About the Book Gas Production Operations covers essen- tially all of the operations involved in moving natural gas from its initial location in the reser- Voir to its final destination, including movement fof the gas through the reservoir, the piping system, separation facilities, and finally @ com pressor. ‘Aiter @ thorough treatment of the properties of natural gases and gas condensates, a chap ter on reservoir performance discusses the fexisting methods for calculating reservoir prop- fries and predicting inllow performance. Flow through the piping system, including tubing and gathering lines, is discussed in Chapter 4 ‘This chapter also discusses the effects of two- phase flow and gas well dewatering. Chapter § Sutlines the steps involved in selecting gas compressors, including power requirements ‘and number of stages. A chapter on total S¥S~ tem analysis describes the total system ‘approach to optimizing the entire production system, Numerous examples illustrate the tftects of tubing size, perforations, separator pressure, and compression. ‘The remaining chapters cover information that is essential in the day-to-day operation of ‘gas field, including coverage of flow measur, ing, gas condensate reservoir behavior, field operations problems, and field gas process- ing. Detection of abnormal well performance, ‘separator selection, and prediction of hydrate formation are illustrated. ‘he jacket photograph was taken by Arco Dring engineer Ken Baum.odGas Production OperationsGas Production Operations H. Dale Beggs OGCI Publications eas ultants international Inc.COPYRIGHT 1984 BY Ol & GAS CONSULTANTS INTERNATIONAL, INC. and H. Dale 4554 South Harvard Avenue ‘Tulsa, Otdahoma 74135 All rights reserved. No part ofthis text may be reproduced or transcribed in any form ‘or by any menus without the writen permission ‘of Oil & Gas Consultants International, Ine 1s use in adult traning programs is specifically ‘served for Oil & Gas Consultants International, Ine. Printed in the United Stes of America Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 83-063489 Imernational Standard Book Number; 0-930572.06-6 First Printing — July, 1984 ‘Second Printing — November, 1985 ‘Third Printing — Jone, 1991,Contents 1 Introduction 1 Geographical Occurrence of Natural Gas 1 Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas 1 Occurrence of Natural Gas in the United States 2 Geological Occurrence of Natural Gas 2 Modification by Migration and Burial 10 Characteristics of Natural Gas 11 Gas Composition 11 Other Sources of Gaseous Fuel 12 Liquefied Natural Gas 12 Coal Gasification 12 ‘Substitute Natural Gas 12 Gas from Devonian Shale 13 Tight Formation Gas 13 Gas from Geopressured Aquifers 13 Gas Production Operations 13 References 14 2 Gas Properties 15 Ideal Gases 15 Early Gas Laws 15 Boyle's Law 15 Charles’ Law 15 Avogadro's Law 15 The Ideal Gas Law 16 Ideal Gas Mixtures 17 Dalton’s Law 17 Amagat’s Law 18 ‘Apparent Molecular Weight 18 Real Gases 22 Real Gas Mixtures 22 Gas Formation Volume Factor 30Correction for Nonhydrocarbon Impurities 30 Other Equations of State 31 Benedict: Webb-Rubin Equation 31 Redlich-Kwong Equation 32 Gas Isothermal Compressibility 33 Ideal Gas Compressibility 33 Real Gas Compressibility 33 Gas Viscosity 34 Carr Method 35 Lee Method 35 Gas-Wator Systems 36 Solubllty of Natural Gas in Water 37 Solubility of Water in Natural Gas 37 Gas Hydrates 37 Gas-Condensate Systems 39 Phase Behavior 39 Single Component Fiuid 39 Multicomponent Fluids 39 ‘Separation Processes 40 Types of Gas Reservoirs 40 Flash of Equilibrium Separation Calculations 41 Determination of Equilibrium Ratios 44 K-Values from Equations of State 45 ‘Adjustment of Properties for Condensate Mixtures 45 Specific Gravity of Mixtures 46 References 47 3 Gas Reservoir Performance Reservoir Gas Flow 49 Flow Regime Characteristics 49 Steady-State Flow 49 Unsteady-State Flow 50 Pseudosteady-State Flow 51 Flow Equations 51 ‘Steady-State Flow 51 Pseudosteady-State Flow 53 Unsteady-State Flow 53 Noncircular Reservoirs 57 Rock Permeability 59 Well Deliverability or Capacity 59 Flow-After-Flow Tests 61 Isochronal Testing 62 Modified Isochronal Testing 63 Jones, Blount, and Glaze Method 64 Laminar inertia Turbulence (LIT) Analysis 66 Factors Affecting Inflow Performance 69 Transient Testing 70 Principle of Superposition 70 ‘Superposition in Time 70 ‘Superposition in Space 71 Pressure Drawdown Testing 71 Two-Rate Tests 73 Reservoir Limit Test 73Pressure Buildup Testing 74 Real Gas Pseudopressure Analysis 77 Gas Reserves 80 Reserve Estimates—Volumetric Method 80 Reserve Estimates—Material Balance Method 81 Energy Plots 82 Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs 83 Well Completion Effects 83 Open-Hole Completions 84 Perforated Completions 84 Perforated, Gravel-Packed Completions 87 Tight gas Well Analysis 87 Guidelines for Gas Well Testing 90 Testing Equipment 90 Sweet Dry Gas 90 ‘Sweet Wet Gas 91 Sour Gas 92 Flow Measuring 92 Pressure Measuring 92 Test Design 92 Problems in Gas-Well Testing 94 Liquid Loading 94 Hydrate Formation 94 Wet Gas Streams 94 Irregular Flow 94 Sour (H.S) Gas _ 95 Reporting Data 95 References 95 Piping System Performance Basic Flow Equation 97 Laminar Single-Phase Flow 99 Turbulent Single-Phase Flow 99 ‘Smooth-Wall Pipe 99 Rough-Wall Pipe 99 Flow in Wells 104 Static Bottom-Hole Pressure 104 ‘Average Pressure and Temperature Method 104 Cullender and Smith Method 105 Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure 105 ‘Average Pressure and Temperature Method 106 Cullender and Smith Method 107 Annular Flow 108 Fiow in Pipelines 109 Pipelines in Series 114 Pipelines in Parallel 111 Effects of Liquids 112 Well Performance 112 Gravity Adjustment 112 Hagedorn and Brown Method 112 Pipeline Performance 115, Flanigan Method 115 Beggs and Brill Method 116Gas Flow Through Restrictions 120 Use of Pressure Traverse Curves 122 Liquid Removal from Gas Wells 122 Minimum Flow Rate for Continuous Liquid Removal 122 Liquid Removal Methods 126 Beam Pumping Units 126 Plunger Lift 127 ‘Small Tubing 127 Gas-Litt 127 Soap Injection 127 Erosional Velocity 127 Predicting Flowing Temperatures 128 Flowing Temperatures in Wells 128 Flowing Temperatures in Pipelines 129 References 129 5 Gas Compression 431 Types of Compressors 131 Positive Displacement Compressors 132 Dynamic Compressors 135 Ejector Compressors 136 Compressor Design 137 Design Methods 137 Reciprocating Compressors 138 Power Requirement 139 Multistaging 143 Effect of Clearance 143 Effect of Specific Heat Ratio 144 Centrifugal Compressors 145 References 146 6 Total System Analysis 149 Tubing and Fiowline Size Elfect 149 Constant Wellhead Pressure 149 Variable Wellhead Pressure 162 Separator Pressure Effect 153 Compressor Selection 153 ‘Subsurface Safety valve Selection 154 Effect of Perforating Density 156 Effet of. Depletion 158 Relating Performance to Time 159 Nodal Anaiysis of Injection Wells 160 Analyzing Multiwell Systems 164 ‘Summary 164 7 Flow Measuring 165 Introduction 165 Orica Metering 165 Oriice Constants 168 Basic Orifice Factor F, 166 Pressure-base Factor Fu 166 villTemperature-base Factor Fp 166 Specitfic-gravity Factor F, 166 Flowing-temperature Factor Fy 166 Reynolds-number Factor F, 166 Expansion Factor ¥ 166 ‘Superoompressibilty Factor F,, 167 Manometer Factor F,, 167 Metering System Design 167 ‘Straightening Vanes 168 Orifice Location 168 Size of Orifice and Meter Run 168 Recorder 169 Chart-Reading Accuracy 171 Conditions Affecting Accuracy 172 Condition of the Orifice Edge 172 Condition of the Meter Tube 172 Pulsation 172 Effect of Water Vapor 172 Wet Gas Measurement 173 Other Metering Methods 173 Orifice Well Tester 173 Criticalfiow Prover 173 Pitot Tube 174 Turbine Meters 174 References 188 Gas-Condensate Reservoirs 189 Well Testing and Sampling 190 Well Conditioning and Sampling Procedures 191 Laboratory Testing 191 Calculation of Initial In-Place Gas and Condensate 191 Compositional Analysis Not Available 192 Compositional Analysis Available 193 Recovery Estimates 194 Laboratory Simulation 194 Flash Calculations 197 Empirical Correlations for Estimating Performance 198 Effects of Water Drive 199 Gas Cycling 199 ‘Areal Sweep Efficiency (E,) 199 Vertical Sweep Eificiency (E,) 199 Displacement Efficiency (E>) 200 Reservoir Cycling Efficiency (E,) 200 Feasibilly of Gas Cycting 200 References 200 Field Operation Problems 201 Pressure-Cumulative Production Plots 201 p/Z versus G, Plots 201 Energy Plots 202 Rate Versus Time Plots 202 ix10 Hydrate Formation 205 Causes, Occurrence, and Prediction 205 Hydrate Formation in the Flow String and Surface Lines 207 Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Orifices, and Back-Pressure Regulators 208 Hydrate Control 210 Sour Gas Production 210 Corrosion 210 Corrosion Control with inhibitors 211 The Short Batch Method of Application 211 The Tubing Displacement Method 212 Methods of Inhibitor Application Using Nitrogen Gas 212 Method of Continuous Treatment with Inhibitors 212 : Formation Squeeze 214 Sulfur Deposition 215, Safety 215 Well Testing 217 Gas Processing 219 Field Treatment of Natural Gas 219 Types of Separators 220 Separator Controls 221 Stage Separation 221 Low Temperature Separation 224 Condensate Stabilization 225 Gas Plant Operations 226 Liquid Hydrocarbon Recovery 227 Compression Processing 227 Absorption Processing 229 Cryogenic Processing 230 Adsorption Processing 230 Gas Dehydration 232 Gas Sweetening 233 References 234 Appendices 235 A. Equilibrium Constants for 5000 psia Convergence Pressure 235 B. Matthews-Brons-Hazebrook Curves for Various Reservoir Shapes 249 C. Mollier Diagrams for Natural Gas 255 . Computer Subroutines 259 E. Pressure Traverse Curves 281 F, Summary of Equations 295 Index 305Nomenclature area gs formation volume factor {gas formation volume factor at bubble-point conditions oil formation volume factor oil formation volume factor at bubble-point conditions total (two-phase) formation volume factor water formation volume factor formation (rock) compressibility gas compressibility oil compressibility pseudoreduced compressibility water compressibility coefficient of gas-well back-pressure curve concentration condensate or natural gas liquids content diameter depth efficiency areal efficiency displacement efficiency invasion (vertical) efficiency pattem sweep efficiency reservoir recovery efficiency, overall volumetric efficiency fraction friction factor fugacity force Dimensions B Le/m 12/m Le/m Le/m Bf various L L mL mL]xii a Qaye SF Pesce es cere Meare an ERS ss*5==3 » instantaneous producing water-oil ratio cumulative water-oil ratio acceleration of gravity conversion factor in Newton's Second Law of Motion total initial gas in place in reservoir cumulative gas injection initial condensate liquids in place in reservoir cumulative condensate liquid produced cumulative gas produced cumulative wet gas produced g0s produced during an interval thickness (general and individual bed) enthalpy (always with phase or system subscripts) injection rate productivity index specific productivity index absolute permeability (fluid flow) ‘effective permeability to gas effective permeability to oil relative permeability to gas relative permeability to oil relative permeability to water effective permeability to water ‘equilibrium ratio (y/x) natural logarithm, base e common logarithm, base 10 length moles of liguid phase mass ratio of initial reservoir free-ges volume to initial reservoir oil volume slope mobility ratio molecular weight exponent of back-pressure curve, gas well total moles moles of component j initial oil in place in reservoir ‘cumulative oil produced Reynolds number (dimensionless number) oil produced during an interval pressure atmospheric pressure bubble-point (saturation) pressure critical pressure Dimensions Le mL /EE P B D D Bp PR B L mi2/e Lie Lt/m Li/m Le B various Dv rl m/Lt m/LP m/LP m/lPy Por Ps Po Pe Py Pre Py > Pre Py Po casing pressure, flowing ‘casing pressure, static dew-point pressure dimensionless pressure external boundary pressure initial pressure pseudocritical pressure pseudoreduced pressure reduced pressure pressure, standard conditions separator pressure dimensionless pressure function at dimensionless time fp tubing pressure, flowing ‘tubing pressure, static bottom-hole pressure, general bottom-hole pressure, flowing bottombole pressure at sandface, flowing bottom-hole pressure, static average pressure pressure, reservoir average capillary pressure production rate or flow rate dimensionless production rate gas production rate production rate, gas, dimensionless oil production rate production rate, oil, dimensionless water production rate production rate, water, dimensionless dimensionless fiuid influx function at dimensionless time tp radial distance radius of drainage dimensionless radial distance ‘extemal boundary radius radius of well damage or stimulation (skin) well radius apparent or effective wellbore radius (includes effects of ‘well damage or stimulation) producing gas-oil ratio universal gas constant (per mole) ‘cumulative gas-oil ratio solution gas-oil ratio (gas solubility in oil) solution gas-oil ratio at bubble-point conditions initial solution gas-oil ratio Dimensions m/Le m/e fle m/e m/Le m/e mpi mjte m/l mfte m/e m/Le m/l m/Le m/Le mile m/e vit vt Lit Bit 6 beens mTz Dimensions ‘828 solubility in water skin effect saturation us saturation critical gas saturation residual gas saturation total (combined) liquid saturation oil saturation iterstitial-oil saturation in gas cap residual oil saturation water saturation critical water saturation intersttial-water saturation in gas cap residual water saturation time t dimensionless time time for stabilization of a well ' temperature Tr critical temperature i formation temperature Tr pseudocritical temperature Tr Pseudoreduced temperature reduced temperature reservoir temperature T temperature, standard conditions T specific volume Lim velocity Lh roles of vapor phase volume LB bulk volume BP volume per mole B pore volume, vb mass flow rate mit initial water in place in reservoir QR ‘water (always with identifying subscripts) various work mb]? cumulative water influx (encroachment) DR cumulative water injected vB cumulative water produced v Water influx (encroachment) during an interval R water injected during an interval B ‘water produced during an interval B mole fraction of a component in liquid phase ‘mole fraction of a component in vapor phase {gas deviation factor (corapressibility factor, z = pV/nRT)2 2RNS PULFRERRGOE$e Pe Pa Pe Pe mole fraction of a component in mixture elevation referred to datum alpha gamma gamma gamma gamma delta eta theta lambda lambda lambda me mu tho tho tho tho rho tho sigma tau angle specific gravity ‘gas specific gravity ‘il specific gravity water specific gravity difference (x = x; — x, or x =) hydraulic diffusivity (k/dep. oF 4/6) angle ‘gas mobility oil mobility water mobility viscosity air viscosity gas viscosity oil viscosity water viscosity kinematic viscosity density fluid density gas density matrix (solids, grain) density oil density water density surface tension (interfacial tension) tortuosity porosity Dimensions fo vit Ex/m Li/m ifm jis m/Lt m/l miflt jit vt m/l m/L? m/l? ji m/D> m/L? mtIntroduction LTHOUGH natural gas has been utilized as a fuel for more than 150 years, the large de- rand for it has developed fairly recently. The principal reason for this is the greater diffi culty of storing and transporting gas as compared to liq- uid fuels. Initially, natural gas was used only in the areas in which it was produced, with excess production being vented to the air or flared. This was especially true of ‘gas produced along with the oil in oil fields. The development of large diameter, high pressure Pipelines and compressors, along with the technology of ‘gas storage in reservoirs, has spurred both the demand for natural gas and the development of the technology required to produce and transport it. This is illustrated in the United States by the fact that natural gas supplied more than 30% of the total cnergy demand in 1980 as ‘compared to 18% in 1950 and less than 4% in 1920. Natural gas supplied about 20% of the energy worldwide in 1980. The increased demand has also greatly increased the price obtained for the gas. In 1950 the average price for natural ges in the United States was about $0.07 per thousand standard cubic foot (Mscf), and as late as 1970 the price averaged only about $0.17/Msef. In 1980 the average price had increased to more than $0.90/Mscf with gas in some areas selling for as much as $9.00/ ‘Mscf. The large difference in the average and maximum selling price is due to the huge quantities being sold at very low prices under long term contracts made many years ago. ‘Natural gas is used primarily as a fuel for space heat- ing and for generating steam for electric power plants, although its use as a feedstock for petrochemical plants is increasing rapidly. Because of the necessity of using very high pressure to store significant quantities of nat- ural gas in small spaces, its use as a fuel for motor ve- hicles is very limited. However, as the supply of liquid fuels such as gasoline diminishes, itis likely that tech- nology will be developed to overcome this problem. GEOGRAPHICAL OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS Geological conditions necessary for commercial ac- cumulations of natural gas exist in various locations worldwide. The tables and graphs presented in this sec- tion locate and quantify the known reserves and the pro- duction rates of various countries. These data are also presented for various states in the United States. Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas ‘The worldwide reserves of natural gas has steadily in- creased during recent years, while the United States re- serves declined from 1967 to 1983 Table 1-1 shows that the United States” share of the total world reserves decreased from 27.8% to 6.7% dur- ing the 1967-1983 period. As of 1983, the proved world gas reserve was 3,033 trillion cubic feet. The changes in reserves by area from 1967 to 1983 are shown in Table 1-1. These statistics are also reported by country for the twenty leading gas producing countries in Table 1-2 Although the United States has less than 7% of the total world reserves, it currently produces more than 34% of the gas produced worldwide. Production statistics by area for the 1975-1981 period are presented in Table 1- 3. The production statistics for the twenty leading coun- tries are presented in Table 1-4 for 1980, 1981 and 1984, At the 1981 worldwide production rate of 160 billion cu ft/ 12 Gas Production Operations TABLE tot Estimated Proved Wor! Reserves of Natural Gas Annually As of January 1 (tions of Cuble Feet) Western Heniohere ice weston Tout teat ses Lain Homage Milo si Westen Fee Gormunist Tout “rot Your Sites carn _Amecca “Ton” "Ean ncn Paste Cups _wiora Naor” ona etd _ Year Teer 20555 Gas osst0 —SOYSE _atsa7O Tenses taaio sose2 evi ‘GooD) owas ara” Teer wes em sso 67101 doseor — owro Her209 aoso senoes | sersoo | zissoo [onees ae toon oso 257520 rsse Gano aarove —Zanrrs tanoas aves tative onsse Suecoo asbas 207 tn 1970 275300 st9s1 160180 spoa10 208278 107149 67.500 150900 20000 1400908 185 1070 tor) oor6% Saare “Tatoo tivam «Seana torte seano raat oom zorost tat tort joe Zagoe SSace Jaren Songeo 000 toB010 ene00 tana Seno trios 161972 407s 2ea0es" S20o8 Toato Soaan9 an t60 tan018 101208 17eA00 teaaoo “2 jen tore “aegseo” Gaasr grat Searenasaes tor7a0 T4200 00007 sesaoo 23 tere 1078 56708 1002!4 s04954 srae7o a14g74 E880 coeece seoo00 9a 107 ‘re Seors ‘coast arson rice tise fost 5000 1 toe isn fete soses | Secess Boor too 11908 e200 2 irr ‘tm Sam imac sean frsct tax fonieo ‘sonata 222000 a3 i ws Seow tvao0 seas faszo0 Hoaso feaze0 tseaie seo Suersie 80 tare 1200 i94en7ess00 canst 20s:0 128015 195376 16m.186 oa8000 276160 791000 fet tenaet™ e700 sore Zosa7o 125200 \So3ts ‘aaeen som” Zowaze 73 faa time anvrav?soano teraes Biuae7 terete osc tpeome sietroo Eoware 63 fms" feo zovooo" oro sersat tonaea 1n2e7 158750 reaver tamseoo aouesay Gy 190" 1905 te0000" s2a00 475231 an0055 187.176 195100 m0eerD 190LeIs 1407400 seems 581805 jw tora S070 ss5071 ssas0 136922 t7iAo? faeaor tpenoeo teteoo Ssetoo So aoe jm tera 9800 Seat ienias 250910 Bowe So0N7 Gascon T3 toon {o9@ tes0% 94900 e204 {220160 aonro0 aasost Torte vasa Ge 1060 1201 100200 o7se9 sosoot 1224265 mas100 aese1 175.205 1216000 _Aaweats a9 wor roneed orteray ‘SRguos Inca 28 viion cub feet In Puts Bay, Alaska (lscovered in 1958) for which ranspotaton facies ar fet yet avaaie ‘tad on Energy Intormaton Adminataon estate, day, known reserves exist to sustain this rate for another forty-five years. Occurrence of Natural Gas In the United States ‘The United States is not in the same condition as the total world with respect to supply of natural gas. As shown in Table 1-5, almost eleven years would be required to deplete the 1981 known reserves at 1981 production rates. ‘This does not mean that the gas will be depleted in ten years, however, as new supplies are being found con- tinuously. The changing reserve situation in the United States is illustrated graphically in Figure 1-1. Table 1-6 shows estimates of the total remaining resources of nat- ural gas in the United States. Depending on the source of the estimate, the resources remaining in 1979 range from $02 to 1202 trillion cubic feet. Table 1-7 presents salient statistics related to the gas industry in the United States for the period 1970-1981. Approximately 5% of the gas consumed is imported, pri marily from Canada. Some liquefied natural gas is im- ported from Algeria. Of the gas produced in the United States, almost 904% ‘comes from only five states. These are Kansas, Loui- siana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. The state of Louisiana is by far the largest producer, accounting for about 34% of the total gas produced in the United States in 1981. Much of this gas is produced offshore. Table 1-8 lists the gas production by states for the period 1972— 1981, Consumption of natural gas is of course more evenly distributed among the states, with Texas being the larg- est consumer. Table 1-9 shows where the United States- produced gas was used in the period 1977-1981. ‘The large growth of the gas industry in the United States is attributable to the comprehensive transmission system that has developed since the late 1940's. In 1977 the network of gas pipelines consisted of more than 250,000 miles and served almost 45 million gas cus- tomers. The pipeline grid is shown in Figure 1-2, and the distribution of pipelines and customers among the states is listed in Table 1-10. GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS Certain requirements must be met for a commercial deposit of petroleum to exist. These are:Introduction cs TABLE 1-2 Estimated Natural Gas Reserves—Leading Nations (As of January 1) (Billion Cubic Feet) 1994 1998 1909 wor of wor Tota Tota Tota World Word Wor Netion _ Reserves Rosonves _—_Naton_—Reserves ‘Reserves Nation Reserves Reserves +. USSR. 1450000 42621. USSR 15500 «4271. USSR. 000 «376 2. tan ‘470600 1407 2. Ion 45001242. kan 000125 3. United States 198.000 502. USA 3854513. Abu Dhabl 2946 4 Qatar 150,000 4414. Quatar 3920 424 Saul Wala wis 45 S Saul Arba —-«*123.270~=«S62«S. Saudia Arabia «1240 «=, United States, «16501 6. Algeria 109,100 3216 Algeria 1080 29 6. Qatar 163.1 ay 7. Canada 32000 2717. Nowway 1032-287. Agora ‘4029 8, Norway 89,000 262 6 Canada 998 27 &. Venezuela wos 28 8. Mexico 77000 226 9, Abu Dhabi m0 © 258. haa 950 02a 10. Noterands aa 20110. Mexico, 785.2110. Canada m3 (2d 11. Vonezula 55970 1.6311. Nethodands Tos 1911. Nigova ara 12. Malaysia 50,000 147 12. Venazuola 590 1.812. Indonesia ao 2k 13. Indonesia 40,000 1.18 13, indoresia. 404 1413. Norway m2. 2 14, Nigeria 35600 4.0514. Malaysia 494 14 14. Mexico 74 15. Kuwal 32.500 0.96 15. Nowia 479 13.18. Notherands ent 46. China 30,900 091 16. United Kingdom 934 16. Malaysia 519 17, aq e800 08517. Caina 300 7. Kawat 436 18 Unted Klagdom 27,800 08218. Iraq 230 1. China 353 49. Argentina 24900 072 19. Agentna 230 1. Argentina 273 20, Libya 21200 0.82 20. Liye a2 20. Ubya 255 101 21, Abu Dhabi 20750 081 21. Austata 1875221. nda x0 22. Austaia 17795005222, Pakistan 187 22. United Kingdom 20.8 23, Pakistan 48760 048 23. Inda ws 2A. Pakistan 180 24, Inia 15000 0.44 24, Australia 165 Others 180120441 Oboe mas 62 Others 2758 FOTAL WORLD 34020001000 ‘TOTAL WORLD 36250 1000 TOTALWORLD 9,900.1 —100.0, ‘Sowce: O1 and Gas Journal, “Workwide Repor ius. TABLE 13 World Marketed Production of Natural Gas by Area (Milions of Cubic Feet) vs. WESTERN HENISPt ae oun ohana ‘see sal foo a eta (ain saphena Tos Conmnet Talk Wort Woe You Shes Canen_Aneroa_ "Toten Aa oe eae oes Tat Toot var Tw meen gorsmd ayaseio serena vanezi0 — ooace Twiee aanan Saas oo asa {sre Tousasce oorash "yenjoe aurvaer azar Yue ire: wana aera gs 3 ie irr inueseeo Suooere Toonroe asiovaee tsonone Sroaee Saves immer ijoooe ss bo i lire Tosrewss Svagens Zoreere ayyvogot toreare viirare Seuss Neos striae $58 38 1H {gre duertaco Seago astm 26ra)70 Securi Yneran0 Sorrow thaatino eiaenies Sa SS uM weed? anarara7 2emaz00 sasrsm0 mousey 122.300 M4700 snaresr ziomona Saye set sex 47-80 Wie rtror_aerneno Sazrino manor tateopo 196700 Siterset Toso sxoorve sts 4a te” Sout: 1E75-TE: US. Eo ieoeetos Adri, Wo! Waal Can, Annas Jra-isr, US Enegy oman Asian ates Sat oi: Pat ot Wo, OF and Ga Jour outer he Anan Peta rtiva4 Gas Production Operations TABLE 1-4 Estimated Natural Gas Reserves—Leading Natlons (As of January 1) (Billion Cuble Feet) 1994 1906 1980 ot of of Marketed Total Marketed Total Marketed Total Production World Production _ Werld Production World Nation Total Production Nation Totat__Procucton Nation Total Production 1. USSR. ers 457 1 USSR, 2258 380 USSSA. 201450 370 F Nemenanmles 180880 90.15 2, United Stats 166880 2622 Uniod Sites rise vo 3. Netherands «= 26775 4478. Canada 3683 50 3. Canada 4181056 4, Canada 26518 4.42 4, Netherlands 26233 4.1 4, Netheriands 2/5083 a 5 Unted kingdom 14239 287 5. United Kingdom 116040 «2.8. Algona 2985 an 6. Merion 19793 2296. Mexico 12523 206 United Kingtom 1,5208 20. 7. Ageria 4.2600 2407, Algeria 1.2383 1.87, Indonesia 1968718 8. Romania 12480 ©2078. Romania 12102188, Mexico 1.9074 18 9. Norway 9226 1.549, Indonesia 41859 1.89, Romania 32988 a7, 10. Indonesia 7920 12210. Nomway 9062 1610. Sauda Abia «107885 11. Acgontina 6602 1.0911. Argontina co 11. Norway oo a 12 West Germany 48.21.0812, China 6450, 12. Argentina 8462 18. tty 688.9 1.07 13, Venezuela 6181 13. tran 793.8 14. Vonezusia 6098 10214. West Germany 545.4 14. United Arab 790.7 Emirates 15, Austral 4444 074 18. hay 8273 8018, Venezuola 740.4 16. China 4200 070 16. Australia 5284 16. tay m4 a2 7. tran 3600 © 080 17, ran 429.3 17. Austria 620.7 18. Pakiotan 3852 05818, Pakistan 3803 48, Gormany, Fed. 567.2 Rep 19. Brune! 9120 0.52 19, United Arab 962.1 19, Malaysia 526.0 Emirates 20. France 3120 052 20, Sauda Arabia = 28.7 20. China 5152 Top 20 858685 99.25 Top 20 sate24 929 Top 29 ea7er4 oz Others 40s7e 675 Others 45008 7 Others Sas 74 TOTAL WORLD 9.9923 1000 TOTAL WORLD 636882 1000” TOTAL WORLD 1000 Source: Oil and Gas Journal, ‘Worwide Report issu, TABLE 1.5 ‘The Reserves of United States Natural Gas (Millons of Cubic Feet—14.72 psle at 60°F) Sexe oan Inca, Emig Am omege oe i, Prova Fasones Dacoes unsere Prom St You ung Your Sage Pore Resoves st Yetrand oso aimee esreea7™ — ioameaa aoa) ‘maanie™ ean a Toa" v0 ‘07 aaeamore aazonne "Yaseen tar es0 ‘emeasary —peaenoar® B78 sna 1W77 Swonakore® — Dieaagare® —stastace aon wearer? eearraett 248 a7 1w7e veaarrarg® atearzare® —Sasentss—at09 stasoiz0r —eoaer aor 20 toa er reon.zor® —anaci7ay® agen ahead reosrsaze™ —Tegareene® aya "sa > aoagor 0 e700 uw so0cer00 rosie vest Songer" 21448000 siren roa Temas (2Feee exe 26 vin cate etn Param Bay, Asta (coer 1068) wih eo yt ae \SF4ues rete 2 ton obo fet Prats bey is acer aren 2m ssa no ibs am nud spear, bh Ana ea tare en hs am tenes {caer ce are of morn a rng 103 oot ony gas rears cao arto, ae. mossy nes orn eben pone sce 1872 veg for foo) ‘Swe: 1875-1879—Anasian Ge Assen, Commies on Neil Gea Reser, "880-1881 Deparment Ese, Eo Wermten Arita uty Amat Poin nto no maith kf anspor eteIntroduction a “lion cuble tect US. NATURAL GAS RESERVES 20 aoe 900. —PROVED RESERVES --} 280 260 = 7 ie CS 160 25 —-ADDITIONS. 10 5 ~ 20. PRODUCTION 28 19471960 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 Fig. 1-1. U.S. natural-gas reserves. Used by permission of the copyright holder, American Gas Association. TABLE 1-6 Estimated Gas Resources and Reserves (Trillion Cubie Feet) Including Alaska Source of Yoar of Poteriial Resources’ 1979 Proved Total Remaining Estimate Estimate Now Fields Old Folds Total Resorves Resources? US. Geological ‘Suvey 1980 594 162 786 195 922 National Academy ‘of Sciences: 1974 530 118 648 195 n7 E10n Base 1974 342-942 56-321 23-1143 195 502-1202 Potential Gas Committee 1980 720 199 913 195 1089 "Does not inctude possibie resources from unconventional sources such as coal‘bed degasicalion, Devonian shale, Rocky Mountain ight- 28 formation, geopressured resources, and biomass and coal gasiicaton. “As of December 31, 1981. Estates are corrected for cas consumed since the date of resource estimate. Used by permission of the copytight holder, American Gas Association,6 Gas Production Operations TABLE 1-7 Sallont Statistics of Natural Gas in the US. (ition Cuble Feet) “oak Age Em ptt os Wier ened nase “Cem “Eca aat en Yow _Peason Ents Compton gos “Sots” wiki Pia Commolon enya Sd vee Wo Haase eas maqye eorm Saran ile om 3m Lene) Taare? “ar i manoe mr Bans asm ‘ameue tae tet Taree eaaen ian oe some Tos acne vam Meneses G3 ta aerate feseane te fara tawo inice amon motor tmeore ma G3 ts Tanase eat or ture dome Term Zaimam “aasee Sarnaca Soe ga ene pean im ‘ors zasceess 727s masoeTS © SELES CAOR MS Ok a7 eases | asenero aasees saget9 ere tire eateco Grn aimosee ores stare Sogo Uaenans eke Stes {srt omen Seas ‘Gamer sono tears mo akg auoneng “ue ame me te tones sso warm “wee gs tS aNovime aweou caren esas 978 ioe mana then maar samam ms 3G Boma damooe Stason terme 19 ‘wo marae? sara aarrem sear 002 43——pengeasannane cagore enest 1000 tonne) saoreraeeee Bo imo 03S enews biroaen_eaneas or? et Th nou igs sive one Hoa ra Sou: US Eoey oan Ain Nau as Aut ‘eer Ant ero in TABLE 1-8 U.S. Marketed Production” of Natural Gea by State (Millon Cubic Feet) sm ob iget #2 we d¢e4284 $2002 ar 242 rd 202d fen ml oe ene Wah mas aan aaah anes aa i vsiaor salsa wesorawrmo = amname att oato eh ee s at moe 1 2 wa ww ‘ans wise sare gay soon taame unmet eiron Mase ess aieaon Seat riaea nase oases ase Sou ‘rs = Vaan iiam = gare tatoee haters Tansee Se ‘er ‘fer ‘os “tain "heme ‘Sago asad me 1498 ee en tre ‘fe rn ‘= ‘es = ‘ee tee saree eC eee feng are wir noe montana (eines zara rr! rassam 721808 ramen? 7am? genset apr au ts © a e es 2 ® ticker saan eis toasts ome anete tegatana alee inane mam rise “Tose "Saas fonato Tecate wore ° 2 2 3 mee s : a Sree awe am a ewes se Sacra a aa zee aes ask ate 20518 etc wim saa vamare amen rte som nani few Yo wo "ena “ome 000 ‘sae “teat nen oat sae ahaa ae 20 as om wos = Nsed Saat ott ‘Siesta cane woe soso t7ee5i8—trmmsre—vyrssea asiaae ania ono * ° < = 7 ° = 3 : Pompe Tease Tas waar aes mae nes ae Sno > 2 £ = . 2 2 veh Terme ® » ” 2 ° 2 “ ue tne _ esr asraeso gym Taamen—7sniaso soar asatses vase razor ie ‘ome “ters “oem Seaee “Sore “Shame see aaa ona amr sin eos om Stay Sees mae tan Weuvogou kasi monare omen seeuas «aes timated wot satan tows maos By Seer Seiaa = taurmeSeo Stay ase foae ras azsvime urs sigma toons! wasn soaasans—_toaratea__soariaso _coamarer _soarrmt ‘att eto paral gn proce Goss wire lo gs nd or rapesnung oe ures ad end aed ‘Shuce: US. Cay noon Anita Nal Ga Amal. ay 188. Coun he Aosan Palen riteIntroduction ee TABLE 18 US. Consumption of Natural Gas by State (lion Cuble Feet) Sate wr 1978 1979 180 190% Nabaral Baie? ware 265,488 "69,280 aia Aska e278 145025 157238 1sa.46 raurer ‘tzona 187090 75.084 172798 165,850 1923503 ‘arvansas 20858 2a0.608 20,747 zare0 4707 Caltoia sro 1565 172 18103381 307.731 1.888.178 Colorado aaaais 2eree ag7e 256.368 2700 Connecteut 8.068 65.181 67957 72.503 78.828 Delaware 13767 20628 24901 287 0.848 Dist of Co * ® & 27968 ozs ors soa 1a. a7 316.508, 367,587 asses paz 315,201 316613 35697 28.210 9.047 44.960 1,187:000 174.936 1,080,720, 1.081.957 ‘398.268 ‘40.955 09,254 ‘96048 aan 238,220 209.581 253.281 508910 428,130 2igsat 199.445, a781.716 23308, 175.280 104575 eo0.s75, 200.202 240,907 2a0.st4 seasa rana2 T082 73182 13609 10.220 zari20 390,121 zara s99.212 351.608 780.469 72827 152498 reso es serao7 s7o.3e1 708908 T2318 eros71 Tes2t 25.140 73708 75562 es3sa7 873,70 75718 ‘gat 25.601 oa 27630 2og02 136585 11787 142228 141904 s8.007 35.408 ase 2ao7e 22086 mas raso4e zsart 229.661 3529 aneai3 sattage pons 4001,000 926.687 106315 ‘19519 ‘e80e7 "15092 ‘02299 ° " ‘3901 4383 119020 tanta 04008 153470 51797 Washington 142057 127280 188515 128,770 2902 Wost Virgie 144595 131898 198.598 143047 waasa7 Weconsn| 340,160 sro728 seri? 351857 soagit Wyoming e923 ora ‘8707 3975, 69,056 US. Total 19520501 19827478 20.240,761 19.977250% 19.409,860 ‘indudea wih New Hampshire noted wih Manyara Teta tudes 3,131 MMe tom Hewall in 1980 and 2.899 MMe n 1964 "Totals may not add cue 1 Independent rou. Source: US. Energy infomation Adminitation, Netural Gas Annuals, January 1989, Courasy the American Pevoloum intenGas Production Operations “2261 UI Sores peyun oun wy soujadd se6-yeimeu soley Z-1 OyIntroduction TABLE 1-10 ‘Transmission Pipelines and Natural-Gas Customers by State Transmission Gas Customers State (Thausands) ‘Alabama oa ‘Alaska 304, ‘aizona 561.0 California 6832.2 Colorado 728.8 Connecticut 380.2 Delaware 824 District of Columbia 1582 Florida 4009 Georgia 9273 Hawa 345 ‘abo 108.9 no's 3,158.3 Indiena 11198.3 lowa 7028 Kansas 3730 Kentucky ward Louisiana 433 Maine 178 Maryland 7738 Massachusetts 10524 Michigan 22484 Minnesota 273 Mississippi 3003 Missouri A775 Montana 176.1 Nebraska ann Nevada 1187 New Hampshire 462 New Jersey 1,923.9 New Mexico "208.7 New York 3.9963 Noth Carolina ‘3422 Noth Dakota 748 Ohio 2.7563 Oklahoma 7589 Oregon 2508 Pennsylvania 2327.1 Rhode island 1608 South Carona 2859 South Dakota O47 Tennessee 4940 Texas 3,029.1 Utah 3100 Vermont 60 166 Virginia 2982 526.1 Weastington 707 3488 West Virginia 5,830 396.1 Wisconsin 3,168 9590 Wyoming 2.885 1035 Total US. 22,012 449415 ‘Source: Interstate Natural Gas Assocation of Amarica, Washing- ton, DC. LA source; that is, material from which the petroleum. is formed, 2. Porous and permeable beds in which the petroleum may migrate and accumulate after being formed. 3. A trap or subsurface condition restricting further ‘movement so that it may accumulate in commercial quantities. Natural gas and crude oil are generated from organic matter under the influence of increasing temperature and time. Both the type of organic matter and the tempera- ture it experiences have a role in controlling whether oil ‘gas is formed. Organic matter can be divided into two ‘broad categories depending on whether it was derived from organisms growing on the land surface or growing in water, that is, whether it is terrestrial or aquatic. It is generally thought that the terrestrial matter produces nat- ural gas and some waxy crudes, whereas aquatic mate- tial produces normal crudes. This distinction is important in estimating the maxi- xoum depth to which crude oil or natural gas may occur. Rivers have played a critical role in transporting terres- (cial material to the depositional environment. Therefore, Stage 1. Gas, oll, and wator above spl point. Both cll and gas continue to be trapped white water Is clplaced. The stago onds when ol-water Interface reaches spi pont SMELL iz ‘Stage 2. Stage of selective entrapment and gas fishing. Gas continues to be trapped out ols spies up dp. This stage ands whon oi-gas interface reacties spill pint a JSS Water ‘Stage 3. End stago. Tap ld with gas. Excess gas spill up dip as more gas entors trap. O4 by- passes trap and continues upward migration. Fig. 1-3. Mustration of differential entrapment principle, showing various stages of hydrocarbon accumulation in an anticline. Sold and dashed arrows denote ofl and gas ‘movement respectively. (After Gussow) Courtesy American Association of Petroleum Geologist,10 Gas Production Operations Taps Fig. 1-4. Final condition of differential entrapment in @ series of interconnected traps. (After Gussow) Courtesy American Association of Petroleum Geologists. deltas are very gas-prone depositional environments, The oldest and deepest sediments were deposited in the con- tinenta rift and are tich in terrestrial organic matter. They are overlain by increasingly marine sediments containing ‘greater amounts of aquatic matter so that a vertical se~ quence develops with the gas-generating organic matter at the bottom and the oil-generating material atthe top, Modification by Migration and Burial Oil and gas may be remobilized after it has formed in reservoirs. This secondary migration is most frequently caused by regional tipping and may lead to a marked separation of oil and gas. Gussow! used the term ‘“dif- ferential entrapment" for the case in which a full trap ‘with a gas cap spills oil from the bottom into the next hhigher trap. This can lead to adjacent traps with gas, cil, or varying mixtures of the two, The gas-filled reservoirs can be downdip from the oil-filled reservoirs. The pro- cess is illustrated in Figures 1-3 and 1-4, As can be seen from Figure 1-4, natural gas ean occur either associated or not associated with ofl. Trap 1 in Figure 1-4 is a non-associated gas reservoir waile Trap 2.is an associated gas reservoir; that is, the gas occurs as a gas cap in contact with crude oil. In some associated gas reservoirs the oil exists as a thin rim at the bottom of the trap. ‘The temperature increase that accompanies increasing depth of burial has a major role in determining the com- position of the trapped petroleum. Crude oils are not cquilibrium mixtures, and as temperature increases the hydrocarbons readjust toward equilibrium at an increas- ing rate. This readjustment causes a redistribution of hy- drogen, ultimately giving methane and a solid carbon rich residue. The oil changes first to condensate, then to wet gas, and finally to dry gas. Gas developed in this ‘manner is frequently associated with hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. TABLE 1-11 Total Estimated Potential Supply of Natural Gas by Depth Increments As of December 31, 1982 (Trilion Cuble Feet) Probable Possible Speculative Onehore (Dring Depth) Lower 48 States "ess than 15,000 feet 109 133 83 18,000 to 90,000 fest 48 190 98 ist 283 79 Alaska less than 15,000 feet 6 16 28 15,000 10 20,000 feet = = é 6 6 Total Onshore 197 279 207 Ofshore (Water Depth) Lower 48 States less than 209 meters 30 200 10 1,000 moters B cd Alaska fs than 200 meters 9 200 10 1,000 motors 40 CJ Total Offshore 22 ‘Total Lower 48 States 22. Total Alaska 7 ‘Tolal Uriiad States Courtesy Poteriial Gas Agency, Colorado School of Minas Although the maximum temperature for oil 10 exist is fairly well established, the temperature and thus depth limitations on the occurrence of natural gas have yet to be determined. Barker and Kemp? have results of a computer study to determine this depth lim- itation and have found that under certain conditions methane can remain stable at depths beyond 40,000 ft. ‘The amount of methane surviving is strongly influenced by reservoir lithology with fairly cool, clean sandstones being the most favorable reservoirs. It was found thatIntroduction a ” i H-0-H 1 4 Motrane HoH OH tio H-c-c=c-H rig HOM OH Parafin compounds (Saturated straight chain) Bonezane ‘Gyete compounds ‘and aromatics Fig. 1-5. Hydrocarbon gas molecule structures. ‘methane has less stability in deep carbonates. ‘The Barker and Kemp study implies that natural ges may exist at depths greater than have been presently ex- plored if porous and permeable reservoirs exist at these depths. Table 1-11 shows that considerable reserves may exist at depths between 15,000 and 30,000 ft. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL GAS Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases with some impurities, mainly nitrogen (Nz), hydrogen sulfide (GS), and carbon dioxide (CO,). Gases containing sig- nificant amounts of H,S or CO; or both are called sour or acid gases. These impurities must be removed before the gas is used as a fuel. The hydrocarbon gases are methane, ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and small amounts of hexanes, heptanes, and some heavier frac- tions. In gas used for fuel, methane is the largest com- ponent, usually 95 to 98%. Natural gas is normally considered to be a mixture of straight chain or paraffin hydrocarbon compounds. However, occasionally cyclic and aromatic compounds ‘occur in a natural gas. The molecular structures of some of these are shown in Figure 1-5. The general formula for the paraffin hydrocarbons is C,Hage2» where 1 is the ‘number of carbon atoms. Gas Composition ‘The actual composition of a natural gas can vary over ‘wide ranges. Even two gas wells producing from the same reservoir may have different compositions. Table 1-12 shows typical hydrocarbon compositions of the gas pro- duced from different types of reservoirs. The composi- tion of the gas produced from a given reservoir may12 TABLE 1-12 ‘Typleal Natural Gas Compositions Mot Percent ‘Associated Wet Dry Component Symbol Gas Gas Gas Symbol __ Ges Gas Gas Methane G, 27828982 o7a7 Ethana G 1634 536189 Propane c 29.18 471028 Butane Gy ‘337 20043 Butane ng, 17.418 239 O12 Pentane iy 218 180 O07 Peniana ney 472 161 005 Hexane Ge oar 26 0.04 Hoptanes Pus Cy. , 0.04 48.93 _ag change with time if liquids condense in the reservoir as pressure declines. This occurs in a so-called retrograde condensate reservoir. Although natural gases contain small fractions of by- Propane Ose ‘Natural gas, propane i a! 5 a istuane pa Aaa uote, Beane aes 2 Butane POH Natural gasoline, motor fuel, butane glgla e| 3/2 = rt gate att Hala gl (lye — eS ee aye avg Hepianes Co, Natural gesotne, motor fel 5 alslt saree Cae atl gsr, wt ay adh Danes Cute Mot a als i ‘Tetradecane. CHa Kerosene, light furnace oi ° E 3 Heaiecane Cate Wine oa ence ot Tiazrtana cate Lae utes oo ot Teraxrtne Gala Luin heey Asoratre Cathet pat oud ld tlIntroduction for this process, but the cost is extremely high in com- parison to natural gas at its present price. SNG may well become economical in the near future as demand for ail forms of energy increases. Gas from Devonian Shale, Gas from Devonian shale formations is a potential source of gaseous fuel that could bbe extracted from an area of approximately 250,000 square ‘miles of formations underlying the middle and eastern portions of the United States. Massive fracturing, ad- vanced recovery techniques, and a higher price for the ‘gas will have to occur before this source contributes a substantial amount of energy to the United States. Tight Formation Gas. Gas from very low permeabil- ity formations is being produced from deposits in the Rocky Mountain states of the United States. In order to recover this gas in commercial quantities, some method is required for increasing the flow capacity of the wells. One method is to fracture the formation with a nuclear blast, but so far this technique has not proved feasible. “The other method is massive hydraulic fracturing, which is the subject of much research of the present time. If either of these stimulation techniques can be perfected, recovery of the gas in place could reach 40 to 50%. 3 Gas from Geopressured Aquifers. High pressure brine in geoptessured aquifers may contain 30 to 40 scf of natural gas per barrel of water. In the United States, these aquifers are located in a band that extends from Florida to Texas along the Gulf of Mexico, Estimates of the gas in place range from 1000 to 3000 Tef, but in 1981 no ‘commercial method of recovering this gas had been de- veloped, GAS PRODUCTION OPERATIONS. ‘The engineer involved in gas production operations has ‘one principal objective: to move the gas from some lo- cation in an underground reservoir to a pipeline that may bbe used to transport it to its final destination, Figure 1- 6 shows that this involves moving the gas through a po- ous medium or rock formation, to the surface through casing or tubing, to separation facilities through a sur- face piping system, through a compressor if one is nec- essary to maintain sufficient flow rates, and finally through 4 surface line to the point of utilization. ‘The engineer in charge of this operation must under- stand both reservoir engineering and production engi- neering concepts, as both are included in the total pro- ducing system. He must be able to determine the gas |Compresson Pte Gas Pom \ separator quis =f Stock tank Fig. 1-6. Possible pressure losses in complete system.i4 recoverable in a reservoir and the time that will be re- Quired to recover the gas. This requires analysis of i dividual well performance and how this performance changes as gas is depleted from the reservoir and pres- sure declines, He must be capable of determining the relationship between flow rate and pressure drop in all parts of the system, the rock as well as all segments of the piping system. As pressure declines he must be able to determine the size and power of compression required to maintain production rates, and to handle liquids that form in the system, both condensate and water, All of the above design considerations require accurate values for flow rate through the system, which means that the engineer must be familiar with accurate methods to mea- sure flow rates. Since demand often exceeds producing or transpor- tation capacity during the winter months, the engineer may be required to determine the most feasible method for storing gas until it is needed. This requires the cal- ‘culation of the efficiency with which gas displaces water ‘in aquifers and the performance of injection wells. Gas Production Operations ‘The following chapters contain the technology to han- die all of these engineering problems. Each component of the system is treated individually and then combined for a total system analysis. Numerous example caleu- lations are made in order to clarify the application of the theory presented. Although some operations involved in the gas industry are not covered, such as unsteady state flow in pipelines and highly fractured reservoirs, the technology for handling day-to-day gas production op- erations is included in a complete and practical form. REFERENCES 1, Gussow, W. C.: ‘Differential Entrapment of Oil and Gas: A Fun ‘damental Principle," Bull. AAPG (1958) 816-853, 2, Buer, C. and Kemp, M. K.: “Generation of Natural Gas and its ‘Survival in the Deep Subsurface,” Presented at the Natural Gat Res, Development In Mid-Continent Basins: Production and Ex. Horan Techniques, The Univ. of Ts, Tal, Olam, March 1-12, 1980. 3, Katz, D. L. etal: Handbook of Nanual Gas Engineering, Me- Graw Hill Book Co., New York (1959),Gas Properties HE ability to calculate the performance of a gas producing system, including the reservoir and the piping system, requires knowledge of many gas properties at various pressures and temperatures. If the natural gas is in contact with liquids, such as condensate or water, the effect of the liquids on ‘gas properties must be evaluated, This chapter presents the best and most widely used ‘methods to perform the necessary calculations. Some of the information presented in this chapter will be used only in reservoir calculations and some will be used only in the piping system design chapter; therefore, this chap- ter will be referred to frequently in the subsequent chap- ters ‘Numerous example problems are worked and graphs are presented for empirical correlations. Application of some of the methods requires a computer, and FOR- ‘TRAN subroutines are included in the appendix if avail- able. IDEAL GASES ‘The understanding of the behavior of gases with re- spect to pressure and temperature changes is made clearer by first considering the behavior of gases at conditions near standard conditions of pressure and temperature; that is: p= 14.7 psia = 101.325 kPa (SPE uses 100 kPa) T = 60°F = $20°R = 288.72°K (SPE uses 288°K). At these conditions the gas is said to behave ideally, and most of the early work with gases was conducted at conditions approaching these conditions, An ideal gas is defined as one in which: (1) the volume occupied by the ‘molecules is small compared to the total gas volume; (2) all molecular collisions ate elastic; and (3) there are no attractive or repulsive forces among the molecules. ‘The basis for describing ideal gas behavior comes from the combination of some of the so-called gas laws pro- posed by early experimenters, Early Gas Laws Boyle's Law. Boyle observed experimentally that the volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the pressure for a given weight or mass of gas when tem- perature is constant, This may be expressed as 1 Vo- or pV = constant. Charles’ Law. While working with gases at low pres- sures, Charles observed that the volume occupied by a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, or v VeT or = = constant. Tr Avogadro's Law, Avogadro's Law states that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all ideal gases contain the same number of molecules. This is equivalent to the statement that at a given temperature and pressure one molecular weight of any ideal gas occupies the same volume as one molec- ular weight of another ideal gas. It has been shown that there are 2.73 x 10 molecules/Ib-mole of ideal gas 516 and that one molecular weight in pounds of any ideal gas at 60°F and 14.7 psia occupies a volume of 379.4 cu ft. One mole of a material is the quantity of that ma- terial whose mass, in the system of units selected, is nu- ‘merically equal to the molecular weight. This means that one mole of any ideal gas, that is, 2.73 x 10* molecules of any gas, will occupy the same Volume at a given pres- sure and temperature, ‘The Ideal Gas Law ‘The three gas laws described previously can be com: bined to express a relationship among pressure, volume, and temperature, called the ideal gas law. Jn order to combine Charles’ Law and Boyle's Law to describe the behavior of an ideal gas when both tem- Perature and pressure are changed, assume a given mass of gas whose volume is V; at pressure p, and temperature 7, and imagine the following process through which the gas reaches volume V; at pressure p, and temperature Ts Step 1 Vs tp, T) ——P > (V at ps, 7, Wi at. 7) occa Vat Te) Step 2 Wat py, 7) (paconsmat 2 at p2, T2). In the first step the pressure is changed from a value ofp: toa value of p while temperature is held constant ‘This causes the volume to change from V, to V. In Step 2, the pressure is maintained constant at a value of ps, and the temperature is changed from a value of T, to value of T; ‘The change in volume of the gas during the first step ‘may be described through the use of Boyle's Law since the quantity of gas and the temperature are held constant. Thus BY pa” Pvi=pV or Vv ey Where V represents the volume at pressure p; and tem perature 7,, Chatles’ Law applies to the change in the volume of gas during the second step since the pressure and the quantity of gas are maintained constant; there- fore en Elimination of volume, V, between Equations 2-1 and 2-2 gives ps _ Vat 7 Gas Production Operations or Bi _ pave arent ed Thus for a given quantity of gas, pV/T = a constant, ‘The constant is designated with the symbol R when the ‘quantity of gas is equal to one molecular weight. That PV T where Vy is the volume of one molecular weight of the gas at p and T. In order to show that R is the same for any gas, Avo- gadco’s Law is invoked, In symbolic form, this law states Von = Vseas ‘here Vig represents the volume of one molecular weight of gas A and Vig represents the volume of one molecular weight of gas B, both at pressure, p, and temperature, 7. This implies that Vn RT Pet ot Vy = Tr P where Ry represents the gas constant for gas A and Ry represents the gas constant for gas B. The combination of the above equations reveals that Ral _ RoE PP ‘Thus, the constant R is the same for all ideal gases and is referred to as the universal gas constant. There fore, the equation of state for one molecular weight of any ideal gas is PV = RT. on For n moles of ideal gas this equation becomes DV = nT, es where V is the total volume of n moles of gas at tem- perature, 7, and pressure, p. Since m is the mass of gas divided by the molecular weight, the equation can be written as ‘or, since m/V is the gas density,Gas Properties M oa eo This expression is known by various names such as the ideal gas law, the general gas law, or the perfect gas Jaw. This equation has limited practical value since no known gas behaves as an ideal gas; however, the equa- tion does describe the behavior of most real gases at low pressure and gives a basis for developing equations of state which more adequately describe the behavior of real gases at elevated pressures ‘The numerical value of the constant R depends on the Units used to express temperature, pressure, and volume. As an example, suppose that pressure is expressed in psia, volume in cubic feet, temperature in degrees Ran- kin, and moles in pound moles. Avogadro's Law states that 1 Ib-mole of any ideal gas occupies 379.4 cu ft at 60°F and 14.7 psia. Therefore, bY _ (14.7 psiay(379.4 eu ft) nT ~~ (1 Tb-mole)(520°R) = 10.73 psia cu ft/1b-mole °R. Table 2-1 gives numerical values of R for various sys- tems of units. Example 2-1: Calculate the mass of methane gas contained at 1,000 psia and 68°F in a cylinder with volume of 3.20 cu ft ‘Assume that methane is an ideal gas. Sotaton: ay AT tom (1000) psi 6, ot )ie20 cunt) m (1o7e@2eit cary ‘b-mole, 0 tim Example 22: Calculate the density of methane at standerd cond tions. (101.905 ea( 9) kg-mle n= OM aT 7 aan War) 268.72'K) egal = 0875-9 pout p= 0.07544 = ooaer 2 17 TABLE 24 Values of Gas Constant R In Various Units ur a ‘atm, 06/g-mal 82.06 8TU/bmoe, °R 1.987 pia, cu f/b-mole, °R 10.73 Ty/9q ft abs, ou K/lb-mov 1544 atm, ou fy/lb-mole, “A 0.730 mmHg, iters/¢-mole, ° 6237 in. Hg, cu f/-mole, °F 2185 cal/grmoie, “Kk 1.987 Ke, m'/kg-mole, °K e316 Speg-mole,*« B31 Ideal Gas Mixtures The previous treatment of the behavior of gases ap- plies only to single component gases. As the gas engi- reer rarely works with pure gases, the behavior of a multi- component mixture of gases must be treated. This re- quires the introduction of two additional ideal gas laws. Dalton’s Law. Dalton’s Law states that each gas in a mixture of gases exerts a pressure equal to that which it would exert if it occupied the same volume as the total mixture. This pressure is called the partial pressure. The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures. This law is valid only when the mixture and each component ‘of the mixture obey the ideal gas law. It is sometimes called the Law of Additive Pressures. ‘The partial pressure exerted by each component of the gas mixture can be calculated using the ideal gas law. Consider a mixture containing n, moles of component A, tg moles of component B and nc moles of component C. The partial pressure exerted by each component of the gas mixture may be determined with the ideal gas equation: ee are s Preps Petes Pom According to Dalton’s Law, the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures P= Pat Pot Be It follows thatthe ratio of the partial pressure of com- ponent j, p). to the total pressure of the mixture p is an18 where y, is defined as the mole fraction of the jth com- ponent in the gas mixture, Therefore, the partial pressure ‘of a component of a gas mixture is the product of its ‘mole fraction times the total pressure. Amagar’s Law, Amagat’s Law states that the total volume of a gaseous mixture is the sum of the volumes that each component would occupy atthe given pressure and temperature, The volumes occupied by the individ- uual components are known as partial volumes. This law is correct only ifthe mixture and each of the components obey the ideal gas law. ‘The partial volume occupied by each component of 2 gas mixture consisting of n, moles of component A, rp moles of component B, and s0 on, can be calculated us- ing the ideal gas law. Thus, according to Amagat, the total volume is Va Vat Vet Vet Icfollows that the ratio of the partial volume of com- ponent j to the total volume of the mixture is aT 1 Poe RE on i a P This implies that for an ideal gas the volume fraction is ‘equal to the mole fraction, Shs ‘Apparent Molecular Weight Since a gas mixture is composed of molecules of var- ious sizes, itis not strictly correct to say that a gas mix- ture has a molecular weight. However, a gas mixture behaves as if it were a pure gas with a definite molecular weight. This molecular weight is known as an apparent molecular weight and is defined as M, = ZyyM, ey ee eee Example 2-3: Ory air is a gas mixture consisting essentially of nitro ‘gen, oxygen, and small amounts of other gases. Com- Bute the apparent molecular weight of air glven its ap- Gas Production Operations Proximate composition. The molecular weight of each ‘component may be found in Table 2-2, ‘Mole fraction, Component ys iNtrogen 078) Oxygen 021 ‘Argon gor 4.06 eae Eee eee ECE EEE Solution: Ma= YuaMia + YoaMoe + YaMy ‘M= (0.78)(28.01) + (0.21}(32.00) + (0.01)(39.94) = 28.97 ‘A value of 29.0 is usually considered sufficiently accurate for engineering calculations. The specific gravity of a gas is defined as the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of dry air taken at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. Sym- bolically, a1 Assuming that the behavior of both the gas and air may be represented by the ideal gas law, specific gravity may be given as Mp RTM, 7 ad ~ Ma RT where M,, is the apparent molecular weight of air. If the sis « mintre, this equation becomes My 29" aay where M, is the apparent molecular weight of the gas mixture, Example 2. Calculate the gravity of a natural gas of the following ‘composition. ‘Mole traction Component ys Methane 085 Ethane 9.09 Propane 04 svbutane 9.02 100Gas Properties PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF HYDROCARBONS TABLE 22 7 eae | mre > carts | S88 i sess | ote 4 cr0s | ss07 5 Zasay__ | Sant $ sas [are ; Tasin | foe ‘ a | Seo 9 noHexone Tee ae 18 | Scstoripentne cas | 2 1 | Sokerripeoane S| ot 12 | Nootewtee ~wn | tee 13 | 23Simethybetne Lie |S We abo — |e % eet 3 93 8 se x pad FA ana 2 Tagan | 23932 hee a te | sae node | masse | Sivoe = — | se) | -aavsay” | ossiry 3% te zoe| ieee | | -azaag | fain osierae | shane | Cisraa) = Sone | eis | da) = Soon i, | 7806| Siesan | ing, ooasii7) oe fad | Tees] az ‘ovevana) | "320" | ow ties’ | Ekin | essa 83 | Netto He 4303] = a = a = 4 | wydon cstoide [HEI | sear] ving | vaso | ev7sen _|ivedn | rasan | comer (Ceatimatod vues 1920 Gas Production Operations : tet | ithe . i z &s Ine “|i lg nvr fi] i | i ail lie Po Te te Toe = |e 38 | asm sur | ame oar | fan Saar tae tape 3m |S age, | 3 350 |} oh ‘oa Th 3a | Bs 38 | es ge | Ue ite (32 sae |S am iS |S 332 soi | 324 sis sgn |S] om 323 ‘oem | in| — oi sat [3] = td Se ee ad essin | Sia] SH 3 ‘Som (3085 | $c 3a sazee | acat | oa ed se ee Sar sams |p| suman 2m igos [Sun] = oie ie [=| = Ba ome =s=[= 33 a] Sa = |BB | ERS = = tie | san a = P= | eax siete se = | eae | Sh ou 8 = [38 25a bale =] | come Hs +e =a en Hie ie =|] = sd oss | ra | vx | Sn Lowa |= |= oyGas Properties x on oo e/2| , i litte tat alte ig ; 3] gee : Hy ‘ss PH ia us tea + Bion iain _ z us| aan Pr : feos et HH 2 aot | aaa ng : =e y = aa z one i x ee = : at = * ieee maa s ae tee 4 ra | nase feat oe 8 | Free i) ist 3 |< a arin] ZEYH | | OT EBL Em eR] Sp 8 mao | gei,| = | epee ee) SS 3B Sacee Rite oan] =| = |B] | za) conn] oe] = | 34 eter woo] = 1 = | ee, | = cna Gee] = | = Bata pa a Sioa = lie =| =] Be | = | ze] Goel ee] =] = =}=l gas] = =) = ]=}=l = =] =) eHs| ==) =)=}=l= =| =| RE || =| = =] =) = =| = |nssio| = =P = |=L=] =REAL GASES Several assumptions were made in formulating the ‘equation of state for ideal gases. Since these assumptions are not correct for gases at pressures and temperatures that deviate from ideal or standard conditions, eorrec- tions must be made to account for the deviation from ideal behavior. The most widely used correction method in the petroleum industry is the gas compressibility fac- tor, more commonly called the Z-factor. Its defined as the ratio of the actual volume occupied by a mass of gas at some pressure and temperature to the volume the gas ‘would occupy if it behaved ideally. That is, Vs Ze oF Viens = Z Vie Vent ‘The equation of state is Voout PM = MRT or p~S = nT. Compressibity factor, Z Fig. 2-1, Typical plot of the compressibility factor as a function of pressure at constant temperature. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Gas Production Operations ‘Therefore, the equation of state for any gas becomes pV = ZnRT where, for an ideal gas, Z = 1. ‘The compressibility factor varies with changes in gas composition, temperature, and pressure. It must be de- termined experimentally. The results of experimental de- terminations of compressibility factors are normally given graphically and usually take the form shown in Figure 2-1. The shape of the curve is consistent with present knowledge of the behavior of gases; at very low pressure the molecules are relatively far apart and the conditions of ideal gas behavior are more likely to be met. At low pressure the compressibility factor approaches a value of 1.0, waich would indicate that ideal gas behavior does in fact occur. Compressibility factors for several hydro- carbon gases are given in Figures 2-2, 2-3, and 2-4 en) ro Example 2-5: Calculate the mass of methane gas contained at 1,000 Psia and 68°F in a cylinder with volume of 3.20 ou ft. AT 2 = 0.89 (trom Fig. 2-2) tb (1,000 psi. 0 wea) curt) (089 (107— 282 ary m= 102b W¥ ideal behavior had been assumed, the mass caloue lated would have bean m = 10.2 (.89) = 9.08 Ibm, Real Gas Mixtures Compressibility factor charts are available for most of the single component light hydrocarbon gases, but in Practice a single component gas is rarely encountered In order to get Z-factors for natural gas mixtures, the law of corresponding states is used. This law states that the ratio of the value of any intensive property to the value of that property at the critical state is related to the ratios of the prevailing absolute temperature and pressure to the critical temperature and pressure by the same func- tion for all similar substances. This means that all pure ‘gases have the same Z-factor at the same values of re- duced pressure and temperature, where the reduced val- ues are defined asGas Properties 23 The critical properties, from Table 2-2, are T, = 550°R, pe = 708 psia, M = 30.1 Ibm/lb-mole, where T, and p, are the critical temperature and pressure for the gas, respectively. The values must be in absolute units. T _(110 + 460) _ 4 oy ‘Example Calculate the density of ethane at 900 psia and 110°F. 12 10 oa) 08 o7| N oe] os 04 03 02] J on 5000 6000 7,000 6,000 000 10,000 e 1500 1,000 1.600 pragatra, pala Fig. 2-2. Compressiblily factors for methane. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliars Association.24 Gas Production Operations bal Rr 08000004800 5000 “6000 7,000 8000 9,000. 10,000 Pressure, pala Fig. 23. Compressibilty factors for ethane, Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association. (From Figure 2.5, Z ~ 0.34.) Assuming Ideal behavior, the value caloulated would a be p = 18.08 (34) = 4.43 lom/ft? opus 2.) lb-mole, Tt has been shown that the Law of Corresponding States Dela =P works better for gases of similar molecular characteris- (0:34) 10.73 & =) ero) ties. This is fortunate since most of the gases that the mol petroleum engineer deals with are composed of mole- = 19.030" cules of the same class of organic compounds known as P paraffin hydrocarbons. The law of corresponding statesGas Properties 25 a oem taae| | 4 | : << ere aso ps2 Ly 08 SS eae ae See oa ae os ae Te 4.000 \ eee or oe = 00 \ A i \\ 4 ale °° 1 \ ana 05 ++ 7 ’500 1 1 | Oa (> 000 € | ; \& 03 4 1 $ : aru Hel LZ | Va / é on | 0500 F06TSa,pt Fig. 24, Compressibilty factors for propane. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association, has been extended to cover mixtures of gases that are closely related chemically. Since it is somewhat difficult to obtain the critical point for multicomponent mixtures, the quantities of pseudocritical temperature and pseu- doetitical pressure have been conceived. These quan- jes are defined as, fe = yg and Pp = BYPg 1) ‘These pseudocritical quantities are used for mixtures of gases in exactly the same manner as the actual critical temperatures and critical pressures are used for pure gases. It must be understood, however, that these pseudoc cal properties were devised simply for use in correlating, ‘compressibility factors and in no way relate to the actual critical properties of the gas mixture. Example 2-7: loulate the psaudocrtical temperature and pseudo- ctitical pressure of the following natural gas mixture. Use the critical constants given in Table 2-2,26 Gas Production Operations 1.3 ul 10) 09] 04 0.3 0.2 on 0 10) 20 os 9.0 Reduced pressure, P, 100 1.0120 13.0 4.0 15.0 Fig. 2:5. Compressibily factors for pure hydrocar Gas Processors Suppliers Association. oy aca Mee arowatee, pes trea ae Gonpenaat Te ws ‘tye 00s sas ane oar oar 208 Ste “35 Tue mar doe ose moos xr og msg mart cd T= Ba = BE pla rbon gases as a function of reduced pressure and temperature, Courtesy Toe 983°R— Pye = 667 psia ‘The compressibility factors for natural gases have been correlated using pscudocritical properties and are pre- sented in Figures 2-6, 2-7, and 2-8. Compressibility fac- tors are a function of composition as well as temperature and pressure, It has been pointed out that the compo- ‘nents of most natural gases are hydrocarbons of the same family, and therefore a correlation of this type is pos- sible.Gas Properties Paeudo reduced pressure 3 4. 5 Pieudo reduced. temperotore secase y factor Z 7 8 9 10 4 12 3 14 1° Pseudo ceduced pressure Fig. 2-6. Compressibity factors for natural gases. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Example 2-8: Calculate the volume occupied by 1 Ib-mole of the nat- ural gas given in Example 2-7 at 120°F and 1,500 psia. 1,800 pela _ Be” 687 sia” 75 Z = 0.813 (rom Fg. 2-6) ZoRT ap :28 Gas Production Operations o2 05 Te20 7 Ls 15 ra 10 15 Reduced pressure A Fig. 2-7. Generalized plot of compressibility factors at low reduced pressures. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers As- ‘sociation. psia. cu +) (s:, oma (tr) cor v= 1,500 psia V=337 Ut ‘A computer subroutine for calculating Z-factor is given the Appendix. This subroutine reproduces Figure 2- 6 In some cases the composition of a gas will be given in weight or mass percent rather than mole percent. In this event, the composition mast be first converted to ‘mole fraction of percent before the mixture properties ‘ean be calculated. The following example illustrates this conversion, Example 2- ‘A gas r-xture consists of 50% Cs, 90% Cs, and 20% Cy by weight, Calculate the apparent molecular weight ‘and specific gravity of this mixture,Gas Properties 100 0.98 0.98 os7 0.98 i 095 Re Hose 093 o92| sy] 99, OM 00 002 003 0.04 005 Reduced pressure, P, 0.06 0.07] Fig. 2-8. Compressibility factors for gases near atmo- ‘spheric pressure. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers As- ‘sociation. ‘Solution: ‘Assume 100 ibm of gas as a basis. Mass, my om] my Component fom Remolo female) YM, o 18 313088 109 & 2» 9 100 022 68 Gee io te ae 945 010 44 ‘If the volume fraction is given at conditions other than standard, the volume fraction must be converted to a mole 29 fraction basis, taking into account the deviation from ideal behavior. The following example illustrates this proce- dure Example 2-10: ‘A gas has the following composition measured at 2,500 psia and 300°F. Calculate the composition in mole frac tion, The volume percents at these conditions are: C, 67%, Cz = 80%, Cy = 1%, COs = 2%, ‘Sotution: To convert from volume to moles, assume 100 ft? as 2 bose Then Uso nw BOY zat” Tors vez 3062 V/Z po Vy ye ret Top 2 WE on © 67 220 372 0869 86 21.90 505 C 20-140 383 0708 425 © 1300 “363, G1 114 406 0585 18 = (085 O15 60, _2 130 252 0888 32 048 _o27 0 = 0.88 7.000 In most cases the composition of a natural gas will be kmown and the apparent molecular weight and critical properties can be calculated as previously described, Oc- casionally, however, only the gas gravity will be known, Also, it is very easy to measure the gas gravity in the field. If the composition is unknown, or if accuracy re- quirements do not justify the longer calculations, Figure 2.9 can be used to estimate the pseudocritical properties. The properties can also be calculated using the following equations Tye = 170.5 + 307.3 4 ew Pye = 109.6 ~ 58.7 es) For condensate fluids: Tye = 187 + 330, ~ TS 92 Pye = 108 ~ S17, 11-19? ‘Example 2-11; Using the empirical correlation (Fig. 2-9) for critical properties, calculate Ty and pa ortho gas in Example 2-4. Compare these values with those obtained using the compestion (Example 2-7). ‘Solution: Tho = 170.5 + 907.8 yp = 170.5 + 907:3 (0.66)30 oe oF oe ae Gas graiity (air=1) Fig. 2.9. Pseudocntical properties of natural gases. Cour- tesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association, = 379°R Poo = 709.6 ~ 58.7 yp = 700.6 ~ 58.7 (0.66) 671 psia ‘The values from Example 2-7 wera 383°R and 667 psia. GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR ‘In most operations involving gas production the flow rates and quantities produced are measured at standard ‘conditions such as scf/day or sef. Reservoir engineering and pipeline flow calculations require the volumes at in situ conditions of pressure and temperature, and there~ fore a convenient conversion factor from standard con- ditions to in situ conditions is needed. This conversion factor is called the gas formation volume factor and is defined as the actual volume occupied by the gas at some pressure and temperature divided by the volume that the 828 would occupy at standard conditions. That is, ZnRT Using 1), = 520°R, py. = 14.7 psia and Z,, = 1, gives zr(14.7) Avo M@20p p stdvol’ “8 scp 7" tis sometimes convenient to express B, in barrels of volume, or Gas Production Operations ZI bbls 0.00504 = = en P set For the constants given above, pressure is in psia and temperature is in °R, For the SY system (p = kPa, T = ‘~) ZT (01.325) _ 9 45, ZT Tass. tHp 73515 em mo Example 2+ Calculate the formation volume facto fora natural gas having a gravity of 0.7 at a temperature of 99°C and ‘an absolute pressure of 10343 KPa, een eee SSeS EEE eee EE Solution: The = 170.8 + 307.3(7) = 985.6°R = 214K Poo = 7096 ~ 68.7(.7) = 668.5 psia = 4609 kPa P _ 10343 (93 + 273) Pa og 7-2 Pro 4609 “ - 214 me From Figure 26, Z = 88 0.951(.88(966) vol i a Toy CORRECTION FOR NONHYDROCARBON IMPURITIES Natural gases frequently contain materials other than hhydrocarbons, such as nitrogen (N;), carbon dioxide (CO}), and hydrogen sulfide (H,S). The presence of these impurities affects the value obtained from the Z-factor chart, A procedure for adjusting the critical properties of the 808 was proposed by Wichert and Aziz" in 1970. The adjusted critical properties are then used in calculating the reduced properties, and the Z-factor is then obtained from Figure 2-6. ‘The procedure for obtaining the Z-factor for sour gases is: 1, Determine pj. and 7,. for the gas using the gas com- position or Figure 2-9 and 2. Calculate the adjusted critical properties where € = 120 (4°? ~ al) + 15 (B°* ~ BY) B = mole fraction HS,Gas Properties A= mole fraction CO; + B € = correction factor, °F . Calculate the reduced properties using the corrected critical properties. |. Find Z from Figure 2-6 or using the correlation given in the Appendix. Example 2-1 ‘A gas containing 2.87% CO; and 23.27% H,S has a ctitical pressure of 822 psia and a critical temperature ‘of 465°R, Find the gas compressibility factor, Z, for p = 1000 psia, T= 10°F. Botan: B= 02827 A= 00287 4 02927 = 02614 120 ((0.2614)°* ~ (0.2614)"*] + 15 [(0.2327)° ~~ (0.2327)4] 20.08 Tye = Toe - 465 — 29 = 436°R Ph Poe Toe. (822)(436) Toe + AB ~ BA)” 465 + 29 (0.2327 — 0.0541) = 702 pia rodeos 9 Mesa From Figure 2-6, 0.78. OTHER EQUATIONS OF STATE (One of the limitations in the use of the compressibility equation to describe the behavior of gases is that the 31 compressibility factor is not constant, and therefore ‘mathematical manipulations cannot be made directly but tmust be accomplished through graphical or numerical techniques, Most of the other commonly used equations of state were devised so that the correction factors, which correct the ideal gas law for nonideality, may be as- sumed constant, thus permitting the equations to be used in mathematical calculations involving differentiation or integration Many equations of state have been proposed for de- scribing gas behavior and many modifications and im- provements have been made. Only two of the most com- ‘monly used equations will be described. These will be used later in the calculation of phase behavior. Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation (BWR) An eatlier equation presented by Beattie and Bridgeman? ‘was modified and resulted in an equation with eight em- pirical constants, RT | BRT A, ~ C/T) Ve ¥ +t )ex . Pvp ( z) ul @) fo The parameters B,, As, Ca, by ¢, a, and are con- ‘stants for pure compounds and are functions of com- Position for mixtures. The constants for pure compounds are given in Table 2-3. These constants may be com: bined for use with mixtures of gases according to the following mixture niles, a= ByAy By = XyBy C= By/CuF a= Gyaqi") TABLE 29 Benediet-Webb-Aubin Constants Bax to* a > ext axw yx oeseso1 275.768 «2,984.12 —_oBe7s25 40a108 | —-stit72—‘15a967 ‘005s4 2.19427 20,8502 2.85303, 841314 100044 = 302790, Propane ..1.....,259154 1.55684 6.20893 57.2480 5.77355 25,2478 2495.7 564.824 935874 2.20009 10.9847 117,047 «10.8800» S8.977.7 441496 72.447 99,0296 196211 12.1905 119,705 «10.2688 61 825.6, 45263 672.447 4825.98 256088 21,9067 aas.o02 71441 138,005, 8987.7 1,188.07 1859208 © 251098 25.9172 246,148 17.1441 «181,008. 749992 1218.86 54434 2184835 40,5562 429,001 «28.0092 «296.077 sns539 171145 660706 9.18782 $7,9640 © 626,108 98.9917 489.427 y7g056 2,909.42 125936 0.8a1980 1,602.28 15,8455 220878 4,133.60 ‘Ta1es1 "296.844 1230492 196269 5,965.97 46,756 4.70097 20,088.0 197312 46082532 b= Bb © = Ryo!" a= Bye!) Y= yy? Vy is the molar volume in cu ft/Ib-mole. Redlich-Kwong Equation (RK) ‘The Redlich-Kwong Equation‘ involves only two em- Pirical constants as opposed to the eight required in the BWR equation. The original RK equation is aT a Vae~ b VaglVig + BT"? 220) where corr Pe a QRT. b Pe To simplify the calculations with the RK equation, es- pecially for application to mixtures, other constants have ‘been defined as ee) GR) bat RT pT where, for temperature in °R and pressure in psia, C, = 0.42748, C, = 0.08664, ‘The RK equation was further modified by Soave* to improve its accuracy when applied to mixtures as fol- lows: RT ao Vy B Value * 8) where « is @ function of temperature. Using the follow- ing definitions, a gas compressibility factor can be cal- culated p= ean Capt? au Senet pT pu PT PT D-DB+UA-B-B)-AB=0 aay ‘The constants A and B are calculated for mixtures by Gas Production Operations F(2orteto'>) ean Ba = C23 y1TalPa am ‘where y, isthe mole fraction of the ith component of the mixture. Evaluation of a involves calculation of the acentrie factor, « (1sa-nes), 225) $= 0.4804 1.5740 -0.1760%, a2 em ‘where Ty is the boiling point of the component at 14.7 psia in °R. Values of @ can also be obtained from Table 22, ‘Example 2-1 Using the Soave modification to the RK equation, cal- Culate the molar Volume of the following gas mixture at P= 250 psia, T= 10°F. Component yj, c 076 G 045 G ————— ee Solution: Component yy Pa Ta Sa © O75 667.8 9434 D010) 049 O.744 Ge 048 7078 5501 0.0986 0633 0.989 C040 6163 666.1 ONGC O71 1.123 Component 9 Ta F778? WTalPa e 8.507 0.98587 G 3.004 ones 6 249 0.10808 14528 a51083 0.42748 (250) ‘ = SO) 14.529)" = 0.07169 Ana ag (14528)? = 007 0.08664 (250) = RO) (0.61038) = 0.02961 By = Tag (081082) = 0. 2B -Z + Z(0.07189 — 0.02361 ~ (0.02961)%) = 0.07189 (0.02361) = 0Gas Properties 2? ~ Z* + 0.047722 - 0.00170 = 0 Z= 0.952 Vy = ZAT/p = 0:982(10.73)(560)/260 cuft ibmoe Calculations for C;: From Table 22, » = 0.0104. $= 0.480 + 1.574(0.0104) ~ 0.176(0.01047 = 0.496 T, = 560/9603 = 163 7° = 1.277 a= [1 + 0.496(1 ~ 1.277)F = 0.744 GAS ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY The isothermal compressibility ofa gas is the measure of the change in volume per unit volume with pressure change at constant temperature. In equation form “(ay . V\ap/, eat ‘This should not be confused with the gas compressibility factor, Z, The compressibility is required in many res- ervoir gas flow equations and may be evaluated in the following manner. Ideal Gas Compressibility For an ideal gas, v= (i) P \ep/y P Real Gas Compressibllity For a real gas, ya ae? P and since Z = f(p), it must be included in the derivative 4 4 Pp? (2) = ner OP} > P Substituting these expressions into the equation define ing compressibility gives cael Ce*)| 33 Evaluation of C for real gases requires determining how the Z-factor varies with pressure at the pressure and temperature of interest. Because most of the charts and equations predict Z as a function of reduced pressure and temperature, a reduced compressibility has been defined as C, = C p,, This can be expressed as a function of p, at a fixed value of 7, by eolal (2) pe ZN ap.) 1, Values of (32/@p,)r, can be obtained from the slope of a constant 7, curve from Figure 2-6 at the Z-factor of interest. Values of C, 7, a8 a function of p, and 7, have been presented graphically by Mattar, et al.® in Figures 2-10 and 2-11. The change of Z with p can also be cal- culated using an analytical expression by calculating the Z-factor at pressures slightly above and below the pres- sure of interest. That is, Fig. 2-10. Variation of ¢,7, with reduced temperature and pressure, (1.05 5 T, = 1.4; 02 < p, = 16.0). Courtesy The Joumal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, Canadian in- stituto of Mining and Metallurgy.Fig. 2-11. Variation of oT, with reduced temperature and pressure. (1.4 = T, < 3.0; 0.2 = p, = 150). Courtesy Tho Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, Canadian in- stitute of Mining and Metallurgy, ea Pr, \Pu~ Prals, mapper Calculate the compressibity of a gas at a temperature Of 40°F and a pressure of 665 psia i T, = 357°R, p, = 674 pia, From Figure 2-11, O, T; = 1.62 Gas Production Operations 1.62 = Sa 116 14 146 si Boo gra 7 000172 pst The problem can also be solved using the approxi- mation for Z/ap,: Bsa B z 615 osi2 0.60 665 ose = 0870 78 1060 0.864 0.986 SEE (ox 861 0.870 \oat2 — 1.060, Gat S168 | 1 Ome apg 7 9.00178 psi GAS viscosity The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the fluid’s ability to flow, or the ratio of the shearing force to the shearing rate. The viscosity is usually expressed in cen- tipoises or poises, but can be converted to other units for unit compatibility. 1 poise = 100 centipoises = 6.72 x 10? ibm/f-sec = 2.09 107? Ibf-sec/ft? = 0.1 kg/m-sec Gas viscosity is difficult to measure experimentally and for engineering purposes can be determined accurately ‘enough from empirical correlations. The most widely ac- cepted correlation used in the past has been that of Carr, etal.’, The Carr method is presented in Figures 2-12 and 2-413. The viscosity at one atmosphere is obtained first from Figure 2-12 and corrected for nonhydrocarbon im- purities if necessary. This viscosity is a function of mo- Jecular weight or gravity and temperature only. The cor- rection for pressure is obtained from Figure 2-13 as a function of reduced pressure and temperature. ‘An analytical expression for viscosity of hydrocarbon as was presented by Lee, et al." in 1966. The equation is 10 exp (X 2) am where 9.4 + 002M) T'S 209+ 19M+TGas Properties 35 os 1p is 001 00% 00 1 eentipoise oor oon ro} 0.008] Viscosity at 1 otm ‘009 007 2004 00s 004} 0 20 0 0 “Ga GT = TT 60 7 Molecular woight as 30 35 0 80 30 ‘0 Fig. 2-12. Viscosity of paratiin hydrocarbon gases at atmosphere. Permission to publish by the Society of Petroleum En- neers of AIME. Copyright 1264 SPE-AIME, xa35+ = +001M y=24-0.2x In these equations, T= °R, 1, = cp, M weight and p, = gm/cm’, molecular Example 2-16: Using both the Carr and Lee methods, calculate the Viscosity of a 0.8 gravity gas at a pressure of 2000 psia, and a temperature of 150°F. Tho gas contains 10% H.S and 10% CO:, Solution: Carr Method From figure 2-12, ws = 0.0111 op Correction for 10% H.S = +0.0003 Correction for 10% CO, = +0.0008 Hs = 0.0111 + 0.0008 + 0.0006 = 0.0120 ap T, = 1705 + 3073 (8) = 416°R Pe = 708.6 - 88,7 (8) = 663 psia T= (480 + 150)/416 = 1.47 p, = 2000/6863 = 3.02 Z= 0,791 From Figure 2-13, * = 1.61 1 an (4) = @012)080 = 00109 Lee Method The Lee method does not include a method for cor- recting for nonhydrocarbon impurities; therefore, the Value obtained will be for a pure hydrocarbon gas. However, it the Ztactor used in calculating the gas density has been corrected, the Lee method is valid for sour gases. M = yo(Mu) = (0.8)(29) = 23.2 (9.4 + 002M) T' 2090 + 19.0M4T 9-4 + (0.02(23.291610)"* 2090 + (19.0)(23.2) + 610, = 117.96 x=95 +88 001m36 Gas Production Operations VISCOSITY RATIO, Hf, oF ioe 20 wee PSEUDO REDUCED TEMPERATURE, T, 5, 28 ,\iscosty rato verses aseudoreducad temperature. Permission to publish by the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. Copyright 1954 SPE-AIME, 986 = 95+ 7 + (0.01120. = 5.35 y=24-02X = 2.4 ~ (0.2)(5.5) = 1.33 P= vot0oren FO ry (0.8)(0.0764)(520)(2000) (14.79(0.791)(610)(62.4) Ho = K. 10" exp (Xp3) = (117.96)(10~) exp ((5.35)(0.1436)'%) = 0.0177 op It is sometimes convenient to express the viscosity of ft gm/om? tom /#t? = 0.1436 gm /omn® a fluid as a kinematic viscosity, v. The relationship be- tween viscosity and kinematic viscosity is 7 ean ep where 9 is the fluid density. GAS-WATER SYSTEMS, In many cases the engineering design of gas produc- tion operations will involve natural gas in contact with water. This water may be connate reservoir water ot water Produced from some other zone. In any event, itis nec- essary to determine the water contained in the gas in the vapor state, the gas dissolved in the water, and under what conditions of pressure and temperature gas hy- ates will be formed.Gas Properties Solubility of Natural Gas in Water The solubility of natural gas in water is very low at ‘most pressures and temperatures of interest in gas pro- duction engineering. The primary factors affecting the amount of gas that will be evolved from water saturated with the gas depends on pressure, temperature, and sol~ ids content of the water. The relationship is illustrated in Figure 2-14. The correction factor for salinity may be calculated from Retin xex 10" am where salinity of water, ppm. x=3an/re™" T = temperature, °F Rav = gas solubility in brine Row = gas solubility in pure water Example 2-17: Calculate the scf of gas dissolved in a brine containing 50,000 ppm at a pressure of 6000 psia and @ tempor- ature of 200°F, Sontons From FIgUr® 2-14, ng ~ 20 sct/STB art Boyes = 9041 Pray = Fam (1 = X ¥ x 10-4) = 20(1 ~ (0.041)(60000) x 10~*) Pay = 20(0.795) = 15.9 scl/STB Solubility of Water in Natural Ges ‘The amount of water vapor contained in natural gas at various temperatures and pressures must be known in order to relate surface water production to equivalent ‘volumes in the reservoir. The water content is also im- portant in calculations involving hydrate formation. The water content depends on pressure, temperature, and water salinity, Figure 2-15 shows the mass or weight of fresh ‘water contained in gas as a function of pressure and tem perature. The following equation can be used to correct for water salinity. = 2.87 x 1078 ye 239) 37 ‘Solubty of natural gas in water, cu fUbbI Fig. 2-14. Gas solubility in pure water. Courtesy Gas Pro- cessors Suppliers Association. where W, = brine content, Ibm/MMscf, W,, = pure water content from Figure 2-15, ¥ = salinity of water, ppm. Example 2-18: Determine the water content in @ natural gas in contact with @ 100,000 pom brine at 3000 psia and 200°F. Solution: From Figure 2-18, Wop = 280 lom/MMsct W, = We (1 ~ 287 x 10°4(100,000)') = 260(0:939) tom asc Gas Hydrates Gas hydrates are crystalline compounds, formed by the chemical combination of natural gas and water under pressure at temperatures considerably above the freezing. point of water. In the presence of free water, hydrates will form when the temperature of the gas is below a certain temperature, called the “hydrate temperature.” Hydrate formation is often confused with condensation,38 Gas Production Operations 2 |]9/ [a] M4, 42409 0 peer caf Water content, Ib H,0 per VOB BO-AO-BORTAT OI RIVA WO OG TOO 120 HOW 200 290 BO 300 AD S00 EOD TS L ‘Temperature, *F Fig. 2-18. Water content of natural gas in equilrium with liquid water. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.Gas Properties and the distinction between the two must be clearly understood. Condensation of water from a natural gas under pressure occurs when the temperature is at or be- ow the dew point at that pressure. Free water obtained under such conditions is essential to the formation of hy- dates that will occur at or below the hydrate temperature at the same pressure, Hence, the hydrate temperature would be below, and perhaps the same as, but never above the dew point temperature. In solving gas production problems, it becomes nec- ‘essary to define, and thereby avoid, conditions that pro- mote the formation of hydrates. Hydrates may choke the flow string, surface lines, and well testing equipment. Hydrate formation in the flow string would result in a lower value for measured wellhead pressures. In a flow rate measuring device, hydrate formation would result in lower flow rates. Excessive hydrate formation may also completely block flow lines and surface equipment. Conditions promoting hydrate formation are 1. Gas at or below its water dew point with “free” water resent, 2. low temperature, and 3. high pressure, A further discussion of hydrate formation and preven- tion is given in Chapter 9. GAS-CONDENSATE SYSTEMS AAs the exploration for natural gas is extended to deeper horizons, more reservoirs containing gas condensates are discovered. The gas may be in the gaseous phase at initial reservoir conditions but may condense to form some liquid at some point in the path to the separator. Engineering design of these production systems re- quires some understanding of phase behavior. This sec- tion deals with the phenomenon of phase change and with methods to calculate these phase changes. Phase Behavior Phase behavior is simple for single component sys- tems but becomes more complicated as more compo- nents are added to the system. A discussion of the sim- plest system will lead to an understanding of the more ‘complex systems. Single Component Fluid. The phase behavior of a uid can be described by determining its response to pressure and temperature changes. In a liquid the molecules are very close together, but in a gas the molecules are widely separated, Certain forces exist that tend to either confine of disperse the molecules. Confining forces are primarily pressure and molecular attraction. Dispersing forces are 39 kinetic energy and molecular repulsion. ‘The relative ‘magnitudes of the confining and dispersing forces dictate whether the fluid is a liquid or a gas. ‘An increase in temperature increases the kinetic en- ergy of the molecules and thus the dispersing forces, while an increase in pressure increases the confining forces. ‘The behavior of a single component fluid can be il- lustrated graphically on a plot of pressure versus tem- perature, called a phase diagram. A line joining all of the points where the confining and repelling forces are equal can be plotted. This is a vapor pressure line and is illustrated in Figure 2-16. At any point above the va- por pressure line the fluid is a liquid, while below the line the fluid is a gas. At the critical point, Point C, there is no distinction between liquid and gas. A phase change at constant pressure occurs when temperature changes, as illustrated by the path 1-2. A phase change will also ‘occur at constant temperature 2s pressure is changed (path 344). ‘Multicomponent Fluids, When more than one fluid is present, the difference in molecule size and energy has an influence on the phase change. Figure 2-17 illustrates the phase diagram for a two-component mixture and Fig- lure 2-18 shows the phase diagram for a typical hydro- carbon multicomponent mixture. There is no sharp tran- sition from liquid to vapor or from vapor to liquid, but the molecules are able to escape from the liquid or gas at different pressures and temperatures because of mo- lecular attraction. The locus of all points where the first bubble of gas appears in a liquid as pressure and tem- perature conditions are changed is called the bubble point line, The locus of all points where the first droplet of Pressure ‘Temperature Fig, 2.16. Phase diagram for a pure substance showing lines of isobaric temperature change. Reprinted from McCain, Properties of Petroleum Fluids, copyright 1974, PennWell Books,40 Gas Production Operations Fig, 2-17. Vapor pressure curves for two pure components ‘and phase diagram for a 50:50 mixture of the same com- ‘ponents. Reprinted from McCain, Properties of Petroleum Fluids, copyright 1974, PennWell Books, = rant oo ‘cos canat Sax ramovas Conan Jomsire terse sop oncoate Fig. 2-19. Ditierential retrograde condensation of liquid from _gas. Reprinted from Norman J. Clark, World Of, April 1953. Courtesy Gulf Publishing Company. Fig. 2-18. Phase diagram showing cricondentherm and cri- ‘condenbar, Reprinted trom McCain, Properties of Petro- ‘eum Fluids, copyright 1974, PennWell Books, liquid appears as the conditions for a gas are changed is the dew point line. The highest pressure at which a gas ‘ean exist is called the cricondenbar while the highest temperature at which a liquid can exist is the cricon- dentherm, Separation Processes. The two types of separation Processes that can occur as pressure or temperature on 4 fluid changes are called differential and flash or equi- librium. These processes are illustrated in Figures 2-19 and 2-20, In the differential process the gas is removed from contact with the liquid as it is separated, which ‘means that the composition of the remaining liquid ta A oe ! cower ane presi § operas Fig. 2:20. Equilorium retrograde condensation of qu from 192s. Reprinted from Norman J. Clark, World Oli, Apri 1953, Courtesy Gulf Publishing Company, changes constantly. In the flash process the gas remains in contact with the liquid, which means that the process is a constant composition process. Both types of sepa- tation, or a mixture of the two, can occur as gas is pro- duced from a reservoir to tho separator. ‘Types of Gas Reservoirs Reservoirs that yield natural gas can be classified into essentially four categories. These are:Gas Properties 1. dry gas—the fluid exists as a gas both in the reservoir and the piping system. The only liquid associated with the gas from a dry gas reservoir is water. A phase diagram of a dry gas reservoir is illustrated in Figure 221; 2, wet gas—the fluid initially exists as a gas in the res- ervoir and remains in the gaseous phase as pressure declines at reservoir temperature. However, in being produced to the surface, the temperature also drops, causing condensation in the piping system and sep- arator. This behavior is illustrated in Figure 2-22; 3, retrograde condensate gas—the fluid exists as a gas at initial reservoir conditions. As reservoir pressure declines at reservoir temperature, the dew point line is crossed and liquid forms in the reservoir. Liquid also forms in the piping system and separator. Figure 2-23 depiets the behavior of a retrograde gas system; 4, associated gas—many oil reservoirs exist at the bub- ble point pressure of the fluid system at initial con- ditions, Free gas can be produced from the gas cap of such a system. Gas which is intially dissolved in the oil can also be produced as free gas at the surface. ‘The phase diagram of such a system will depend on the properties of the oil associated with the gas. An ‘example phase diagram is shown in Figure 2-24. ‘The fact that hydrocarbon liquids are frequently in contact with natural gas makes it imperative that meth- ‘ods be available to calculate the volumes or masses of each phase and also the composition of each phase ex- isting at various conditions of pressure and temperature. The procedure for accomplishing these calculations is described in the following section. 41 Flash or Equilibrium Separation Calculations ‘The phase behavior of an ideal solution can be de- scribed by combining the laws of Raoult and Dalton to obtain the quantity of gas and liquid existing at given conditions. Raoult’s Law states that the partial pressure ‘of a component in the gas is equal to the product of the mole fraction of that component in the liquid multiplied by the vapor pressure of the pure component. Raoult’s Law is valid only if both the gas and liquid mixtures are ideal solutions. The mathematical statement of Raoult’s La P= Py where p, represents the partial pressure of component j Temperature Fig. 2.22, Phase diagram of a wet gas. Reprinted from ‘McCain, Properties of Petroleum Fiuids, copyright 1974, PonnWeit Books. Pressure Ze ‘Temperature te Fig. 2-21. Phase diagram of a dry gas. Reprinted trom McCain, Properties of Petroleum Fiuids, copyright 1974, PennWell Books. Fig, 228. Phase diagram showing regions of retrograde condensation, Reprinted from McCain, Properties of Petro- eum Fluids, copyright 1974, PennWell Books.42 Reservoir tomperature Reservar gas Temperature —> Fig, 2-24. Equiltrium relationship of reservoir containing an oil accumulation with a gas cap. Courtesy Gas Proces. sors Suppiiors Association in the gas in equilibrium with a liquid of composition x, ‘The quantity 7, represents the vapor pressure that pure component j would exert at the temperature of interest. Dalton’s Law can also be used to calculate the partial Dressure exerted by a component of an ideal gas mixture: Py= yp. Raoalt’s and Dalton’s Laws both represent the partial pressure of a component in a gas. In the case of Raoult’s Law, the gas must be in equilibrium with a liquid. These Jaws may be combined by eliminating partial pressure to ‘give an equation that relates the compositions of the gas and liquid phases in equilibrium to the pressure and tem- erature at which the gas-liquid equilibrium exists, such as YP = 3B or om a % P Equation 2-34 can be used to calculate the ratio of the ‘mole fraction of a component in the gas to its mole frac~ tion in the liquid, To determine values of y, and x, this equation must be combined with another equation relat- ing these two quantities. Such an equation can be de- veloped through consideration of a material balance on the jth component of the mixture. Gas Production Operations ‘Let m represent the total number of moles in the mixture, ‘represent the total number of moles in the liquid, ‘i epresent the total number of moles in the gas, 4 represent the mole fraction of the jth component in the total mixture including both liquid and ges phases, ‘represent the mole fraction of the th component in the liquid, 2 present the mole fraction of the jth component in the as, 47 represent the moles of the tk component in the total mixture, 2 Tepresent the moles ofthe jth component inthe liquid, and 7 Fepresent the moles of the th component in the gas. ‘A material balance on the jth component results in 2p = Xft, + ditty 35) Combination of Equations 2-34 and 2-35 to eliminate y results in 239 Equations 2-34’and 2-35 can also be combined to eliminate x, with the result, ean nt en, Pa Either equation 2-36 or 2-37 can be used to calculate the compositions of the gas and liquid phases of a mix- ture at equilibrium, In either case a trial-and-error so- Jution is required, The calculation is simplified if one mole of total mixture is taken as a basis so that i, = n,/ 1t fly = th/n and mh, + Ay = L. This results in the re~ duction off Equations 2-36 and 2-37 to Bye + 1 am and xy=> 4 “1 a) mle)Gas Properties ‘The use of Equation 2-38 or 2-39 to predict gas-liquid equilibria behavior is severely restricted since Dalton’s Law is based on the assumption that the gas behaves as an ideal solution of ideal gases. For practical purposes the ideal-gas assumption limits the use of the equations to pressures below about 50 psia. Raoult’s Law is also based on the assumption that the liquid behaves as an ideal solution, Ideal-solution be~ havior is approached only if the components of the liquid ‘mixture are very similar chemically and physically Another restriction is that a pure compound does not have a vapor pressure at temperatures above its critical temperature. Thus, the use of these equations is limited to temperatures less than the critical temperature of the ‘most volatile compound in the mixture. For example, if ‘methane is a component of the mixture, this method can- not be used at temperatures above —116°F. These re- strictions have led to the use of correlations based on experimental observations. These correlations usually involve the use of the equilibrium ratio K, which is de fined as a2, % From equation 2-34, itis seen that the K-value is de- fined by the ratio of the vapor pressure of the component to the system pressure, or s Bratt Substituting this relationship into Equations 2-38 and 2-39 results in 4 Sao ey ‘The choice between Equations 2-40 and 2-81 is ar- bitrary; either can be used with equal efficiency. Either equation requires a trial-and-error solution, Normally, successive trial values of 7, of fi, are selected until the summation equals one. These equations can be used to calculate the quantity and composition of a mixture by the following procedure. The required data are the feed composition, the pressure and temperature at which the separation is to take place, and K-factors for each com- ponent at this pressure and temperature, B= 1, Determine the appropriate K-value for each compo- nent at p and T of separation 43 2, Assume a value of 7, and calculate an assumed value of a, from At a= for one mole of feed. 3, Calculate the sum of the mole fractions of all the ‘components using the value of 7, assumed in Step 2. —— 1+ A, K-11) 4. If the summation calculated in Step 3 is equal to one, the assumption for i, was correct. If not, assume a new value for ii, and repeat Step 3 until the sum- mation is equal to one. dyad The x; values calculated in Step 3 represent the com- position of the fi, moles of liquid resulting from the sep- aration. The composition of the #, moles of gas can be caleulated from = Kip Step 3 can be modified to calculate the sum of the mole fractions in the gas phase by assuming a value of fi and using Equation 2-41. Example 2-19: Calculate the quantity and composition of the gas and liquid phase resulting from a flash separation of the fluid ‘at a pressure of 200 psia and a temperature of 150°F. ‘Assume that the charts for a convergence pressure of +5000 psia are applicable. ‘Solution: an fend ponent 3 KB n G O61 1820 0406 0505 0501 O76 PG, 028 0585 0351 033 0897 0201 mG O11 0236 0.178 0158 0.162 0.09 100 1913 1.000 1.000 Since Es = 1 for i = 0.42, this means that 42% of the total feed is in the gas phase and 58% in the liquid phase at 200 psia and 150°F. Also, for example, 50.1% of the liquid phase is C; and 76.1% of the gas phase is Cy. ‘The previous equations can also be used to determine bubbie point and dew point pressures of a mixture at a given temperature. At the bubble point, the amount of gas is negligible and =X,& Wo thy = 3K an) and By atta ey ‘The bubble point or dew point pressures can be cal- culated by trial-and-error by assuming various pressures and determining the pressure that will produce K-values satisfying Equations 2-42 or 2-43. The following relationships wit! aid in determining the bubble point or dew point. a WE kj and 32 are both > 1, p is between py and 7 Pe bE GK pe FB <1 . <1 p< py . (SEP Se. eee eee eee ea Example 2-20: Determine the bubble point pressure of the following ‘mixture at a temperature of 150°F. ae eee ere ee ‘Solution: From the previous example we know that the bubble point pressure is greater than 200 psia. As a fist guess, Use ps = 250 psia, Trial 1 (p. = 250 psia) Gamponent K aK G 061 1270” 0775 nC 028 asm 140 7 oft 0203 age 100 2907 ‘The assumed pressure is greater than the bubble point pressure since BzKj < 1. Tilal 2 (py = 220 psia) Component__% 6 Eq G ost 1490 ——«0.908 mG 028 © 0580162 2G, O41 023025, 51086 Gas Production Operations The fact that jk) > 1 implies that 220 psia is below the bubble point pressure. By linear interpolation, se- ‘ect the pressure for tho third tial as 230 psia. Thal 3 (p, = 230 psia) a a ost 1980 eee "038 oast0 mG ont as cee ‘The bubble point pressure is therefore 230 psia at a temperature of 150°F. In order to apply the methods described in the pre- ceding section, itis necessary to have access to K-values for each component as a function of pressure and tem- perature. The most widely used method of determining K-values is to use the experimentally determined charts Dublished by the NOPSA’. The problem with using these charts is thatthe convergence pressure, p,, must be known in order to select the appropriate chart. At relatively low Pressures the K-values arc almost independent of con- ‘Vergence pressure, but for separation pressures approach- ing convergence pressure, they are very sensitive to con- vergence pressure, The determination of the proper con- vergence pressure to use for a given system is iterative, A suggested procedure i 1, Estimate a value for convergence pressure, pl 2. Read the K-values for each component from the charts Prepared at pj. 3. Perform a flash calculation using the K-values from ‘Step 2. This gives the liquid composition. 4, Identify the lightest hydrocarbon component in the liquid [phase which comprises at least 0.001 mole fraction; that is, x, 2 0.001. This will usually be C, ‘of C; for gas condensate systems. 5. Calculate the weight average critical temperature for the remaining heavier components in the liquid phase. These remaining heavier components represent 2 Pseudo-heavy component in the pseudo binary sys- tem 6. Enter Figure 2-25 at the critical temperature calcu- lated in Step 5 and determine which actual hydro- carbon component has a critical temperature closest to the pseudo-heavy component. If the value is be- ‘ween two real components, interpolation is required 7. Trace the critical locus between the light and pseudo- heavy component to the separation temperature and read the convergence pressure p, at this point. If p,Gas Properties 45 7.000 5,000 4,000 2,000 2,000 ‘Convergence pressure, pala 8888 88 8 100) 0 10020080 “Temperature, *F a 400=« 600600 700 00 Fig. 2.25. Convergence pressure of binary hydrocarbon systems. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association. # pi from Step 1, set pi = pe and go to Step 2. Re- peat until pi ~ De Values trom Equations of State Equilibrium ratios may be defined in terms of the fu- gacity of the component in a mixture. The fugacity, f, isa thermodynamic quantity defined in terms of the change in free energy in passing from one state to another. It hhas been shown that the fugacity of a component in a phase of a mixture is equal to the fugacity of that com- ppottent in the same phase in the pure state multiplied by the mole fraction of the component in the mixture, That is, for the gas and liquid phases, Sy (nix) = 9; fy (pure), Sy (enix) = fy (Pure) Jf the phases are in equilibrium, the fugacities of a component in the liquid and gas phases are equal, or wba ifs o Wag, aay 4 tus ‘Therefore, the K-values can be approximated if the fugacity of each component can be calculated at a given pressure and temperature. This can be accomplished by the use of an equation of state, stich as the Soave-Red- lich-Kwong equation described earlier, The fugacity coefficient of a component in a mixture is given by AaB e— n-ne py ob 4( a -A(.e Bas where ah oP! Talpee* FF Sap Tales b° 3s Toles ‘The values for Z, A, B, and a are calculated by Equa- tions 2-22, 2-23, 2-24, and 2-25, respectively. The + represents either the liquid or gas mole fraction. ‘The use of an equation of state to calculate phase be- havior involves numerous calculations and is usually ap- plied only by utilization of a computer. Some simplified ‘programs have been published for use with hand cal- culators by Weber", ‘Adjustment of Properties for Condensate Mixtures In many cases the properties of the total well or res- ervoir fluid will not be measured, but the gas and con-46 densate propertics after separation will be known. Many reservoir and piping system calculations require prop- erties such as specific gravity for the reservoir or well fluid. Methods for making the calculations are given be- low. Specific Gravity of Mixtures. By forming a molal bal- ‘ance on the separator gas and liquid effluents, the fol- lowing equation can be derived for calculating the grav- ity of a mixture: Ye + 4584-7 /R Ye aR 40 where “tox = specific gravity of the mixture (air = 1), “Ye™ specific gravity of the separator gas, “Ye= specific gravity of the condensate, V,= condensate vaporizing volume, and R= producing gas-condensate ratio. ‘Specific gravity sao, 278 972 068 084 080 1.200 5 60 70) BO. Gravity, “APL 100 10 1204 ‘ig. 2:26. Relationship between condensate vaporization volume ratio and API gravity. Courtesy Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary. Gas Production Operations ‘API gravity of stock tank condensate 0: ow . a 500 ‘Separator pressure, psig "000 1.500 Fig. 2.27. Equivalent gas volume of stock tank conden- ‘sale. Reprinted from Leshikan, World Oil, January 1967. Courtesy Guif Publishing Company, The condensate specific gravity is related to the API sravity by 14.5 131.5 + APL V, is obtained from Figure 2-26 for cases in which +, is ‘measured at a high pressure separator. If y, is measured at stock tank conditions, the value of V, depends on sep arator pressure and is obtained from Figure 2-27. % Example 227 Calculate the specitic gravity of a reservoir gas given the folowing: y= 0.85 yp om ST. = 0178 (50° API) = 30,000 sct/STB Separator pressure = 900 sig Solution: From Figure 2-27, V, = 1110 set/STBGas Properties _ 0.65 + 4584 (78)/30000 Yor = "T 1110/80000 Equation 2-46 can be used to calculate the specific gravity of a gas containing water if the dry gas gravity and water content are known. The liquid vaporizing vol- ume for water is, = 074 3502 (10.73)520) met, _*0 spp 10709 MP. 18 14.7) ibmoe 4? V,, = 7380 sef/STB. To calculate R,, in scf/STB from the water content in Ibm/MMscf, use 350 x 10° R= Ww, 10. 47 REFERENCES Browa, G. G., Katz, D. L., Oberfll, G. G., and Alden, B.C. Natural Gasoline and Volatle Hydrocarbons, NGAA, (1948). ‘Wieert, E., and Aziz, K.: "Calculate 2's for Sour Gases,” Hy rocarbon Processing, $1 (1972) ‘Beatie and Bridgeman: J. Am. Chem. Soc., 49 (1927) and 50 1928). Redlich-Kwong: Chem. Rey, (1949) 44 Soave, G. “Equilibrium Constans from a Modified Redlch- Kwong Equation of State,” Chem. Eng. Sei. 7 (1972). Mattar, L., Brar, G. S., and Aziz, K-: “Compresibilty of Nat- ural Gases," J. Can. Per. Tech. (Oci~Dec., 1975). (Car, N. L., Kobeyashi, L. R., and Burrows, D, B., “Viscosity of Hydrocarbon Gases.” Trans. AIME, (1954) 201. Lee, A. L., Gonzalez, M. H., and Eakin, B. E.: “The Viscosity of Natural Gases," J. Pet. Tech, (Aug., 1966). § NGPSA Engincering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers As soe., Tulsa (1972). Weber, J. H.,: "Predicting Properties of Gas Mixnures," Chem ical Eng. (May 19, 1980),Gas Reservoir Performance NN traveling from its original location in the reser- voir to the final point of consumption, the gas must first travel through the reservoir rock or porous me- dium. A certain amount of energy is required to ‘overcome the resistance to flow through the rock, which is manifested in a pressure decrease in the direction of flow, toward the well. This pressure drop or decrease depends on the gas flow rate, properties of the reservoir fluids, and properties of the rock. The fluid properties were discussed in Chapter 2, and a brief discussion of the rock properties is given in this chapter. ‘The engineer involved in gas production operations must be able to predict not only the rate at which a well or field will produce, but also how much gas is originally in the reservoir and how much of it can be recovered ‘economically. This requires the ability to relate volumes ‘of gas existing in the reservoir to reservoir pressure. Be- ‘cause the flow capacity of a well depends on the res- ervoir pressure, both reservoir gas flow and reserve es- timates are discussed in this chapter. RESERVOIR GAS FLOW Determination of the inflow performance or reservoir flow capacity for a gas well requires a relationship be- ween flow rate coming into a well and the sand-face pressure or flowing bottom-hole pressure. This relation- ship may be established by the proper solution of Dar- y's Law, which is the accepted expression relating pres- sure drop and fluid velocity in a porous medium, provided that the flow is laminar. Solution of Darcy's Law de- pends on the conditions of flow existing in the reservoir or the flow regime. The flow type or regime may be independent of time or steady-state, or if conditions at a particular location change with time, the flow regime is transient or unsteady-state. Under certain conditions of transient flow, conditions change at a constant rate at all locations in the reservoir. This condition is called pseudo-steady-state and may be analyzed more simply than the transient condition, ‘The flow regimes will be discussed qualitatively first, the equations for each regime will be presented, and then the application of the equations for determining inflow performance or well flow capacity will be presented. Flow Regime Characteristics When a well is opened to production from a shut-in condition, the pressure disturbance created at the well travels outward through the rock at a velocity governed by the rock and fluid propertics. The various flow re- sgimes are discussed with respect to the behavior of this pressure disturbance, Steady-State Flow. Figure 3-1 illustrates the pressure ‘and flow rate distribution occurring during radial, steady- state flow into a well. This pressure distribution will re- main constant as long as the radius being drained by the well remains constant. For such a situation to be strictly tue it is necessary that the flow across the external drainage radius r., be equal to the flow across the well radius at r,. This is never strictly met in a reservoir other than a strong water drive, whereby the water influx rate equals the produc- ing rate. Pressure maintainance by water injection down- dip or by gas injection updip would also approximate steady-state conditions as would most pattern water- floods after the initial stages of injection have passed. 4950 qait=OWwl=> Patt =Ott= = Pressure, p——> Radius,» > Fig. 9-1. Radial steady-state fow. From Sider, Practica! Reservoir Engineoring Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell Books. Steady-state equations are also useful in analyzing the conditions near the wellbore because even in an un- steady-state system the flow rate near the wellbore is al- most constant so that the conditions around the wellbore are almost constant, Thus, steady-state flow equations can be applied to this portion of the reservoir without any significant error, Unsteady-State Flow. Figure 3-2 shows the pressure and rate distributions for a radial system at various times, for a closed reservoir (no flow across r,). In this case all of the production is due to the expansion of the fluid in the reservoir, This causes the rate at 7, to be zero and the rate increases to a maximum at the well radius, ry. In the steady-state case the flow across the outer bound ary, Tay Was equal to the flow across r,, the well radius. With flow across r, zero, the only energy causing the flow of fluid is the expansion of the fluids themselves. Initially the pressure is uniform throughout the reservoir at p,. This represents the zero producing time. ‘The production rate is controlled so that the pressure at the well is constant. A pressure distribution shown as P at tis obtained after a short period of time of pro- ducing the well at such a rate that the well pressure re- mains constant. At this time only a small portion of the reservoir has been affected or has had a significant pres- sure drop. For a closed reservoir, flow occurs due to expansion of the fluid. Consequently, if no pressure drop exists in the reservoir at a particular point, or outside of that point, no flow could be taking place at that particular radius. The fluid could not expand without a drop in pressure. Gas Production Operations Thus, as shown in the plot of q at f the rate at r, is zero and increases with a reduction in radius until the maxi- ‘mum rate in the reservoir is obtained at r,. The pressure and rate distributions at time represent an instant in time, and the pressure and rate distributions move on ‘through these positions immediately as the production ‘continues to affect more and more of the reservoir. That is, more and more of the reservoir continues to experi- cence a significant pressure drop and is subjected to flow ‘until the entire reservoir is affected as shown by the pres- sure att. The rate, q, at 2 indicates that the flow rate at this time extends throughout the reservoir since all of the reservoir has been affected and has had a significant pressure drop, Notice that the rate at the well has declined somewhat from time #, to f since the same pressure drop (p--p,), is effective over a much larger volume of the reservoir. Once the pressure in the entire reservoir has been af- focted the pressure will drop throughout the reservoir as production continues so that the pressure distribution might be as shown for p at fs. The rate will have declined somewhat during time f; to f; duc to the increase in the radius over which flow is taking place, and it will con- tinue to decline from t; to f due to the decline of the total pressure drop from r, t0 rs (pe~Pa)- Note that from time = 0 to time fs, when a pressure drop is finally affected throughout the entire reservoir, the pressure and rate distributions would not be affected by the size of the reservoir or the position of the external drainage radius r,, During this time the reservoir is said to be infinite-acting because during this period the outer drainage radius, r,, could mathematically be infinite. Even in reservoir systems that are dominated by steady-state pat=o B Flow rate, q Pressure, p Fig. 3-2. Unsteady-state radial flow with constant weil pressure. From Silder, Practical Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell Books.Gas Reservoir Performance flow, the effect of changes in well rates or well pressures atthe well will be governed by unsteady-state flow equa- tions until the changes have been in effect for a sufficient length of time to affect the entire reservoir and have the reservoir again reach a steady-state condition, Pseudo-Steady-State Flow. Figure 3-3 illustrates the pressure and rate distribution for the same unsteady-state system except that in this case the rate at the well, qu. is held constant, This might be comparable to a prorated well of one that is pumping at a constant rate. Again at time t = 0 the pressure throughout the reservoir is uni- form at p,. Then after some short producing time f, at a constant rate, only a small portion of the reservoir will have experienced a significant pressure drop, and con- sequently the reservoir will be flowing only out to a ra- dius r,. As production continues at the constant rate, the ‘entire reservoir will eventually experience a significant pressure drop as shown at f, Shortly after the entire res- ervoir pressure has been affected, the change in the pres- sure with time at all radii in the reservoir becomes uni- form so that the pressure distribations at subsequent times are parallel as illustrated by the pressure distributions at times 1, f,, and fs, This situation will continue with con- stant changes in pressure with time at all radii and with subsequent parallel pressure distributions until the res- ervoir is no longer able to sustain a constant flow rate at the wellbore. This will occur when the pressure at the well, pe, has reached its physical lower limit. Pseudo-steady-state flow occurs in the reservoir after ithas been produced at a constant rate for a long enough period of time to cause a constant change in pressure at all radii, resulting in parallel pressure distributions and Fig. 3-3. Unsteady-state radial flow with constant produc- ing rate pseudo-steady-state t, to t.. From Slider, Practical Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell Books. 31 coresponding constant rate distributions. Pseudo-steady- state flow is a specialized case of unsteady-state flow and is sometimes referred to as stabilized flow. Most of the life of a reservoir will exist in pseudo-steady-state flow. Flow Equations From the previous description of the various flow re- sgimes it is obvious that a particular well will be oper- ating in each of these regimes at some time in the life of the well. The applicable equations for each flow re- ‘gime will be derived or presented in this section, Steady State Flow Darcy's Law for flow in a porous medium is on where, v= fluid velocity, q = volumetric flow rate, k= effective permeability, lui viscosity, and Sy ™ Pressure gradient inthe direction of flow. For radial flow in which the distance is defined as pos- itive moving away from the well, the equation becomes, _ HOnrh) dp : » dr on where r= radial distance, and = reservoir thickness. Darcy's Law describes the pressure loss due to viscous shear occurring in the flowing fluid. If the formation is not horizontal, the hydrostatic or potential energy term rust be inciuded. This is usually negligible for gas flow in reservoirs, Equation 3-2 is a differential equation and ‘must be integrated for application, Before integration the flow equation must be combined with an equation of state and the continuity equation. The continuity equation is Pigs = pada = constant on From Chapter 2, the equation of state for a real gas is52 ae : Oe RT re ‘The flow rate for a gas is usually desired at some stan- dard conditions of pressure and temperature, p,. and T,.. Using these conditions in Equation 3-3 and combining Equations 3-3 and 3-4: Pd = Pre Ger or Solving for q.. and expressing g with Equation 3-2 gives _ PTs. 2nrhk dp Ge ‘The vatiables in this equation are p and r. Separating the variables and integrating: [in GPT LZ [dr T,2nkh J, 7 ePaeT UZ ee nero) 2 THAT (Pe = Pw’) PaT hZIn(,/r,) In this derivation it was assumed that p. and Z were independent of pressure, They may be evaluated at res- cervoir temperature and average pressure in the drainage area, os Ge Pet Pw 7 Equation 3-5 is applicable for any consistent set of units. In so-called conventional oi field units the equation be- ‘comes 203 x 10™“kh (pF ~ p.?) Tein GL) where Msof /day, permeability in millidarcies, formation thickness in feet, pressure at r,, psia, wellbore pressure at r., psia, and ie = gas viscosity, cp. This equation incorporates the following values for stan- dard pressure and temperature: Pa = 14.7 psia, Gas Production Operations T,, = 60°F = 520°R. ‘These units will be used in all equations in the text un~ less otherwise stated. Example 3-1: Given the follawing data, determine the wellbore pres- Sure required for an inflow rate of 3900 Mscfd assum- ing steady-state flow. k= 1.5 md y= 4825 psia ISR = 252°F sof Solution: ‘The solution is iterative since + Be 7 Py is the unknown. As 4 first estimate, assume 2 109, First Trial Z= 1(9). where p and fs Tin (raft) Qe 2 703 10° kh (0.0279(712)7.419(8000) 2 708 % 10-*(¥.5)30) 2.499 x 107 ~ 1.758 x 107 2 = 2199 x 107 ~ 1.756 x 107 (1) 383 x 10° py = 1957 psia 4625 + 1957 2 sia and 712° gives 2 = 0.88 Second Tria! Pat = 2.199 x 107 ~ 1.786 x 107 (0.88) = 6.997 x 108 Be Da? = 2.199 x 107 ~ = 8291 psia, Evaluation of Z at 9291 Py = 2496 psia p= 3590 psia ‘AL 9500 psia and 712°, 2 = 0.89 Third Teal Pat = 2.199 x 10” - 1.756 x 107 (0.89) = 5.762 x 108 Py = 2400 psia P= 9512 psia 2 = 0.80 Since the value for Z is the same as for Trial 2, the solution has converged and the required well pressure is 2400 psia. The solution would have been more compli- cated if a constant value for p, had not been assumed. ‘The above treatment of steady-state flow assumes noGas Reservoir Performance turbulent flow in the formation and no formation of skin damage around the wellbore. The effects of turbulence and skin will be examined in a following section Although steady-state flow in a gas reservoir is seldom reached, the conditions around the wellbore can ap- proach steady-state, The steady-state equation including turbulence is 2 M27 RZ qe in /r, eee ie eee TE ih op HSL wonone edt (L a e or pi-ph=Aqet Bah arm where A= 14227 GZ In (re/re)/kL 3.161 X10" ByZT Praeeeeecrrsas ott In the definition of the B term it was assumed that (1/r) is negligible compared to (1/r,). ‘The first term on the right hand side is the pressure drop from laminar ot Darcy flow, while the second term gives the additional pressure drop due to curbulence. If the fluid properties are known and the permeability is known from some source such as a drawdown test, the turbulent effects can be calculated using the results of a test. This will be used later to distinguish between actual formation damage and turbulence. Values of the velocity coefficient 8 for various permeabilities and porosi be obtained from Figure 3-4" or calculated from Equa- tion 3:8. 33 x 10" = oo where & is in millidarcies. Pseudo-Steady-State Flow ‘An equation for psendo-steady-state flow can be de- rived that will show that 703 x 10-6 kh Be? = Px?) eT aZin ATIF rs) Although time does not appear explicitly in Equation 3-9, it should be remembered that both fp and p, will be declining at the same rate for a constant q once the pressure disturbance has reached the reservoir boundary. ‘The effects of skin damage and turbulence are some- times included in Equation 3-9 as follows: 703 x 107° kh (Dx? — p.) TAZ {ln (.472,/r,) + $+ D Qu) eo) ue G1 53 10 [Open paints — sandstones Solid points — carbonates 10 a Velocity Coaficient 8,17 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000] Permeability, Milidarci Fig. 3-4. Gas velocity coeticient. Permission to publish by the Socialy of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. Copyright 1979 SPE-AIME. where ‘5 = dimensionless skin factor, and D = turbulence coefficient. It is frequently necessary to solve Equation 3-10 for pressure or pressure drop for a known do. M22 T BZ Un (.472 re/ te) + SMe Pe Pi ih 4 Mar aZD de kh or PRO Pom A da + Bde where 14227 WZ [In (472 fr) +S) th 14227 BZD kh Unsteady-State Flow Tt was stated earlier that any well flows in the un- steady-state or transient regime until the pressure dis-54 turbance reaches a reservoir boundary or until interfer- ‘ence from other wells takes effect. Although the flow capacity of a well is desired for pseudo-steady-state ot stabilized conditions, much useful information can be obtained from transient tests, This information includes permeability, skin factor, turbulence coefficient, and av- erage reservoir pressure. The procedures are developed in the section on transient testing. The relationships among flow rate, pressure, and time will be presented in this section for various conditions of well performance and reservoir types. It will be seen that the steady-state and pseudo-steady-state equations can be obtained from so- lution of the diffusivity equation as special cases. ‘The diffusivity equation can be derived by combining an unsteady-state continuity equation with Darcy's Law and the gas equation of state. The equation is Fp Lap? _ bw ap? oe _ enor ra k ‘This equation can be solved for pressure as a function of flow rate and time, but the solutions and application of the solutions are simplified if the diffusivity equation is written in dimensionless form. This is accomplished by defining the following dimensionless les: ‘The following units are to be used in calculating val- ues for the dimensionless numbers in Table 3-1; on k= millidarcies 7 1 = hours Hop Ge = Med P= psia ‘The diffusivity equation in dimensionless variables becomes C= psi FAp , VdAPo_ BAP ous Brom 81» ay oan TABLE 04 Dimensionless Variables Dimensionioss ie Symbol Detnten POPSET t 28410 ig a 2 oacr ON AUN et ey 122 T4928 Flow te % ee) a Pressure are m2 aw Gas Production Operations Solutions to Equation 3-18 depend on the reservoir type and boundary conditions. The following solutions will be presented: 1, Constant rate at well, infinite-acting reservoir (tran- sient) 2. Constant rate at well, finite-acting (closed) reservoir (pseudo-steady-state) 3. Constant rate at well, constant pressure at outer boundary (steady-state) 4. Constant well pressure Case 1 ‘The most useful solution for transient flow is the so- called line source solution. The solution is 1 Apo = -0.5 E,(-— 1 — Values for the E, or exponential integral term as a function of i can be found in various mathematics hand- ‘books, but for all practical purposes the function may be represented by a logarithmic approximation. That is, Apo = 0.5 (in fp + 0.809) 229 Once a value of the dimensionless pressure drop App is obtained, the actual pressures may be calculated by using the definition of App from Table 3-1. $2: Using the following data and assuming the well is in the transient regime, calculate the pressure at the Wwoll after a flowing time of 1.5 days, n= 96 tt $2015 k= 20 md P= 2000 psa Fy = 0.4 th f= 2000 ft Solution: Caloulate ty for r= ry 284% 10"4Kt onOne 2.84 x 10° (209/36) (0.45 (6.0152)0.00081) (0.4) tow = 884 x 10% App = 0. (in (8.54 x 10") + 0.609) = 7.29, 1422 Te 2 khip? towGas Reservoir Performance __ 1422(680)(7000)(0.86)(0.0182) 20 (86)(2000)* 0 = 0.0259 pit =p? pP a0 Po (2000)? ~ (2000)? {0.0259)(7.23) pa? = 9250972 p, = 1803 sia Equation 3-20 applies for values of dimensionless time based on the well’s drainage radius, tp, less than 0.25, ‘That is, the well will still be infinite-acting if 2.64 x 10~* kt foe = < 0.25 ean oner! Another restriction on the validity of Equation 3-20 is that fp should be greater than 100. IF ip is less than 100, the F; solution (Equation 3-19) must be used. For most ical cases fp will be greater than 100. Equation 3-20 may also be used to calculate pressure at a location other than the well. That is, r need not always be r,. For the solution to be valid, the dimen- sionless time based on the radius of interest must be greater 55 than 100. That is, 2.64 x 107 kt f= EBX H S49, 22 ener heed Case 2 ‘The solution for wells that have reached pseudo-steady- state was presented by Van Everdingen and Hurst? in 1989, The solution can be applied to calculate the pres. ‘sure at any radius where the flow rate is known, which effectively limit its application to calculating well pre. sures, The solution is presented both in graphical form and equation form. Values of App versus toy are pre- sented in Figure 3-5 for various reservoir sizes, that is for vatious Values of rpy- The equation form of the s0- lution is 2tow <2 + In (0.472 M0) 25 Example 3- Using the data given in Example 3-2, tind the pressure at the well after the well has been flowing for 1800 hours. 4 » 7 oF ef SPRUE | ra ca 7 °° * Fig. 3-5. Values of 4po/welt for infinite reservoirs, for finite circular reservoirs with no flow at the extemal boundary, and for finite circular reservoirs with constant pressure at the extemal boundary. Alter Aziz and Flock (1963). Courtesy The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.56 ‘Solution: ‘Check for finite or pseudo-steady-state validity: 2.64 x 10°¢Kt enon _ 2.84 x 10 (20)(1800) 0.18(0.0752)(0.00061)(2000)* Since foe > 0.25, the well is finite acting. tow 1m low = = 4.271 x 107 (>100) 2000 ieee er Blow on = FEE (0472) 2(4.271 x 10") “e000 = 3417 + 7.766 Pow = 11.188 From Example 32, n0.472 (6000)) do = 0.0259 Gas Production Operations Pa? = P(A ~ 0 Pow) = (2000)? (1 ~ 0.0259 (11.183) 2.841 x10" py = 1686 psia Pe Case 3 If a well is producing from a reservoir with constant pressure at the outer boundary, that is, in the steady-state condition, the solution to the diffusivity equation is Apo = I roe. In this case the fixed pressure used in the definition ‘of App is p, rather than p,, where p, is the constant pres- sure at the outer boundary. Substituting the definitions of the dimensionless variables will resuit in Equation 3- 6 presented earlier for steady-state flow. ow Case 4 Tae constant pressure solution to the diffusivity equa- tion can be expressed as @ function of a dimensionless cumulative production, Qip. Quo is defined as G27 Oo” Ohne COE 629 1 Infinite outer rads 108 a 10 I I 10° 10 10 Dimensionless tie, 10" 1 10°} Fig. 3-6. Constant pressure functions. From Stier, Practical Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell ‘Books.Gas Reservoir Performance 57 10 10 10° 108 108 107 108 Dimensionless time, to Infiite outer radius 10 10 10" Fig. 9-7. Constant pressure functions. From Siider, Practical Reservoir Enginsering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell Books. where Gy is the cumulative gas produced in Mscf. Val- Uues of Op as a function of dimensionless time and radius have been presented both graphically and in table form. Figures 3-6 and 3-7 show values of Quy versus fp, Noncircular Reservoirs Al of the previous equations were based on a single well draining a circular reservoir, which is rarely ever the actual case. The pressure beitavior depends on the shape of the reservoir and the location of the well rel- ative to the boundaries. The time to reach stabilized or pseudo-steady-state flow also depends on these factors ‘The previous equations have been modified by Dietz’ as follows. If the well is still infinite-acting, A tox Ap = 0.5 [o» (#2) + a). 625 where A is the drainage area. For pseudo-steady-state, A App = 0. =) | + 809] + 2m tow \Pp = 0.5 [un (s ] 03] 2m toa. 27) Calculation of fo4 is based on the drainage area and is defined as 2.64 10“ ke ba CA © ‘The shape factor Cy, as well as the value of fp, required to reach pseudo-steady-state flow can be obtained from Table 3-2. ton G2) Example 3-3a: Rework Example 3-3 if the well is located in the center of a rectangular shaped (1 x 4) drainage area con- talning 220 acres, (9.58 x 10° ft), ‘Solution: ‘Check for pseudo-steady-stato: 2:64 x 10" (209/180) 078 (0.0182)(0.00061)(0.58 x 10%) ‘Since fon > 0.7, the well isin psoudo-steady-state flow, From Table 32, C, = 5.38 and 58 x 10° to = 05[ (mS ‘on =o7 ) + ox | + 2n(0.71)Gas Production Operations TABLE 32 PSEUDO-STEADY STATE SHAPE FACTORS FOA VARIOUS RESERVOIRS STABILIZED STABILIZED CONDITIONS CONDTIONS Ince Gy FOR he, FOR a> EF 28108 03 i sanceosesemons 345316 oo o} 1588610 ) 073 2078 Ow ot EE we aoe A 382 278 © 02 es} -i4s 0232 as ke/ 330 274 02 2-216 0115 = 30 = wd 309 219 Ot fee igae ioe fires Heteetteemctee ia 3188 7 oi 168 © 598 7 } -050 060710 7 Sanak iat (TTF ous ase or) GTN 2m ott 5 A 258 129 «(06 fA} 292 0098 09 Gloom eo a reson oF enon pacoucion meAcren () 322 25. oa Pormion to pub by he Sosy cf Povo Enginowre of AME. Copyigh 1968, SPE-AMEGas Reservoir Performance App = 8517 + 4461 = 12.978 # (1 — ao A po} = (2000)? (1 ~ 0.0259(12.978)) Pat = 2.655 x 10° py = 1680 psia Rock Permeability All of the equations for reservoir gas flow contain rock and fluid properties that must be known in order to be applied. The fluid properties were presented in Chapter 2. The only rock property involved in the equations is permeability. In many cases the flow equations will be used to determine permeability by measuring pressures and flow rates. This will be discussed in detail in a sub- sequent section, A brief review of the behavior of effective or relative permeability when more than one fluid is present in the rock is given. In most dry gas reservoirs only gas will be flowing even though connate water will be present. In this case the permeability to gas will remain fairly ‘constant over the life of the reservoir. If liquid conden- sation occurs in the reservoir the permeability to gas will decrease. Condensation of water vapor can also occur near the wellbore in some cases, which will also reduce the permeability to gas in this zone. The absolute permeability of a rock is defined as a ‘measure of the rock's ability to transmit a fluid when it is completely saturated with the flowing fluid. The ef- fective permeability to a particular fluid is a measure of the ability of the rock to transmit that fluid in the pres- ence of other fluids. The effective permeability to gas must be used in all of the flow equations presented ear- Permeability data are frequently presented as relative permeability. This is the ratio of effective to absolute ‘permeability and therefore varies from zero to one. Figure 3-8 presents typical oil and gas relative per- ‘meability as a function of liquid saturation, Similar data can be developed for any reservoir and fluid system by core analysis. This figure illustrates that the ability of the gas to flow is not seriously impaired until liquid sat- uration builds up to the point at which liquid begins to flow, about 35% in this case. It can also be seen that there is a gas saturation below which gas will not flow. This is the equilibrium or critical gas saturation and can- not be recovered. Welt Deliverability or Capacity The stabilized flow capacity or deliverability of a gas well is required for planning the operation of any gas ficld. The flow capacity must be determined for different back pressures or flowing bottom-hole pressures at any time in the life of the reservoir and the change of flow capacity with average reservoir pressure change must be ‘considered. The flow equations developed earlier are used 59 Connate water plus residusl ol saturation |, Equllorium gas saturation ‘010-2039 4080 60 7080 90 i0o] Liguld saturation = $5 + Sve. % Fig. 3-8, Gas-oil relative permeability data. From Sider, Practical Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell Books. in deliverability testing with some of the unknown pa- rameters being evaluated empirically from well tests. ‘The most common method for determining gas well deliverability is called multipoint testing, in which a well is produced at several different rates (usually four) and from measured flow rates and well pressures, an inflow performance equation can be evaluated. There are ba- sically two types of tests that can be conducted: the flow- after-flow test and the isochronal test. The isochronal test has been modified for very tight wells, but the mod- ification cannot be theoretically justified. The theory behind the tests is based on the pseudo- steady-state flow equation, Equation 3-11, Equation 3- 11 may be written as follows: Be ~ Def = Ade + Bou? 2252 (6( 2) on where ih 1227 AZ =. For wells not located in the center ofa circular drain- age area, the A term is defined as MRT AZ ‘i A= 10.5 In (2.246 A/C) + 5 where C, is obtained from Table 3-2.60 It is sometimes convenient to establish a relationship between the two parameters that indicate the degree of turbulence occurring in a gas reservoir, These parame- ters are the velocity coefficient and the Turbulence Coef- ficient D. Equation 3-7 can be written for pseudo-steady- Ar, sate lw (1 Ae ) Ve 4 S16L X10 y 278 rat This form of the equation includes the assumption that r, >> re. Equating the terms multiplying 4, in Equa- tions 3-11 and 3-29 yields i warez Pa — pa = | G2 G29 pu MRTAZ 3.161 x 107 127, th rd or 22x 10" D har, Expressing § in terms of permeability ftom Equation 3-8, the above expression becomes Gas Production Operations 518 x 109 D : ihe o20) Equation 3-11 can also be written in the form Gu = C (PR — of 3p For wells in which turbulence is important the value cof n approaches 0.5, while for wells in which turbulence is negligible, n approaches 1.0. In most cases the value of n obtained from well tests will fall between 0.5 and 10. If values for the flow coefficient C and exponent can be determined, the flow rate corresponding to any value of pay can be calculated and an inflow performance curve can be constructed. A parameter commonly used to characterize or compare gas wells is the flow rate that ‘would occur if pyy could be brought to zero. This is called the Absolute Open Flow Potential, or AOF, Examination of Equation 3-31 reveals that a plot of A(p?) = Be’ — Pu? Versus que on log-log scales should result ina straight line having a slope of I/n, Ata value of A(p*) equal to one, C = gy. This is made evident by taking the log of both sides of Equation 3-31 “og ae-+ n Jog (Be ~ pad Jog ¢ a : we Fig. 3-9. Conventional test—flow rate and pressure diagrams,Gas Reservoir Performance 10,00 Rotlects a zero sandiace pressuce ‘Stabiized delwerabtty Ralects the sandiace ‘pressure related toa —} particular back 4,000 Ss e Absolute open] ha W potential ler fo 100! 7 70 70] Gee 61 ‘Solution: Test Gm Mscld pus pala (Be? - pat) x 107 201 (in) 404 (a) 1 2730186 1.985 2 3e70 195, 2576 3 440183 ats2 4 5550180 4301 A plot of dae versus A(p*) Is shown in Figure 3-11 From the plot it is apparent that tests 1 and 4 fle on the straight line and can thus be used to determine n, n= 04 = 09 Jog 8 (D4) ~ log A(p7)e p= 10312780) ~ log(S550) log(t.985 * 10°) = log(4.301 x 10%) Using Test 4 to calculate C: om 5560 Msctd 0.92. Fig. 3-10. Deliverabilty test plot, Once 1 value of 1 has been determined from the plot, the value of C can be calculated by using data from one of the tests that falls on the line. That is, Ye oo setes (Be = BAY Flow-Afier-Flow Tests A flow-after-flow test starts from a shut-in condition. ‘The well is opened on a particular choke size and is not disturbed until the flow rate and py, stabilize. This may require a considerable amount of time, depending on the permeability of the reservoir. A well is usually consid- cred to be stabilized if the pressure does not change over a 15-minute interval. Once stabilization is reached, 9,. and pug are measured, the rate is changed, and the pro- cedure repeated for several flow rates, usually four. The behavior of flow rate and pressure with time is illustrated in Figure 3-9 for q,. increasing in sequence. The tests may also be run in the reverse sequence. A plot of typ- ical flow-after-flow data is shown in Figure 3-10. Example 3-4: ‘A tloweatterslow test was performed on a well located in low pressure reservoir in which the permeablity was high. Using the following test data, determine: 1. The values of n and Cor the deliverability equation. 2, The AOF. 3, The flow rate for py = 160 psia. ap? = 10", pala? ~ pall BB0t x 109 Therefore, the deliverability equation Is 1. Que = 2.52 (Dp? — pul)? 2. For Pye= 0, du = 252 (201% OF) = 43,579 Msc 3. For Pur = 180 psia, ee = 2.52 (2012 ~ 1604)" = 17,900 Msctd 252. sia A plot such as Figure 3-11 may be used directly to obtain te AOF and the well’s inflow performance with Bt = 404 x 10° psi 0 a ye, Mitsct Fig. 3-11. due versus A(p?) plot.62 ‘out calculating values for C and n. The AOF is deter- tmined by entering the ordinate at fy? and reading the AOF as 43.6 MMscfd. An inflow rate at any value of Pay can be obtained by entering the ordinate at the ap- propriate value of Ap* = fy’ ~ py? and reading the rate from the abscissa Isochronal Testing The isochronal, or equal time, testis based on the the- ‘ory that at equal flow times the same volume of reservoir is affected regardless of flow rate. The isochronal testing method, as introduced by Cullender? in 1955, has been modified to require even shorter testing times. The mod- ified isochronal test is described in the next section. The isochronal test was proposed as 2 means of de- termining deliverability in tight wells that require a long. period of time to reach stabilization. At least one sta- bilized point is still required to evaluate the coefficient C in Equation 3-30. The procedure for conducting an isochronal testis 1. Starting at a shut-in condition, open the well on a particular choke size for a period of time, Measure Ge and pur at specific time periods for this choke size. 2. Shut the well in until the pressure retums to Ba. 3. Open the well on a larger choke size and measure 4, and p.r at the same flowing time intervals as in Step 1. The total flow periods do not have to be of equal length but they usually are. 4, Shut the well in until the pressure returns to fe. 5. Repeat for several choke sizes, usually four. 6. On the last choke size, allow the well to flow until 4 stabilized condition is reached. This may require several hours or even days, but only one rate has to be flowed for the long period as compared to all the rates for flow-after-flow testing. ‘The behavior of the flow rate and pressure with time is illustrated in Figure 3-12 for increasing flow rates. ‘The reverse order could also be used. ‘The test is analyzed by plotting pp’ = pep versus du con log-log paper for each flow time at which the data were measured. This will produce one straight line for ‘each flow time, the slopes of which will be equal. The slope allows determination of the exponent n, while the flow coefficient C can be determined using the stabilized or extended flow rate. A plot of typical isochronal flow data is shown in Figure 3-13. Example 35: ‘An isochronal test was conclucted on a well located in a reservoir that had an average pressure of 1952 psia, The well was flowed on four choke siz, and the flow rate and flowing bottom-hole pressure were measured Gas Production Operations at 3 hr and 6 hr for each choke size. An extended test, was conducted for a period of 72 hr at a rate of 6.0 MMscld, at which time xr was measured at 1151 psi. Using the preceding data, find the following: 1. Stablizad deliverabilty equation 2. AOF. 3. Generate an inflow performance curv. ‘Solution: te oh eh Ge, Pe — af Be Dab Mscis Pw So py x10 26001793 a7 ~«7ei—~=~=«08 33001757 Tee 16571084 50001623 11715101830 6300 1505 1845 13202088 6000 Extended flow, 11512485 te 72h The slopes of both the 9 hr and 6 hr lines are ap~ arently equal (Fig. 3-14). Using the first and fast points on the 6 hr test to calcuiate n gives: n= — 34 log AP: = 10912600) ~ 1o9(6300) Tog(708) ~ tog(2068) Using the extended flow test to calculate C: | Ge 6000 (Br? — Pw)” (2485 x 10°) ‘Therelore, the deliverability equation for gu in Mscid is 0.83, 0.0295, ac = 0.0285) Dx? — Pui)? 2, To calculate AOF, set Py = 0: Gee = 0.0295 1952" ~ 0)°% = 8551 Mscid 3, In order to generate an inflow performance curve, Pick several values of py and calculate the corre- sponding da Paw Psi Faw Mscte 1852 ° 1600 768 1400 4695 1000 6842 00 7875 200 barr ° 551 ‘The inflow performance curve is plotted in Figure 3- 18.Gas Reservoir Performance 63 Extanded flow rate, dp 1234 ae Fig. 3-12, Isochronal test. 70 701 7 Pr? = 3810 x 10%, pata? 100} 11 rabies | olverabity { 3 | * 19) Ae T a, 2 1 € bc | t Transient | 2 livery | 10) x ' S 1 1 = 1 i! 1] oF « as weve 0. 1 fae Z ‘too! 1 10 a 1 10 100 Gee uc: Midst Fig. 3-19, Isochronal test deta. If the log-log plot is used to determine the absolute ‘open flow or the inflow performance, the line drawn through the stabilized test must be used. Modified Isochronal Testing ‘The modified isochronal testing procedure was intro- duced so that even less flowing time is required for the Fig, 9-14. Plot of Ap? versus qu-isochronal test well test, The procedure is very similar to the isochronal test, except that the shut-in period between each flow rate is not long enough to allow the well to return to the inital average reservoir pressure. In the modified method the well is shut-in for the same length of time that it was allowed to flow for each choke size, During this time the static well pressure will rebuild to some value, Por.Gas Production Operations 2309 a : - 1,600 1.400] 1.200 Pan bala + . Gag, MMS Fig. 3-15. Infiow performance curve, Example 3-6. which will be lower after each flow period. The flow ‘rate-pressure behavior with time is shown in Figure 3- 16. An extended flow period is still required to evaluate the flow coefficient, C. The analysis is the same as the regular isochronal test, with the exception that (PY = Baa? = Pg? is plotted versus q,, to obtain a value for n. The value of C is calculated using the initial static or average res- ervoir pressure and the extended test values for pay and 4a. Figure 3-17 illustrates a plot of typical modified iso- chronal test data. Jones, Blount and Glaze Method The method of plotting test data which was proposed bby Jones, et al.,” can be applied to gas well testing to determine real or present time inflow performance re- lationships. The analysis procedure allows determination of turbulence or non-Darcy effects on completion effi- ciency irrespective of skin effect and laminar flow. The procedure also evaluates the laminar flow coefficient A, and if kyh is known, an estimate of skin effect can be made, The data required are either two or more stabi- lized flow tests or two or more Isochronal flow tests. At least one stabilized flow testis required to obtain a sta- bilized value of the laminar coefficient A. No transient tests ate requited-to evaluate the completion efficiency if this method is applied. Jones, et al., also suggested methods to estimate the improvement in inflow perfor- mance which would result from reperforating a well to lengthen the completion interval and presented guide- lines to determine if the turbulent effects were excessive. Equation 3-11 can be divided through by q,. and written as A+ Ban, ow where A and B are the laminar and turbulent coefficients respectively and are defined in Equation 3-11. From Equation 3-11 it is apparent that a plot of (Px? — pu?)/ Gio VETSUS die ON cartesian coordinates will yield a Tine that has a slope of B and an intercept of A = A(p/qe 35 die approaches 2er0. These plots apply to both linear and radial flow, but the definitions of A and B would ‘depend on the type of flow. Equation 3-11 can be solved for flow rate to yield A+ IA? + 4B - pipI?s ox 2B eeGas Reservoir Performance OS u Extonded tow rato 45 Stabilized deliverablty curve (PA Pal "Tansiont doiverabily ote = veal Fig. 3-17, Mocitied isochronal test In order to have some qualitative measure of the im- portance of the turbulent contribution to the total draw- down, Jones, et al., suggested comparison of the value of A calculated at the AOF of the well (A'), to the sta- bilized value of A. The value of A’ can be calculated from A’ = A + B(AOF) where A+ (A? + 4B pa? AOF = ons Jones, et al., suggested that if the ratio of 4’ to A was seater than 2 or 3, then itis likely that some restriction in the completion exists. They also suggested that the formation thickness A used in the definition of B could be replaced by the length of the completed zone h,, since ‘most of the turbulent pressure drop occurs very near the wellbore. The effect of changing completion zone length on B and therefore on inflow performance can be esti- mated from where B, = turbulence multiplier after recompletion, B, = turbulence multiplier before completion, ‘hy: = new completion length, and ‘iy, = old completion length.66 It will be shown in a subsequent section that the im- provement in the B term can also be estimated from By = By (N/N: ‘where 1 is the total number of effective perforations. Example 3-58: ‘A four-point test was conducted on a gas well that had a perforated zone of 20 ft. Static reservoir prassure is £5250 psia. Using the Jones, ot al., method, determine: 1. Aand B 2 AOF 3. Ratio of A'/A 4. Now AQF if the perforated interval is increased to 30 ft, Test Data Tost No Ge, Msoid Bs, sla 1 ‘9800 5130 2 000 5190 3 8200 5208 4 3200 Ea Solution: (Be ~ Date, Test No, Gi scl iat Meola 7 ‘3300 1389 2 6000 vo44 3 8200 5, 4 3200 734 1. From a plot of this data, Fig. 97a, itis found that A= 48 psia? /Mscfd B= 8.24 x 10°? psia®/Msctd® 2. AO w 8 + M8" + 19.24 x 10°*)52507 200.24 x 10") Fig. 3-17a. Jones et al, Method. Gas Production Operations AOF = 52,080 Msctd 3, A’ = 48 + 9.24 x 10°%(52080) = 529 AJA = 529/48 = 11 4, Be = By Mps/Pra)® By = 9.24 x 10°920/30)" = 4.1 x 10°? 48 + [487 + 4(4.1 x 10°°)(5250)"7°> 24.1 10%) AOF, = 76,340 Mscid ‘The value of A’ calculated in the previous example indicates a large degree of turbulence. The effect of in- creasing the perforated interval on the AOF is substan- tial, Further implications of the effects of well comple- tion efficiency will be discussed in the section on Well Completion Effects. AOF, = Laminar Inertia Turbulence (LIT) Analysis All of the previously described methods for predicting a8 well deliverability or inflow performance require at least one test conducted for a period long enough to reach stabilization. Equation 3-21 can be used to calculate the approximate time to stabilization as follows: 950bRCr? _ 3B06iCA k k This can be a very long period of time in low perme- ability reservoirs, especially if a well is draining a large area Several methods have been proposed for obtaining a deliverability equation without a stabilized test.*”* Es- sentially the only difference in these methods is the method used to obtain the coefficients A and B in Equation 3- 11. A method presented by Brar and Aziz! will be de- sctibed in this section ‘The pseudo-steady-state equation for gas flow is MCP) = i? ~ Pa? = Age + Bay? For unsteady-state flow, A varies with time and will be written as A,, The equations can be written in terms of common logs rather than natural logs. For pseudo-steady- Is oy ow state AP) oS Cp?) = 2m 1 *) + la. (7) =an| oo 2) « Sh + 0.869 mDg,? oH where 163772 m= a9 th For transient flow,Gas Reservoir Performance ar) = nfie(s24-3) -3.23+ se35]en + 0,869mD 4,2 636 Comparing Equations 3-34 and 3-36 to Equation 3-11 implies that seal (=) Fe AT) * 308, kt [oa(ts) 229+ 0308] om B= om .869mD 639) ‘The object of the analysis is to be able to determine the values of A and B for stabilized flow, then Equation 3-11 can be used to calculate inflow performance. The skin factor 5S, the turbulence coefficient D, and the per- meability & can also be determined Equation 3-36 may be written as ae) Ge where A, and B are defined in Equations 3-38 and 3-39 respectively. The value of A, will increase with time until stabilized flow is reached. A plot of A(p*)/4y YErSUS Gx ‘on cartesian coordinates will result in a series of straight, parallel lines having slopes equal to B and intercepts A, ‘equal to A(p*}/q,. for each flow time. The slopes and intercepts can also be determined using least squares analysis. Equation 3-38 can be expressed as 1+ Bae k rm] tog 4 ~ 3.23 + 8695] + mlogt [ ° Bate | . Therefore a plot of A, versus 1 on the semi-log scales will result in a straight line having a slope equal to m and an intercept at 1 = 1 hr (log 1 = 0) equal to An. ‘The procedure for analyzing an Isochronal test ist 1. Determine A, and B from transient tests for several flow times using plots of Equation 3-36 or least squares. 2. Plot A, versus 1 on semni-log scales to determine m and Ay. Using the value of m, calculate k from Equation 3- 35. 4, Solve Equation 3-38 for S using the values of m, k, and An. 5, Calculate a stabilized value for A using Equation 3- 37. 6. Using the value of B from Step 1, calculate D using Equation 3-39. 3, 67 7. Calculate the stabilized well performance from Equa- tion 3-11 using the stabilized values for A and B. ‘The method of least squares may be used to determine A, and B from NV transient flow tests. a Eq? - EA(p)Eq See ese 0-40) NEA(p*) ~ 5 ss, 8- ae oan Values for 4, and B will be obtained for each time at which p., was measured, The value of B should be con- stant, and Brar and Aziz suggest using the value of B ‘obtained from the longest flow test as the representative value. Values for A, and B can also be obtained by plotting the data as illustrated in Figure 3-17a. In this case a dif- ferent line would be obtained for each time at which pressures were measured, resulting in a value of A, which ‘will increase with increasing time Example 3-6: ‘A modtisd isochronal test was conducted using four different flow rates, and the flowing bottom-hole pres- sure was measured at periods of 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours. The test data are tabulated below. nett Pp = 922.6 psia Fy = 0.23 ft = 0.0416 cp $= 023 Z= 0972 T = 582°R 1.00109 psia”* 1, = 2000 ft Ba os [| e9 | 909 | 9176 Pot t [a= 04746] q = 00707] a - 1.2716] q- 16580 to] 9001 | eso | 79as | a76a 2o| ari | ass9 | roo | seaz 40} os22 | e330 | 7549 | 6120 30) sor | eo | 7328 | 6052 so] seer | e251} 7273 | 6209 Use the test data to determine k, S, D, and the sta- bilzed deliverablity equation Solution: ‘Tabio 3-3 may bo constructed to conveniently caloulate the value for A, and 8. To further illustrate the proce dure, some of the entries for t = 2 hr are calculated.68 Gas Production Operations TABLE 39 t= 10 =20 a 60 ow w oe ae Pa me} a | ¢ jae | a | at |G | oe | | oe | 1 | oaras | nase |” 4101 | 054i0 | 4040 | o7.7e7 | sa7 | vie205 | saat | taaice | ezar | vaxenr 2 | carer | 07739 | 105.13 | 119807 | 120-75 | 137.280 | s50.01 | 177-45 | 18448 | t9sora | re0tt | r92236 3 | 12716 | 18170 | 20797 | 163.550 | asa47 | sse.a32 | 27634 | 217.17 | gosze | 243.176 | atras | oao-aas 4 | sasse | 27519 | seas | 2as.c4s | soa.ae | axazes | 42920 | a50.105 | asesi | aoagae | auger | 299.06] = | 42048 |" sa000 [72072 | oo11a | sea10 | 677ses | 017.05 | root | e712 | Bien | oaeo | eazie7 Ae Bit A= 36n Am 6518 A= 7496 B= 12157 B= 12630 8 = 11009 8 = 121.09 For gu = 0.4746 MMscfa, From Equation 3-35, M(D*) = Past ~ Bui? = (922.6)° ~ (897.1)? 16377%2 — 1637(528)(0.0116)(0.972) = 46,402 psia® mh 68.7012) 7) 48402 2 2 k= 138 md AE 08 97.767 PA 97 767 Meso q 04746 MMactd Misofa Solving Equation 3-38 for S, using the value of A, at t (677-589)(5.968) ~ (824.1)(4.2848) ane waa = a o- [St oo 2 es00](23) Mosia® m onCr,? 869, = Sect = f25 ( 13.8(1) $624.1) = (677.509)(4.2048) |, 49 Mosiat® 587 .28(0.0116)(0.00108)(0.237, ase 7 30 ana (5.568) ~ (4.2848) a +225]«1381 ‘The values calculated for A, are plotted versus 1 on 43 semilog paper in Figure 3-18. The slope of the fine is ‘m = 58.7 Mpsia® /MMscld/cycle obtained by drawing a straight ling through the last three points. The inter- opt at t= 1 hr can be read from the graph as 29.5 Mosia? /MMscid. Slope m = 58,7 MosiatiMsct ole Ay Mpsiatadocta 10 time, hrs, Fig. 3-18. A, versus log t, Example 3-6, To obtain the turbulence coefficient, solve Equation 3:99 for D: 8 119.07 E807 oo os amscts! ‘Ta6sm ~ dasaea.7) ~ °?°MMSote Equation 3-34 may now be used to calculate A: 200 22 Az a¢s.n|g(Z2200) 2 ps = 209 PS A= 200 acid Mpsia® Misctd® psia® | Mscta# j The stabilized fow equation for determining inflow per- formance is then Py? — Dy? = 208que + 0.118tq.¢ for in psia and da; in Mecfd. Equation 3-29 may be solved for qu, to obtain TAF (AE + 48(B58 — Daf PF ied 28 ‘The value chosen for B is 119.07 ote 2)Gas Reservoir Performance For A = 209 and B = 0.1191 209 + (49681 ~ 0.4764( 42 — pyZ))® oer eeeeereeozana verre ‘The AOF for this well can be calculated using pr = 0 as 09 + (49681 + 0.4764(922.6)7)°° 02382 AOF = 1936 Msctd AOF = Factors Affecting Inflow Performance Once a well has been tested and the deliverability or inflow performance equation established, itis sometimes desirable to be able to predict how changes in certain parameters will affect the inflow performance. These ‘changes may be the result of reservoir depletion or time, ‘or they may result from well workovers. The effects of various changes can be estimated by reference to Equations 3-31 and 3-10. Ge = CBR ~ Pop ean Comparing this with Equation 3-10, it can be seen that the effects of turbulence, Dg are included in the ex- ponent n, and the coefficient C contains several param- ters subject to change. 09 703 «10° kh ra miles ) + s| ‘The possible causes of changes in each parameter are discussed and modifications of C are suggested. —The only factor that has an appreciable effect on per- ‘meability t0 gas, k is liquid saturation in the reservoir. As pressure declines from depletion, the remaining gas expands to keep 5, constant, unless retrograde conden- sation occurs or water influx is present. For dry gas res- evoirs, the change in & with time ean be considered neg- ligible. —ln most cases the value of formation thickness, ft can bbe considered constant. A possible exception is if the completion interval is changed by perforating a longer section, It is likely that the well would be re-tested at this time. —Reservoir temperature, T will remain constant, except for possible small changes around the wellbore. Gas Viscosity and Compressibility Factor, f and Z are the parameters that are subject to the greatest change as pe changes. The best mettiod to handle these changes will be discussed in a later section on pseudo-pressure o-4y 2206) 2.000] + a00} 1,600} Fig, 3-19, Inflow performance curve, Example 8-7.70 analysis. An approximation of the cffect of changes in Br on C can be made by modifying C as follows: C02), C, (be), —The drainage radius, r, depends on the well spacing ‘and can be considered constant once stabilized flow is reached. oan —The wellbore radius, r, can be considered to remain constant, It is possible that the effective wellbore radius can be changed by stimulation, but this can be accounted for in the skin factor. —The skin factor, S can be changed by fracturing or idizing a well. The well should be retested at this time to re-evaluate both C and rn Example 3-7: Generate future inflow performance curves for the well in Example 3-5 at values of average reservorr pressure f 1600 psia and 1000 psia. The following additional data are known: Y= 0.70 Reservoir temperature = 200°F Solution: In order to correct for the changes in viscosity and ‘compressibility factor, these will be calculated based on fi bn # Zz wz c 3852 ——«O01Ss—=S=CKBS~S«C TCS 1500-00148 = 0.88 a.0130-.0904 1000 01s4 st arze =e For Pn = 1500 psia, dee = 0.0804(1 500° — pyf)>e For 1000 psia, due = 0.0824(1000° — pyf)?? Ge, Macie Pri Pla By = 1500 Ba = 1600 1500 0 = 1200 2997 - 1000 3494 0 600 ‘4924 2196 300 580 2861 ° 5601 3004 The data are plotted in Figure 3-19. In many cases it will be impossible or impractical to obtain multi-rate tests at the same value of fi. That is, flow rates and either flowing wellhead or bottomhole ‘pressures may be obtained over a long time span during the producing life of the well. These periodic tests are frequently required by regulatory agencies. If it is as- Gas Production Operations sumed that neither C nor n has changed during the time span, then Equation 3-31 will apply for all values of fg and Puy: That is, a plot of the data as illustrated in Figure 3-10 should result in a straight line even though different values of Bp were used to calculate A(p'). A value for ‘n-can be obtained from the slope and a value for C can be calculated using one of the test points which falls on the line. The resulting equation would then be valid as Jong as both C and n remain constant. A similar ap- proach could be used for the Jones, Blount and Glaze method if it is assumed that both A’and B in Equation 3-11 remain constant ‘Transient Testing Methods have been presented for determining the sta- bilized deliverability or inflow performance of a gas well for use in planning equipment purchases and other field development procedures, ‘Much useful reservoir information can be obtained from various types of unsteady-state or transient gas well tests. Information that can be obtained from transient tests in- cludes permeability &, skin factor S, turbulence coetfi- cient D, and average reservoir pressure, fy. If a test is continued into the pseudo-steady-state flow regime, an estimate of reservoir size can be made. This is usually called a reservoir limit test. ‘The most common transient tests are drawdown tests and buildup tests. Essentially the same information can be obtained from each, The choice of which type of test to run depends on well and field conditions. Any test that involves a change in flow rate is ana- lyzed based on the principle of superposition, This prin- ciple, as it applies to well testing, is briefly described. Principle of Superposition ‘The superposition principle in effect states that if a pressure disturbance is created in a reservoir, the dis- turbance continues to travel through the reservoir even though the source of the disturbance may change or cease. ‘This means that in order to determine the pressure at a location as a function of time, all of the pressure dis- turbance effects must be added. Superposition in Time. When the flow rate is changed in a well, the pressure disturbance caused by the pre- vious flow rate continues to affect the reservoir. AS an analogy, when the source of a noise is stopped, the sound waves already emitted do not stop. Consider the case in which a well is produced at some rate , for a time f,. The rate is then changed to q, and flow is continued, if the pressure is desired at some time f, the effects of both rates must be considered. The flow rate and pressure be- havior are iftustrated in Figure 3-20.Gas Reservoir Performance a Prossure drop caused by production a rate a, increas Prt ‘Addltonal pressure crop caused by sing production rate an amount (az ~ a) ‘Additional pressure drop caused by inereasing production rato an amount (qs ~ Ge) Fig. 3.20. Superposition. Courtesy the Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary. Adding the effect of the two rates flowing for their respective times gives Pi Pa = Pi4o.SPo: + Pidor4Por 48) where ware. 40 Tip? 046) \az2Tap. oa = or (GMs Ban wp? App, is based on total flowing time, t, + t, Apor is based on flowing time ¢ — ft, Superposition in Space. When more than one well is producing in a reservoir, the effects of both pressure dis- turbances must be added to calculate the total pressure effect at any point in the reservoir. This of couirse re- uites evaluation of pressure at points other than the well. ‘This is the basis for interference testing involving two ‘or more wells. Superposition in time and space can be applied simultaneously. Pressure Drawdown Testing Several important reservoir parameters can be deter- mined by flowing a well ata constant rate and measuring flowing weilbore pressure as a function of time. This is called drawdown testing and it can utilize information ‘obtained in both the transient and pseudo-steady-state flow regimes. If the flow extends to pseudo-steady-state, the test is referred to as a Reservoir Limit Test and can be used to estimate the reservoir pore volume. Both sin- gle rate and two rate tests are utilized, depending on the information required. Some of the reservoir parameters which may be obtained from drawdown testing are flow ‘capacity kk, skin factor S, and turbulence coefficient D. ‘A drawdown test begins from a shut-in condition and ‘ constant flow rate is maintained while pressure is mea- sured constantly. The early time pressure data will be affected by wellbore storage and is usually used only to determine the beginning of the transient flow period. This can be identified as the beginning of the straight line segment of the plot of (Ap?) versus time. ‘The equation for transient flow, Equation 3-20, may be written including formation damage and turbulence