AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS INSTITOTED 1852 TRANSACTIONS ‘This Society Is not responsible for aay atatement made or opinion expressed 9 i publieations Paper No. 1727 ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS* By H. M. Westencaanbyt M. Am, Soo. C. E. Wirt Disovssion ay Masses. S. Trvosienxo, Aurnen D. Fuinx, Jacos Feu, asp H, M. Wesreraaanp. Svworsts ‘The story of the advance of structural analysis is, in the main, an account of the work done by individual men. While the science of structural analysis is international, at the same time its national traditions are significant. In the French tradition the names of Coulomb, Navier, and Seint-Venant stand out; in the English tradition the name of Rankine; in the German, the names of Mohr, Miller-Breslau, and Boppl; ond there is a Russian tradition which may be traced back to the influence of Euler. ‘The account which follows begins, somewhat arbitrarily, but (as will be fen) not entirely without justification, with the work of Coulomb. on- sideration is given, however, to his predecessors. An attempt is made to sketch the development from this early period to the present. The ancient bridges, the vaults, arches, and flying buttresses of the great ‘modieval cathedrals, and the riggings of sailing vessels at the height of their development, bear witness of structural insight on the part of the builders; but the art of structural analysis, except for small beginnings, is only about 150 years old. Structural analysis is,based on the physieal properties of materials; its method is mathematical; ite purpose is design, It came into existence by a meeting of physies, mathematios, and engineering, 1026. "Pret, of Tueoretical aud Applied Mochanies, Univ, of Hilaols, Urbana, ICovtomm, 1776 Jn 1776, the Paris Academy of Sciences published a paper by Charles Augustin Coulomb, entitled, “Essai sur une aprlication des régles de Maximis et Minimis & quelques Problémes de Statigue, relatife & PArchitecture”.* Coulomb, who lived from 1736 to 1806, was a military engineer. He possosced mathematical insight and attained distinetion as a physicist in the fields of mechanics, electricity, and mnagnetiem, Discussing beams with reetangular ‘cross-section, in the paper of 1776, he assumed the fibers to offer resistance proportional to their extension or shortening; he considered the halancing of the internal forces acting upon a eross-seetion; and he determined, by accurate reasoning, the position of te neutral axis and the moinont of ‘the internal forces. He remarked that at rupture, in some cases, the neutral axis may bo at a different position. In the same paper, he eonsidered the deformation by shear in connection with the failure of a sotid; and he presented his theory of earth pressure on a retaining wall, according to which a wedge of earth slides when the friction and echesion in a plane scetion become insuffefent, Saint-Venant remarked eighty years later} that in this paper “one finds presented almost all the bases of tho theory of stability of atructures.” If one considers the combined circumstances of Coulomb's capacity for exact science and his early relation to practieal affairs of cngincering, it is not strange that he should be the author of so significant a document, Te is perhaps stretching a point to state thet, because of this paper, Coulomb is the “Father” of structural analysis. Ho certainly is one of the “Fathers”. Couroms’s Paeoscessons Jt would be unreasonable, however, not to consider Coulomb's predecessors. Galileo, in @ dialogue published in 1638, inquirod into the problem of the strength of a cantilever. “He considered the beam to be perfectly rigid except for the turning about a horizontal axis in the cection of rupture, In epite of certain incorrect assumptions he obtained a corrcet design of a eantilever of uniform strength for the cnee of a rectangular cross-section. Hooke, in 1678, announced his famous law that deformations are proportional to the Toads, Mariotte at about the same time arrived at the same law, and applied it to the fibers of a beam. ‘Tests (made by him in 1680) lod hitn to the observation that some of the fibers of a beam are stretched and others shortened, He placed arbitrarily the boundary between extension and shortening at the middle of the beam. Varignon, to whom credit belongs for early developments in staties§ (for example, the polygon of equilibrium of a string), diseusced the investigations of Galileo and Mariotte.|| Varignon computed ‘@ moment 1p the volume tor. of “Mémoires de Mathématigue et de Physique, Préeentéa a "racaaémie Hoyale des Seteacuy, ur divers Sarthe: tt fue Gane ots Soasegeeees:reaamtee 3 | Yournat de Aathénatiques Pures ct Applies, 2 Serie ¥. 1, 2856, p. BO A ory complete account of the ghlaatiele and fereneta ‘uf watoriaie mar be found ‘i She greek Se, ESE B.A History of the Theory of Hiasivity ahd-ot the Bresess of Wise ee, ee ale Frees i Aghorter account is given by AB. TE dane’ ae Richer ee $igeion tig "Matbomateal Theory of Plastic.” Third Waltion, Yaa" See, Mee ae ‘“Tockisehe Blastisitaaleare,” W818. $p O4L-E8S §P. Varignon, “Nouvelle méennate ou statiave:” 2 yah, Part, 1725: [fu a paper published in the Aemoires of the Pare Acalemy, tr 170222s ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS of resistance of a cantilever by assuming the tensile force of the fibers to be proportional to the distance from an axis, but, unfortunately, in spite of Mariotte’s observation of shortened fibers, he placed this axis at the bottom of the oross-section. James Bernouilli, the earliest member of the distinguished Bernouilli family to attain fame as a mathematician, at the end of the Seventeenth and the beginning of the Bightemth Centuries introduced the problem of determining the shape of the elastic curve. After him is named the assump- tion that a plane cross-section of a beam remains plane after bending. He arrived at the peculiar, inadmissible conclusion that the position of the neutral axis is indifferent. His nephew, Daniel Bernouilli, about 1735, obtained a differential equation for transverse vibrations of a bar. Leonhard Euler was born in 1707 in Basel, Switzerland, the city of the Bernouillis. In 1727 he was called to the St. Petersburg Academy by Catherine I, and in 1741 to the Berlin Academy by Frederick the Great. Te returned to St. Petersburg in 1766 by invitation of Catherine TT, and died in 1783. He was endowed with a magnificent intuition, and was one of the great mathematicians of all times, The Bernouillis influenced him to ‘attack the question of the elastic curve. In order to understand his method, it should be noted that the science of physics in the Eighteenth Century was still struggling to emancipate itself from metaphysics, In a manner charac- teristic of this state of development, he argued* from the premise of the perfection of the universe to a principle of least action. In this way he established @ principle of minimum for the flexure of beams, and he gave solutions for a number of cases. In a later paper, of 1757, entitled “Sur la force de colonnes”,t he derived the celebrated formula which is named after him, and which expresses the critical load at which a slender column buckles. Tn this early work on the elastic curve of beams and columns the quantity which is now represented by the product of the modulus of elasticity and tho moment of inertia was given a8 a single “moment of stiffness”, charae- teristic of the beam or coluun, Euler suggested determining experimentally this moment of stiffness (“moment du ressort” or “moment de roideur”) by: supporting the beam or column as a cantilever and measuring the deflection at the end, due to a transverse force at that point, a case in which the deflection could be obtained by a simple formula. In addition to his work on the static elastic curves, Euler, during his Jater years, investigated successfully the transverse vibrations of beams, and, attempt to analyze the vibrations of bells, he began the work on the imensional problems of plates and shells. Process ap Retarses, 1776-1820 Consider again the paper by Coulomb, published in 1776. In spite of the ‘unquestioned importance of the work of his predecessors, especially that of the great mathematician, Euler, Coulomb's paper stands out as a most important original document produced by an engineer, that deals with struc” “Hhetiolus taveniegdl W744, Addicemontum 1: “De curvia elasticla, Published im the Mémoires dy YAeagemie de Berlin, v.13, 1150.ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 229 tural analysis for the sake of the structure. ‘This paper does contain, in addi- tion to other important material, the fret adequate analysis of the fiber stress in a beam. At must not be thought, however, that Coulomb's analysis of the beam at once settled this issue in the minds of all others who were concerned with it Girard published, in 1708, a treatise on the resistance of colids® A German translation was published in 1803, ‘This book is the first treatise on mechan. ics of materials. It has a historical introduction, and contains extensive accounts of the earlier works from Galileo to Kuler and Lagrange. It reports {ests performed on wooden beams by the author, and it is signifleant on aceount of the importanco attached to experiments. Tests are in, and metaphysics is out, Girard, however, sccepted James Bernouillis incorrect conclusion that the position of the neutral axis is indifferent.» Je ncanned Dr. Thomas Young, famous as a physicist and a philologis, inade ‘two lasting eoutzibutions to the subject of elasticty.} One ie the (Coulomb had considered it as a permanent set in connection with failure), the other is the introduction of the modulus of clasticly,, which iv oft named after him. “Young, still, was uncertain and obscure ss to the position of the neutral axis, yThe textbooks from the beginning of tho Nineteenth Centurg, in dealing Guth the subject of the strongth of beams, are not very satisfactory, Oliathee Gragory, in his “Treatise of Mechanies, Theoretical, Practica, sed Deserip- tise”, London, 1806 (and in the later edition, 1815), accepted Galilevs results, because they are simple, and ignored the others.” Todbunter ant Pearson} yoler to this book as evidence of “the dopth to which English mechani knowledge had sunk at the commencement of the nineteenth century.” The boek by John Banks, “On the Power of Machines” (1803), contains yractical {ries and exvatie theory for the design of beams. Eytelwein,§ who posceca) fetter mathematical undorstanding than his two contemporaries jest meg tioned, introduced the subject of beams well, but fell into the old error of Placing the neutral axis in the concave surface of the beam, In France, Duleau in his “Essai théorique et experimental sur la rs. lanco du fer forg@” (Paris, 1820), quoted Coulomb on the subject of the noutral axis, but misunderstood him. Tn England, Tredgold in hie two Standard textbooks, “The Elementary Principles of Carpentry” (London, 1820), and “A Prootical Essay on the Strength of Cast Iron” (London, 1829), dic layed confusion in matters of theory. Hodgkinson, an able experingnts contributed toward correcting the current exrors about the neutral axis SPoecially through two yapers publishod in 1824 and 1831 by the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Barlow was erratie on the subject tg the edition of 1857 of his “Treatise on the Strength of Timber and Cust Trew ate OHREG, “Tralé aualptique de la rinance des suldet, vt dca, wilder Gaeaie cts ance gttUe, Qu, etnt Mino suite a" nouvel eapovenecstass tlie, Sigale Uelte specinave’ des boie dé ehene st ds sapia, Rive GaSe 4 "Course of Lectures on Natural Phitosupiy and the ater LA MUstory of the ‘Theory of Elasticity and of the esl Arta" Lons., 1807 of Materia.” 1886-65, 4S Mandbuch der Stick feter KOrper” Berio, 1808.230 ADVANCE TN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Malleable Tron and Other Materials” (page 6), he finally adopted Coulomb’ Principle for determining the neutral axis, He credited this principle to Hodgkinson. ‘Tue Fouxnisn ov sue Tueory oF Eiasticery, 1820-1840 ‘The picture of advance in structural analysis again becomes cheerful when ‘one turns the attention toward France during the decade from 1820 to 1880. Three names stand out: Navier (1785-1836), Cauchy (1780-1857), and Poisson (1781-1940), ‘These three men are considered to be the fomders of the theory of elasticity. Nuvier, who becsme Professor of Mathematical Analysis and Mechanies at the feole Polytechnique in Paris, combined in mathematies with competence in practical affairs of engineering. Cauehy entered the cole Polytechnique in 1805 and the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées in 1807, and began a carcer a8 en enginoer. Tn 1813, however, the two great mathematicians, Lagrange and Laplace, influenced him to renounce engineering for mathematics. Poisson, like Navier, was a Professor at the Reole Polytechnique. He was an ingenious and successful mathema- tician. His interests were directed toward pure science rather than toward its applications. ‘It was in 1821 that Navier submitted to the Paris Academy the investiga- tion by which he originated the theory of elasticity of three-dimensional solids. By considering forces acting between the molecules according to a definite law of attraction and repulsion he established, for the first time, a set of equations for the equilibrium and the vibrations of the interior parts of a solid. At shout the same time intorest in the questions of waves of light aroused Cauchy to a study of the mechanics of an elastic medium. He suc- ceeded, before the end of 1822, in setting up the fundamental relations of elasticity (in the form now current), in terms of the principal directions of stresses and strains, the six components of stresses and strains, respectively, and in torms of difforential oquations for the three components of displace: ment. Cauchy, later, added studies of the elasticity of crystals, which, on account of different properties in different directions, may have as many as twenty-one independent elastic constants (that is, constants of the nature of Young’s modulus or Poisson's ratio). Poisson’s most important con- ‘ibution was presented to the Paris Academy in 1828*, This paper, besides fundamental theory, contains numerous specific applications. At should be remarked that the theory of elasticity is primarily physics, aimed at the understanding of matter. The development of the fundamental processes of theory, through the past one hundred years, has been the joint work of physicists, mathematicians, and engineers, Applications to the molecular theory and the theory of sound have presented themselves. At the same time, applications to structural analysis have been a cause of continual contact with engineering, ‘These practical applications to engineering have come into the foreground during more ree “Published ia the Amoi, WB, 2829, poADVANOD IN srRVETURAT, ANALYSIS 231 Mroniaxics or Exomeznisa Acconotsa 10 Navien Navies, scintist, engineer, and professor, became the author of the first Rese erect mechanics of engineering. "The fist elitien oe his atéum des lesons donnces a Piicole des Ponte et Cheaeen sur Vapplication de la Mécaniquo a Pétablissement dee constractions wy des machines", was Bublished im 1820, and tho eccond, revised edition iv 1899, The book appeared also in an Tealion translation. Te fe evidence of the sveat influence of this book, and of the high esteem int which it was held, that Barré de Saint- Vonnnt, on of the. great classics in the theany of clasticity, undertook, a Ranier of years after the death of Navier, the propuation ota third, anno- {tated edition, which appeared in final forma im loth Navier, in the preface to the first ei arinently practical, draws extensively on the experimental nertial available ar the time, “Of importance is the treatment, new heeeuse of te completeness, Sha negitbitet of beams. Stress are determined for: any ‘eross-section, and {he defleetions are found by the methed af double integration thee treatment ‘8 bused on Bernouill's assumption, ofton named “Nevieve hypothesis,” that the plane cross-section remains plane after bending Tt ware accomplish. spre. in the theory of elasticity of a later day, especially sant ind Pesrsou, to show that the errors introduced by this approxi, se teat Hrbtion aro only small for heams of ordinary dimensions. "The seu ent of beams has become justly traditional. Although nade to it, this treatment holds its place in struc. tural analysis in engineering of the present day. Navier dealt competentiy in his “Mécanique” with subjocta such ax earth Pressures, stability of masonry arches, and timber structures, {le treated particular cases of continuous beams, and he ‘eave an analysis Gite delletions of curved beams with « not too tharp oman He applied Reet jtmtlznls to come cases of iwo-kinged hale ante In 1825, Navier note on the staties of bodies supported at more than thrve points. He made thorein the observation there statically indeter- vonditiong ft becomes statically determinate if one takes into. acwen antiions of elasticity. Except for some eusen of staticalle indeterminate beams, which ad been analyzed before, this note, in erasers with the se age, Suse treated in the book, represents, as far avis known, the beginning of the analysis of elastic, statically indeterminate strncrarce The same problems ean be solved more easily by modern methods, but Ne rere solutions are legitimate, Novier applied the essumption of the plane croseseetion remaining plane the artion. ‘This is proper in the case of a eiteular scation, tee improper in the ease of non-eizeular sections. It was Saint-Venane eho accomplished the nanieilg DIG elton, Dales tne addoay we tw toa coo ine of the Hie of Novler aut general latesieal modes SiNSleg "SU dex auestionr de sttiaye denn bas jn nonibre da poiala dap avnsaan ofa sia 3825, ps8 cles on constdero un corps supporte fer den Setewoes Ala Soble® Pine232, ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS dificult tack of producing an exact theory of torsion for non-circular sections, and ho inserted this theory in the third edition of the “Meaniquo”. ‘Navier’s book is written with admirable clarity. Tt is no wonder that it exerted a grent influence. ‘Two more of the works of Navier should be mentioned. In 1820, he sub- mitted to the Paris Academs a paper on the flexure of slabs, Lagrange had obtained in 1811 a differential equation for this type of flexure, Navier gave an accurate solution for the case of a rectangular slab simply supported on four sides. ‘The other work to be mentioned is a report of 1828 on his examination of English suspension bridges. It is significant that he tried to solve problems of the vibrations of the bridge. ‘Tue Fanon Trapsnion Lamé (1795-1870) and Clapeyron (1799-1864) were French engineers, who were for a time in Russian service. ‘They contributed some papers jointly, especially one on the theory of internal equilibrium of solids, which was published by the Paris Academy.* Thia paper cdntains a number of definite applications of the theory of elasticity. Tamé published, in 1852, a volume of lectures on the theory of elastieity.t His formulas for the stresses in thick eglinders with internal pressure are well known. Clapeyron established an important formula, named after him, for the internal energy of an elastic body, due to the stresses. Tn a short paper published in 1857 Olapeyron presented the famous “theorem of three moments” by which eontinuous beams may be nalyzed conveniently. The paper has the appearance of a preliminary announcement: of a longer paper, which, however, was never published. ‘The form is rather interesting. ‘The author hogins by referring to the immense capital invested in railroads and the resulting growth of the problems of the engineors. Te mentions a particular bridge with continuous girders, and says that practice here, as s0 often, has preceded theory. He states the formula, and shows by an example how to apply it§ ‘The great classic in the theory of elasticity, Barré do Saint-Venant (1797- 1886), has been mentioned already in connection with the third edition of Navier’s “Méeanique.” Saint-Venant was an engineer and a mathematician. ‘Moat famous is his work on the subject of torsion. Saint-Venant: gave exact solutions for a number of definite cross-sections. Knowing the needs of engi- neers, he did not satisfy himself with establishing procedures of computation, or solutions in terms of infinite series, but he computed numerical coefficients, and represented many of the results graphically in a manner readily intel- ligible to any trained engincor. F Lame, “Lacone sur ia théorie mathcmatique de Yélastece dea corps eotldes:” Paris, ssa) fecond walton, $86! 7 7 ‘LGomptes Rendus, Paris Academy, v.45, p. 1070 {Tha theorem of three momente ta troquently namo after Clapeyson, throws whom ecute generally hoown ‘leg However, by Bertot fn Comptes Rendaa de 18 Boetete dew Tageatoars Give "4 mare eineral tora, applicable not omy to. ‘inform toad en each epan, but to aty fype of ond, was given later Uy Breae lmolre sur la toeslon dex prises, ee,” pub. by the Paris Academy in “Memolres des davante Hiranters” 3808, 00- 28e S00 ret t i | | }ADVANCE IN smmverURAL aNanysis 23a See may explain the existence of a French tradition in structural analysis by referring to Navier and Saint-Venant, iti giles of Saint-Venant, among whom shoul be mentionsy Boussinesa, H, Resal, Lévy, and Flamant. ‘Phe researches of Boussinesq in a variety of fields of the theory of elasticity, theoretical ad applied, as well as in the Toe yet carth pressures, are of considerable depth Th: Real originated in Lng fceevtable approsimote theory of sharply carved bars (or hooks)*, Tay Wrote an extensive and valuable treatise, “Stations graphique” (Paris, ISTE, Second Edition, 4 vol, 188088). And Plamen treatises on structural statics and strength of materiale} ik was in Franco in 1804 that E. Coignet and N, de Tédesco, in a report to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils, ori ie method which is now Se nents used for computing: nominal strvases in reinforen a concrete beams {or the purpose of design. This computation ts bused ne neglect of horizontal sinaile stresses in the eonerote, on a linear relation others stresses and ‘straing, and on the assumption that the plane ervey section remains plane, jh aleenaser is prominent contemporary nuprurentatiee the French ‘inulin, | Ho introduced and sade practicable the unalnce af complex Frmportany eebiving polarized Tight to a transparent model We he? made important contributions to the theory of flexure of slabs.§ Exataxp [pie had Nusiee; Great Britain produced W. 3. Mz Rankine (1820-72), Gd tefesor of Civil Engineering and Mechanios in. he University of Tuo Rankine wrote remaskable texthooks in various Nal ou engineering. Lit fest edition of his “Manual of Applied Mechenies” ae published in Hanlon in 1858, the nineteenth edition in 1914. ‘This book stands side by side with Navier’s “Mécanique? as a. great texthook sa mechanics of engi- for the strength of columns. Although not purfect, thin formula has been of great service. Rankine erodite the formula to Conlon, Ty had been pro- posed previously by F. Schwarz in 1854, Rankine treated the problem of earth pressures from the point of view of Gerlane state of stress. His solution compares in importete with that of Coulomb. The two theories agree in important cases, Rankine wrote numerous scientific papers, some of which deal with the theory of elasticity. To understand the English tradition ono must refer to Ren! redecoscors, Hodgkinson on the practical, experimental side, and fefons, Green and Stokes, on the side of th mathematical theory Balen Bef, “SEU IEE 0 costructons; Risa des satniaus,” Pare 2858: See. ona Balin TE, E Annaies dee Ponts ot Chavsséee, 1912, p. 189, {brie of avers in Conon Renée, Parts Acaety, 1910-10, | Bia Edition, 1858. p 388284 ADVANCE IN STRTCRORAG ANATYSIS of elasticity; also to tivo great physicists of the Nineteenth Century, Maxwell and Lord Kelvin; and to Todhunter and Pearson, authors of the monumental “History of the Theory of Elasticity” (Cambridge, 1886-03). The practical problems of structural mechanies have been represented during recent years, for example, by A. Morley, author of noteworthy treatises on “Strength of Materials? and “Theory of Structures”; and the mathematical theory of elas: tative in A. E. H. Love, author third edition, 1920). ticity has an eminent contemporary repre: of a great treatise on this subject (frst edi Eariy Wonks ox Tavssns ‘The prominent Amerigan engineer, the late Squire Whipple, Hon, M. Am. Soe. ©. E,, inventor of the Whipple truss, published a work on “Bridge Build- ing” in 1847. This work contains an analysis, which, so far as is known, 4s the first legitimate analysis of the jointed truss. His style reveals a clear mind. He accomplished his task by means of the simplest possible principle of staties, that of the force resolved into a vertieal and horizontal component. ‘The American engincer, Herman Haupt, evidently independent of Whipple, followed in 1851 with an attempt to analyze trusses} One finds in his work rather a mixtuye of sound and unsound thinking. In 1863, August Ritter, in Germany, published his famous method of sections by which each stress is found by expressing the moments of all forees on one side of the seetion with respect to a suitable center. ‘This method holds its place at the present day as a most effective way of determining stresses in trusses. GrariicaL Metsops Graphical methods have played an important part in structural analysis, A “graphical statics” exists. Particular graphical methods were used fairly early. Poneelet, for ex- ample, proposed, in 1840, his elegant method (frequently eredited to G, Reb- Jmn in 1871) for determining the earth pressures which exist according to Coulomb's theory. ‘The Fuglish clencyman and Professor of Natural Phi- losophy, HL. Moseley, a disciple of Poncelet, introduced in 1888 the line of pressure of the masonry arch.§ ©. Culmann, born in 18%, was a Professor at the Polytecbnikum i irich, Switzerland, from 1851 until his death in 1881. While Varignon in his “Nouvelle mécanique” of 1725 had studied the polygon of equilibriam of wastring, it ie reasonable to state that graphi i Bee &, Whipple, "wlomentary and racial, Treatise on ridge Bailing.” an enlarged ana igprovea eaitign ‘of the sie ovale wore a herence tna inthe pretace to the “Orica St, Hoe Ryne, aan Beige Besteerng™ (eablstt Oy Tob; ar tne’ piste Steton fs a vary sxedlont buck’ by 1°F, Parca untae Ac Maney. “Ai Bismetary Tisatoa on Biulcuy fndeterminate Seeesson® N.S Way £'daaa Yaad, see ‘see Herman Haupt, “General Theory ot Bridge Conslrvetin,” K. Y., 1869, Pt, at thie Bo¥seprosets inurl ey work PA iter, “Blemntars Tore und Bosechesing elmer Dach- vod Brdckenconstruk- doued, Hannover, 1805 "i, Mosse, “On the Eyl viaed Pellosopiga Soe vt de widefettectures* Lows Teas, coaper veaa 1858), naactions, Came “ine Mechanseat Pon ‘oe kngiicerngADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 235 subject came into existenee when Culmann, by emancipating himself from the idea of a material string, made the string polyzon a tool of analysis. Calman found many uses for the string polygon; for example, im the analysis of masonry arches; and ja determining the moment of inertia of an area. In the analysis of trusses he introduced » method of sections similar to that of Ritter, except that the three stresses in the section are found graphically as components of the resultant of the extornal forces om one side of the eec- tion. Culmann’s remarkable book on structural mechanies, published in 1864.66, has the title, “Graphische Statik”, J. Clerk Maxwell (1831-79), the great English physicist, invented, in 1804," the stress diagram for trusses which unites into a single figure all the individual force polyzons. Cremona developed the method further. ‘The dia- gram is often named after Maxwell and Cremona, Tt found its place quickly in graphical staties of enzineering. Graphical statics owes a great deal to Otto Mohr (1835-1918), for a num- bor of years Professor at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden, Germany. In 1868 he published his method of finding deflections of a beam by use of string polygons. He established on the same occasion the closely allied method of computing deflections as if they were bending moments.t ‘The late C. E. Greene, 3f. Ain. Soe. C. E, at the University of Michigan, about 1873, dit covered a related principle of moments of areas by which one may find the deflection of any point of a beam, measured from a tangent to the elastic curve. H. Miiller-Boestau, in 1885, gave Molu’s principle a general formula tion with the application extended to trusses; the general principle includes Greene's principle as a special ease. Mohr invented a use of string polygons in determining stresses due to bending combined with compression when the material has no tensile resist- ance. C. Guidi, in Italy, showed in 1906 that this method, with a small modi- fication, can be applied to a reinforced conerete member with any symmetrical cross-section. Mohr devised an clogant graphical representation of the three-dimensional state of stress at 2 point, and he invented the circle of inertia for determining moments of inertia of an area with respect to different axes through the same point. Land showed Iater§ that the latter diagram may be applied advan- tageously in analyzing a plane state of stress at a point. E. Winkler introduced the influenee line in 1867, Williot proposed, in 1877, his diagram by which the displacements of all points of a truss are obtained as vectors.) After Culmenn’s death, W. Ritter continued his work at the Polytechnikum in Ziirich. Ritter’s treatise] poseosses distinction and originality. ‘The * Philasophiont Magasine, (A), v. 21, 1864, v. 260. See the cotlesion of papers, by. Mohr, re-edited by nimicif, “Abhandlansen aus dem Genjete dor teciniochen Afecbanik” Berita, 1908, Second Welton, 014 44H, Miller-Breslau, “Weltrag aur Theorle Ger Faehwerls,” Zeitochrift den Archltekten- tuna Tngenteur-Vereines fu Hannover, 6, ai. 4985" p, f S$ Zettsirgt dea Vercines detache Ingenieure, 180 J Watos, Ine xranbique,” Poblleations sctentifiques fnduriciellen, 28 regslsiARwendungen dor graphiechen Statik nach Profetsar Dr, C. Cumann." € vol, Hh,236 ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ellipse of elasticity, proposed and used extensively by W. Ritter, has interested many. No one will deny its value in defining qualitatively the nature of the stifiness of a flexible connection between two elements of structure, Somo graphical methods refer to continuous beams. ‘Two should be men~ tioned, one originated by Mohr, the other by Claxton Fidler. 3fohr’s method is based on properties of the tangents to the elastic curve, Culmann, Winkler, and especially W. Ritter™ took up the idea and extended its use. The other method, which has turned out to be simpler, may be interpreted as « graphical solution of the equation of threo moments. Claxton Fidler originated it in ‘1883, Milller-Breslau gave it in an improved form in his “Graphische Statik dor Baukonstruktionen”, and Ostenfeld developed it further. HI. Nishkian and D. B. Steinman, Members, Am. Soc. O. E., have presented the same ‘method. Statioauyy Tspereninare Stevctunes ‘The theories of statically indeterminate structures may be grouped aecord- ing to certain leading principles, essentially four. ‘Maxwell, the great English physicist, originated the frst of these in 1864,§ the same year that he invented the stress diagram for trusses. It was on this ‘oeasion that he gave the famous theorem of reciprocal deflections which is, named after him. In dealing with the statically indeterminate truss he expressed the condition of geometrieal coherence by a set of equations in which the redundant stresses are the variables. Mobr, in 1874, derived the same equations by a direct use of the principle of virtual work. The equa- tions are named frequently after Maxwell and Mohr. Mohr’s papers on the subject} established firmly the applicability of the principle. He included the effects of variations of temperature. Miiller-Breslau, in his weighty treatises, included the effects of settlements of the supports and of incorrect initial dimensions of the members, and he extended the method so as to make it apply to solid frames as well as to trusses. ‘publeked, 1900) of bie “Graphlecne Stati,” proviously mentioned, This ‘nie subtitle, “Dor Kontinulerliche MlkeD.” IVT. Claxton Fidler, Minutes of Proceedings, Tost. CE. v. TA, 188 , aja “practic Trentie ou Bridge Goumrnetion?” Lond, 1887; Pitt Baikién, 1024, chapter. Nf acaiterctears save the mothod In more general torm in a article, “Ueber einige Aut shen der Statik, welche aul Glelehansen. der Clapeyeunschen Are CUnren,” Zetiechrsft fi pata dcr Stl: Wee Gatamas 20eeI38, and thetentir tn his, “Graphteshe Stati er Batkeeetutionea.* ee Se csubetel, 1, -sipaig, 1908, pe, S67) (ith, align, 1023, saaNe aon eS aural! 31908, pat {Secon wiitlon, 1925, p93). A “stoner Fete eine’ eablece may be, found in big Taknih Blgaticetsienn.” Segond Baton, er ont watan, tgakr pn P80; ania efeknls State 42 TeURpuiion 198s, pr Sts and in ewa papers, “Grapbleche chee edger mit festan”elaaicen genkbaren oder drenbaren und cee Age! isehrafi tr Avehitektar wad’ Tugenleurweses, BEG Mesutes Lue and “eraphlachs, BeNapdhing. der ontnuleriichen Trager. mit Sisetisen aonkaren Stataos,""ioe ov" 84, 1908, Cotumns 6 $ Trmaactions, Am. See. C. #., Vol. 90 (June, 2027), v. 2 Ea clerk Maxwell, “On the Cateuiation of te ullibrium end stifness of Frames” aitosopnioa! Magasine, (A)y'y. 2t, 1864, pp. 294-200 {eo the collection of papers by Olto Moke.” “Abhandlunsen aus dem Gobiete der tech: atectloa Mechasite® Seeood ition, Borin, 1914, pp. 380-479, expecially hie bibliographies! Scena the end of the Paper. ‘{"Die neveren Methosen der Postieltelchro und der Stat atplg, al aMgs SE) Sua big graonsche Stak YE" Rinsvol 1 Letprig, 1803 (riith Baltion, 3028). votuis p. 196. See, sr Raukonstruktionen ler Davkonstraktionsn,”ADVANGE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 237 HE Miller Breslow (1851-2025), for many years a Professor at the ech: niseke HTodheshule, im Borin, i6 indeed one of the most distinguished fswics ince Tieton of gtructaral statics Tn addition to the many other conte aioe is responsible for the eystematizing of what may bo called the ata cating peincite in tho analysis of statically indeteeminato structan 4 ee, soe vel caviables, again, are the redondant stresses (or rensures of Som ined states of straws, such as bending moments). ‘The linear enuallom™ tineGing the condition of geometrical coherence are obtained ‘by Sine SE in postion of onevare displacements due to unit londs. By expressing the indi de eet the principle of virtual work, the equations assume the fom Vida tery Macll and Mohr. ‘The genoral Tori, howeeer ia which MUG" tained oy er trove equations leaves the way open t obtain tho terme by Bre yd abic ip available for determining displacements, ler Bresion ay watt the usefulness, in this conneston, of Maxwell's theorem of 1" Pino ections, and hus he came to the important conclusion that the ina rane for a redundant strom or bending moment may bo interpreted & ae eof dafeetions. During recent yas George B. Bogus, Mm, Se diagram aceton University, using this nrorerty of the fuonce ne, hae oe sey an experimental method which appears promising Sn competion eveeped am hich are many tnies statically indeterminate; he obtang ffl ee ————D ene Oy of the lending principles is that of least work. This principle eas aatablished brillintly during the Seventies by the Italian enginest matigieno (18(7-84), TE should be mentioned that the Italian Come A cietitgcame a General, TF. Menabret, had stated the peineiple in 1500-8 wee ated However, is named folly after Cnstigliano rather than, oft ae a yhows root was erratic, Castgliano presented bis method fs, Mena r bouk, “Théorie do Véquiibro des xzsttmos Glastiques ot ses arn Tema este, 1679), Tho unknown quantities determined frst are the cations” (hove entering in the equations due to Maxwell and Mobr. Mull SS r,LCL_CULChC€_EhMdrL — SSS C= Fa rasrmalish, under the ttle “Elastic Stroses in Structures” (Londons 1919) ‘Pie fourth and Inst of the Tending principles has been used on a nomier af eaafons, but was given a general formulation only recently by A. Ostet vais sn Deranark. By this principle the unknown quantities upon which the sean depends primarily, aro defcrmations. ‘The equation of elaiehy We an ere tesa as Afaxwells and Mohes equations, except that loads 9nd oF r——=—s ,_|_*, {Die neuere “s Procecatngs, Am. Conerete Inst, ¥. 18. 3922, p. 68. {Comorer Rendus, Parle Academy, ¥, 46, 1868, ». 1056238 ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ieet in 1925, entitled “Die Deformationsmethode”. Such methods as the Slevedefcetion method, by which slopes and transverse deflections aro the ccential unknowns, may bo interpreted as examples of application of this seneral principle, Among the great textbooks dealing with statically indeterminate struc- tees ith the greatness measured by quality and influence, should be men. tioned the following: Miller-Breslau's “Graphische Statik der Baukonstrake tionen’"; Ostenfeld’s “Teknisk Statik” (the last edition of which includes the leformation method, soe v. 2 Third Edition, Copenhagen, 1926); and the “hook by the late J.B. Jobnion, the Inte ©. W. Bryan, and F. B. Tarneaure Members, Am, Soe. ©. E., entitled “Sfodern Framed Structures” (Ninth Edi 2, New York, 1911 : Germany, with leaders Tike Mobe and Miller-Breslau, played an important part in the development of this subject. ‘Treory oF Ecasniocry The theory of elasticity has been applied to practical problems in many Wars during recent years, A. Péppl (1854-1024), not lonat through hie wer derful bavk, “Technische Mechanik”, the fifth volume of which deels with the theory of elasticity (x, 6, First Edition, Lefprig, 1907), doubtlees exerted Sioat Gest of influence in this rospect* In 1920, he and his son, L. Popp, who Tater became his successor as Professor at the Technische Hochschule, in Munich, published jointly a two-volume theory of elasticity for engineers, with the peculiar title “Drang und Zwang”, W, Rite in a notable paper published in 1908+ gave emphasis to a principle of minimum which Jends itself particularly well to approximate soluticns Admissibility of approximate methods extends the fcld of accessible problons 8. Approxi- imate investigations based on tho minimum of enorgy by variation of shape are described frequently as analysis by Ritz’s method. A. and L. Foppl's “Drang und Zang” contains many examples of this type of analysis, jengortant work has been carried ont during reeent yenrs on torsion, eape- Sue by Ee Prandtl and A. Fippl.t Prandtl discovered im 1009 the “sorp: Sim anslogs*, by which problems of torsion may be volved. He showed they ihe eauations governing tho stato of stress in torsion are the samo as thes soroming certain propertios of a soap film dellected by a pressure from one fide, Thus, one may transfer solutions by analogy from one Weld of mechan tO Anather. The sonp film, being easy to visualize and to produce expert mentally, and being: subject to fairly simple laws of mechanics, hea rose’ to be very useful in this respect, FMiwch work las heen done during the lat ten or Steen years on the auby- Feet of the flerure of slabs. Two names should be mentioned, A Neat te - of 4, Popol techaloal and scieneiti fe publications, Tacluding elghty-tve jwme, Jeceatehrit far angewonate Mathematik ane Mecha as gpa Ave es 1008. a0 und Zan" v2, 1920, Hereties Jourma, v.18 18ee Av and 1. Poppt“apeaxce IN STRUCTURAL, ANATTSIS 239) Gormany and B. Galerkin in Sinssio, Nédaj wrote an excellent tyook, “Die lostisehon. Platten” (Berlin, 4h05), in which mang of fhe recent investigar tions are described: ne Teisoner, in Berlin, and Bs Meissner, jn Tastes, have made Jmportent contributions to the theory of domes ‘and shells.” Recent Devevor went rhe plaatie stage, occurring when cote vtveases excoud the proportions time ae the yield point, fas been the wiijeet of come theoretical stodie® dar ing the more recent Years tho uetion of a coburn of ductile nateria! prevents « problens of this kind. LE one wishes to understand this net, tie necessary to consider the changed vomaitions of stifiness bevond the sroportional Fmt. Engessor and Considire SRasved ne mechanics of this en TM tae ntee Easiy SO ee dieewient of this uct, accompant? Te cavefel tests, came im 1020 from ahe Tend of Th. ¥. Kérmén, then iA ‘Souingent His contsibution 15 0f° of Fig eas eaerian nee Titerature on the eubject of columns pramatl and, after kim, Tencks have Monwoded during the last fow Sours sm catyaing the sate of stress ad vveformations occurring in certain S00 wir pluatic action when one body Nponatates into anotber WAdat has analyzed Gases of torsion beyond the ‘proportional Tii.$ ie Terzaghi, 3 As. Soe, O. Tn bet ® packed the fundamental prob- ems of the mechanies of soils kingly interesting isthe Dutta influence tens Dinero of the state of stress and ey pavement of water: A problem in found gh of manterals becomes }drealice mnatly, may be mentioned em satkotional piece of work, theoretion ond experimental, by A, Brandtat presented im a thesis at the University of Hinata, in 19204. ‘The subject is Prpmpressive aurength of cOneTELG Following ‘and developing # procedure ected by Ke Boker in 104A De OO ied ai ods of statistical mechanics t° 5 iad eonsiting of crystalline pars ~ sth Mranee of weakness, distibuted My eaevaf chamee im all directions: le 0° vrevjed in this way in accounting £" 0 tof fe curved portion im the re strain diagram, and he explain a Mper of the phenomena which be found weperimantaly in oases of Carer diss FOF ctoten of stress. Hore, surelyy i dovelopment. Je is in a new phase of ieee ae He src pian tg na Setar 8 wee gece we Pee a Sr a Spin om wast 8 mt i rae nrc tea ae a ae, wr eS RCTS alk dei et nahi ee gh Meh BH p90 i ht sna tr fe Vt eae ea pi 28 DAE sa ae hist Hat tls Eat ATARE Sh GE. ae ee oe geese ae SRE ender 88 rn Backs ae Sha a gute put SE Bone Than ita eben South BEL at a, ene et esac Tg ne eg ee eae lenge sai sein 8240 ADVANCE IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: ‘Tue Presest It is by no means discouraging to consider the state of affairs in struc” tural mechanics of the present day. Group enterprises of many Kinds are promoting research and distributing knowledge, Think, for comparison, of the situetion 150 years ago when only a fow learned academies performed these functions, Now engineering societies, schools of engineering, and some periodieajs do much to mako research possible, One periodical of this kind Should be mentioned especially. It is the Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Mathe- snatik und Mechanik, published since 1921. Its editor is a man of unusual laliber, Profexor R. von Mises, of Berlin, ‘The German periodical, Der ‘Bauingenieur, published since 1920, also deserves notice. Tn the spring of 1924, largely due to the -initiative of Professor O. B. Biczeno, of Delit, a “Eirst International Congress for Applied Mechanics” was held in Delft, Holland. ‘The Proceedings published the following year Contain much material of practical and scientific value, A Second Congress ‘was hela in September, 1926, in Ziirich, Switzerland. ‘A recent enterprise of great value is the “Encyklopiidie der mnathematisclien Wissenschaften”, of which Volume TV, which consists of four sub-volames, has the title “Mechanik”. Volume TV has been completed except for @ part of ‘Sub-Volume 2. The plan of this encyclopedia is to summarize all the impor tant work of the ficld.* Another similar enterprise has been’ started very recently under the title “Handbuch der physikalischen und technischen Mechanik st "Among the individuals representing structural analysis at the present day, there are some stars of considerable magnitude. Among them four may be mentioned: L. Prandtl and Th. v. Kérmén, in Germany; A. Ostenfeld, in Den mark, and 8. Timoshenko, formerly im Russia, but since 1922 in the United States, ‘They are mon of broad scholarship and ereative imagination “The work of Dr, Timoshenko brings to attention the Russian tradition, of which he is a contemporary representative. One may trace this Russian tra- ition back to the days of Euler and his influence through the St. Petersburg ‘keademy. Dr. Timoshenko's presence in this country is a reminder, at the same time, of the international character of the science of structural mechanics, Structural analysis is, of course, intimately allied with and dependent on structural testing. The United States has excelled in the latter field. The iprand seale of this experimental work, and the determination to find out, have roused the admiration of Europeans. In structural engineering this country has also excelled. In structural analysis, it has done well, yet the great ideas have come mainly from Europe. ‘Hope for future advance in structural analysis lies in the fact that the subject, international as it is, fascinates many in all parts of the world. i articls by Le Heoneterg, in Gub-Vol. 1, and those by TH, v, Karma and ev (e SESES, "ee Ge espe terest Ya eonnoetton| Sante "parted by F. Auerbach 14 W. Hort wad published tm Lelpaig, Germany.