flat Flat
slow fast BC
T Flat Flat
Freq sel. Freq sel.
slow fast Fast Slow
TC BD
Statistical Characterization and
Generation of Fading Channel

Generation of Fading
Channels
In general, the propagation environment for any wireless
channel in either indoor or outdoor may be subject to:
LOS (Line-of-Sight)
NLOS (Non Line-of-Sight).

Generation of Fading
Channels
A probability density function of the signal received in :
LOS environment follows the Rician distribution
NLOS environment follows the Rayleigh distribution.
Note that any received signal in the propagation

environment for a wireless channel can be considered as
the sum of the received signals from an infinite number
of scatters.

Rayleigh Fading Distribution
In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution is
commonly used to describe the statistical time varying
nature of the received envelope of a flat fading signal, or
the envelope of an individual multipath component
Remark: The envelope of the sum of two quadrature
Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution

Typical Rayleigh Fading Envelope

Rayleigh Distribution
The probability density function (pdf) of the Rayleigh
distribution is given by

The probability that the envelope of the received signal
does not exceed a specified value R is given by the
corresponding cumulative distribution function (CDF)


Ricean Fading Distribution
When there is a dominant stationary (non-fading) signal
component present, such as a line-of-sight propagation
path, the small-scale fading envelope distribution is
Ricean
As the dominant signal becomes weaker, the Ricean
distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution

Ricean Distribution
The pdf of the Ricean distribution is given by

Ricean Distribution

Example

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ESCUELA POLITCNICA NACIONAL

Estudio del Canal Inalmbrico

Dra. Martha Cecilia Paredes

IEE8J4@mcparedes ESCUELA POLITCNICA NACIONAL 2

Perahia, E., Stacey, R., (2008). Next Generation Wireless

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Large-scale fading vs. small-scale fading.

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represents the transmit power (watts),

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Without antenna gains (i.e., = = 1), the equation is

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0 is a reference distance at which or closer to the path loss inherits the

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Table - Path loss exponent

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In communications log-normal variables are power and power ratio (attenuaiton),

Log-norma distribution Norma distribution

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is the correlation coefficient of the receive antenna, which

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where [m] is the height of transmit antenna.

For large-sized coverage, depends on the range of

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Caused by the effect of multiple signal paths, which cause

Each of the multiple signal paths may undergo changes that

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1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or

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The received signal at point is given by

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Received frequency at point is

where is the Doppler shift due to the motion of the mobile

Thus the received frequency at is