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The philosophes of the Enlightenment confidently argued that if human beings could
develop science and comprehend the laws of nature, then they could also remake society, politics,
and every other realm of human life. Progress was possible, they insisted, because humans were
basically good, not fundamentally evil as Christianity had taught. Joyce Appleby; Lynn Hunt &
Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth about History, New York, Norton & Company, 1995 p. 62.
3
Terry Eagleton, Las ilusiones del posmodernismo, trad. Marcos Mayer, Buenos Aires,
Paids, 1998, p. 77.
4
Ibd., p. 78.
102
5
The call for a more varied approach to history carries the influence of a European
tradition that evolves from Friedrich Nietzche into the recent work of Michel Foucault or Jacques
Derrida and that examines critically the founding assumptions of knowledge. This tradition,
which many historians distrust or dislike, stresses that critical theorists should recover those lost
or repressed strands of Western culture that might challenge the reigning epistemological and
ontological orthodoxies of our time. Lloyd S. Kramer, Literature, Criticism, and Historical
Imagination: The Literary Challenge of Hayden White and Dominick LaCapra; en Aletta
Biersack [et al.] The New Cultural History, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1989, p. 100.
6
Jrgen Habermas, Excurso sobre la Disolucin de la Diferencia de Gneros entre
Filosofa y Literatura, El Discurso Filosfico de la Modernidad, 1985, trad. Manuel Jimnez
Redondo, Madrid, Taurus, 1989, p. 112.
103
104
Joyce Appleby, Lynn Hunt & Margaret Jacob, op. cit., p. 219.
105
106
11
White and LaCapra share the belief that unexamined narrative structures and
ontological assumptions prefigure all historical works as well as our understanding of reality
outside of books (1989: 108) LaCapra shares Whites assumption that the study of history must
always be in some sense the study of language, though this does not mean that one should see the
world only as language (textual imperialism) or language merely as a reflection of the world
(reductive contextualism). Lloyd S. Kramer, op. cit., pp. 106-107.
12
(1) The revision of older conceptions of rethoric in the light of modern linguistics and
discourse analysis. This tendency may go so far as to induce an identification of rhetoric with vast
segments of discourse, conceivaibly all of it with the possible exception of highly formalized
metalanguages [] (2) The elaboration of a theory of figures, tropes, and literary or poetic
uses of language. Here the scope of rhetoric is narrowed, but analyses of it may become more
finely tuned or even hermetically technical in nature. This second tendency may nonetheless lead
back to the first when tropes are accorded an originary or generative function in language and
seen as giving rise to other uses (such as argument, emplotment, and ideology). (3) A focus on
problems of persuasion and audience that may convert Aristotles definition of rhetoric into a
program for an aesthetics of reception. Dominick LaCapra, op. cit., pp. 16-17.
107
13
every history is first and foremost a verbal artifact, a product of a special kind of
language use. Hayden White, Figural Realism. Studies in the Mimesis Effect. Baltimore, John
Hopkins University Press, 1999, p. 4.
14
representation (argument from similirarity) subsumes explanation (argument from
contiguity), which becomes a moment of representation, an attribute. Hans Kellner, A
Bedrock of Order: Hayden Whites Linguistic Humanism, History and Theory. Studies in the
Philosophy of History. Beiheft 19. Metahistory: Six Critiques. [Middletown, Conn.], Wesleyan
University Press, 1980, p. 7.
15
I have noted the subsumption of Explanation by Narration; a similar operation takes place
with Tenor/Vehicle, Non Fiction/Fiction, Science/Art, and History Proper/Philosophy of History. In
each case, the first term of the paradigm becomes o moment of the second. Ibd., p. 10.
16
it is absurd to suppose that, because a historical discourse is cast in the mode of a
narrative, it must be mythical, fictional, substantially imaginary, or otherwise unrealistic in what
it tells us about the world. Hayden White, op. cit., p. 22.
108
17
the distinction between historical and fictional statements on the level of reference to
events but question[s] it on structural levels. Dominick LaCapra, Writing History, Writing
Trauma, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 2001, p. 8.
18
where in classical rhetoric poetics had simply contributed insight and technical
vocabulary to a general rhetorical theory and practice, this modern poetic rhetoric constricts the
range and use of rhetoric to the illumination of a set of problems defined by literary canons.
Nancy Struever, Topics in History en Nancy Struever, History and Theory. Studies in the
Philosophy of History. Beiheft 19. Metahistory: Six Critiques, [Middletown, Conn.], Wesleyan
University Press, 1980, p. 66.
19
In an essay published in Communications in 1972, Barthes suggested that the kind of
interdisciplinary work demanded by the modern human sciences required not so much the use of
a number of established disciplines for the analysis of a traditionally defined object of study as the
invention of a new object that would not belong to any particular established discipline. Barthes
proffered the text in its modern, linguistic-semiotic conceptualization as such an object. If we
follow out the implications of this suggestion, we can begin to grasp the significance of modern
literrary theory for the understanding of what is involved in our own efforts to theorize historical
writing. Hayden White, op. cit., p. 25.
109
Tartu, como de la italiana que se funda en parte en ella como los desarrollos
tericos de Eco, por citar un ejemplo.
No es tampoco el propsito del presente trabajo detallar los alcances
tericos del trmino texto en las diversas concepciones (para lo que puede
consultarse Lotman en lo que a una nocin materialista se refiere, y Minc sobre
textualizacin y esttica simbolista), pero cabe sealar que compartimos, al
respecto, la opinin de Ermarth: el trmino evento, como texto o self o
histrico retiene el esencialismo que el postmodernismo desafa. En un
proceso postmoderno, cada evento puede ser un texto, pero ningn texto est
solo. Es la naturaleza del proceso, las series, la secuencia lo que ms me
interesa.20 Es tambin la naturaleza de los procesos, las series, las secuencias
en sus relaciones contextuales lo que interesa a una semitica materialista para
definir los alcances de lo que puede considerarse texto.
Dice White:
Mi tesis es que la principal fuente de intensidad de un trabajo histrico en tanto que
interpretacin de eventos a los que trata como datos para ser explicados es retrica
en naturaleza. En consecuencia, tambin la retrica de un trabajo histrico es, desde
mi punto de vista, la principal fuente de su apelacin a aquellos de sus lectores que
lo aceptan como realista u objetivo, recuento de lo realmente sucedido en el
pasado.21
Me doy cuenta de que al caracterizar el discurso histrico como interpretacin, y la
interpretacin histrica como narrativizacin, estoy tomando posicin en un debate
acerca de la naturaleza del conocimiento histrico, lo que ubica a la narrativa en
oposicin a la teora en forma de una oposicin entre un pensamiento que se
manifiesta principalmente como literario e incluso mtico, y otro que es o aspira a
ser cientfico. Pero debe recalcarse que estamos considerando aqu no la cuestin de
los mtodos de investigacin que deberan ser utilizados para investigar el pasado,
20
the term event, like text or self or historical retains the essentialism that
postmodernism challenges. In a postmodern process, every event may be a text, but no text is
single. It is the nature of the process, the series, the sequence that most interests me. Jury Lotman,
La estructura del texto artstico, Madrid, Itsmo, 1992, p. 3.
21
My thesis is that the principal source of a historical works strength as an interpretation
of the events which it treats as the data to be explained is rhetorical in nature. So too the rhetoric
of a historical work is, in my view, the principal source of its appeal to those of its readers who
accept it as a realistic or objective account of what really happened in the past. Hayden
White, Theories of History, papers read at clark library seminar, march 6, 1976, Los ngeles,
Clark Memory Library, 1978,, p. 3.
110
22
111
25
there is no such thing as a real story. Stories are told or written, not found. And as for the
notion of a true story, this is virtually a contradiction in terms. All stories are fictions. Ibd., p. 9.
26
[] narrativization is closest to ficcionalization in the sense of a dubious departure
from, or distortion of, historical reality when it conveys relatively unproblematic closure (or what
Frank Kermode terms a sense of ending). Indeed, White sometimes tends to identify narrative with
conventional or formulaic narrative involving closure and to move from this limited identification
to a general critique of narrative. [] Yet White also defends what he sees as modernist narrative
and argues that historiography would do better to emulate its resistance to closure and its
experimentalism in general rather than rely on nineteenth-century realism in its putative modes of
representation and emplotment. [] In any case, Whites critiques of narrative are most
convincing when applied to conventional narratives (or conventional dimension of narrative)
seeking resonant closure, and his claims about the possible role of experimental narrative with
respect to historiography are often thoughtprovoking even when he does not show precisely how
they might be applied or enacted. Dominick LaCapra, op. cit., p. 16.
112
27
113
29
114
32
115
Por otro lado, los formalistas sentaban las bases de los estudios literarios
como discurso cientfico sobre la especificidad de la literatura,37 estableciendo
las caractersticas de la literaturidad, de la poeticidad de un texto, es decir,
los rasgos particulares que lo configuran como objeto esttico.38
White logra esfumar los lmites entre ambas prcticas discursivas a travs
de dos recursos: por un lado, el hecho de proponer al anlisis las figuras
retricas principales del lenguaje (metfora, metonimia, sincdoque e irona
que para l determinan el poder retricamente revelador del texto y patentizan
su literaturidad); por el otro, co-fundir (confundir deliberadamente) dos
sentidos del concepto de ficcionalidad: el de hechura (fictio) y el de acto
imaginativo (como acto manipulatorio).
La caracterstica de ficcionalidad que, segn Jakobson, slo resulta apta
para efectuar un deslinde entre la literatura y los discursos ordinarios se
vuelve as rasgo dominante y cobra autonoma frente a las funciones
expresivas, regulativas, informativas, etc., del lenguaje de la descripcin
historiogrfica, entonces sucede que:
La asuncin del rol dominante por parte de una subestructura que sujeta en su
organizacin todas las otras, adquiere el derecho de hablar en nombre del objeto
cultural dado y produce finalmente una autodescripcin metalingstica del
lenguaje de la cultura, que elimina todo lo que se contrapone a estas subestructuras
en tanto que extrasistemtico.39
Es curioso que a pesar de que Jakobson diga esto y haya sido, adems, un
defensor de las funciones diversas del lenguaje (que tipific en seis), White lo
cite como aval atendiendo slo a una de ellas, es decir, la funcin potica, en lo
que puede entenderse como una distorsin retrica: Como el discurso potico
en los trminos en que lo caracteriza Jakobson, el discurso histrico es
intensional, es decir, es sistemticamente intra tanto como extrarreferencial.40
36
Beatriz Sarlo (comp.), Antologa del Formalismo Ruso, trad. de la edicin francesa de
Ana Mara Nethol, Buenos Aires, Centro Editor de Amrica Latina [CEAL], 1971, p. 25.
37
Ibd., pp. 28-45.
38
Ibd., pp. 60-61.
39
La traduccin del italiano y las del ingls son nuestras. Jury Lotman, La estructura del
Texto Artstico, Madrid, Itsmo, 1978, p. 132.
40
Like poetic discourse as characterized by Jakobson, historical discourse is intensional,
that is, it is systemically intra- as well as extrareferential. Hayden White, op. cit., p. 7.
116
41
Whites tropological categories, in short, displace onto the text the kind of categorial
thinking that most historians apply to the context. Kramer, Lloyd S. Literature, Criticism, and
Historical Imagination: The Literary Challenge of Hayden White and Dominick LaCapra; en Aletta
Biersack [et al.] The new cultural history, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1989, p. 112.
117
comprensin del mundo, pero White no hace concesin a los cientficos acerca
de este punto.42
Este monolgico contextualismo esttico o contextualizacin estetizante
entendida como nico discurso posible tiene entonces otras implicaciones: al
perder la distincin genrico-discursiva, se pierde tambin la diferenciacin
entre las fundamentaciones lgicas y la evaluacin tica propias de cada
dominio, previamente cristalizadas en los distintos tipos de razonamiento aptos
para cada campo (ya que le permitimos a la literatura juegos fantsticos que no
le permitimos a la historia). Al operar de este modo por reduccionismo
homologador, se logra que la pertinencia del discurso historiogrfico pueda ser
evaluada de acuerdo con normas de efecto retrico ms que de coherencia
lgico-argumentativa.
Relacionando esta interpretacin estetizante con la novela histrica
podemos afirmar que, adems de lo sealado, si el contextualismo esttico se
lleva a sus ltimas instancias y, como sealamos, el historiador es un escritor
en uso de tcnicas modernistas, sera imposible distinguir entre discurso
historiogrfico y novela histrica, y las exigencias para los autores de los dos
gneros respecto a la tica de la validez seran las mismas. Adems, la mayor
competencia retrico-esttica (artstica) propia del escritor de ficcin pondra a
la novela histrica en un nivel de credibilidad superior al del discurso
historiogrfico, dado que, en general, la interpretacin esttica suele resultar
ms consistente en su persuasin.
Por esto, conviene tener en cuenta la afirmacin de Jrn Rsen:
Mientras ms dbil sea la conviccin entre los historiadores de que su actividad
intelectual es, o al menos debera ser, informada racionalmente, ms fcilmente la
historiografa se convierte en un instrumento de la ideologa. El tan celebrado
revival de la narrativa en la historiografa erosiona esa conviccin, como tambin lo
42
118
43
The weaker the conviction among historians that their intellectual activity is, or at least
should be, rationally informed, the more easily historiography is made over into an instrument of
ideology. The much celebrated revival of narrative in historiography erodes that conviction, as
does the much discussed metahistorical thesis of the essentially rhetorical character of
historiography. Lionel Gossman, Between History and Literature, Cambridge, Harvard
University Press, 1990, p. 290.
119