Universidad de S evilla

lgebras de semigrupos y aplicaciones

Alberto Vigne rn Tenorio

Tesis de Doctorado
Facultad de Matemticas Directora: Dra. Da. Pilar Pisn Casares

2004

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AIJHK?JKH=I @A =I N I K?E JE CHKA ?E=I 2 H K ? IA ? ?=F

JK 11 , # O A A A = @A ,E? I

AI @A AI I IEIJA =I = IEIJA =I A ? I >=I=@ I A >=IAI @A /H > AH JA E@ @A AIJA CHKA ?E=I I 11 , $ F=H= HAI LAH IEIJA =I @E B = JE

CHKA ?E=I IE = =@EH KAL=I L=HE=> AI - ? = F

= O CA AH= E = = ?=I @A IEIJA =I A ? 2+86'&

HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I A

&
- A ?=F
JK E = @A = @A E AIE @A ?=H=?JAHE =H @K 111 ? A = = CA>H= @A K IA ECHKF I CH=@ I @A @A IE?ECE=I @A = =O= = 8A

1 JH @K??E
I = AIJK@E=H = HAI K?E I? E>HA E

IA FKA

I IEIJA =I

E E = AI @A CA AH=@ HAI @K I

5 = JH=L AI @A AIJHK?JKH=I ?

>E =J HE=I - F=HJE?K =H HAI LA E@A= @A IA ECHKF  ? @ HAI ? ?E@ I E E = AI F @A

I AIJA FH > A = F=H= A 

A@E= JA K = C HEJ I ?= ?K =H

111 * $ 6= >E A LA

I CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A ?

I IEIJA =I @A CA AH= I HA I

I FH FE I CA AH=@ HAI

IK J=@ I FHAIA J=@ I A AIJA ?=F

JK =F=HA?E@ I A A A ? = ?K @A *+ 2'&> O *+ 2'&= 18 @A@E?= - ?=F
JK F=H= ?= ?K =H > E?=@ I A

IJEJKOA K = HALEIE @A AJ @ ABA?JEL @K >=I=@

I = @=H K

@A N I K?E

AI @A IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I A ? HA? CA I

CHKA ?E=I @A IE?ECE=I

I CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A A FHE AH

5 18 ) & * =IE?= A JA AIJA ?=F

JK

I HAIK J=@ I FK 18 =

2+86AH 8 CA AH= E = I AJ @ I @A ?=F

JK
5 8 ) ' )@A =I @=

- A ?=F
JK

J @= = HAI K?E @A = CA>H=

E AIE

I ? J=I F=H= I CA

I CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A K IEIJA = @K @A IE?ECE=I @A AH=@ HAI ? +  =I

? IE@AH=@ I F=H= A IA ECHKF K = C HEJ 81 LA I

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 6AH E = I A ?=F

JK I

5 A BK ?E I = A JA @A

ANF E?EJ= @ K = ? J= F=H= = HACK =HE@=@ @A K = L=HEA@=@ J HE?= 8 F=H= D= =H @E?D= HACK =HE@=@ 8 +  AIJ = HA? CE@ I A * 2+86'' A HE= HAIK J=@ I @A AIJA ?=F
JK - A ?=F
JK E KIJH= I = C HEJ

I K = IAHEA @A A A F I K AHE? I GKA

=I E F HJ= JAI @=@ I A AIJ=

+)2 167

+ = ?K @A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I

IA. INTRODUCCION
5A= 5 K IA ECHKF ? AA A J @A 5 ,A
:

KJ=JEL OB

H

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ O ?

AKJH J=HA
:H

K ?KAHF IF H4= = E

C K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI

A H E @AJAH E =@=I I >HA A ?KAHF

4A? H@A AI A ? A @A K

I GKA IA FKA@A =I ?E=H K E@A= 1 @AFA @EA JA @A IE@AH=@ A 5 = IA ECHKF 5 ,E?D E@A= @A = CA>H=I
5
E

IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI ? H I

 4  :E 

1 )  ?E@ LAH 0-4% 

@A

5 AI A = CA>H= =I ?E=@= = 5 )@A =I AI ?

GKA 1 AIJ = CA AH=@ F H A ?

K J
H : E E E  E E

B:
KAC AI K E@A= >E

H : E 

E=


,EHA

1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K

A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF
@E?E 5  5

I GKA 5 AI = =O= = IE LAHE ?= = ?

BC
E E

-IJ= FH FEA@=@ AI BK @= A J= F=H= F @AH D=> =H @A IEIJA =I



= AI @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1 7 IA ECHKF AI ?= ?A =JEL IE @=@ I

5?


IA JEA A I @A FH BK @E =H

- ?=F
JK I F IJAHE I

HAI

I A ?=HC=HA ,A

=I A A =IFA?J JA HE? @A @=@ K HAJ

?K

HAIK J=@ I GKA A?AIEJ=HA @A Z

H

I I >HA A = CA>H= @A K IA ECHKF E= A 4

N
H

= AH= F=HA?E@= = ?=I @A IA ECHKF I =I ?E=H K E@A= >E

1 :K :L K L

A F @A

) AIJ I E@A= AI 2=H= ,EHA

N
H

I = =HA J=?E
H

I @A @=@
K

= AH= CA AHE?= E@A= AI @A HAJ

?K
ZH @A

=H

J=

I F H K K = @E?E

E? I A A A J I @A N J= AI GKA K K I GKA K HAJ

?K
Z

K O IKFFK  IKFFK 
ZH O

AI = =O= = IE LAHE ?= = ?
K

 ; @EHA

I GKA AI I=JKH=@ IE @=@ ?K= GKEAH KF = K K LAHE ?= @ ANEIJA K = IA JEA A K

) ?

?K= GKEAH K HAJ

?K J= GKA HAJ
?K I

- J

?AI IE IK E@A=

AI I=JKH=@ AH) -I ? AIJA ?=F

JK

=JHE

? A ?EA JAI A JAH I I=JKH=@

?E@ GKA @=@ K HAJ

?K LAHA KJ=JEL I I A

=I ?E=@ AI FHE

LAH -5'$  FHE AH KC=H GKA I E@A= AI @A AA A J I F=H= ?= I

A HA= E@=@ K ?=I F=HJE?K =H @A E@A= AI @A IA ECHKF I EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I ?

I IA ECHKF I ?

AKJH O ?= ?A =JEL I  A = 1 *  @= @ @EIJE J I = C HEJ ?K =H K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A E@A= 1 )@A =I = = E =HA I @EBAHA JAI

AJ @ I F=H= ?= ?K =H K

CA AH=@ HAI @A E@A= 1 = F=HJEH @A K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A

IB. IDEALES DE RET ICULO E IDEALES DE SEMIGRUPO

,A KAL ? AKJH IE@AHA I 5 K IA ECHKF =>A E= I IKF AH IE ? AA A J ?= ?A =JEL O EJ= A JA CA AH=@ 2 H A 6A HA = @A -IJHK? FAH@E@= @A CA AH= E@=@

JKH= LAH *+ 2'&>  F @A

+=F
JK

1 + = ?K
GKA

@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I



Z = Z

Z =I Z

@A =

=I I

A JAH I

K I +

IE@AHA

IB

CK ?
:H A

K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A IA ECHKF 5 = JAHE H O IA= 1 E@A= =I ?E=@ = 5 - E@A= = JAHE H

1
AH5

:

F @A

I E@A JE ?=H ?
  + + + )

A E@A= @A HAJ
?K AI A JAH=I

@A AH5 AI A HAJ
?K

B H =@ F H =I I K?E
* *

@A IEIJA =  ?


N NH

H * (

FKA@A LAHIA A A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ =>A

Lema IB.1

1 AI K E@A= @A K IA ECHKF 5 ?= ?A =JEL

E=

O?

AA A J

AKJH


IE O I
H

IE 1 AI K E@A= @A HAJ
?K

Demostraci on. 5A= 5

2 H 0-4% I=>A

K IA ECHKF O IA= 1 IK E@A= A 4

H : E E E  E E E E

I GKA 1 AIJ = CA AH=@ F H

*
F H

B:

H : E 

 C

)@A =I F H IAH 5 ?= ?A =JEL

F @A
H : E 

I =IACKH=H GKA 1 AIJ = CA AH=@

E E

*
2 H J= J ? J K J * JA A


B:
I GKA
1 :

ZC

= @ A HAJ
?K
:

CA AH=@ F H =I H KF =I

@A

KAC 1 AI K E@A= @A HAJ

?K 4A?
FH ?= A JA IA= ?=?E K HAJ
?K
 NH  ZH AE % AE

A ZH +

IE@AH=

I = =F E


@ @A I AE B H = 5A= 5 A IA ECHKF =I ?E=@ ? E ?E@A ?
-IJA HAIK J=@

1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K
= >=IA ?= E?= @A NH
A 1 AH

A 1@A= AI @A 5A ECHKF

 +/  -I B =?E LAH GKA IK E@A=

I E @E?= GKA ANEIJA K = @K= E@=@ A JHA KJ=JEL I EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I O ?

5 A =I ?E=

I IA AA IK

ECHKF I ?= ?A =JEL I ? A J HAJ

?K AKJH
A

O
AH

I HAJ
?K I ,=@ K IA ECHKF F @A

AH5 O @=@ K HAJ

?K

I =I ?E=H A K IA ECHKF IE AH5 IE 5 AI O AI O AI

4AIFA?J = =I FH FEA@=@AI AI B =?E LAH GKA IE IE AH5 AI I=JKH=@ AI = =O= = IE O I A @A = E AIJ GKA -GKEL= A JA A JA

F=HJE IE F=HJE

I @A K IA ECHKF 5 5 AI = =O= = IE O I I @A K HAJ

?K

5 AI E>HA @A J HIE IE O I

I=JKH=@ IE O I - AA F

IE 5 AI E>HA @A J HIE IECKEA JA F

I IEIJA =I @A

CA AH=@ HAI EHHA@K?E> AI @A 1 FKA@A JA AH @EIJE J ?=H@E =

Ejemplo IB.2

5A= A IA ECHKF E ? KE@ A Z

5

Z "Z

        ! 
"

 !

GKA

AI

= =O= = 

- J

?AI IA JEA A GKA A E@A= @A 5

AIJ = CA AH=@ F H
1 N " N" ! N N
& " & N! " N! N" N! 

N" N

& "  &   N"  N! N N N!

$ N  N

@A = > I IEIJA =I I

EHHA@K?E> AI
@E?E

5E A >=HC IE A IA ECHKF @A F=HJE@= ?K F A = ?

5

 5

BC
E E = AI @A CA A

E A AI = =O= = JEA A IA JE@ D=> =H @A IEIJA =I

H=@ HAI @A 1 O= GKA J @ I

I IEIJA =I EHHA@K?E> AI @A CA AH=@ HAI JEA

A A A JH=HA

EI I?

?=H@E = LAH *+ 2'&> =K GKA A ?=F

JK I F IJAHE HAI =I @AJ= A A AIJA JA = ) IAH AIJ= K = FH FEA@=@

+=F
JK

1 + = ?K

@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I

!
2=H= A

GKA =BA?J= J= J = HAIK J=@ GKA IA >JEA A AI E JAHAI= JA F @AH @A JA?J=H ? KI=HA GK A JEF @A IA ECHKF I = IECKEA JA ?=H=?JAHE =?E
O IA= 1 IK E@A= A E A

H

I AIJ=

I A BHA J= @

Lema IB.3

5A= 5 K IA ECHKF AI = =O= = IE O I  IEA @ K

: :H

:H - IA ECHKF 5

IE ANEIJA A IK E@A= 1 K >E

:

E @A = B H =

Demostraci on. 5A=

GKA ANEIJA K >E - AIA ?=I JA A

I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 O IKF 



C=
H

I
N
H

E : I GKA

 FAHJA A?EA JA = 1 ?
H : E  E E

? 


?K= 5
H H

AI = =O= =
N J= GKA
2H

) = C= A JA IE 5
E 

AI
E E

= =O= = ANEIJA K = H KF =
 OF H J= J A >E E : 

FAHJA A?A = 1

Nota IB.4

2=H= LAH A J @A 1 IE D=O

2=IA @A HAJ
?K O?

?AI IE 5 AI

= =O= = I E= AI ?

D=>H = GKA >KI?=H A ? A ?EA JAI  O  K E  ?

?K= GKEAH IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI >E

K A A A J @A = B H = 
I =D H= = LAH @EIJE J I = C HEJ I @EIJE J I = C HEJ KJ=JEL I ?= ?A =JEL I O = F=HJEH @A A AKJH

I F=H= ?= ?K =H K E@A= I F=H= ?= ?K =H E@A= EJ= A JA CA AH=@ I

AI @A IA ECHKF I ? AA A J

IC. ALGORITMOS CLASICOS DE CALCULO DE 1

+ ? = J=?E = JAHE H A FH > A = GKA I F = JA= I AI ?= ?K =H K I CA AH=@ HAI @A E@A= 1 = F=HJEH @A K ? I = IKF K J @A

CA AH=@ HAI + @A - =@A = JA L= AH IE F AH@E@= @A CA AH= E@=@ GKA

"
F=H= J @= ? AGKEL= A JAI =GKA H=?E IA H@A =@= E  K AA A J K

) C HEJ
H @A

IE? I @A + I+= = ?K
I A A A J I @A F @A ANEIJA = I?

@A 1
A I

J= GKA KE $  /H=?E=I = A I IEIJA =I @A CA AH=@ HAI + @A

IE@AH=H
NH O

J= AI GKA + I = JH I ?

I GKA ANEIJA K A A A J ?

J @=I =I ?

H@A =@=I AI FA

JHE?J= A JA F IEJEL=I O= GKA F @HA AI A A A J= AI )@A =I K IE ANEIJA A JH 7 = FH FEA@=@ @A A ANEIJA IE O I

I F=I=H @A K

@A AIJ I IEIJA =I @A CA AH=@ HAI GKA I IAH = JE KO K

I E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K

IK?AIEL AI = IECKEA JA
:L 1 IE O I

Lema IC.1

:K

IE K

K L

NH

Demostraci on. 2 H @A
) HAJ
?K F HK I ?EAHJ I - J


E?E @A 1 IE K L = GKA JA A
5 J= AI GKA

JA A

I GKA :K :L

KAC AI = JH= E F E?=?E F @A

H

I GKA FH >=H AH5 A 1

1

I =I ?E=H A 1 *  K IA ECHKF 5 CA AH=@ E :

:L 
K

?AI @=@ K >E 

:K
E

: KE

1
:

1 JA A LE
E

I GKA 1 ) 

OF H ?

J= J

KE LE 

AC=

IA J

?AI = GKA K L

AH5

? KOA @

= @A

IJH=?E
4K F E : :H BC

5E AI K E@A= @A 4 O B I? K J I 
B  B

J= >E A I

E@A= AI

BC
:

C
NC

BC
I
I

:H

BI C

F=H= = C K I

) AIJ I E@A= AI GKA  AI K

B 


= =HA

I E@A= AI ? ?EA JAI @A AJDAHE= I=>A

I >HA B B
N J=

HAIFA?JEL= A JA 2 H IAH 4  E LAH -5'$ 

I GKA ANEIJA I E= AI IE AI >E

B  -IJ I E@A= AI IAH = >E

E= O B

+=F
JK

1 + = ?K

@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I
- F HGK A @A D=>AH E JH @K?E@

#
I EC= = I E@A= AI

I E@A= AI = JAHE HAI GKA@= ? =

H= A JA HAIF @A HAJ
?K

@E@ A A IECKEA JA A = A ?K=

Lema IC.2

5A= + HAJ
?K @ @A

BK

KI C

- J IE 
:K
+

?AI + AI K ?  :
:K :H   K K 1 K

K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A

IE O I

Demostraci on. 8A=

L=

I A FHE AH KC=H = E F E?=?E I = ECK= @=@

:H   1

IE 2=H= A

I = FH >=H F H @ > A E ? KIE  5A= K

K
2I

 :

K
E KE

5E + CA AH= - J

@A

IA JEA A GKA ANEIJA

 E )

Z J= AI GKA K

E 

?AI
I ; E 
 (

:K
:K

:KE
:KE


E

2 H? KE A

@E@=@ @A JH ?=I

J=?E GKA@= @
:K
:K

J=HA
 (

I F H LE = = KF = KE IE IECKA
  )



= ANFHAIE = JAHE H ?

I ; E 

:L E
:L E

 J=?E GKA

E E

  8=
=

I = IKF I @A

AH F H ? E =@ HAI

@E@=@ @A AC=

4A@K?EA @ E : J= GKA

I = GKA ANEIJA K ?EAHJ

2

:= :K

:K 
E LE

:K :
+

E LE

E LE

8A=

I GKA :

E LE

$
: :L :M :L ?
M 

) C HEJ
5E IKF J= J
:
2
E LE

IE? I @A + I+= = ?K
I?
E LE

@A 1
2
E LE

I GKA
M  :
2
E LE

 

 F @A L
2I

IE@AH=H : O M 


E LE

L

2I

E LE

2 H

:M :L :
M 

:M :L :M :L



:M :L :M :L



:L
+

:L  :L :

M 

:M :L
:M 
2

5E FAH= 2
:
E LE

I @A
+

= AH= E @K?JEL= ? I @A IJH=@ 1

:M :M

>JA A  :

O O= DA

:H  

I GKA :

E LE

= JH= E ? KIE AI JHELE= >=IJ= ? JA AI >E E= O FH >=H = E ? KIE F=H= >E

1 :
K

HA? H@=H GKA A E@A= ? ?EA E I KI= @ 1 +  A IK O IK >E E

:=

2=H= FH >=H = E F E?=?E HA?

FH ?= J E =I ?E=@ A @A
= K = K + :
K +

- J

?AI ANEIJEH = K

= AH= GKA := :K

:K 

)F E?= @ =D H= 1 +  JA A

IK

2 H

J= J

+ AI K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A

+A JH A

IA

I = C HEJ 
+

I @A ? = ?K
:H  

@A E@A=

 :

O= GKA =I
>JA A

I1

Teor a de Eliminaci on
- FHE AH GKA HABAHE I IA >=I= A = 6A H
= @A - E E =?E
E K O IA=
:

Proposici on IC.3

5A= 1
B

B

B B  ;B
:

K E@A= @A 4 IA= B E@A= A

: 4 )@A =I IE BC ;B
:

4K F E :H ; - J

?AI 1 B  AI A E@A= ?

@A A E E =?E
CE DE 

C C AI K = >=IA @A DE D E : :H ; 

DE B

  E 

+=F
JK

1 + = ?K
A

@A 1@A= AI @A 4AJ
?K I O 5A ECHKF I

%

AH K
I

=NB@AC; DE    E  1 BI 
$$
+

  C

I=JEIB=?A 1 B 

Demostraci on. 8AH *9'! F =C

2=H= ?= ?K =H A E@A=  A E@A= @A A E E =?E @A AI K IEIJA = CA AH=@ H @A @A /H > AH LAH *9'!  = E JH=J= ? K
4? B
+

 :
B 

:H   D=>H = FKAI GKA ?= ?K =H : :H ;

@A BB

BC

-IJA ? = ?K

IA HA= E =
:

A@E= JA >=IAI
:H ;

JAIA GKA DA

I F=I=@ @A JH=>= =H A K ?K= FH > A = ?K= @

H L=HE=> AI = JH ?

H  L=HE=> AI

D=?A GKA A ? IJA ? -NEIJA A ?AI ? FKJ=?E JH I =

FKJ=?E

= =K A JA AJAH

I @A HA= E =H ? = ?K I KI= @ >=IAI @A /H > AH AJ @ I >=I=@ I A ?= ?K =H >=IAI @A /H > AH AH @A L=HE=> AI H K GKA A CA AH= =?A AH= A FH

M etodo de Sturmfels-Hosten-Shapiro
- FHE AH GKA AIJK@E= F IEJEL= -IJ = ELA @A HAJ
?K
N

I =F=HA?A A

567'# O FKA@A =F E?=H IA A = E

4 IA=

IA = ?=I A A ?K= = CH=@K=?E GKA ?

H

IE@AHA

IA JH=@K?A A GKA IA LAHE ?=

BC
IA >=I= A A IECKEA JA A =
?AI
:H O

AI @A?EH AI = =O= = ,E?D = C HEJ

Lema IC.4

5A= @A ?

K E@A= D H@A

C A A F=H= K = CH=@K=?E F IEJEL= A J ANE? CH = ? E @K?E@ F H : IF E

=@ A

HALAHI

J= @ F H / = = >=IA @A /H > AH HA@K?E@= @A K J B H =@ F H

IA JEA A GKA A

E I GKA HAIK J= @A @ELE@EH ?=@= A A

A J B

/ F H = =O H F JA ?E= @A :H GKA @ELE@A = B AI K = >=IA @A

: H

/H > AH @A 

Demostraci on. 8AH 567'# A =  

&
-IJA A = IECKEA JA

) C HEJ

IE? I @A + I+= = ?K

@A 1

I FAH EJA ?= ?K =H A ? ?EA JA HAIFA?J @A K = L= I E JAHAI= ? A

HE=> A FK@E A @ IA = F E=H = E@A= ? ?EA JA GKA AJ @ HA?KHHA JA  -IJ  :

:H  





 :  : 

 : H

I > EC=H
= = ?

FKJ=H H >=IAI @A /H > AH F=H= F @AH >JA AH =I A H=

K = C HEJ A A = C HEJ :

:H  


GKA HAIKA L= KAIJH FH > A = )F E?= @ JH=>= I I GKA IA FKA@A AIJ=> A?AH K = IKIJ= ?E=
H LA?AI

HA?EA JAI  05  LA

HA?KHHA JA = JAHE H O= GKA F=H= ? AI A?AI=HE =F E?=H

K J @A L=HE=> AI 6
1

FKJ=H A E@A= 

Teorema IC.5

-NEIJA K ?

B:E

:E C J= AI GKA





 : E  :E 

 : E 

 >H ?
AJ @ GKA IA FH F O ? AA = A ?A 05 F=H= ?= ?K =H A = JAHE H ? =JHE ?KO=I I ?
6


K J 6 AI A IECKEA JA IA= J I @A K = >=IA @A ? H= @E@=@ @A = @A I JH=HE I I FHE AH I I GKA A ?=I ?

6 6

=I I 5KF

I AA A C= C=


I F H I GKA

J=?E GKA

I FHE AH I

A A A J I @A = FHE A AH GKA I  > =F H A IK = @A =IK E

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M etodo de Di Biase-Urbanke
JE - K @A HAJ
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= IE F=H= J @
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GKA L= I = FHAIA J=H AIJ = A A

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Lema IC.9

,=@ K ? AA A J ? GKA 1
+

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+

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+

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OF H

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IA >=I= A @ I F=I I FHE ?EF= AI K IAHEA @A HAJ

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J

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2 ,AID=?AH
7 HAIK J=@

JH=L AI @A >=IAI @A /H > AH F=H= AC=H = >JA AH 1 KO E F HJ= JA F=H= = ? @A HAJ

?K I  2  AI A IECKEA JA

Lema IC.10

,=@ + HJ C

BK

K CK ?

K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A EI HAJ

?K
HJ C

ANEIJA JH +

= GKA CA AH= A
K J 

Demostraci on. 7 ?
?
L K L K

= + LEA A @=@ F H +
KE  KE
  LE 

BL

L C

2 H @A
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K  4A= E = @ K = IAHEA @A ?= >E I A K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI

E?E

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E!

= @A

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A AIJA ?=I  F @A

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IJHKEH K = IK?AIE

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IE? I @A + I+= = ?K
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@A 1

JE = AH= GKA @A K

I K IEIJA = @A ?EJ=@ I IA

CA AH=@ HAI LAHE ?= @ A A = 1 + ' A@E= JA = =F E?=?E

E

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CA AH=@ F H +E F=H= ?EAHJ I =I =@A = JA J= @ F H : = E : E:

H

B

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1 + = ?K
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) +)

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ID. CALCULO DE IDEALES DE SEMIGRUPOS

8 L= I I >HA KAIJH IA ECHKF
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J HIE
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D

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Algoritmo Algebraico
5A= AH5  A HAJ
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B H =@ F H =I I K?E


AI A JAH=I @A

H I * (

* *

N NH
I

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Lema ID.1

,=@ K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI + @A AH5  HAIK J= @A FH OA?J=H + A @A CA AH=@ HAI @A AH5
)I
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ZH

A ?

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Algoritmo ID.2

=I

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I A IA ECHKF 5 IK ? I K J @A CA AH=@ HAI + @A HAJ

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I A A A J I @A + I >HA ZH O >JA A

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Algoritmo Geom etrico

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Lema ID.3

5A= * K

K J @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 1 B H =@ F H >E ?AI A ? A



? A ?EA JAI  O  - J L=HE=> AI B C @A 1

I :E H E H 

K J * GKA HAIK J= @A D=?AH K

I A A A J I @A * AI K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI

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B :


* A J
2H

?AI ANEIJA B @A
 
2H

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2H I

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NH

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E E

E 

2 H

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E @A 1

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2H

I GKA * CA AH= A E@A= 1 2=H= A

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E 

E E

2H

I A A A J I @A * 5A= B +


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1 J= GKA B

B :


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I =I L=HE=> AI B:E CH E H

K J CA AH=@ H @A 1 JA A I A A A J I @A * O F H I B A BK ?E @A
E H :

JA A

IAA A J I F A JA @A
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GKA FH >=H
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IC = ECK= @=@ = JAHE H @A>A A JA @AHIA A Z =

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I &E E

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I JH=>= =H F=I= @ @A KAIJH IA E @A HAJ

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=I

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IE 5 AI

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I FHE AH I ANEIJA AIJK@E I GKA HA= E = K = ? F=H=?E AI I = JAHE HAI = = A H= HA= E =@= J= J

F=H=JEL= I >HA E@A= AI @A HAJ

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11

IIA. INTRODUCCION
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IK>? D

K J I @A N -IJ I IK>? C A A =I ?E=@

K J BN

K J I AIJ = B H =@ I F H = IK = @A K J @A N I K?E I A A A = IECKEA JA

>C O IA= /

K = N I K?E

AI @A IEIJA =

Lema IIA.2

5A= / A ?

NH /N

BN

NH /N

C - J

?AI

/

N 0/

N

/

4AI LAH K IEIJA = HAI LAH K IEIJA = D FAH EJA = IECKEA JA J=

C A A IA HA@K?A D=>EJK= K = E ? C EJ=

A JA = I

C A A ?

=I -IJA F=I

+=F
JK
Nota IIA.3

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

5EIJA =I D C A A I

AI

!

0/
5E /

0BN
BN

NH /
NH


>N 
>N

C
?AI

/

C A J
H

0/

BN

N N 

0/ C
N I

- ?=F
JK I IK?AIEL I L= K?E AI E E = AI I D=HA A@E= JA = IECKEA JA

I = A?AIEJ=H ?= ?K =H J= I @=@ A C A A

=I CH= @AI GKA K A A A J AI @A K IEIJA = D

 -IJ

J= F=I= @ = HAI LAH A FH > A =

?= ?K = @ N I K?E

Nota IIA.4

5A= A

NH O IA=

/A
2=H= ?= ?K =H 0/A KI=HA

BN BN

N /N

N

AC

I GKA /A
N /N
H

/A A O 0/A
A

0/A A ?

/A
2 H J= J K = LA A IK =HA C A A 

C AI @A K IEIJA = D

>JA E@ 0/A I K?E I = ?=@= K

@A IKI A A A J I = KF = A -

HAIK J=@ @A AI= IK = IAH = 0/A

GENERAL IIB. CALCULO DE LA N SOLUCION

2=H= A ? HE I IA??E JH=H K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A =I N I K?E =F=HA?A A I L= A = >E> E CH=B
= HE= I @ELE@EHA AJ @ I = @AIJ=?=H =GKA I B
= @A ?=@= I GKA AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? AJ @ I - JHA A B KE@ A =JA =JE?= L= =I D= E I A @EIJE J=I

= A => H=?E @A AIJ=

AI A BK ?E @A =

B usqueda Exhaustiva
-IJA AJ @ IA >=I= A = HA= E =?E @A K = > KIGKA@= AND=KI AI A K = HACE @A AIF=?E ,E?D= I H@A =@=I @A JEL=  >=HHE@  @A =I N I K?E

HACE LEA A @AJAH E =@= F H K = ? J= F=H= =I ?

!
@ ? A?K=?E A IEIJA A K = LA

+ = ?K

@A = N I K?E CA AH=
AI AJ =I E A '%

A A A J I @A K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A =I N I K?E >JA E@= K = ? J= ? I GKA@= I I ?

FH >=H GK A KF =I @A IAA A J I A J L= - AIJ=

A A A J I A JAH I F IEJEL I @AJAH E =@ I F H =I ? J=I LAHE ?= AI ,AIFK AI K J E = AI @A AIA ? H A J= = HE= I L= - FHE ?EF= FH > A = @A AIJA ?E@=I D=IJ= A

AJ @ AI A

@A =I ? J=I ? I = @=H = CK

I A A F I @A AIJ=I ? J=I LAH 6 I=?

IE IA @AIA= = F E=H AIJ= E B H =?E  2=H= A I IEIJA =I

/N > /N

IE@AH=H

 ?

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H Z

HC/

OH

11 * 

,A K?E ?

J= AI A =
)

I F H 0/ O F H 0/ = E E = AI =NE H =K


I HAIFA?JEL I ? 


K J I @A N I K J IA @A K J H =K A

H =K H =I K =JHE

@A K ?

@A =I

@A ?=@= A A A J @A ?
)

IEA @ IKI ? ?

@A K = KF = = IK = @A
2

I L= HAI =>I KJ I @A E I IK

H@A =@=I 2=H= K = =NE

=E

=E  @A

567' A =KJ H FHKA>= GKA

0/
2=H= A



H

=NB

HAI @A H@A =@=I ?

@A / C 11 * 

IA KI= J A? E?=I HA =?E -

E@A= AI @A HAJ
?K I O = IE@AH= I =

HA =?E @A AIJ I E@A= AI ? IECKEA JA

I IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I

2 6' =F=HA?A L=HE=I ? J=I - JHA A =I ?

0/
OK =K F ?

 

E

=N

H :

CE 

11 * !

=I FAGKA = A CA AH=

0/

 

E 



H :

CE 

11 * " I ? F=H=> AI A =O H GKA =

=I ? J=I = JAHE HAI 11 * " O 11 *  CA AH= ANEIJEA @ A A F I F=HJE?K =HAI @

@A K = AI

+=F
JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

JH= O LE?ALAHI= 2 H A A F
 (

AI
IE@AH= # & # #
 )

!!
I = =JHE

IE ? " #

& !

>JA A >=HC

I GKA = ? J= 11 *  L= A "%" GKA 11 * " L= A #$ 5E A IE ? IE@AH= I =

 (

=JHE  #  !  " '

 )

JA A

I GKA 11 *  L= A &$

EA JH=I GKA 11 * " L= A $

M etodo de Clausen-Fortenbacher
+.&' =F=HA?A K = C HEJ F=H= ?= ?K =H N I K?E C A A= =>HEA @ ? AI = FK J E?= A?K=?E @E B K =K = JE?= D @A F=HJE@= + IE@AHA E?= A?K=?E @E B IK =K = JE?= D
@N  C N C N CH NH

= FKAHJ= = K =

IAHEA @A JH=>= I F IJAHE HAI GKA KJE E = AIJA = C HEJ

C A A=

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H

= E@A= GKA =F=HA?A A 2=HJEA @ @A  + AI @A IKF

+.&' AI ?

IJHKEH =I N I K?E =I ?

E E
AH C

= AI @A AIJ= A?K=?E = F=HJEH @A = >=IA ?= E?= @A N BA  F @A I EH E ?HA A J= @ = K LA?J H J= AC=H = K = N I K?E

H@A =@=I D=I

=O H GKA K = N I K?E F= =@= @A = CK = ? IA= A ?EA JA IA  IA 

AH AIJ= E@A= JEA A GKA EH =?

@E?E E JA ECA JA GKA E EJA =I ? J=@=I F=H= >JA AH K -I=I ? @E?E  5E C N = CK = ? 5E C N = CK = ? AJ @ ? AI @A =I N I K?E
C N C N

H@A =@=I GKA L= = IAH E ?HA A H@A =@= I ?AI E ?HA A J= ?AI E ?HA A J=  
AI ? HHA?J=I

AJ @ GKA =@A =I @A ABA?JEL

CH NH CH NH

AI F=H= E ?HA A J=H K = ?  A J  A J H@A =@= NE J= GKA CE H@A =@= NE J= GKA CE E E = AI A

IEIJA A @EHECEH @A B H = E JA ECA JA = > KIGKA@= =I @EHA??E

!"
Algoritmo IIB.1
) C HEJ
- JH=@= 5= E@=

+ = ?K
@A + =KIA . HJA >=?DAH = A?K=?E @N  C N
C N

@A = N I K?E CA AH=

CH N H

= >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A =I I K?E

AI @A = A?K=?E

 2

BA
EA JH=I 2 $
= * > ? 2

AH C O *

D=
*

BN

2 @N

C E E = A *
@N

BN

2 *N

BNCC
C

BN AE N  @AE C

 @AE

B N AE N


@N

! * AI = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A =I N I K?E

= FHKA>= @A GKA A = C HEJ

AI @A @N

= JAHE H AI ? HHA?J =F=HA?A A

+.&' O IA FKA@A HAIK EH A A IECKEA JA JA HA =

Teorema IIB.2

- = C HEJ

11 *  ?= ?K = = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A @N

A K

AH K

EJ @A F=I I

Demostraci on. 8AH +.&' A =I ! " O #

Reducci on de n umero de ecuaciones
0=IJ= E =H AIJA ? = ?K A =? = AI @A I= I ?DA J= I AIJK@E I I >HA = ? 2HE ?EF= FK J=?E @A N I K?E AI @A IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I IA ?A JH=H A HA=

E?= A?K=?E I >HA K = K

A JA =I
A=I = > KIGKA@= AN

FKJ=?E I >HA K = A?K=?E IA >=I=>= A I JH=>= I @A 07-%& O A J

D=KIJEL= IECKEA @

) &% O = > KIGKA@= E CK = @A AIJ I @ I A =I @A K = A?K=?E

@EHECE@= @=@= F H +.&' 0=IJ= AIA

B GKAI HAI L
= A FH > A = F=H= K IEIJA = ? @A A?K=?E AI
&

= I K?E GKA IA @=>= AH= = IECKEA JA IA= 5EIJ K IEIJA =

3 )

 

K = A?K=?E  A?K=?E AI

+=F
JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

5E ? IE@AH= I 0*

AI
K J @A 0E >AHJ @A 3 K =?

!#
 J >E =?E 

BK

K CA ?

@=I =I I K?E E A= ? @ AIJ= ? ? >JA A +

AI @A 5EIJ FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA ? 



? A ?EA JAI A JAH I F IEJEL I ? K >E =?E A ) >JA A  IKIJEJKE IK

?

KAL IEIJA = )
? 5E JA A

? K 5KIJEJKOA

 A?K=?E

AI ?KO=I L=HE=> AI I

I K = >=
? K O

IA @A 0E >AHJ @A IEIJA = )

I A ? K

I K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A =I N I K?E IE@AH=H IAA A J I

AI @A 5EIJ JA A

AIJA IEIJA = E ? KOA K = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A 5EIJ J= I I GKA ? AJ @ IA KI= @A

E E = AI F=H= >JA AH @E?D= ?=I A A ?K= IA F @

= KI=H

>=IA -IJA I

= AH= HA?KHHA JA D=IJ= GKA A IEIJA =

E?= A?K=?E IA D=O= HA@K?E@ = K = K

AJ @ I ANEIJA JAI F=H= K = A?K=?E

M etodo de Contejean-Devie
+,'" I =KJ HAI CA AH= E = A = C HEJ AI @E B = JE?=I
/ /AE
H Z

11 *  @A K = ,A J=HA KAL I

A?K=?E = ?K= GKEAH IEIJA = @A A?K=?E 5A= /N ?HA A J=H A K LA?J H F H / 8=  A IEIJA = @E B = JE? ? F H /N = LA?J H /N O F H /N =?

AE  = /N

GKA AGKEL= A = E K JEF E?=H A

H@A =@= E AIE = @A N O

I = =F E?=H =GK
= E@A= @A = @EHA??E ? HHA?J= @A + =KIA JH=H K = N I K?E @A IEIJA = - AIJA ?=I I = EH E ?HA A J= @ =B
=I ? HJ C H@A =
AE  AIJ A A A IA EAIF=?E GKA

. HJA >=?DAH F=H= A ? =@=I A ? ? JEA A =

/N O ?

F=HJEA @ @A = I K?E JHELE= L= = @EHA??E AE J= GKA /N HECA JEA A = @E?D FK J

AIJ = @AJAH E =@ F H A DEFAHF = -IJ= ?

@E?E GKA@= AI?HEJ= ?

IECKA
E ?HA A J=H = ? -IJ K?E AI I = A?K=?E H@A =@= NE A  IE /N
/AE 

I FAH EJA HAIJHE CEH A AIF=?E @A > KIGKA@= @A =I N I E E = AI IE FAH@AH E CK = >JA A I =? JAIA GKA A A ?=I @A K = @E?E @=@= F H + =KIA . HJA >=?DAH

!$
A@E= JA AIJ= ? @E?E

+ = ?K
>JA A

@A = N I K?E CA AH=
I K = C HEJ C A A F=H= ?= ?K =H

= >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? D

Algoritmo IIB.3

) C HEJ
5= E@=

@A +

JA A= ,ALEA C A A /N 

- JH=@= 7 IEIJA = D

= >=IA @A 0E >AHJ /

 2

BA
= * > ? 2

AH C O *

EA JH=I 2 $
*

BN

2 /N

C
*N$ IC /AE 

BN

2 * &I

BN AE N

/N

C AI @A /N 

! * AI = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A =I N I K?E

= FHKA>= @A GKA A = C HEJ

= JAHE H AI ? HHA?J =F=HA?A A

+,'" O IA FKA@A HAIK EH A A IECKEA JA JA HA =

Teorema IIB.4

- = C HEJ

11 * ! ?= ?K = = >=IA @A 0E >AHJ @A /N

A K

AH K

EJ @A F=I I

Demostraci on. 8AH +,'" FH F IE?E

2=H= HAI LAH K IEIJA = HAI LAH K IEIJA = D JA O @AIFK AI J ECK= = K HEJ )@A =I A KI= @ = I +,'" 11 ) ! D

AI  O
C A A AI ? I =KJ HAI HA?KHHA = A J AH E E @AFA @EA H@A =@= JE = ? =K

C A A = F E=@ ? =I N I K?E

I =KJ HAI @= K = HALEIE @A AIJA = C ?K= HAIK J= K = C HEJ EI = =JKH= A = =K GKA @A =

=I AIJHK?JKH=I @A FE =I @A

=I A ?EA JA A AIF=?E O JEA F

N soluci on general mediante el Lema de Dickson

- AIJ= IA??E L= ? I I = @=H K AJ @ GKA KI= A A = @A ,E K J @A CA AH=@ HAI F=H= ?= ?K =H @A B H = HA?KHHA JA A ?

+=F
JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

E E = AI @A K IK>? ,E?D HAIK J=@ IEIJA = @E B = JE? ,=@
NH @A

AI

!%

K J @A NH GKA LAHE GKA ?EAHJ=I FH FEA@=@AI I = >JA AH = N I K?E CA AH= = K I F H E

I 
H IE  E 

=F E?=HA J=HA


IH 

C
K J

Lema IIB.5

 A = @A ,E? I

 5A=
.

NH I

O IA= . A ?

BIC

0 E 

- J

?AI 0

0.

Demostraci on. -I IK ?EA JA FH >=H GKA

&
O= GKA JHELE= 5A= ANEIJA A JA . IE
E

'
I

. ?

D=O =@= GKA FH >=H ?AI F=H=

?
E

JH ?=I OF H


ANEIJA J= J
O =F E

K
@E?A E J= GKA
2 @A I?

IE - J

E

0 E  ?
IE@AH=H E AC= K IK>? K J @A NH  I @EIJE J I

?=H @A KAL A A = = JAHE H F=H= >JA AH =I

0 E F=I I @A = HA?KHHA ?E= ? K J I0


I = GKA JA A

I GKA >JA AH @EIJE J I

H

?


E

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E

F=H= @AJAH E =@ I

N 

E HO  H

Corolario IIB.6

0 AI
? K J

EJ


JE Demostraci on. - A K @A N + E? A A A J JEA A K K EJ= @A ? K J I EJ I

F=I @A = HA?KHHA ?E= AC=

N AI K ?

K J >EA

H@A =@ EJ EJ

0  AI L=?

I = K IK> A JA F H

A F=HJE?K =H AI I GKA 0 AI

6HELE=

= HA?KHHA ?E= @A 11 * # JA A

F H IAH K = K E

!&
- A = 11 * # IAH =?
IE O

+ = ?K

@A = N I K?E CA AH=
@A?E@E> AI @ I =IFA?J I

IJHK?JEL IE I
L=?
I

I @EIJE J I  I

IE K A A A J FAHJA A?A = 7 IK>? F @A K J @A N @EHA I EH J = @

= = C K

I GKA AI ?

IJHK?JE> A IE A A I K J AI ?

@A?E

@E> AI =I @ I ?KAIJE

AI = JAHE HAI 5E K ? I A A A J I I GKA

IJHK?JE> A

I D=?A B= J= F=H= =F E?=H D=O GKA KI=H = K AH=>E E

@A B H = HA?KHHA JA A A = = JAHE H I @=@ @A N K?E KAIJH ?=I I I JA A ?

I GKA =F E?=H AIJA HAIK J=@ = =I N I - AIJA ? JANJ J @ I I? K I IA IJHK?JE> AI O = = AH= @A I=>AH IE I

AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? O @A A ? JH=H K

J I GKA A F A= L=?
I

A A A J GKA FAHJA A ?= = A A ? = ?K @A =I N I K?E AJ @

JH=@K?A A ?= ?K =H N I K?E - A IECKEA JA = C HEJ ?K =HAI IA FKA@A HA= E =H

AI F=HJE?K =HAI = IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I AI F=HJE A@E= JA ?K= GKEAH

Algoritmo IIB.7

N I K?E

AI =


E E = AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI O A J AH E E @AFA @EA JA /N

>

- JH=@=

5A= H A

AH @A ? K K

5= E@= 0/ ?

=I @A /
NH /

>C

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I I

K = E ? C EJ= O = I K?E AI JHELE= I IE / AI L=?

I 0/
IH  IE

@AJAH E = I

KI= @ A = C HEJ

GKA GKAH= ! 5E / AI L=?

" JH ?=I 

@AL LA IA= I
HO

O JAH E =

I 

/
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# 2=H= E @A

= AH= HA?KHHA JA A = C HEJ

+=F
JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

$ += ?K = IA ?

AI

!'

K J 0. ?
.

BIC

H IE  E 

0/ E 

% ,AL LA

I 0/

0.
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)F E?= @ A = C HEJ C A A O = IK IEIJA = D GKA D C A A

I ?= ?K = = N I K?E CA AH= = K IEIJA = @E B = JE?

Algoritmo IIB.8

N I K?E CA AH= = K IEIJA = @E B = JE?

- JH=@= - IEIJA = /N 5= E@= - ?

K J

/ @A =I N I K?E
I/

>

AI @A /N

>

 ,AJAH E = ,AJAH E = ! = I= E@= AI

NH /

C KI= @ 11 * %

I 0/ ?

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B


NH /

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0/

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I 11 * % O 11 * & FKA@A IAH F=H= A E =@ I = IAH I ? = ?K I @A I @EIJE J I ? K J I GKA =F=HA?A A H=@ GKA IK JEA F @A ? FKJ F @H
= IAH JEF AI FH ?AI=@ HAI K

H@A =@ H ?

PARTICULAR IIC. CALCULO DE UNA N SOLUCION

I = JAHE HAI IEIJA = @A A?K=?E -NEIJA AJ @ I ?= ?K = = N I K?E CA AH= @A K ?=F=?AI O @=H K = AI @E B = JE?=I - F=HJE?K =H J= >E A I
N I K?E

@A @AJA?J=H IE K IEIJA = JEA A > A = O GKA F=I= I = @AI?HE>EH = ?

AJ @ I @A@E?=@ I AIJHE?J= A JA = HAI LAH AIJA FH JE K=?E

"

+ = ?K

@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H

Lema de Farkas para sistemas homog eneos

I=>AH @A AJ @ GKA L= I = FHAIA J=H = ? JE K=?E I FAH EJA C A A JEA A = AH= H =FE@= IE K IEIJA = @E B = JE? D C A A ? IA J
H

= CK = N I K?E 5E A IEIJA = @A F=HJE@= AI D ?E= @A I K?E AI A Q 5KF

?G C

AI A ?=I  AI AGKE AI A Q AIF=?E C= IF H

LH
QG

L= A JA AIJK@E=H = ANEIJA ?E= @A N I K?E C= LA?J HE= @A =I I K?E I J= >E A GKA B?
+ = =  G H

AI GKA AIJK@E=H = ANEIJA ?AI GKA C A A 11 *  5KF O @A I L K IK A JA

?G C

AI @A IEIJA = D =I I
Q ?
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Q AI K = >=IA @A

=JHE ?KO=I =I @A + M

MG 

B?
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= A Q H

= =I ? K IE ANEIJA M
M

JAIA GKA ANEIJA K

IE O I @A AIJ I
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FH @K?J I AI AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL

QG AI = IECKEA JA

= HA =?E A JHA K

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LE   & E

Proposici on IIC.1

5A= L LA?J H M

LH
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LE $

= FHKA>= = D=HA C= I GKA H

= AH= HA?KHHA JA I >HA H ANEIJA I K?E

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J @=I =I ?
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@=I K =I I= L
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I GKA H 
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L

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ANEIJA M O F H
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J= J IM

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11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

+ K IE@AHA
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?AI GKA ANEIJA F FAH F = AH= IECKEA JA

LE
LH LH & E L F
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F

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5E ANEIJA F AI IK ?EA JA ?

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Algoritmo IIC.2

) C HEJ
- JH=@= 7

@A .=H =I  4 5'#  I LA?J HAI L

LH
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5= E@= 7 LA?J H IE ANEIJA M

L

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LE O LE $ 

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F=H= E @AI@A A = C HEJ ! 5E " 5E F # 5A=

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= AH= HA?KHHA JA

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H

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)D H= F @A I KI=H AIJA = C HEJ F=H= A ? JH=H ?=I @A GKA C A A ANEIJ= K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? D

Algoritmo IIC.3

N I K?E F=HJE?K =H @A K IEIJA = D

C A A 

- JH=@=

=JHE @A IEIJA = @E B = JE? /N

5= E@= 7 = N I K?E

JHELE= K @A IEIJA = ?=I @A GKA ANEIJ= E?= E ? C EJ= I K = K =JHE ?KO=I  6 =I I = KAC = I K?E AI

E?= = I K?E JHELE= IE AI = K  5E H JHELE= 5E H 

+

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K = >=IA @A Q AIF=?E
LH =I ? K

LA?J HE= @=@ F H /N

I L

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! 2=H= E 
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= ,AJAH E =H KI= @ A = C HEJ

11 +
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IE ANEIJA K LA? 
@A
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J H M J= GKA M LE
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K

L

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Lema de Farkas para sistemas no homog eneos

? 5KF 2=H= A ? C A A IEIJA = 2+86'& CA AH= E = C= I I A KI @A A = @A .=H =I F=H= A D C A A I IE@AH= I GKA A D C A A 11 *  JH=H N I K?E AI F=HJE?K =HAI = IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I =@ A IEIJA = @E B = JE? CA AE =@  > /N I =I J=?E

JH=H K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H = @E?D IEIJA = ? ? D IE@AH= AI @=@=I A 11 + JA A

K IE O I
H

I A IEIJA = D

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C A A JEA A K = N I K?E

' K
O IE O I IE

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Q ?

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N &E

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QG J= GKA

.=H =I = IEIJA =I FH > A = @=@ I L

M L LH


C A A I JA A


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5E L
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JAIA GKA A IEIJA = GKA C A A J= 5A= BI  + AIJ=I J=?E IF H, = = =JHE I


I @A

ID C K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 ,A

D



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AI JA A

I A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@

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AGKEL= A JAI  'M

QG ?

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LE

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&E


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O
N J= GKA

5A=

)M -I ? =H GKA

5 O A J

,O ,A = ?

>E =?E
D OD

E A= L 

2H 

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L

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+ = ?K
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@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H
@A@K?E I GKA I H= C I @A ) O @A >E =?E E A=

ECK= AI KAC A IEIJA = AI ? = E =H = @A IJH=?E

E

F=JE> A 5A= M K = I K?E

>=IJ= IA = =H GKA = ?

E LE E F E?= GKA M L



H  )M



H  ,O

+ ?E ?

? H =HE @A = FH F IE?E = JAHE H JA A IJHKE@= = F=HJEH @A A

 O
D OD

I GKA K IEI

JA = @E B = JE? =@ EJA K = N I K?E IE O I F IE?E = JAHE H ? IECKEA JA = C HEJ

IE = =@ EJA K = A?K=  ) IAH = FH AJ @ I ABA?JEL I

IJHK?JEL= O JA EA @ @EIJE J I K KAL = C HEJ

F=H= HAI LAH A N K = A?K=?E @E B = JE?= L= = K IEIJA = @E B = JE?

I = JA AH = F=HJEH @A

F=H= ?= ?K =H K = N I K?E

Algoritmo IIC.5

) C HEJ

@A .=H =I CA AH= E =@  2+86'& 

K J @A LA?J HAI L
G

- JH=@= 7 ?

LH

QG ?

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5= E@= 7 LA?J H ?=I @A ANEIJEH M

Q J= GKA M

OM

LE

&E
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9 J

I 9 A Q AIF=?E LA?J HE= CA AH=@ F H L = IM

L L L

LH

5E L
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I L = FH OA??E
O F=H= I I A = C HEJ
E LE ?

HJ C
11 +
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= @A L A 9

,AL LA
JH ?=I

=F E?=
2H 

5E L O F=H=
" 6 + =

E   A J

D=O I K?E

I
JE K= I
2H 

JH ?=I ?

IK =? I +N

>E =?E L

E LE

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=JHE ?KO=I

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@A =

I LA?J HAI L

LH

IE@AH=

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AI E F
?EJ=I @A Q AIF=

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11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

AI
=I @A ) C KI=HA
ID 
D OD

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?E LA?J HE= CA AH=@ F H =I ? K J= I BI

5

QH +

FK

ID C K IEIJA = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A

BI

N +I

KI= @ A = C HEJ $ 5A= 

D

11 * % - AIJA = C HEJ 
H  , ?
ND J= GKA
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I 11 + $

F=H= ?= ?K =H K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H



I 

5E ANEIJA O LA
-

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I M K = I K?E F=HJE?K =H @A )N I
D=O I K?E KAC F=H= JH ?=I
F @A

O F=H=

,A AIJA = C HEJ

I >JA AH JH GKA D

I @= K = N I

K?E F=HJE?K =H @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE?

C A A
D

Algoritmo IIC.6

N I K?E

F=HJE?K =H KI= @ A A = @A .=H =I F=H= IEIJA =I

>?

C A A I
- JH=@= 7 IEIJA = /N

11 *  11 + !

5= E@= 7 = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H IE ANEIJA

 5E > 5E H ! 5E H 

 KI=  JA A IA=
LH

I = = C HEJ

E?= E ? C EJ= KAC @AJA?J=H K = N I IK =K  > / 5A= ?

QG

K?E AI JHELE=
?G K = >=IA @A Q AIF=?E

LA?J HE= @=@ F H =I I K?E " 5A= L =I @A = AI =F E?=



AI @A I ?

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?G ) AIJ I LA?J HAI

I LA?J HAI ? HHAIF =I I 11 + #

=JHE ?KO=I I A = C HEJ

5E ANEIJA M  K

QG J= GKA M L

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L

N A J

?AI

= I= E@= AI K @
M ?

@A
MG ?G M LH  

"&
O F=H=
-

+ = ?K
I

@A K = N I K?E F=HJE?K =H

JH ?=I

D=O I K?E
I = C HEJ

KAC F=H=

I
I A K

-I @A @AIJ=?=H GKA

I A = =@ I = JAHE HAI

?
? E? I O= GKA J= J A 11 + # ?
N I K?E

A 11 * % IA L= HA@K?EA @ A

H @A L=HE=> AI D=IJ= AC=H = K = I = - AIA ?=I AI JHELE= @=H K =

M etodo usando Bases de Gr obner

6= J A ? = ?K @A F E
1 ;

2 6' ?

+6'

I =KJ HAI KI=

=I >=IAI

@A /H > AH O = 6A H
= @A - E E =?E F=H= HAI LAH A FH > A = @A @A N I K?E E I


AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? 11 *  ?

6 O A E@A= @A ;/  A


,=@ K IEIJA = @E B = JE? ?

H

IE@AH=

IA = E

;

;


E@ F H
;/AH  ;/AH 
H

; 6  ;/A  ;/A 

;/  A

Teorema IIC.7

=I

J=?E

AI = JAHE HAI IE ANEIJA A 1 K >E IE ;? 6@

N - J= ?=I
H

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/N @

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> @   > JEA A K = N I K?E IE O I
N J= GKA ?

@A = B H =

AI K = N I K?E @ 1 ? AI K = 

N I K?E

Demostraci on. 8AH 2 6' O +6'

,A = JAHE H JA HA = IA >JEA A K = C HEJ IEIJA = @E B = JE?
N I K?E

F=H= I=>AH IE K C A A F IAA K =

J= J D

C A A ? D

D C A A

-IJA = C HEJ
? @

F=I= A A ?=I

F H ?= ?K =H K =

>=IA @A /H > AH @A 1 HAIFA?J = K

H@A @A A E E =?E @A 6 A ; O

HA@K?EH ; 6 HAIFA?J @A A =  +6'  5E A HAIK J=@ @A AIJ= HA@K??E

+=F
JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

AI K?E >E =I
E

AI
JH ?=I A IEIJA =

"'
JEA A N I I = C K

JA A AI

I K = N I K?E C A A

- A ?=I D E @A = B H = FA?J @A

D=O GKA ? F=H= EH=

FH >=H IE JA A

 A K = >=IA @A /H > AH HA@K?E@= @A 1 HAI I FHE AH O ANE? CH = ?= A JA = A JA A H@A E @A I A CH=@ -

H@A F H A ?K= ?

O A ?=I @A ECK= @=@  JA A AI

ANE? CH = ?  2 6'  5E A AI= >=IA @A /H > AH D=O K >E =B H = 5E = H I

1 GKA J

I K = N I K?E

JH ?=I

A IEIJA =

JEA A N I K?E

=JHE @A IEIJA = AIJKLEAIA B H =@= F H A A A J I A JA  F @H

= A E E =HIA = L=HE=> A 6 O A E@A= I IAH
=
1 ;/A 


AC=JEL I /AE  =H
=

;/A

;/AH  H H

+ DA

AIJA IKFKAIJ JH=>= =H

= I LEIJ A CA AH= JH=>= = - 11 , # LAHA

I? I?

L=HE=> AI )K GKA ?  L=HE=> AI

I K = FJE E =?E O CA AH= E =?E @A AIJA

? = ?K

KI= @ E@A= AI @A IA ECHKF I

IID. SISTEMAS DIOFANTICOS EN CONGRUENCIAS

7 JA = =FA =I JH=J=@ A =I F=HJAI @A AIJ=
&

= EJAH=JKH= O GKA AI = >=IA @A = CK @A =I N I K?E AI

HE= AI A AIJK@E O ? = ?K

@A IEIJA =I @E B = JE? I A ?
 N  N 

CHKA ?E=I -I @A?EH IEIJA =I @A JEF

H NH
H NH

N N N N N

> > >D >D >D



5EIJ 

D N

DH NH

D  N

D 

D H NH

@ =  @ = I

D I N

D I

D IH NH

#
@ @A
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5EIJA =I ,E B = JE? I A +
= O >E I

CHKA ?E=I
D IE 

AH I A JAH I O K

E

-I B =?E AI @A =

ANJA @AH A

I HAIK J=@ I I >HA = AIJHK?JKH= @A =I N I K?E CHKA ?E=I ? F @A J=

I

= JAHE H IA??E = K IEIJA = A ? = IECKEA JA

I =FHA?E=H

Nota IID.1

I A =I 11 )  O 11 ) CHKA ?E=I

?EAHJ I IE A IEIJA = @E B = JE? AI A ?

2AH A =JA =JE?=I K = ? I= I =I AIJHK?JKH=I O JH= I AJ @ I @A ? = ?K - AJ @ =JKH= O ? =IE? F=H= ?= ?K =H =I N I K?E AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? A ? CHKA ?E=I F=I= F H = =@EH = IEIJA = KAL=I L=HE=> AI GKA =>I H>= =I ? CHKA ?E=I HAI LEA @
&
 N  N 

N N N N N

H NH
H NH

> > >D >D  >D

5EIJ  

D  N

DH NH

D  N

D 

D H NH

J = JI =I

J = JI =I

D I N

D I 

D IH NH

5E ?
 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (

IE@AH=  
=

I =   
=

=JHE          
N /N
H I H

 
=

  
=

    
>

   
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 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + )

ZD

I

 

 

O @A O

J=

IF H

BN


@ = C
>C

BN

/ 6N

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JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

IA I=JEIB=?A = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@

AI

#

Propiedad IID.2
   O 0 0  

@ @=I

@A  NH

 NH AI = FH OA??E I >HA =I FHE AH=I H ? H@A =

> AJ =JA =JE? = GKA LE@A I GKA A
FK

1 JH @K?EH KAL=I L=HE=> AI I >HA K IA L= = =F E?=H K = C HEJ ?= ?K

J=?E =

@A = J= ?

F A E@=@ F AJ

@A N I K?E @A

AI AI

2 ?

AI K = F
JE?= ? I ALEJ=H IE HA= E = I GKA IA= A ?EA JA

A JA ? HHA?J= ; AI = C

GKA @A>A

= C K ? = ?K 5E ?E F @A

= AH= ABA?JEL= O FHAJA @A I AI A ? - AIJA ?=I @A F E AJ @ IE E =H =

GKA GKAHA I =F E?=H K

JH=H ?=I @A GKA ANEIJ= K = N I K I ANF E?=@ I A 11 + K J I KAL=I L=HE=> AI O= 

I L=HE=> AI

= = FH FEA@=@ 11 ,

GKA A E@A= =I ?E=@ = IA ECHKF CA AH=@ F H A IEIJA = 5EIJ AI ?= ?K =@ A K = E E I?

H

E JH @K?E

2=H= ?= ?K =H = N I K?E CA AH= @A K IEIJA = A ? ?E=I IA D= KI=@ ? =IE?= A JA K ?A A 4/5'& )@A =I A @A AIJ I IEIJA =I F H J=?E AJ @ >=I=@ A 11 ,

CHKA AI FK

O GKA =F=HA = > KIGKA@=

4/5'& IA @= K = ? J= @A =I N I K?E GKA F @H

= =F E?=HIA J= >E A I JA EA @ A FH > A = ? I=?

AND=KIJEL= ,A J @=I B H =I IACKE = @A = =@EH L=HE=> AI I FH > A = I @A ? C A A I A AJ @ I GKA A K ?E= = JA EA @ A H F A E@=@ = J= =

JE K=?E FKA@A ALEJ=H AIA D =I GKA HA= E =HA I I ? = ?K

=I H  ?=I @A IEIJA =I

AH @A L=HE=> AI ? K

N soluci on particular mediante ideales de semigrupos

-IJA = C HEJ @ I A 11 + AI @A =JKH= A = IE E =H = I = C HEJ I ANF E?= = FHE ?EF= @EBAHA ?E= A ?K= J = = LA ?E@=@ @A ? FKJ @A E@A= @A IA ECHKF =I ?E=@ = IEIJA =

LEA A @=@= F H A ? = ?K

#
I =@A =I

5EIJA =I ,E B = JE? I A +
5EIJ GKA IA HA= E =H = KI= @ A = C HEJ I IECKEA JAI HAIK J=@ I 1 ,

CHKA ?E=I
A?AIEJ=

LAH 86'' 

Teorema IID.3

- IEIJA = 5EIJ =@ EJA K = N I K?E IE O I @A = B H = :H

5

D

IE ANEIJA K >E

: A A E@A= =I ?E=@ = IA ECHKF


H

>

Z = Z

Z =I Z

IKFF: - J= ?=I

AI K = N I K?E @A 5EIJ

Demostraci on. 8AH 86''

2=H= LAH IE K >E E ? A @A JA HA = = JAHE H FAHJA A?A I A IECKEA JA A =
E= LAHE ?= @ :H


= E@A= =I ?E=@ = 5 KI=HA

Lema IID.4

.E A

IA

:

:H

H@A

O IA= : J= GKA H 

IKFF: 5A= 1 A E@A= =I ?E=@ = IA ECHKF 5 @A

JA HA = = JAHE H O IA= * = >=IA @A /H > AH HA@K?E@= @A 1 - J

?AI

' :H
@ HAI >E

' :H

: 

)@A =I IE 5 AI K IA ECHKF E= AI @A 1 ?

= =O= = O * K ?

K J @A CA AH=

? A ?EA JAI  

A?AI=HE= A JA >=IA @A

/H > AH J= >E A AI ?EAHJ A HAIK J=@

Demostraci on. 8AH 86''

;= AIJ= IA ? @E?E AI @A ANF E?EJ=H KAIJH = C HEJ
CHKA ?E=I
E

Algoritmo IID.5

+ = ?K

@A N I K?E F=HJE?K =H F=H= IEIJA =I A ? K J @A A?K=?E JA @HA 

= 5A= A IA ECHKF 5

H

- JH=@= 7 ? 5= E@= 5=>HA

AI ?

5EIJ ?

$ 

I IE A IEIJA = =@ EJA I K = N I K?E

K = N I K?E A NH -

?=I = H =JEL  5E >

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JK

11 5EIJA =I @E B = JE? I N I K?E

> += ?K =

AI
:

#!
:H E@A= @A 5 KI= @ A =

I 15 1 , AI

C HEJ E= AI ?
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E E = AI @A K IEIJA = @E B = JE? A ? =JHE @A ? A ?EA JAI A J AH E

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IIE. NOTAS
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5+0'$  I J= J F H F H

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,A KAL L= E= I=? IE@AH=H K IA ECHKF AA A J AKJH
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5A= 5 K IA ECHKF ?= ?A =JEL AA A J

3 3 A J

=>A E= 

EJ= A JA CA AH=@ @K

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JK I GKA 04 AI K ? EJ
J=?E

11 O A F=HJE?K =H F H A A = @A ,E? I OF H J= J J= >E A AI I AIJA DA?D F=H= @A IJH=H GKA

04 - A IECKEA JA HAIK J=@ KI=

Lema IVA.6

=I

AI = JAHE HAI IA JEA A GKA +

04

- F=HJE?K =H + AI

EJ
I A K FHE AH + A J GKA 
 J

Demostraci on. )IK =

- F=HJE?K =H JA A

+ 
4

04

I GKA
J

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).
4



).J
) ? ?AI ANEIJA 5E ?

IE@AH=H GKA


04 04 O

- J




FKA@A IAH
N I K?E


 

@A )
 



E E = A  J= GKA


IE@AH=

IA A A A J AI 5 EJ = IAH
I HA =?E =

). 

GKA + A

5 OF H

J= J K J

E E = A

04 JA A 4 F HGKA $
+

DA

I AC=@ = K = ?

JH=@E??E O= GKA

+ AI K ?

04
IAA A J I5 E E = AI @A
5 GKA

Nota IVA.7

JAIA GKA A A = 18 ) $
4 ?

E E = AI @A 4

04 -IJ IAH = K = FEA = ? =LA = =

I I CH=@ I
F=H=

D H= @A =? J=H A CH=@ @A =I FHE AH=I IE?ECE=I @A = CA>H= LAHA I A 8 * ! ,A DA?D A @E?D= IA??E =? J=HA F H AIJ=H A +
>JA A I K = C HEJ
5 F=H= ?DAGKA=H

A@E= JA IK FAHJA A ?E= = 04 O

A ? = ?K @A K ? K J EJ +

)F E?= @ =D H= A A = 18 ) $

I AA A J I

&
5 J= AI GKA 0 

+
$ 

K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA

Algoritmo IVA.8

) C HEJ

@A +DAGKA K J @A CA AH=@ HAI B K J O.


H

- JH=@= K ? 5= E@= + K ?

C @A 5
5 J= AI GKA 0 

EJ F=H= ?DAGKA=H

$

  /

B.

2   .  !C .O& F
C
?KO ? K J @A L AHJE?AI AI 04


EA JH=I . $
= 2=H= .

AI .  += ?K =H A IK>?  += ?K =H A ? ! /
> .

K J @A N I K?E

K J + = F=HJEH @A 04
.

B

+ C

. .
.

! +

DKA? @A

O

.

/C

-IJA = C HEJ =

18 ) &

I FAH EJA A K ?E=H A IECKEA JA JA HA

Teorema IVA.9

- ?

K J + @A 5 CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A @K @A IE?ECE=I @A I?

IEIJA =

E E = @A
5

CA AH=@ HAI @A FHE AH

5 FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@

@A B H = ABA?JEL= = JH=L AI @A

F A I IE F E?E= AI
18 ) &

Demostraci on. 1


A@E=J= @A = C HEJ

A@E= JA 11 ) " O I = C HEJ I @A ? = ?K @A N I K?E AI @A ?=F

JK 11 IA FKA@A >JA AH AIJA ? K J ?= ?K = @ =I N I K?E AI E E = AI @A IEIJA =

) A

7I= @ A A = 18 ) $ F @A I ?= ?K =H + ? FH >= @ IE =I @EBAHA ?E=I @A A A A J I @A 04 AIJ = A 5 E A I 5 E E = AI

+=F
JK

18 + = ?K

@A 2HE AH

@K

@A 5E?ECE=I
KAL = C HEJ


&
F=H= ? FK IK = F=H= J @ I ?= ?K =
+ J

7I= @ 111 ) " DA J=H K IEIJA = =

I >JA E@ K

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A H I
0 

I K = >=IA @A AIF=?E 0 

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>=IA @A 8   = JH=L AI @A EI

  8  
@K

Corolario IVA.10

7 ?

K J
+

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A FHE AH

=I @AJ= A F=H= ? E>HA

@A IE?ECE=I @A
18 ) &

5 FKA@A IAH @AJAH E =@ KI= @ A = C HEJ

18 ) &

IJHKEH = F=HJEH @A = C HEJ A ? = ?K ? @A ?

= HAI K?E = C HEJ = C HEJ

E E = @A K = L=HEA@=@ J HE?= D=O GKA =F E?=H A K J + IA HA= E = I @A AIJA ? K J + K J I AI K J EJ GKA JEA A + O GKA AI = I= E@= @A C
= HA@K?E@= =I ?E=@= =

111 ) # - FHE AH F=I 18 ) & 7 = LA +

= F=HJEH @A K ? AA A J I

>JA E@ + A E E =

5 J= AI GKA = D

K = - HAIK J=@ @A AIJ= IA A??E AI A ?

IVB. NOTAS
)K GKA A ? GKA DA A GKA F HJ= EA J ? FKJ=?E AI >KA = @A I = C HEJ I I @AI?HEJ A AIJA ?=F
JK IK E F HJ= ?E= H=@E?=

I FAH EJA ? FHA @AH ? >E =J HE= A JA A = CA>H= =I ?E= @= = K IA ECHKF -IJ= AI = @EBAHA ?E= FHE ?EF= ? I = C HEJ I >=I=@ I A >=IAI @A /H > AH LAH -15'# JA HA = @A 5?DHAOAH  O= GKA AIJ I I IE I K = DAHH= EA J= @A ? = ?K O K = L
= @A ? FHA

+)2 167

+ = ?K @A = 4AI K?E E>HA E E =

INTRODUCCION
+ A ?=F
JK I = JAHE HAI L=
5

H

I=?

IE@AH=H
Z =I

Z =

 = K J

=I 

ZI O J= GKA 5

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0E 

BC 5A=
 $ C K J

B

HC O IA=

+E A ?

+E

- AIJA ?=F
JK @A E AIE
+E

L=

I = @=H K ?

EJ @A ?DAGKA

+E

J= GKA IE ANEIJA K A A A J A K IEIJA = +E 2=H= A @K @A IE?ECE= @A I CA AH= E =HA = JAHE H I HJA= @ I?

5 IK CH=@ FAHJA A?A = +E AI @A?EH

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI 

I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I F=H= E I @EIJE J I FH > A =I GKA IKHCA K J I +E = JAHE HAI =? J=HA

A A ?=F
JK = CA AH= E =H

)@A =I = F=HJEH @A CH=@ @A

IA

I A A A J I GKA =F=HA?A A K IEIJA =

E E = @A CA A

&"
H=@ HAI @A E AIE =HA HA @K

K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
5 +

@A IE?ECE=I @A KAIJH= = CA>H= ANF E?EJ=HA

I @= @ K = ? J= F=H= = FHE AH= IE?ECE= O @AIFK AI CA AH= E = JE I AIJ= ? J= = ?K= GKEAH IE?ECE= 2 H K I K = ? J=

F=H= = HACK =HE@=@ @A K = L=HEA@=@ J HE?= FH OA?JEL= O K = C HEJ F=H= ?= ?K =H = FH FE= HACK =HE@=@

VA. CONJUNTO FINITO DE CHEQUEO

- IECKEA JA A = L= = IAH K = FEA = ? =LA A O= GKA = ECK= GKA 18 ) ! ? AIJ= =FH NE =?E F @HA
 AI

= CA AH= E =?E I I K = /H=?E=I = @A +E

*E  . IE

I @= K = =FH NE =?E @A ? C
= AI AJ @ @A ? = ?K
E

F A I IE F E?E= AI ?KO= E AIE = D I @=H K

Lema VA.1

5KF
2J

C=
. 
5J

I GKA 0E 


K = O IA= ? 

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BC F=H= ?=@=

?AI IA JEA A GKA
. 'G   G  J

J J= AI GKA . $

5E .

. A J

&F
Demostraci on. +
F . 5KF

.G O .G

B FC
. '    J J= GKA .OF . F=H=

A ?A I F=H= A
J :

I FH >= @ GKA &F ? JH=HE

C=

AI @A?EH F

?K= GKEAH

   J - AIA ?=I
? 
. . BFC .

BFC

+E  

 
J -IJ

2AH ? F=I A
. BFC

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= IE@AH= 6 A IA I ?

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J= J 

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AI F IE> A = IAH ?

KAC O= DA C=

I FH >=@

KAIJH FHE AH
. 5E .  B FC .  B FC

. O IKF

I F H ?

@E@=@ GKA F JH=HE K J .

E

I JAH E =@ AH K
? 


= FHKA>= - ?=I ?

B


.COA ?

. . (E  . 

-I ? =H GKA ?

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+=F
JK

8 + = ?K

@A = 4AI K?E
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.

@E .  E . $ .



. . .



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.

I HAA F = =@ A ? = JEA A = F A@E= JA K = E @K??E A

. - ?K= GKEAH . O GKA

?=H= . F H L=HE=I ?=H=I @EIJE J=I = . GKA I

? I=? JE K=H ?
E KAL ?  JA A K J .

5E . AI ?=I


I = ECK= @=@ .



KAIJH

IECKA LAHE ?= @ GKA F

$  2 H H=
I GKA ANEIJA

= EA J I = = C I = = JAHE H =D H= I >HA ? I=>A

F=H= = C K G ?=I ?
?
2J 

JH=HE


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= I JAH E =@  . BFC F @A I ? IJHKEH = F=HJEH @A ? O @A
K
 

= AH= = = C= = IK >JA ?E
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KAL A A A J ?

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.


@A  ,A

 

BC F=H= ?K= GKEAH

EA @

O J=


GKA .      

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.   .

.  C O .

>JA A

5E F
 

.


ANEIJA G

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. G

,A KAL JA A @A KAL F
.
 

IA  

= ECK= @=@ F HGKA . AI

 

$  KAIJH HAIK J=@ IA >JEA A F H HA?KHHA ?E=

&$
O= GKA AIJA FH ?AI JAH E = A K FH FEA@=@  GKEAH ? 


+
AH K

K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
EJ @A F=I I CH=?E=I = =

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2J

5KF
E

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J . $ . IE $

 . @

@A 

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IA = ?=
.


.

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@A .

5J

BC F=H= ?K= GKEAH



. - J

?AI

5E A
.


  J= GKA F

= = ECK= @=@ AI IK ?EA JA =F E?=H = ?AI >JA A 2 H

IA

DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E = ? - J O.



I GKA ANEIJA
.G ?

B FC

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EI I ?

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=
5E A   IA = ?= J GKA A A ?=I ? IE A   AIJA FH ?AI C=H= JE = + A O= DA
.
E

I JAH E =@
=HCK A IJHKE JE K=  I? I I 5E >JA A JAH E =

= = ECK= @=@ HAFAJE

= JAI ,A KAL A ?K= AI

I A HAIK J=@ F H E @K??E JH ?=I ?

IA JEA A = ECK= @=@ -

EJ O= GKA = FH FEA@=@ 

I FH >=@ A HAIK J=@

5? .J 0E 

-IJA A = 8 )  =I ?E= = ?=@=

.

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K J

O K = IAHEA @A IK>?  .
5J

K J I .

J= AI GKA

. E &

@E .  ! . 7I=HA I >HA IK>?

I AIJ=I FH FEA@=@AI F=H= @=H K =I KAL=I @A K J I @A

@EHA I GKA

E?E

AI

Denici on VA.2

5A= A ?

K J .

B.

.J C AI K = E JHE= CK =?E

@A . IE IA I=JEIB=?A  @E . 

=I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI 

J

E &

+=F
JK

8 + = ?K

@A = 4AI K?E
.
5J

E>HA

E E =

&%

)@A =I @EHA
5 IE .

I GKA 

AI K = E JHE= CK =?E @A . A

&

J O.

JAIA GKA @A
.A . DKA?

B.

.J C AI K = JHE= CK =?E

@A . A ?=H=I E?E @A

@A @E A IE E -IJ AI K = CA AH= E =?E @A = @A

O= GKA K . DKA? AI K JEF AIFA?E= @A  JHE= CK =?E @A JA A IK = JHE= CK =?E @A K ?

- A IECKEA JA A A F FA IE F E?E=

Ejemplo VA.3

.E =@ .

B

'C O A ?

FA

@=@ F H = CKH= 8  F @A

Figura V.1. E JHE= CK =?E

8

7 1 2 3

5 4

&&
@A EH ? K =

+
JHE= CK =?E @A . A
. .! .# .% .' . .!

K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA

B &C B ! &C B! " &C B" # &C B# $ &C B$ % &C B%  &C B.

B 'C . " B ! 'C .$ B! " 'C .& B" # 'C . B# $ 'C . B$ % 'C ." B%  'C ." C
.

6A A ?E D C
= AI

I K

HAIK J=@ AI ? K=

= = C =

A = 18 ) ! GKA

I HA =

= =I JHE= CK =?E

I A A A J I A 5 J= AI GKA IK E AIE =

Lema VA.4

5E 0E 

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K= A J

?AI ANEIJA K ?

K J .

K = E JHE=

CK =?E @A . A

Demostraci on. -I IK ?EA JA J

? K J I . .
.J ?

=H A A A A J ?

E

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A A A =8 )
5

JAIA GKA @=@ K A A A J @A IA ECHKF K J . E = JHE= CK =?E A@E= JA A IECKEA JA A A F JHE= CK =?E = JAHE HAI I GKA @=@ K ?

EA ? I

E? I A CA AH= 8A= K

K J . FKA@A ANEIJEH

AI @A @EIJE J= B H =
? K J .

Ejemplo VA.5

,=@ A @=@= F H

EI

B

'C @A A A F ? HHAIF

8 ) ! F @A @EA JA = =

I? CKH= 8

IE@AH=H I >HA A K =

JHE= CK =?E

+=F
JK

8 + = ?K

@A = 4AI K?E

E>HA

E E =

&'
4 6 8 5 7 9 1

Figura V.2. 6HE= CK =?E @A 6 H

1

3 2

. ." .% . .! .$

B ! "C B $ &C B" $ #C B% & 'C B#  %C B! ' C

. .# .& . ." .%

B! " $C B & C B$ # %C B& ' "C B % !C B' #C

.! .$ .' . .# .&

B! $ C B & "C B$ % &C B' " #C B% ! 'C B # C

B.

.& C

5KF ,A

C=

I GKA

B.
GKA DE?E

.J C AI K = E JHE= CK =?E @A . A

= AH= IE E =H =

I?

I . DKA? I L=

I = >KI

?=H KAIJH=I JHE= CK =?E @E B = JE? I GKA F=I= 4A? H@A F=H= ?K= GKEAH ? K ? =I I

AI = JH=L AI @A K I=? IJHKEH

I @AJAH E =@ I IEIJA =I

I GKA = FH FEA@=@ .E
N J= AI GKA

AI AGKEL= A JA =
2H

5 -IJ IEC E ?= GKA ANEIJA .E 4A? H@A

I J= >E A GKA ) AI =
H



.E

=JHE ?KO=I

I CA AH=@ HAI @A 5 ? 


IE@AH=@ I IKI A A A J I IE

CHKA ?E=I E A ) ,A K =I I= L J=HA =

D I H Z

I F H A.

NH = LA?J H ?

J @=I IKI ?
.

H@A =@=I

AIE = GKA L= A  F=H= J @

JAIA GKA AIJ= 18

@A

JK E?E @A A. AI @EIJE J= @A = =F=HA?E@= A A ?=F

'
+
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+
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K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA

? A ?EA JAI A JAH I      

 + + + + + + + + + + )

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A.J 

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@ =

! + >KI?= @ FH ?A@AH @A .E A IE@AHA AA A J I



J

O= LE

I A A ?=F
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5 J= GKA 0E 

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I GKA

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I = >KI?=H A J @A . A I?  K J I @ =

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I GKA IE I FKAI GKA

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@A = K E AI I >HA J @=I =I + O= LE I I ? I
4

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FAH IE = AI 04 @A E ?= ?K =H +E

K J I B H =@ I F H IKI A A A J I EJ I ?
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C ) F=HJEH @A AIJ I
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@E?E AI = JAHE HAI
+

Lema VA.6

=I ?

04

- F=HJE?K =H + AI

EJ
IJH=?E AI = = C= = = @A A = 18 ) $
@E?E C
= AI AI @A @=H = ECK= GKA F=H= A ?=I @A I =JH=FA IAA A J I K=
K J @A L AHJE?AI . J= GKA
2J

Demostraci on. -IJ= @A

-IJ= I O= A ?

= FHE AH= IE?ECE= 18 ) # K HAIK J=@ GKA @A 5 ?KO= E AIE = D

Proposici on VA.7

5E ?

5 O 0E  .E

$  A J OK =

?AI ANEIJA K ?

E JHE= CK =?E @A . A
AH GKA 0E 
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Demostraci on. ) IKF

A AIJA ?


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J O? .J C JA A . $ . IE

K
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CK =?E @A . A

O GKA

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+ O @A K A A A J
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Teorema VA.8
- ? K J
+E @A

K J .E EJ @A +DAGKA
E E = AI @A

I 5 CH=@ I @A =I E AIE =I IE?ECE=I K J

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@A +DAGKA


18 = ? JA A

IJHK??E @A +E FKA I ?= ?K = @ N I K I K = C HEJ F= K J B H =

= AH= ABA?JEL= O= GKA AIJ= J= J K J @A CH=@ I GKA ?

5

JEA A = ?

@ F H

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A E AIE

Algoritmo VA.9

) C HEJ

- JH=@= K ? 5= E@= +E K ?

K J @A CA AH=@ HAI B K J O.

C @A 5
5 J= AI GKA 0E 

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$

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= 2=H= .

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! +E

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8 ) '

I FAH EJA A K ?E=H A IECKEA JA JA HA

+ = ?K + = ?K

= = C = 18 ) & = = C = 18 ) &

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JK
Teorema VA.10

8 + = ?K
- ?

@A = 4AI K?E

E>HA

E E =

'#
E E = @A CA
5

K J +E @A 5 CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A K IEIJA = @K @A IE?ECE=I @A I? F A I IE F E?E= AI

8 )'
111 ) #

AH=@ HAI @A E AIE

5 FKA@A IAH ?= ?K =@

@A B H = ABA?JEL= = JH=L AI @A

Demostraci on. 1

A@E=J= @A = C HEJ

-IJA JA HA = K J ? ?E=H A IECKEA JA ? H =HE

A = C HEJ

I FAH EJA A K

Corolario VA.11

7 ?

K J

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A E AIE E>HA 8 )'

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@K

@A IE?ECE=I

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I HA AHA A ? H =HE = JAHE H F=I= F H =F E?=H 111 ) # 7 = LA K J IA ? EJ +E GKA ? K J +E + I A A A J I ?KO= D C

= =I ?E=@= = IK ?

IA= K = )I
>JA A 111 ) # AI K = C HEJ

VB. COTAS DE LOS 5 GRADOS

+ O= DA I LEIJ KAIJH I ? K J I @A ?DAGKA AI O= IA= F=H= = FHE AH= ? K = IAHEA @A IK>? ?E AI @E B = JE?=I 8= @K F=H= = E AIE = IE?ECE= IA >JEA A = JH=L AI @A K J I @A ?EAHJ=I N I K?E E E = AI @A A?K= I I I = KI=H AIJA DA?D F=H= @=H K = ? J= @A
5

CH=@ I GKA =F=HA?A A K IEIJA = @A IE?ECE=I @A CA AH=@ HAI @A IA ECHKF 2=H= >JA AH AIJ=I ? J=I L=
N I K?E

E E = @A CA AH=@ HAI @A E AIE @AFA @AH = @A

KAIJH=I ? J=I I

I = HA?KHHEH = =I ? J=I I >HA =I = IA??E 11 * O A F=HJE?K =H KI=

AI GKA DA

I @=@ A

HA

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8 + = ?K
+ =I

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E>HA

E E =

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A  


 

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Demostraci on. 7I= @

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A  

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)F E?= @ AIJA HAIK J=@ = I A IECKEA JA JA HA =

I CH=@ I @A = HAI K?E

>JA A

Teorema VB.2

5E

5 AI K

5 CH=@
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H

@A K = E IE?ECE=

E E = @A

A J

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+ J=I @A
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I 5 CH=@ I



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Teorema VB.3

5A= J= GKA

5 K CH=@ @A K A A A J

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IH 

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VC. REGULARIDAD DE UNA VARIEDAD TORICA PROYECTIVA

8= ?E
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A =NE

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Algoritmo VC.2

+ = ?K

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H

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HA= E =H F=HJA @A ? = ?K

VIA. IDEAL DE SEMIGRUPO

?
5

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A A F E KIJH=JEL @A ? = ?K @A E@A= @A K IA ECHKF L= I = =F E?=H A = C HEJ 1 , = IECKEA JA IA ECHKF

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!

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>read totsemig:

I HA= E =H AIJA ? = ?K I HA= E =H A

KI= @ A I BJM=HA @AI=HH =F A8! I IECKEA JAI F=I I

I JH I @A>A

>S:=[[2,0,1,0],[0,1,0,1],[1,0,0,2],[0,1,3,0],[3,0,0,1],[1,1,1,1],[3]]: >totsemig(S);

1@A= @A 5A ECHKF

N$ ! N! '

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VIB. SISTEMAS DIOFANTICOS

8A= I A A F I @A = CK I = C HEJ I @A ?=F
JK 11

N soluci on Particular
- IECKEA JA A A F ? IE@AHA
&

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N# N# N# N" N# N$

11 , # 2=H= A CHKA ?E=I @# @ @! ! "

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    !   %     # "     %   "            !   ! " 

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H

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>read solsyst: >S:=[[3,4,-2,2],[4,1,4,5],[-1,-2,-7,0],[0,0,-3,2], >[7,-1,0,2],[-2,-1,1,1],[3,0,0,1],[5,2,3],[1]]: >solveN(S);

1@A= @A 5A ECHKF

N%  N$ # N"
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&

N N

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F IAA

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) = C= A JA 0/ ! 
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&

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0/ " E 

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&
Cuadro VI.1.

5EIJA =I ,E B = JE? I
0/ 
0/ "   0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  0/ "  B    C   ! " # $ % &   

0/    ! !

0/ !  0/ ! 0/ ! 0/ "  0/ " 0/ "

B   C   B'  ! C  

) A ?

JH=H

I?

K IEIJA = @A A?K=?E = CK = N I K?E

AI ?

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AI JHELE= LAH IE JEA A JAIA GKA DA @ A ?E E A@E=J= ?

- AIJA ?=I

= JHELE= 0/ "   I E@

B   C
A@E= JA KAIJH= HA?KHHA ?E= HA@K?EA @A HAI K AI AC=H = K = I =

AH @A E ? C EJ=I @A IEIJA = D=IJ= AC=H = K K K = I = E ? C EJ= )@A =I =

E ? C EJ= J= >E A AI JHELE= A ?= ?K =H A ? E E = AI + I? 81 ! 2 H J= J

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K J @A =I N I K?E

JE K= @ ?

AIJA FH ?AI F=H= 0/  O F=H= A HAIJ @A  >JA A I =I J=> =I 81  81

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K J I 0/  O 0/

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0/  0/  0/  0/ 

AI @A

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5KI A A A J I

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81 - A F I

'

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0/ 
0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/
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0/ 
$  ! 

Cuadro VI.3.

0/

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.

4AI K?E

E>HA

E E =

2 H D

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@A =I N I K?E

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LIBRE MINIMAL VIC. RESOLUCION

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K J I IA FKA@A J >E =?E =H ? IE@AH= @ I? K AI IE HAFAJE?E @A A A A J I @A I A A A J I @A . 5A= . I >HA . FKJ=H A

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J I B H =@ I F H =I ? + A ?A I ?

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81 - A F I

!

Cuadro VI.4. EIJ= @A +

+ ! B !   %  %   C + " B !   %  C + # B !     " C + ! " B !C + ! # B%C + " # B% C + ! " B C + ! # B "C + " # B # !  C +! " # B # C + ! " + " ! B% #C + ! " + ! # + # ! B !&   C + ! # + " # + # " B ! $  C + " # + ! " # + ! # " + " ! # + ! " # B & " ! C + ! # " + " ! # + ! " # + ! # " + " ! # + " # ! + # ! " + # " ! + ! " # + ! # " + ! " # + ! # " + " ! # + " ! #

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Resumen: Dado un semigrupo abeliano, cancelativo, finitamente generado y con elemento neutro, S, y un cuerpo k, podemos considerar el lgebra S-graduada k[S]. El estudio de esta lgebra tiene un gran inters dentro de la Geometra Algebraica por su relacin con la Geometra Trica. En esta memoria nos centramos en el estudio de los mdulos de sicigias de la resolucin del lgebra asociada al semigrupo. Damos algoritmos basados en bases de Grbner que nos permiten calcular sistemas irreducibles de generadores del ideal de un semigrupo con torsin. Adems, damos un mtodo efectivo, basado en el clculo de N-soluciones de sistemas diofnticos en congruencias, para calcular los grados que aparecen en el primer mdulo de sicigias de k[S], ampliando estos resultados a toda la resolucin del lgebra k[S]. De estos mtodos, deducimos cotas para los grados que aparecen en un sistema minimal de generadores el i-simo mdulo de sicigias, en funcin solamente de los generadores del semigrupo. Explicitamos una cota para la regularidad de una variedad trica, as como un algoritmo para hallar dicha regularidad.

Abstract Given a finitely commutative cancelative semigroup with zero element, S, and a field k, we can consider the S-graduated algebra k[S]. The study of this algebra has a great interest inside the Algebraic Geometry because of its relation with the Toric Geometry. In this memory we study the modules of sizigies of the resolution of the algebra associated with the semigroup. We give algorithms based on Grbner bases that allow us to compute irreducible systems of generators of the ideal of a semigroup with torsion. Besides, we give an effective method to compute the degrees that appear in the first module of sicigias of k[S] using diophantine equations in congruences, extending these results to the whole resolution of the algebra k[S]. Of these methods, we deduce bounds for the degrees of a minimal systems of generators of the i-sizigies by means of the semigroup generators. We give explicit bounds for the regularity of a toric variety, as well as an algorithm to find it.