Física Cuántica I

Pablo García González

José Enrique Alvarellos Bermejo
José Javier García Sanz
 Física Cuántica I

PABLO GARCÍA GONZÁLEZ

JOSÉ ENRIQUE ALVARELLOS BERMEJO
JOSÉ JAVIER GARCÍA SANZ

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE EDUCACIÓN A DISTANCIA

FÍSICA CUÁNTICA I

Quedan rigurosamente prohibidas, sin la

autorización escrita de los titulares del
Copyright, bajo las sanciones establecidas
en las leyes, la reproducción total o
parcial de esta obra por cualquier medio
o procedimiento, comprendidos la reprografía
y el tratamiento informático, y la distribución
de ejemplares de ella mediante alquiler
o préstamos públicos.

© Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia

Madrid 2014

www.uned.es/publicaciones

© Pablo García González, José Enrique Alvarellos Bermejo,

José Javier García Sanz

Ilustración de cubierta: Archivo fotográfico del Laboratorio

de IBM Almaden Research Center (EE.UU.).

Todas nuestras publicaciones han sido sometidas

a un sistema de evaluación antes de ser editadas.

ISBN electrónico: 978-84-362-6877-5

Edición digital: mayo de 2014

 iNDICE GENERAL

PRO LOGO

PARTE PRIMERA: FUNDAMENTOS

Tema 1. TEORiA CLASICA DE LA RADIACION

1.1. Ecuaciones de Maxwell
1.2. Ondas planas
1.3. El anaJisis de Fourier
1.4. Modos normales de radiaci6n
1.5. Interferencia entre ondas electromagneticas
1.6. Difracci6n de una onda electromagnetica
1. 7. Coherencia
Problemas propuestos

Tema 2. PROPIEDADES CORPUSCULARES DE LA

RADIACION
2.1. Cuantizacion de la radiaci6n. Fotones
2.2. Interpretacion probabilistica para el foton
2.3. El problema de la cavidad radiante
2.4. El efecto Compton
2.5. Fotones y presion de radiacion
2.6. Ordenes de magnitud y unidades at6micas
F f s i CA CuANT I CA I.

Problemas propuestos

Tema 3. ONDAS DE MATERIA. PRINCIPIO DE

INCERTIDUMBRE

3 .1. El est ado cuantico de una partfcula

3.2. El postulado de De Broglie

3.3. Interpret acion ffsica de la funci6n de onda

3.4. Valores medios e incertidumbres

3.5. Difracci6n de part fculas

3.6. El principio de incertidumbre de Heisenb erg

Problemas propuestos

PARTE SEGUNDA: MECANICA ONDULATORIA

Tema 4. EL ESPACIO DE FUNCIONES DE ONDA

4.1. Similitud y producto escalar

4.2. El espacio de las fun ciones de onda

4.3 . Bases de Fourier y bases de represent aci6n

Bases de Fourier

Bases de representaci6n

Proyecciones ortogonales

4.4 . Op eradores en un espacio de funciones

4.5. Representaci6n matricial de un operador

4.6. Espacio de los est ados. Notaci6n de Dirac

4. 7. El producto tensorial. Entrelazamiento

Problemas propuestos
 INDICE GENERAL

Tema 5. MAGNITUDES FiSICAS Y OPERADORES

5.1. Los operadores de posicion y momento lineal
5.2. Operador representativo de una magnitud
5.3 . Espectro puntual de una magnitud fisica
5.4. Espectro continuo de una magnitud fisica
5.5. Bases propias. Interpretacion probabilistica
Problemas propuestos

Tema 6. EVOL UCION TEMPORAL DETERMINISTA

6.1. Evolucion temporal de una particula libre
6.2. La ecuacion de Schri:idinger
6.3. El operador de evolucion temporal
6.4. La ecuacion de continuidad
6.5. Estados estacionarios. Autoenergias
6.6. La representacion en energias
6.7. Sistemas separables
6.8. Evolucion temporal de valores medios
6.9. Correspondencia con la fisica clasica(*)
Problemas propuestos

Tema 7. MEDIDA Y POSTULADOS DE LA FiSICA

CUANTICA
7 .1. Proyectores espectrales. Colapso del est ado
7.2. Compatibilidad entre observables
7.3. Relacion de incertidumbre generalizada
7.4. Incertidumbre energia-tiempo
7.5. Los postulados de la Fisica Cuantica
F f s i CA CuANT I CA I.

7.6. El problema de la medida

Problemas propuestos

Tema 8. MOMENTO ANGULAR

8.1. Los operadores de momento angular

8.2. Funciones de onda en coordenadas esfericas

8.3. Autofunciones del momento angular

8.4. Interpret acion probabilistica y momento angular

8.5. Est ados estacionarios en campos centrales

Problemas propuestos

PARTE TERCERA: APLICACIONES A SISTEMAS

SIMPLES

Tema 9. ESTADOS LIGADOS EN POZOS CUADRADOS

9 .1. Esp ectro de energias en una dimension

9.2 . El pozo cuadrado finito

9.3. Otros pozos cuadrados

Problemas propuestos

Tema 10 . ESTADOS DE COLISION EN UN A DIMENSION

10.1. Est ados de colision. Interpret acion fisica

10.2. El potencial escalon

10.3 . La barrera de potencial

10.4. La formul a de Gamow

10.5. El microscopio de efecto tunel

Apendice: Resonancias
 PRO LOGO

Problemas propuestos

Tema 11. EL OSCILADOR ARMONICO

11 .1. Estados estacionarios de un oscilador
11.2 . Dinamica cutmtica de un oscilador arm6nico
11.3. Operadores de creaci6n y destrucci6n
11.4. Estados coherentes
11.5. El oscilador arm6nico en varias dimensiones
Problemas propuestos

Apendice A. AN ALISIS VECTORIAL

A.l. Vectores. Operaciones con vectores
A.2. Coordenadas ortogonales
A.3. Campos escalares y vectoriales

Apendice B. ESPACIOS DE FUNCIONES:

COMPLEMENTOS
B.l. La integral de Lebesgue
B. 2. Convergencia en espacios de funciones
B.3. Formas lineales y distribuciones temperadas
B.4. Equipamiento de espacios de Hilbert
B.5. Derivada en sentido de distribuciones

BIBLIOGRAFiA

iNDICE DE SiMBOLOS

iNDICE ALFABETICO
 P❘Ó▲❖●❖

❉✉r❛♥t❡ ❧♦s ú❧t✐♠♦s tr❡✐♥t❛ ❛ñ♦s s❡ ❤❛♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞♦s ❛✈❛♥❝❡s ❡♥

❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ♠❡❞✐♦ s✐❣❧♦ ❡r❛♥ ✏❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s ●❡❞❛♥❦❡✑
♦ ✏❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♣✐③❛rró♥✑✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ ❡♥ ▲❛t✐♥♦❛♠ér✐❝❛✱ s♦♥ ❤♦② ❡♥ ❞í❛
♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧❛❜♦r❛t♦r✐♦✳ ❙✐ ❤❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛
▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❜❛ ❛❧ ♣r♦❢❡s✐♦♥❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ♠✉❝❤❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s
r❛♠❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ✭♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❆tó♠✐❝❛✱ ◆✉❝❧❡❛r✱ ❙✉❜♥✉❝❧❡❛r
✭♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✮ ♦ ❞❡❧ ❊st❛❞♦ ❙ó❧✐❞♦✮ ❤♦② ❡s r❡q✉✐s✐t♦ ♣r❡✈✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❧❛
◆❛♥♦t❡❝♥♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❧❛ ❚❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ ✏❡str❡❧❧❛✑ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦
✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t♦r✐♦ ❞❡ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡r❛ ❡❧ át♦♠♦ ❞❡ ❤✐❞ró❣❡♥♦✱ ❤♦② t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ s❡r❧♦
❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡rá ✈❡③ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s❡❛ s♦♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❡
❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ❙✐ ❤❛❝❡ ❞é❝❛❞❛s ❧♦s t❡♠❛s ♠ás ❛✈❛♥③❛❞♦s ❡r❛♥ ❧♦s r❡❧❛t✐✈♦s ❛
❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✭s❝❛tt❡r✐♥❣ ✮✱ ❛❤♦r❛ s♦♥ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s
② ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉✐❡♥❡s ❞❡❜❡rí❛♥ ❝✉❧♠✐♥❛r ✉♥ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛
❈✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❞❡s❞❡ñ❛r ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❡❧ ❡♥❢♦q✉❡ ❞❡ t❡①t♦s ❤♦② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s✱
② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ♣❡r❞✉r❛❜❧❡s✱ ❧♦s ♥✉❡✈♦s ❧✐❜r♦s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ t✐❡♥❡♥ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛r
❡st❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞✿ ♥♦ ❤❛② ❞✉❞❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❙✐❣❧♦ ❳❳■ ❝♦♠♣❛rt❡ ❜✉❡♥❛ ♣❛rt❡
❞❡ s✉s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ❙✐❣❧♦ ❳❳✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧♦s ✏t❡rr❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❥✉❡❣♦✑ s♦♥ ❜✐❡♥
❞✐st✐♥t♦s✳

P❛r❛ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡st❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛ ❝♦♥ é①✐t♦✱ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❤❛❜❡r s✉♣❡r❛❞♦
❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛s ♣r❡✈✐❛s ❞❡ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ② ❞❡ ❊❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
❡st❛r ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❞❡ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ▲✐♥❡❛❧ ✭❡s♣❛❝✐♦s
❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛✮✱ ❞❡ ❆♥á❧✐s✐s ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ✭❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ✐♥t❡❣r♦❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ② ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✮✱ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ♦r❞✐♥❛r✐❛s
② ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✳

❈❛❞❛ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s❡ ❛❜r✐rá ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❜r❡✈❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ s❡❣✉✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛s s♦♠❡r❛s
♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ s✉ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❛✉tó♥♦♠♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ r❡❣❧❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❞❡❜❡rá ❞❡❞✐❝❛rs❡
✉♥ ✹✵ ✪ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❧❡❝t✉r❛ ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ t❡①t♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡
s❡rí❛ ❡❧ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛s ✏❝❧❛s❡s ❞❡ t❡♦rí❛✑ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✉♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ♣r❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ❥✉♥t♦
❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ✏❛❝t✐✈♦✑ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s r❡s✉❡❧t♦s ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ ❧♦
q✉❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❞rí❛ ❛ ❧♦s ✏s❡♠✐♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s✑✳ P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡st♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s s❡❛♥
♣r♦✈❡❝❤♦s♦s s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r s✉ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

t❡①t♦✱ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ r❡♣r♦❞✉❝✐r❧❛ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ♣❛s♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s

q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛②❛♥ ♦♠✐t✐❞♦✳ ❊❧ ✻✵ ✪ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ r❡st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❜❡rá ❡♠♣❧❡❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❛✜❛♥③❛r
❧♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ② r❡s♦❧✈❡r ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✱ q✉❡ ♥♦
♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ❧♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ t❡①t♦✳ ❊st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧✿ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛
ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ ♣❧❡♥♦ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛ ② s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛s✳

◆♦ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❝❡rr❛r ❡st❛ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ s✐♥ ❛❣r❛❞❡❝❡r ❛ ❏❛✐♠❡ ❆rt✉r♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❚♦rr❡✱

❚❡r❡s❛ ▼❛rtí♥ ❇❧❛s ② ♦tr♦s ❝♦♠♣❛ñ❡r♦s ❞❡❧ ❉❡♣❛rt❛♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧
❞❡ ❧❛ ❯◆❊❉✱ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❤❛♥ ❛②✉❞❛❞♦ ❛ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❝♦rr❡❣✐r ❧♦s ❡rr♦r❡s✱ ✐♠♣r❡❝✐s✐♦♥❡s
② ❡rr❛t❛s✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❝❛s✐ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❡✈✐t❛r ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r t❡①t♦✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❛
❘♦❜❡rt♦ ❈❛♥♦❣❛r✱ ❞❡❧ ❉❡♣❛rt❛♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s✱ ❧❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s
❆
❡❧ ❡st✐❧♦ ▲ ❚❊❳ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦✱ ② ❧❡ ❛❣r❛❞❡❝❡♠♦s s✉ ❛♣♦②♦ ② ❞✐s♣♦♥✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞❡s✳

◆♦t❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡✿ ▲♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s✱ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ② s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❛r❝❛❞♦s ❝♦♥

✉♥ ❛st❡r✐s❝♦ ✭✯✮ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧ ♦ ❡①✐❣❡♥ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❧❛❜♦r✐♦s❛s✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❛s✉♠✐❜❧❡s ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t❡r❝❡r ❝✉rs♦✳
❆q✉❡❧❧♦s ❝♦♥ ❞♦s ❛st❡r✐s❝♦s ✭✯✯✮ s♦♥ ♠✉② ❞✐❢í❝✐❧❡s ♦ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s✳ ❯♥ s✐❣♥♦ ❞❡
❛❞♠✐r❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✦✮ ❡t✐q✉❡t❛ ✉♥ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ② ❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡ ♣r❡st❛rs❡
❧❛ ❞❡❜✐❞❛ ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥✳ ❊❧ ❞♦❜❧❡ s✐❣♥♦ ❞❡ ❛❞♠✐r❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✦✦✮ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ✈❛♠♦s ❛
❡♥❢r❡♥t❛r ❛ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦r♣r❡♥❞❡♥t❡✱ ❝✉r✐♦s❛ ♦ ❝♦♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ✐♥❡s♣❡r❛❞♦s✳
P❘■▼❊❘❆ P❆❘❚❊
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s
 ❚❡♠❛ ✶
❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❊st❡ ❧✐❜r♦ tr❛t❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥ ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛ ♦✱
♠❡❥♦r ❞✐❝❤♦✱ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡s♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ❝✉②❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧
❡stá ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ 10−12 ❛ 10−8 ♠✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛s✱ ❧❛
❢✉❡r③❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ✭❊▼✮ ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞♦♠✐♥❛♥t❡✳ ▲❛ r❛③ó♥ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦ ❡s
q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉❡r③❛s ♥✉❝❧❡❛r❡s ❞é❜✐❧ ② ❢✉❡rt❡ ❡♠♣✐❡③❛♥ ❛ s❡r r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s ❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ♠ás
♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t♦r✐❛✱ ❧❛ ♠❡♥♦s ✐♥t❡♥s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s✱ só❧♦ ❤❛❜rá ❞❡ t❡♥❡rs❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡st❡♠♦s ❜✐❡♥ ❛❞❡♥tr❛❞♦s
❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦✳

❙❡rá✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ q✉✐❡♥ ❞✐❝t❡ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s

✜s✐❝♦q✉í♠✐❝♦s ❛ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❛tó♠✐❝♦ ② ♠♦❧❡❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ♥❛♥♦❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❞❡ ❧♦
♠❡s♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦✱ ❡s❛ ❞✐❢✉s❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡♣❛r❛ ❧♦ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧♦ ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦✳
❊s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♠✉② r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❛❜r✐r ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦ ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❜r❡✈❡ r❡♣❛s♦
❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ②✱ ♣♦r ♠♦t✐✈♦s q✉❡ ♠✉② ♣r♦♥t♦ s❡ ❤❛rá♥ ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡s✱
❢♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ r❡♣❛s♦
♣r❡st❛r❡♠♦s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s t❡♠❛s q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥✿

❡❧ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❝❛♠♣♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s

❧❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r

❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥

❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛

❊st❛ s❡❧❡❝❝✐ó♥✱ q✉❡ ♥✐ ❞❡ ❧❡❥♦s ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡ ✉♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛

❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ♥♦ ❡s ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❝❛s✉❛❧✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛
s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡
❡♠♣❡③❛r❧♦s ❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s❝❡♥❛r✐♦ ❝✉②♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ②❛ s❡❛♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s✳
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛rá♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❞❛ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ t❡①t♦✳ ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s✱ ❛ s✉
✈❡③✱ s♦♥ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦❀
✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ s✉t✐❧ ♣❡r♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ② q✉❡
q✉❡r❡♠♦s tr❛t❛r ❝♦♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦✱ ❜✉❡♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡s ✉♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥

❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ❧❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s
❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡✱ ② q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥ ❝♦♠♦ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❊❧ ú♥✐❝♦ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦
q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✭s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✼✮
q✉❡✱ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ❝❛s♦✱ s❡r tr❛t❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡♥ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛s ❞❡ ó♣t✐❝❛✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦ ②
♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛rá♥
❝♦♥ ♠✉❝❤❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢✉t✉r♦✱ s✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳
❆ t❛❧ ✜♥ ❞❡❜❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r ✉♥❛s ✼ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡♥tr♦ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦ s❡♠❡str❛❧ ❞✐s❡ñ❛❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛
❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ✶✺✵ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧✱ q✉❡ s❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉②❡♥ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ q✉✐♥❝❡
s❡♠❛♥❛s ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛s ✭✶✵ ❤♦r❛s ♣♦r s❡♠❛♥❛✮✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❆✜❛♥③❛r ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ②❛ ❛❞q✉✐r✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❝✉rs♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧

tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✳

❋❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s q✉❡ s❡rá♥ ❞❡ ✉s♦

❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❙❡r ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡❥❛r ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❜❛s❛❞❛s ❡♥

❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✳

❆♣r❡♥❞❡r ❛ tr❛t❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✉♥

❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✳

❈♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② s❛❜❡r ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r ❡♥tr❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ② ♠❡③❝❧❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡✳
 ✶✳✶✳ ❊❈❯❆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❳❲❊▲▲

1.1✳ ❊❈❯❆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❳❲❊▲▲

❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ {E(r, t), B(r, t)}

➓ ✶✳ ❊❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❡❧ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s
❢✉❡♥t❡s
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧
q✉❡ ❧♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥✱ ② q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ♣♦r s✉s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ρ (r, t) c
② ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ J (r, t)
c ✳ ➱st❛s s♦♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❡♥
❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❝♦♠♦✿

1
∇ · E (r, t) = ρ (r, t) (Ley de Gauss para E)
ǫ0 c

∇ · B (r, t) = 0 (Ley de Gauss para B)

✭✶✳✶✮
∂B (r, t)
∇ × E (r, t) = − (Ley de Faraday − Lenz)
∂t
1 ∂E (r, t)
∇ × B (r, t) = + µ0 J c (r, t) (Ley de Ampère)
c2 ∂t

❞♦♥❞❡ ǫ0 ≃ 8,85 × 10−12 F m−1 (C2 N−1 m−1 ) ② µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N A−2

s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧❡s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛s ♣❡r♠✐t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ ② ♣❡r♠❡❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ c = (ǫ0 µ0 )−1/2 ≃ 3×108 m s−1
❡s ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③✳ ❊❧ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s E ② B ✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❞❡ ▲♦r❡♥t③

 
F(r, t) = q E(r, t) + v × B(r, t) ✭✶✳✷✮

q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❡❥❡r❝✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✭❊▼✮ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❛r❣❛ q ✱ s✐t✉❛❞❛
❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ r q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ v✳
▲❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ρc ② ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ Jc ♥♦ s♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ②❛
q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✱ ❞❡❜❡♥ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞
∂ρc (r, t)
= −∇·J c (r, t) ✭✶✳✸✮
∂t
q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♦tr❛ ❝♦s❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛✳

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ② ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ q✉❡

❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ s♦♥ ♥❡t❛s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥ ❧❛s ❝❛r❣❛s ❞❡
♣♦❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛s ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥❡t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s✉r❣❡♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♠❡❞✐♦ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❝♦♠♦ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡①t❡r♥♦✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❧❛s
r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✳✶✮✱ s❡ ♣r❡s✉♣♦♥❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉❡♥t❡s ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞❛s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ q✉❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s
❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❬❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ρc (r, t) ② J c (r, t)❪✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s ♥♦ ❡s
♣♦s✐❜❧❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❡♥ s✉ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦✱ ❡♥
❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡ ❡stá ❛❢❡❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❞❡
▲♦r❡♥t③✳

❊♥ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❢✉❡♥t❡s✱ ❧❛s ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ s❡ r❡❞✉❝❡♥ ❛

∇ · E (r, t) = 0 (Ley de Gauss para E)

∇ · B (r, t) = 0 (Ley de Gauss para B)

∂B (r, t) ✭✶✳✹✮
∇ × E (r, t) = − (Ley de Faraday − Lenz)
∂t
1 ∂E (r, t)
∇ × B (r, t) = (Ley de Ampère)
c2 ∂t
q✉❡ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❧✐❜r❡✳ ❱❡♠♦s
q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ s♦♥
tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧❡s ✭s✉ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s ♥✉❧❛✮ ② q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❛❝♦♣❧❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡
❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❋❛r❛❞❛②✲▲❡♥③ ② ❞❡ ❆♠♣èr❡✿ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ E ❣❡♥❡r❛ ✉♥
❝❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✳ ❊st♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❛✉t♦s♦st❡♥✐❞♦ ❞❡
❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ② s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
✭✶✳✹✮✱ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ c✳ ❊s ❛sí ❧❡❣ít✐♠♦ ❧❧❛♠❛r ♦♥❞❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❛
❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡✳

▲❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ s♦♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦

❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✿ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❝♦❡①✐st❡♥
❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼✱ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ t♦t❛❧ ❡s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❞❡
❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❡st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ❝♦♥ ❢✉❡♥t❡s ✭✶✳✶✮ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ✭♦
❡♠✐t✐❞♦✮ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❡s❛s ❢✉❡♥t❡s✱ s✉♣❡r♣✉❡st♦ ❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦
q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❣❛ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✳✹✮✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✱
❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡♠✐t✐❞♦ ♣♦r ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ② ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡
ést❛s✳

➓ ✷✳ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❡s

ǫ0 |E(r, t)|2 |B(r, t)|2 ǫ0  

uEM (r, t) = + = |E(r, t)|2 + c2 |B(r, t)|2 ✭✶✳✺✮
2 2µ0 2
 ✶✳✶✳ ❊❈❯❆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❳❲❊▲▲

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡s ✉♥ ❡♥t❡ ❢ís✐❝♦ ♣♦r sí ♠✐s♠♦ ❡s ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r

uEM (r, t) ❝♦♠♦ s✉ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✱ ②
✉s❛♥❞♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡
❆✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❡s

∂uEM (r, t)
= −c2 ∇ · π EM (r, t), ✭✶✳✻✮
∂t
❞♦♥❞❡

π EM (r,t) = ǫ0 E(r, t) × B(r, t) ✭✶✳✼✮

❡s ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✳ ■♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ✭✶✳✺✮ ② ✭✶✳✼✮ s♦❜r❡
t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t♦t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✳

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ s❡ ♠❛♥✐✜❡st❛♥ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡

❛❧ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r ❝♦♥ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝❛r❣❛❞❛s✳ ❊♥ t❛❧ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛s ❝❛r❣❛s ②✱ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ést❛s
❡♠✐t❡♥ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❡①♣❡♥s❛s ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♠♦s ✭✶✳✻✮ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ V ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡

❝❡rr❛❞❛ S ② ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡
❆✮ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥

Z I
d 3 2
− uEM (r, t)d r = c π EM (r, t) · n d2 r, ✭✶✳✽✮
dt V S

❞♦♥❞❡ n ❡s ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r✳ ▲❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
✭✶✳✽✮ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡
❧✐❜r❡ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ V ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ✭s❛❧✈♦ s✐❣♥♦✮ ❛❧
✢✉❥♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✱ c2 πEM (r, t)✱ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛
S ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❡❣✐ó♥✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥
tr❛♥s♣♦rt❡ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ s✉ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❞❡s❝r✐t❛ ②

q✉❡ ❡stá ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✿ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

❊▼ ✏✈✐❛❥❛✑ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ② ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡
❡s c2 π EM (r, t)✱ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ P♦②♥t✐♥❣✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ s❡
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❡♥ ✉♥
♣✉♥t♦ r ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ P♦②♥t✐♥❣✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ ✭✶✳✹✮

♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r❧❛ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✈❡❝t♦r A(r, t)✱
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❞❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛

∂A(r, t)
E(r, t) = −
∂t ✭✶✳✾✮

B(r, t) = ∇ × A(r, t)

❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ ❡❧ ❝✉♠♣❧✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❛✉t♦♠át✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ●❛✉ss

♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❋❛r❛❞❛②✲▲❡♥③✳ ▲❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ♣❛r❛ E ②
❞❡ ❆♠♣èr❡ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ A ❝♦♠♦

∇ · A(r, t) = 0
  ✭✶✳✶✵✮
2 1 ∂2
∇ − 2 2 A(r, t) = 0.
c ∂t

✶
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡s❝r✐t❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
A(r, t)✱ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧ ✭♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✵✮✱ ② ❝✉②❛s tr❡s
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡❛ ✭s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
✶✳✶✵✮✳

1.2✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ P▲❆◆❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ◆♦s ❝❡♥tr❛r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡✳ ❊st❛

r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ♥♦ só❧♦ ♣♦r s✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ✐♥trí♥s❡❝❛ s✐♥♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥
♣♦rq✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ❡♠✐t✐❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛♥t❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛
s❡ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❧❡❥♦s ❞❡ ést❛ ❝♦♠♦ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡✳ ◆✉❡str♦ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦
s❡rá ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A(r, t) q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❣❛ ❧❛s
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✳✶✵✮✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ é❧ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❢á❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s
❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ② ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♦tr❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱
❝♦♠♦ s✉s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡♠♣❡③❛r❡♠♦s ❛♥❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s
s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ✭✶✳✶✵✮✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦
❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✳

✶
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ② ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦ ❡s ❜✐✉♥í✈♦❝❛✳ ❉✐st✐♥t♦s

♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ✈❡❝t♦r ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❝❛♠♣♦✳

 ✶✳✷✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ P▲❆◆❆❙

❆♥t❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡r r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(t) r❡❛❧

❡s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ♦
✷
❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω > 0 s✐ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❝♦♠♦ g(t) = gc cos(ωt) +
gs sin(ωt)✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s tr✐❣♦♥ó♠❡tr✐❝❛s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s

e+iωt + e−iωt e+iωt − e−iωt

cos(ωt) = ; sin(ωt) =
2 2i
g(t) t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ r❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
G(t) = G0 e−iωt ✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r q✉❡
G0 −iωt G∗0 +iωt    
g(t) = e + e = Re G0 e−iωt ≡ Re G(t) , ✭✶✳✶✶✮
2 2
❞♦♥❞❡ G0 = gc + igs ✱ G∗0 = gc − igs ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦ ❞❡ G0 ✱ ② Re ❡s ❧❛
♣❛rt❡ r❡❛❧✳ ▲❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ♣❛r❛ g(t) ❡✈✐t❛ t❡❞✐♦s❛s
♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s tr✐❣♦♥♦♠étr✐❝❛s✳

❆❞❡♠ás✱ s✐ g ❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✱ ❧♦s ❞❡s❢❛s❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s

s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ tr❛t❛r ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠✉② s✐♠♣❧❡✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡✜♥✐r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡
✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s G ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧❛r r❡❛❧ ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
√
|G| ≡ G∗ · G ✭✶✳✶✷✮

➓ ✷✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s

♣r♦♣♦♥❡r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
ω t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛
 
A(r, t) = Re A(r)e−iωt ✭✶✳✶✸✮

❞♦♥❞❡ A(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s✳ ❙✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s A(r, t) ❡♥

✭✶✳✶✵✮ ✈❡♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ A(r) ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s

∇ · A(r) = 0
 
2 ω2 ✭✶✳✶✹✮
∇ + 2 A(r) = 0,
c

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐♠♦s q✉❡ A(r) ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧ q✉❡
♦❜❡❞❡③❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡❧♠❤♦❧t③ ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡❛✱ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
✭✶✳✶✹✮✳

✷
ω ❡s ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦✱ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞✱ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❛ ω ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❙✐ ❤✉❜✐❡s❡
❛❧❣✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❢✉s✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ν = ω/(2π)✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛rí❛♠♦s q✉❡ ω ❡s ❧❛ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❞❡ ✭✶✳✶✹✮ ❡s✿


 k · A0 = 0

A(r) = A0 eik·r con ✭✶✳✶✺✮
 |k| = ω

c
②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
 
A(r, t) = Re A0 ei(k·r−ωt) . ✭✶✳✶✻✮

❆q✉í k ❡s ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r r❡❛❧ ❝♦♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ✭✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❡

❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✮✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ▲❛ tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ A(r) q✉❡❞❛
❛s❡❣✉r❛❞❛ ❛❧ s❡r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ A0 ✱ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s✱ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r
❛ k✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥✱ |k| = ω/c✱ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ ❡❧
❝✉♠♣❧✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡❧♠❤♦❧t③✳

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ exp(2πin) = 1 ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡♥t❡r♦ n✱ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡①❤✐❜❡

❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✿

A(r, t) = A(r + nλuk , t) para todo n ∈ Z,

❞♦♥❞❡ uk ≡ k/|k| ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ k ② λ = 2π/|k|

❡s ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛ A(r, t) s✐❡♠♣r❡ t♦♠❛ ❧♦s
♠✐s♠♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ ♣❧❛♥♦s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❛ k ② s❡♣❛r❛❞♦s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ λ✳ ❊st♦
❥✉st✐✜❝❛ ♣❧❡♥❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
❧✐❜r❡ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛

➓ ✸✳ ❙✐ u1 ② u2 s♦♥ ❞♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ②

❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ uk ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✶✮✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t❛♥t♦
❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❢ís✐❝♦ A(r, t) ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ A0 s♦♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ u1 ② u2 ✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣♦❧❛r ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✱ A0
♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

A0 = A1 eiδ1 u1 + A2 eiδ2 u2 con A1, A2 ∈ R+

② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✳✶✻✮✱

A(r, t) = [A1 cos(k · r − ωt + δ 1 )]u1 + [A2 cos(k · r − ωt + δ 2 )]u2 ✭✶✳✶✼✮

❊st❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ♣♦♥❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥✐✜❡st♦ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❡♥t❛❥❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛

q✉❡ ②❛ ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❛♠♦s✿ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A0 ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ♥♦ só❧♦ ❧❛s ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ u1 ② u2 s✐♥♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡❧ ❞❡s❢❛s❡
 ✶✳✷✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ P▲❆◆❆❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✲✶✳ ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ♣❛r❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ uk ✳ ❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s u1 ② u2 ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼
❡stá♥ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ uk ✳

δ2 − δ1 ❡♥tr❡ ❛♠❜❛s ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❊♥ ♦tr♦s tér♠✐♥♦s✱ ✜❥❛❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❤❛②

❞♦s ❣r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞❛s ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
✈❡❝t♦r✳

❖tr❛ ✈❡♥t❛❥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛♥

♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦s t❡♠♣♦r❛❧❡s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r
❢ís✐❝♦ ❡s

|A(r, t)|2 = A21 cos2 (k · r − ωt + δ 1 ) + A22 cos2 (k · r − ωt + δ 2 ),

② ❝♦♠♦ hcos2 (ωt + δ)itemp = 1/2✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ h itemp s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡

A21 + A22 1 1
h|A(r, t)|2 itemp = = A∗0 · A0 = |A0 |2 . ✭✶✳✶✽✮
2 2 2

❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ |A0 |2 /2 ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ |A(r, t)|2 s❛❧✈♦ ✢✉❝t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s t❡♠♣♦r❛❧❡s✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ✭r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡✮ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡

s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ✭✶✳✶✻✮ ❡♥ ✭✶✳✾✮✿

 
E(r, t) = Re E0 ei(k·r−ωt) con E0 = iωA0
✭✶✳✶✾✮
 
B(r, t) = Re B0 ei(k·r−ωt) con B0 = ik × A0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ E0 ② B0 s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❛ k✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❛ s✉ ✈❡③ q✉❡

1
E0 = cB0 × uk ; B0 = u k × E 0 ; |E0 | = c|B0 | ✭✶✳✷✵✮
c
▲♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s E0 ② B0 s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ♥♦s ✜❥❛♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s
r❡❛❧❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✱ E(r, t) ② B(r, t)✱ s✉ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳
✶✲✶✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ π EM (r,t) = ǫ0 E(r, t)×B(r, t)
❡stá ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ uk ✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❛sí ❧❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛✳

➓ ✺✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✳✺✮ ② ✭✶✳✼✮✱ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❞❡

♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ✭✶✳✶✻✮ s♦♥

ǫ0 ω 2 |A0 |2 ǫ0 ω 2 |A0 |2
uEM (r, t) = + t.o. ; π EM (r, t) = uk + t.o. ✭✶✳✷✶✮
2 2c
❞♦♥❞❡ ✏t✳♦✳✑ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ tér♠✐♥♦s ♦s❝✐❧❛♥t❡s q✉❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ t♦r♥♦
❛ ❝❡r♦✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ 2ω ✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡
✸
❡st♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ❡s ♥✉❧♦✱ só❧♦ s♦♥ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣r♦♠❡❞✐❛❞♦s
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♦ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈♦s
ǫ0 ω 2 |A0 |2
uEM = huEM (r, t)itemp =
2
✭✶✳✷✷✮
ǫ0 ω 2 |A0 |2 uEM
π EM = hπ EM (r, t)itemp = uk = uk .
2c c
❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ A0 ❡s ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ uEM ❝♦♠♦ π EM s♦♥
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❈♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❡♥ ❧❛
❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ uk ②✱ s❛❧✈♦ ✢✉❝t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s t❡♠♣♦r❛❧❡s✱ uEM ② π EM s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡ tr❛♥s♣♦rt❛✳

▲❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣r♦♠❡❞✐❛❞♦s t❡♠♣♦r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈❛ ❞❡

♠❛♥❡r❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♦ ✐rr❛❞✐❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦
❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡❢❡❝t✐✈♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ P♦②♥t✐♥❣✿

cǫ0 ω 2 |A0 |2
IEM = |c2 π EM | = c uEM = , ✭✶✳✷✸✮
2
q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ tr❛♥s♣♦rt❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭s❛❧✈♦ ✢✉❝t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ t✐❡♠♣♦s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ T✮ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡
❞❡ ár❡❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ s✉ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥✳

✸
❙❛❧✈♦ q✉❡ s❡❛♠♦s ❝❛♣❛❝❡s ❞❡ ❞✐s❝r✐♠✐♥❛r ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ t✐❡♠♣♦s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ ❞❡

♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥ T = 2π/ω ✳
 ✶✳✸✳ ❊▲ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘

➓ ✻✳ ▲❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ♣❧❛♥❛ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s

❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❊st❛♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✉s❛♠♦s
❞♦s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧í♠✐t❡✿ ❡❧ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠❛t✐s♠♦ ② ❧❛ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✳

P♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ♠ás r❡❛❧✐st❛ ♠♦❞✉❧❛♥❞♦ ❡st❛ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝á♥❞♦❧❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛
r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦s s❡❛ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛✳ ❙✐♥
❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② q✉❡ s❡❣✉✐r ❝✉♠♣❧✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✳ ❊st♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s té❝♥✐❝♦s s♦♥ ♠ás ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ t❡①t♦ ❞❡ ó♣t✐❝❛✱
♣❡r♦ ❧♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s✿ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❞❡❝✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥


❧✐❜r❡ ❡s Re A0 exp(ik · r − iωt) ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛ só❧♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛✱ ❝✉②♦ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡stá ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r✳
❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ ❞❛♠♦s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❜❧❛♠♦s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❞❡ ✉♥
♣✉❧s♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ c ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥
uk = k/|k|✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝✉②♦ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛r
♣♦r ❡❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛✳

1.3✳ ❊▲ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘

➓ ✶✳ ▲❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s q✉❡❞❛rá ♣❛t❡♥t❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❛♣❧✐q✉❡♠♦s ❛

✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ A(r, t) ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✳ ❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s
❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♦♠✐t✐❡♥❞♦
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❙✐ ❡stá ✐♥t❡r❡s❛❞♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛r ❧♦s t❡①t♦s ❞❡ ♠ét♦❞♦s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❝✐t❛♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ❙❡❛ G(r) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ RN ✭❧♦
❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❡s N = 3 ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✮✳ ❊❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❜ás✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡
✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ✭❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✮ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ exp(ik · r) ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ✐♥✈❡rs❛
Z
1
G(r) = G̃(k)e+ik·r dN k ≡ {F −1 G̃}(r), ✭✶✳✷✹✮
(2π)N/2 RN

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G̃(k) ❡s ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G(r)✿

Z
1
G̃(k) = G(r)e−ik·r dN r ≡ {F G}(k). ✭✶✳✷✺✮
(2π)N/2 RN
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❙✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G(r) ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❞❡❝❛✐♠✐❡♥t♦

rá♣✐❞♦ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |r| → ∞ ② ❞❡ ❛❝♦t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛♥ q✉❡ s✉ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛
❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❝♦♥✈❡r❥❛✳ ❆ G̃(k) s❡ ❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦ ✭❡❧
❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k✮ ♦✱ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛♠❡♥t❡✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ❞❡
G(r)✳✹
❙✐ g(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② G(r) ♦tr❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

F F
∇g(r) −→ ikg̃(k) ; ∇2 g(r) −→ −|k|2 g̃(k)
✭✶✳✷✻✮
F
e e F
∇ · G(r) −→ ik · G(k) ; ∇ × G(r) −→ ik × G(k),

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s k ❛❧ ♣❛s❛r ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r i✳

❊❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❞❛❞❛s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛ F ② G s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

Z Z
∗ N
G (r)F (r) d r = G̃∗ (k)F̃ (k) dN k. ✭✶✳✷✼✮
RN RN

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❛q✉í ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s✐ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡♥tr❡ G∗

② F ∗
✭♦ G̃ ② F̃ ✮ ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ✭❡♥ N = 3✮ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❡♥ q✉❡ G
② F s❡❛♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s✳

➓ ✸✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ a✱ δ(r−a)✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛

✏❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✑ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ s✐❡♠♣r❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

Z
δ(r − a)g(r) dN r = g(a) ✭✶✳✷✽✮
RN

♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(r) ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ r = a✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱

❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❡♥ N ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ◆ ❞❡❧t❛s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡♥ N = 3,

δ(r − a) = δ(x − ax )δ(y − ay )δ(z − az ) , con a = ax ux + ay uy + az uz .

✹
❍❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♠✉② ❞❡❧ ❣✉st♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s✿ F ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥
q✉❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G(r) ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ♦tr❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G(k)
e ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✮✳ F −1 s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥✈❡rs❛✳
 ✶✳✸✳ ❊▲ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘

❉❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♣♦❝♦ r✐❣✉r♦s❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡


 0 si r 6= a
δ(r − a) = δ(a − r) = ✭✶✳✷✾✮

∞ si r = a
♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❞❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞✱ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡s ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
♠✉② ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ r = a ❝✉②❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛
✺
✉♥✐❞❛❞✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ N = 1 ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❧í♠✐t❡s✿
2 2
e−(x−a) /ε ε/π sin[(x − a)/ε]
δ(x − a) = lı́m √ = lı́m 2 = lı́m ✭✶✳✸✵✮
ε→0 + πε ε→0 (x − a) + ε
+ 2 ε→0 + π(x − a)
❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ R ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥♦✱ ②
q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ε→0 s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛♥ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ♠❡♥♦s ❡♥ a✳
▲❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡stá ❡str❡❝❤❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡
❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rs❡ q✉❡
Z Z
+ik·(r1 −r2 ) N
e d k= e−ik·(r1 −r2 ) dN k = (2π)N δ(r1 − r2 ) ✭✶✳✸✶✮
RN RN
❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ②❛ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r✱
❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡s ✉♥ ❧í♠✐t❡✳ ❆❧ s❡r ✭✶✳✸✶✮ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s
❞❡ k ② ri ✱ tr❛s ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
Z Z
+i(k1 −k2 )·r N
e d r= e−i(k1 −k2 )·r dN r = (2π)N δ(k1 − k2 ) ✭✶✳✸✷✮
RN RN

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ δ(k1 − k2 ) ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ t✐❡♥❡

❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ✭♠✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s
❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ✮✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(t) ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ q✉❡ ❞❡❝❛❡ ❛
❝❡r♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ rá♣✐❞♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |t| → ∞✱ s✉ ♣❛r ❞❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s t❡♠♣♦r❛❧❡s
✻
❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s

Z +∞ Z +∞
1 1
g(t) = √ ĝ(ω)e−iωt dω ĝ(ω) = √ g(t)e+iωt dt ✭✶✳✸✸✮
2π −∞ 2π −∞

✺
❈♦♠♦ s❡ s❡ñ❛❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇✱ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ só❧♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ♣❧❡♥♦ ❝♦♠♦
✉♥❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡s✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ♥✉❡str♦s ♣r♦♣ós✐t♦s✳
✻
❯s❛♠♦s G̃(k) ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛r ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G(r)✱ ② ĝ(ω) ♣❛r❛ ❧❛
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(t)✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

✭❧❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✐❣♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s t❡♠♣♦r❛❧❡s ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐❛

q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✮✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛
❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐❡♥❞♦✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ❛ ✭✶✳✸✶✮ ②
✭✶✳✸✷✮ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ② ❧❛s ❞❡❧t❛s ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝

δ(t − t0 ) ❡♥ t✐❡♠♣♦s
② δ(ω − ω 0 ) ❡♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ✳

g(t) ❡s r❡❛❧ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ✈❡r q✉❡ ĝ(−ω) = ĝ ∗ (ω)✳ P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥
❙✐

Z ∞ Z 0 Z ∞
ĝ(ω)e−iωt ĝ(ω)e−iωt ĝ(ω)e−iωt + ĝ(−ω)e+iωt
g(t) = √ dω + √ dω = √ dω
0 2π −∞ 2π 0 2π
♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
 Z ∞ 
1 −iωt


g(t) = Re √ 2ĝ(ω)e dω ≡ Re G(t) . ✭✶✳✸✹✮
2π 0

❊st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ G(t)✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❞❡ g(t)✱ s❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛ ♣♦rq✉❡

s✉ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r Ĝ(ω) ❡♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❡s ♥✉❧❛ s✐ ω < 0 ② ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡
2ĝ(ω) ≡ Ĝ(ω) s✐ ω > 0✳ ▲❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✳✸✹✮ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ✭✶✳✶✶✮ q✉❡
❤❛❜í❛♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦✳

❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g ❝♦♠♦

Z ∞ Z ∞
1
hωi = ω|Ĝ(ω)|2 dω, con U≡ |Ĝ(ω)|2 dω. ✭✶✳✸✺✮
U 0 0

❯s❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛

❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❞❡ g ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ❡s❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
♠❡❞✐❛ hωi ❡s ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ∆ω ❞❡ g(t)✱ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦✿
 Z ∞ 2 1/2
1 2
∆ω = ω − hωi |Ĝ(ω)| dω . ✭✶✳✸✻✮
U 0

❙✐ ∆ω ≪ ω ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(t) ❡s ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛✳ ❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦

(ω − hωi)2 ❡♥ ✭✶✳✸✻✮ ② ❛❣r✉♣❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ∆ω t❛♠❜✐é♥
♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

 Z 1/2
1 ∞
2 2 2
p
∆ω = ω |Ĝ(ω)| dω − hωi = hω 2 i − hωi2 , ✭✶✳✸✼✮
U 0

❞♦♥❞❡ hω 2 i ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❈✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(t) s❡rá ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛s ❡♥
❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (hωi − ∆ω, hωi + ∆ω)✳ ❆ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ 2∆ω ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❡♥
❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ♦ ❛♥❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❜❛♥❞❛✳
 ✶✳✹✳ ▼❖❉❖❙ ◆❖❘▼❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

1.4✳ ▼❖❉❖❙ ◆❖❘▼❆▲❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ ❝✉②♦ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r

❡s A(r, t)✳ P♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ tr❛❜❛❥❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ A(r, t) q✉❡✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✶✳✸✹✮✱ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

   2A c (r, ω) si ω ≥ 0
A(r, t) = Re A(r, t) , con Â(r, ω) = ✭✶✳✸✽✮

0 si ω < 0

❆✉♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✱ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A(r, t) t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛ ✏r❡♦r❞❡♥❛❝✐ó♥✑ ❞❡ A(r, t) ❛ tr❛✈és
❞❡ s✉ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✳

❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❜ás✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r

Z e Z
A(k, t)eik·r 3 e A(r, t)e−ik·r 3
A(r, t) = d k ; con A(k, t) = d r ✭✶✳✸✾✮
R3 (2π)3/2 R3 (2π)3/2

② ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ ∇ · A(r, t) ❡s ik· Ã(k, t)✱ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
✭✶✳✶✵✮ r❡s✉❧t❛♥ s❡r ✭❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② s✉ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✮

∇ · A(r, t) = 0 ⇒ e
k · A(k, t) = 0
  e ✭✶✳✹✵✮
2 1 ∂2 e ∂ 2 A(k, t)
∇ − 2 2 A(r, t) = 0 ⇒ c2 |k|2 A(k, t) + 2
= 0.
c ∂t ∂t

❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧✐❞❛❞ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ e

A(k, t) ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r
❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❬♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✳✹✵✮❪ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❬s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✳✹✵✮❪ s❡ r❡❞✉❝❡ ❛ q✉❡ e
A(k, t) s✐❣❛ ✉♥ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ♦s❝✐❧❛t♦r✐♦
❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω k = c|k|✳
❙✉ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡s e
A(k, e
t) = A(k) exp(−iω k t) ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡
e e
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ A(k, t) = A(k) exp(+iω k t)✱ ❡s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✳✸✽✮✳


❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✳✸✾✮ ② r❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ A(r, t) = Re A(r, t) ✱

  
Z e
Re A(k)e i(k·r−ω k t)  ω k = c|k|
A(r, t) = d3 k con ✭✶✳✹✶✮
R3 (2π)3/2 
Ã(k) · k = 0

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ A(r, t) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ✭❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✮ ❞❡

♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s✳ ❊❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ♥♦s ❤❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

t♦❞❛ ♦♥❞❛
♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛sí ❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❜ás✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✿
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❧✐❜r❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛sí ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❛ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧
❡♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦✳ ❆ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s q✉❡ ❡♥tr❛♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ✭✶✳✹✶✮ s❡ ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛ ♠♦❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❈❛❞❛ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❡stá ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞♦ ♣♦r s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
e
ω k ② ♣♦r ❧❛ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ A(k) q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ ❡s
♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ k✳

➓ ✷✳ P✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rs❡ ✭❡s ❛❧❣♦ té❝♥✐❝♦✮ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧

t♦t❛❧❡s ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ s♦♥
Z e Z e
ǫ0 ω 2k |A(k)| 2
3 ǫ0 ω 2k |A(k)| 2
UEM (t) = d k ; PEM (t) = u k d3 k ✭✶✳✹✷✮
R3 2 R3 2c
❞♦♥❞❡ uk = k/|k|✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡ UEM (t) ② PEM (t) s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧
t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❡r❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❞❡❧
❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ②
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ✭✶✳✷✷✮ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐♠♦s q✉❡
❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡ s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡
❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❧♦s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱
❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ t♦t❛❧ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛
❢♦r♠❛ tí♣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ e
ω k ② ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ |A(k)| ✳ ❊st❛
❛s♦❝✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛ ♣❧❡♥❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s
✉s❛♥❞♦✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦❞♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

q✉❡ s♦♥ ♠✉② út✐❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ♣♦r♠❡♥♦r✐③❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼✳ ▲❛ ♠ás
✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦

e
ǫ0 ω 2k |A(k)| 2
εEM (k) = ✭✶✳✹✸✮
2
②❛ q✉❡✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ✐♥✜❡r❡ ❞❡ ✭✶✳✹✷✮✱ εEM (k)d3 k ❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛❞❛
❡♥ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s ❝✉②♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡stá ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦
❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ d3 k ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ k✳ ❊st❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ t✐❡♥❡ ❛sí ✉♥ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛❧
❞❡ uEM (r, t) ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❛❧ ❛✉♥q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✱ εEM (k) ②
uEM (r, t) ♥♦ ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✳

➓ ✹✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ e
A(k, e
t) = A(k) e
exp(−iω k t)✱ ∂ A(k, e
t)/∂t = −iω k A(k) exp(−iω k t)
② ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
Z 2
ǫ0 ∂A(r, t)
UEM = d3 r. ✭✶✳✹✹✮
2 R3 ∂t
 ✶✳✺✳ ■◆❚❊❘❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❊▲❊❈❚❘❖▼❆●◆➱❚■❈❆❙

❊❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✭✶✳✹✹✮ ♥♦ ❡s ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ q✉❡ ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s✳

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥❛ ② ♦tr❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❞❛ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♥♦
❝♦♥tr✐❜✉②❡ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♥❡t♦ ❞❡ UEM ✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ A(r, t)✿

2
ǫ0 ∂A(r, t)
uEM (r, t) = , ✭✶✳✹✺✮
2 ∂t

❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✈❡♥t❛❥❛ ❞❡ q✉❡✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ A(r, t) =

A(r) exp(−iωt)✱ ♥♦s ❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♠❡❞✐❛❞♦ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✳

1.5✳ ■◆❚❊❘❋❊❘❊◆❈■❆ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❊▲❊❈❚❘❖▼❆●◆➱❚■❈❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ q✉❡ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ② ❝✉②♦s
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s s♦♥ A1 (r, t) ② A2 (r, t) ✳ ❊❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ s❡rá

A(r, t) = A1 (r, t) + A2 (r, t).

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ t❛❧ ❛❞✐t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ést❛
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✳ ❆sí✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ✭✶✳✹✺✮✱

2 2
ǫ0 ∂A(r, t) ǫ0 ∂A1 (r, t) ∂A2 (r, t)
uEM (r,t) = = +
2 ∂t 2 ∂t ∂t

②✱ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦✱

 
∂A∗1 (r, t) ∂A2 (r, t)
uEM (r,t) = uEM,1 (r,t) + uEM,2 (r,t) + ǫ0 Re · . ✭✶✳✹✻✮
∂t ∂t

➓ ✷✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ✶ ② ✷ s♦♥ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♥ ❞✐st✐♥t❛s

❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ω1 ② ω2✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

2
ǫ0 ∂Ai (r, t) ǫ0 ω 2i
Ai (r, t) = Ai (r)e−iωi t ⇒ uEM,i (r) = = |Ai (r)|2 ✭✶✳✹✼✮
2 ∂t 2

❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✭✶✳✹✻✮ s❡rá

 
uEM (r,t) = uEM,1 (r) + uEM,2 (r) + ǫ0 ω 1 ω 2 Re A∗1 (r) · A2 (r)ei(ω1 −ω2 )t . ✭✶✳✹✽✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❊❧ t❡r❝❡r tér♠✐♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω1 − ω2 ❝✉②♦ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦

t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡s ❝❡r♦✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s♦♥ ❛❞✐t✐✈❛s✳

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐ ω1 = ω2 ≡ ω t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ uEM (r,t) ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦

② q✉❡ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ✭✶✳✹✽✮ ②❛ ♥♦ ✈❛ ❛ s❡r ❡♥ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❝❡r♦✿

uEM (r) = uEM,1 (r) + uEM,2 (r) + ǫ0 ω 2 Re A∗1 (r) · A2 (r) . ✭✶✳✹✾✮

❆❧ s✉♣❡r♣♦♥❡rs❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡

✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✱ q✉❡ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥♦ ❛❞✐t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛s ❞❡
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼✳ ❉✐❝❤❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ❞✐rá ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦

r s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡
q✉❡ Re A∗1 (r) · A2 (r) > 0 ② ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛ ❡♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
t♦t❛❧ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s t♦t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ ✶ ② ✷✱ ❧❛

✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ r❡❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱

q✉❡ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ③♦♥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛
❛ ❡①♣❡♥s❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❡s ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛✳ ▲❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞
✭✶✳✹✾✮ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ✐❣✉❛❧
❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s
A∗1 (r) ② A2 (r)✳

1.6✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ❖◆❉❆ ❊▲❊❈❚❘❖▼❆●◆➱❚■❈❆

➓ ✶✳ ❖tr♦ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ ✭② ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s✮ ❡s ❧❛

❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ q✉❡ s✉❢r❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❛❧ ✐♥❝✐❞✐r s♦❜r❡ ✉♥
♦❜❥❡t♦ ✭q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ❤❛st❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r❡❞ ♦♣❛❝❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛
❛❜❡rt✉r❛ q✉❡ sí ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡❧ ♣❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✮✳

❊❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❡①✐❣❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❝ó♠♦ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛

❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ② ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ✐♥❞✉❝✐❞♦✳ ❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱
s✐ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ♦ ♣r❡s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❛s❡
❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ② ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦ ✭❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦✮ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡♥❢♦❝❛r ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛
❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❡st❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦
❡♥ ♠✉❝❤♦s ❝❛s♦s ❢♦r♠✐❞❛❜❧❡✱ q✉❡ s❡ ✈❡ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❛❞❡♠ás ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧
❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s✐ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❡s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ②
✼
s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡r❢❛❝✐❛❧ ♣r❡s❡r✈❛ t❛♥t♦

✼
❚❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ✉s❛ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡s❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛ t✐❡♥❡ ♠✉❝❤♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦s✳ ❊♥
✐♥❣❧és✱ ❧❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛ q✉❡ s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛ ❡s s❝❛tt❡r✐♥❣✳
 ✶✳✻✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ❖◆❉❆ ❊▲❊❈❚❘❖▼❆●◆➱❚■❈❆

✽
❡❧ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠❛t✐s♠♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦
t♦t❛❧ A(r, t) = A(r) exp(−iωt) s❛t✐s❢❛rá ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✳✶✹✮
♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡♥ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❢✉❡♥t❡s✳

P♦❞❡♠♦s✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡✳ ❆ t❛❧ ✜♥

✐♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ OY
♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡s❞❡ y = −∞

2π ω
Ain (r, t) = A0 eiky e−iωt con k = = , ✭✶✳✺✵✮
λ c
❞♦♥❞❡ A0 ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ uy ✳ ❉✐❝❤❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡
♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ✜♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ q✉❡ ❡s ♦♣❛❝❛ ❛
❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ❞❡ t❛♠❛ñ♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ r=0
2 ′
❝♦♥ ár❡❛ d r ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✷✮✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✉②❣❡♥s✲❋r❡s♥❡❧
❡s❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ❝✉②❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥
❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ ❡s
A0 eikr −iωt 2 ′
dA(r)e−iωt = βk e d r, ✭✶✳✺✶✮
r
❞♦♥❞❡ β ❡s ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ q✉❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡✳

❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ S ✭❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛✮
❝✉②♦ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝♦ s✐t✉❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ r = 0✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡
s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ t♦t❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ y > 0 s❡rá ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s
❡♠✐t✐❞♦s ❞❡s❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞✐✈✐❞✐r S ✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦
′
❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❡stá s✐t✉❛❞♦ ❡♥ r ✱ ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ t♦t❛❧ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ s❡rá ❧❛ s✉♠❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡s♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s

Z ′
eik|r−r | 2 ′
A(r)e−iωt = βkA0 e−iωt d r ✭✶✳✺✷✮
S |r − r′ |

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ só❧♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ ✭❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡
❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✮ s✐ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❡stá ♠✉② ❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ OY ✭r ≃ ruy ó
θ ≃ π/2 ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✷✮ ② s✐ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❛ ❧❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦
♠❛②♦r q✉❡ λ✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞♦ s❡rá ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás
❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞❛✳

❊♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❣r❛♥❞❡✱ S → R2 ✱ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛rá

❧❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ s✐♥ ✈❡rs❡ ♣❡rt✉r❜❛❞❛✳ ❊❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✭✶✳✺✷✮ ❞❡❜❡rá t❡♥❞❡r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥

✽
❊♥ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡st❛♠♦s ❞✐❝✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❡❧ ♦❜ ❥❡t♦ ❡s s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥

❡❧ást✐❝❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

Ein
δB
θ
δE
Y
δB δE
cBin

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✲✷✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛
❡❢❡❝t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ♦♣❛❝❛ ❞✐s♣✉❡st❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ

❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥y > 0 ❛❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r Ain (r, t)✳ P✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❡s♦ ♦❝✉rr❡ s✐
β = 1/(2πi)✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛✱ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ✜♥✐t❛ ❡s✿

" Z ′
#
−iωt k eik|r−r | 2 ′
A(r)e = d r A0 e−iωt si r ≃ y ≫ λ. ✭✶✳✺✸✮
2πi S |r − r′ |

❈♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦✱ A(r) exp(−iωt) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

♦♥❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❞❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ❡♠✐t✐❞❛s ❞❡s❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛✳
❈❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ♦♥❞❛s✱ q✉❡ s❡ s✉❡❧❡♥ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r s❡❝✉♥❞❛r✐❛s✱ r❡❝♦rr❡rá ✉♥
❝❛♠✐♥♦ ó♣t✐❝♦ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❤❛st❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
′
❞❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r exp (ik |r − r |)✳ ❊st♦ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝✐rá ❡♥ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s
s❡❝✉♥❞❛r✐❛s✱ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝♦s ♣❛tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥
q✉❡ s❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛♥ ❛❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛ ❧✉③ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ S s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛
s✐t✉❛❞❛ tr❛s ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ r = 0✱

♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ OX ✱ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ b② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ L ≫ y ✭✈❡❛
❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✸✮✳ ❉✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡♥ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ár❡❛
b dx′ ✱ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ r = (x, y, z) ❝♦♥ y ≃ r s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rá ❛ ♣❛rt✐r
❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛ré♥t❡s✐s ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ✭✶✳✺✸✮✿
 p 
Z ′ Z +L/2 exp ik (x − x′ )2 + y 2 + z 2
k eik|r−r | kb
I(r) ≡ d2 r′ ≃ p dx′
2πi S |r − r′ | 2πi −L/2
′ 2 2
(x − x ) + y + z 2
 ✶✳✻✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ❖◆❉❆ ❊▲❊❈❚❘❖▼❆●◆➱❚■❈❆

Z Pantalla

Y
x' r x
r – r'
y

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✲✸✳ ●❡♦♠❡trí❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ♠✉② ❡str❡❝❤❛✳

❈♦♠♦ L ≫ y ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❡st❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛ (−∞, +∞) ②✱ ♣♦r s✐♠❡trí❛✱ ❡❧

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ x✱ ❜❛st❛♥❞♦ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r❧❛ ♣❛r❛ x = 0✳ ▲❛
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡
r≫λ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

e−iπ/4 kb eikr
I(r) ≃ √ √ si kr ≫ 1.
2π kr
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ❡s


e−iπ/4 kb A0 ei(kr−ωt)  L≫y≃r≫λ
A(r) e−iωt ≃ √ √ si y b es despreciable ✭✶✳✺✹✮
2π kr 
frente a y

❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❞❡❝❛❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ r❛í③
❝✉❛❞r❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ r ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ② ❧❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡ ✭❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ✮✳ P♦r
❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✉②❣❡♥s✲❋r❡s♥❡❧ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✿ ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛
❡str❡❝❤❛ ② ♠✉② ❧❛r❣❛ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛✳
➓ ✸✳ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✶✳✺✹✮ ❡st✉❞✐❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛
♣❧❛♥❛ ♣♦r ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ b ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡✱ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s ② ♠✉② ❧❛r❣❛s s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s
✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ D✳ ❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❝é❧❡❜r❡ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r♦♠étr✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❚❤♦♠❛s ❨♦✉♥❣✱
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✹✱ q✉❡ t❡♥❞rá ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛
✾
❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❜❛s❡s t❡ór✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

✾
❚❤♦♠❛s ❨♦✉♥❣ ✭✶✼✼✸✲✶✽✷✾✮ ❡s ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ú❧t✐♠♦s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥t❡s ❞❡❧ s❛❜❡r r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡
♣❧✉r✐❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛r✿ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❢✉❡ ♠ús✐❝♦✱ ♣✐♥t♦r✱ ♠é❞✐❝♦ ② ❧✐♥❣ü✐st❛✳ ❊s♣❡❝✐❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✲✹✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r♦♠étr✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ y ≫ D ♥♦ s❡

❛♣r❡❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ♣❛r❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛r ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✮✳

❊❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ y s❡rá ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳ ❙✐ y≫D ♥♦ ❤❛② ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❡♥
✉s❛r ✭✶✳✺✹✮ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❡♥
❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛s r1 ② r2 ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ② ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✿

!
e−iπ/4 kb eikr1 eikr2
A(r) ≃ √ √ +√ A0 si y ≫ λ, |z| , D
2π kr1 kr2
s  2 s  2
D √ D √
r1 = y2 + z − ≃ r2 − zD ; r2 = y2 + z + ≃ r2 + zD.
2 2

◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❞♦ D2 ❢r❡♥t❡ ❛ y2✱ ② q✉❡ r ≡ (z 2 + y 2 )1/2 ≃ y

❡s ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ② ❡❧ ❡❥❡
OX ✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s s✉st✐t✉✐r r1 ② r2 ♣♦r r ❡♥ ❧♦s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ A(r)✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡ s❡r ♠ás ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦s♦s✳ ❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ kDz/(2r) ♣✉❡❞❡
t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ π✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛rí❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ q✉❡ ♥♦
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r✱ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❛í❝❡s ❝✉❛❞r❛❞❛s

r
p zD kD
kr1,2 ≃ k r2 ± zD = kr 1+ 2
≃ kr ± z + ...
r 2r

② ♦r✐❡♥t❛❧❡s✱ s✉ tr❛❜❛ ❥♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❢✉❡ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❈❤❛♠♣♦❧❧✐♦♥ ♣✉❞✐❡s❡ ❞❡s❝✐❢r❛r ❧❛ ♣✐❡❞r❛

❘♦s❡tt❛ q✉❡✱ ❝✉r✐♦s❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❤❛❜í❛ s✐❞♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛❞❛ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❣♦❜❡r♥❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❊❣✐♣t♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❞❛t♦

❛ñ❛❞✐❞♦✱ ❨♦✉♥❣ ❛♣r❡♥❞✐ó ❛ ❧❡❡r ❝♦rr❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ➼❛ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❛ñ♦s ❞❡ ❡❞❛❞✦

 ✶✳✼✳ ❈❖❍❊❘❊◆❈■❆

❈♦♥ t♦❞♦ ❡❧❧♦ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

 
2e−iπ/4 kb kDz eikr
A(r) ≃ √ cos √ A0 si y ≫ λ, |z| , D. ✭✶✳✺✺✮
2π 2r kr
▲❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ IEM = cuEM ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ② ♥♦ ♠✉②
❛❧❡❥❛❞♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❝❡♥tr♦ s❡rá
 
ǫ0 ω 2 c ǫ0 b2 ω 3 |A0 |2 kDz
IEM (r) = |A(r)|2 ≃ 4 cos2 . ✭✶✳✺✻✮
2 4πr 2r
▲❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ❞❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ❢r❛♥❥❛s ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡
❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ✭✈❡❛ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✹✮ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s
❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛s ② ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳ ▲♦s
❝❡♥tr♦s ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢r❛♥❥❛s s✉❝❡s✐✈❛s ✭❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ✮ ❡stá♥ s❡♣❛r❛❞♦s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛

2πr 2πy yλ
∆= ≃ = . ✭✶✳✺✼✮
kD kD D

1.7✳ ❈❖❍❊❘❊◆❈■❆

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ q✉❡ só❧♦ ❤❛② ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ ♦♥❞❛s
❊▼ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ② t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ♠✉❡str❛
❧❛ ❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝✐❛ ❞✐❛r✐❛✱ ♥♦ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛♠♦s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ s✐ ❝❛❞❛
✉♥❛ ❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠✉❝❤❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳
❊st♦ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡
❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r
❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛s ♦ ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛s ②✱ ❡♥ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦✱ t❡♥❞❡rá♥ ❛ ❝♦♠♣❡♥s❛rs❡✳ ❆❤♦r❛
❜✐❡♥✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❡♥s❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛rs❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐t❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦
✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s
❊▼ ♣❛r❛ ❝r❡❛r ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦♥❡♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ ❝✉②♦s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ❡♥ ✉♥

♣✉♥t♦ r s♦♥ A1 (t) ② A2 (t)✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ✭♦♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧
r ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥✮✳ P❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉③❝❛
✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡❜❡♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❡r♦✱
❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❡♥tr❡ s✉s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❡♥tr❡ s✉s ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s s❡rá♥
❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛s ② ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛s ②✱ ❡♥ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦✱ s❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❛rá♥✳ ❆ ❧❛
✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ❡st♦✱ ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ s♦♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡s ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❞♦s ♣✉❧s♦s ❝♦♥ ❞✐st✐♥t❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♥♦ ❧♦ s♦♥✳ ▲❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥
❡stá ❡♥ ✈❡r ❤❛st❛ q✉é ♣✉♥t♦ ❤❛② ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ♣✉❧s♦s ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦s
❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❡❞✐❛✳
P❛r❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ♣✉❧s♦s
❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✱ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣✉❧s♦ A1 (t) ❡s ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦ ❝♦♥
❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡s ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦ ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳
❊st♦ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ q✉❡

A1 (t) = A1 e−iωt ; A2 (t) = A2 α(t)e−iωt = A2 |α(t)|ei∆(t) e−iωt ✭✶✳✺✽✮

❞♦♥❞❡ α(t) = |α(t)| exp[i∆(t)] ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ q✉❡ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦

❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥ T = 2π/ω ✳ ❈♦♠♦ |α(t)| ❡s ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❡♥❛s ✈❛rí❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣✉❧s♦s ❡st❛rá ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛
♣♦r ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ∆(t)✳
❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✳✹✻✮✱ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s
♣✉❧s♦s ❡s  
∂A∗1 (t) ∂A2 (t)
ǫ0 Re · .
∂t ∂t
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s α(t) ② ∆(t) ✈❛rí❛♥ ❧❡♥t❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r s✉s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ∂A2 (t)/∂t✱ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡  
ǫ0 ω 2 Re A∗1 · A2 |α(t)|ei∆(t) .

❋✐❥❛❞♦ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ t0 ✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❤❛②❛ tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐❞♦ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ∆(t)

❤❛②❛ ❝❛♠❜✐❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ π✱ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛s❛rá ❞❡
♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦ ✭♦ ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✮✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❤❛❜rá t♦r♥❛❞♦
❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛ ❛ ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛ ✭♦ ❛❧ r❡✈és✮ ② ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❤❛♥ ♣❡r❞✐❞♦
s✉ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♠✉t✉❛✳

❊st♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✲✺✳ ▲♦s ♣✉❧s♦s A2 (t) ② A3 (t) s♦♥
❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ②✱ ❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈✐st❛✱ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡
sí✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ∆(t) s❡ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ∆(t) ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡
tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐❞♦s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✺✵ ❝✐❝❧♦s✳ ❙✐ s✉♣❡r♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s
♦♥❞❛s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣✉❧s♦ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦ A1 (t) = A exp(−iωt) s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐rá ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛r❛
✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ A2 (t) ② A1 (t)✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r
❞❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦✮✳ P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ A3 (t) ② A1 (t) ❡s
❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛ ② ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛ ②✱ ❡♥ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

|A1 (t) + A3 (t)|2 temp

= |A1 (t)|2 temp
+ |A3 (t)|2 temp
. ✭✶✳✺✾✮
 ✶✳✼✳ ❈❖❍❊❘❊◆❈■❆

1.5 5

1.0

2
4

A (t)+A (t)| / |A|

A (t)] / |A|

0.5

2
3
0.0

1
2

2
-0.5
Re[

2
1
-1.0

|
-1.5 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400

t/T t/T
1.5 5

2
A (t)+A (t)| / |A|
1.0
4
A (t)] / |A|

0.5

2
3
0.0

1
3

2
-0.5
Re[

1
-1.0
3
|

-1.5 0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400

t/T t/T
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✲✺✳ P❛♥❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✿ ❞♦s ♣✉❧s♦s ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦s A2 (t) ② A3 (t)✳ P❛♥❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛
❞❡r❡❝❤❛✿ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣✉❧s♦s A2 (t) ② A3 (t) ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣✉❧s♦ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦ A1 (t)✳ P❛r❛
❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ t ✭✜❣✉r❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r✱ ♣❛♥❡❧
❞❡r❡❝❤♦✮✱ ♣❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ② ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ s✉
❝❛rá❝t❡r ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈♦ ♦ ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈♦ ❝❛❞❛ ✺✵ ❝✐❝❧♦s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✭✜❣✉r❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❞❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧
❞❡r❡❝❤♦✮✳

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛

②❛ ❡①♣✉❡st♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✺✱
s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼ ❡s ❛❞✐t✐✈❛
❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s s❡❛♥ ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ◆♦ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s
♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♣✉❞✐é♥❞♦s❡ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡
✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ♦♥❞❛s✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❛❝tú❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉❡♥t❡s

❞❡ ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ q✉❡ s❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦♥❡♥ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ y > 0✱ ❧♦ q✉❡
❝♦♥❞✉❝❡ ❛ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s✳ P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❡♥
❧❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦t✐❞✐❛♥❛s ❧♦s ♣✉❧s♦s ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦s q✉❡ s❡
s✉♣❡r♣♦♥❡♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡s ♦ ♣✐❡r❞❡♥ s✉ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛
tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐❞♦ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✳✶✳ ❊❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
▲❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ♥♦ ❡s ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✉♥ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ♦s❝✐❧❛t♦r✐♦ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡st❛rí❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r R(t) = Re[R0 ζ exp(−iωt)]✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ R0 ❡s r❡❛❧ ②
♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ② ζ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s t❛❧ q✉❡ ζ ∗ · ζ = 1✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦ ❝✐♥ét✐❝♦ L(t) ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s❝r✐❜✐é♥❞♦❧♦ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ M ✱ R0 ✱ ω ② ζ ✳ ❉✐s❝✉t❛
❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✳✷✳ ❆❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡
π −1 ε
δ(x − a) = lı́m+ 2
ε→0 (x − a) + ε2
❞❡♠✉❡str❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s✿
1 a
✐✮ δ(x − a) = δ(a − x) ❀ ✐✐✮ δ(bx − a) = δ(x − ) ❀ ✐✐✐✮ ψ(x)δ(x − a) = ψ(a)δ(x − a)
|b| b

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✳✸✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(r) ❧♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ge(k) ❡sté ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳
❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s✐ g(r) ❡s r❡❛❧✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ge(k) = ge∗ (−k)✳
❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ h(r) = g(αr)✱ ❝♦♥ α ∈ R+ ✱ ❡♥
tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ge(k)
❝✮ Pr✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ ∂ n g(r)/∂xn ❡s (ikx )n g
e(k)✳
❞✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ❞❡ ∇2 g(r) ② ❞❡ ∇g(r)✳
❡✮ ❙✐ G(r) ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❝✉②❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s G(k) e ✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ ❧❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ∇ · G(r) ② ∇ × G(r)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✳✹✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❙❡❛♥ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s g(r) ② h(r)✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s s✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦
Z
C(r) = (g ∗ h)(r) ≡ g ∗ (s − r)h(s)dN s ✭✶✳✻✵✮
RN

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s✉ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s

C̃(k) = (2π)N/2 g̃ ∗ (k)h̃(k), ✭✶✳✻✶✮
❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s✳ ❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s
❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳
 ❚❡♠❛ ✷
P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆
❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

▲♦ q✉❡ ❤♦② ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡♠♣✐❡③❛ ❛ ❣❡st❛rs❡ ❛ ✜♥❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦
❳■❳ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❊st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ② ❞❡ ❧❛s
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✱ q✉❡ ✉♥✐✜❝❛♥ t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥
t❡ór✐❝❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ ② ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡✱ ❡r❛♥ ✐♥❝❛♣❛❝❡s ❞❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r ✉♥♦s
♣♦❝♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ▼❛①
P❧❛♥❝❦ ❢✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ♣r♦♣♦♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ s✉ ❜úsq✉❡❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡✱ ❢✉❡ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡ ❧♦s q✉❛♥t❛
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❆❧❜❡rt ❊✐♥st❡✐♥ ❡♥ s✉ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛❜r✐ó
❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ q✉❡✱ tí♠✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ s✉s ✐♥✐❝✐♦s ② r❛❞✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❡♥ ❧♦s ❛ñ♦s ✈❡✐♥t❡ ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ♣❛s❛❞♦✱ ❝❛♠❜✐ó ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r
❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ② ❞❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ② ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳

❚r❛s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥st✐t✉t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥

❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛r❡♠♦s s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✳ ❆❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦
❤❛❧❧❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦
tér♠✐❝♦ ✭❡❧ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡✮ ② ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧❡❢❡❝t♦
❈♦♠♣t♦♥✱ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♣✉♥t✉❛❧❡s✱ q✉❡ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡
❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥
❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❡rs♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛
❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳ ❈❡rr❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❜r❡✈❡ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡
❧♦s ór❞❡♥❡s ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ tí♣✐❝♦s ❡♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦s✱ ❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r❡♠♦s ❡❧
s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

◆♦ ❡s ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥

r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✲♠❛t❡r✐❛✳ ▲♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧❡s s♦♥ ❛q✉í ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✱ ②❛ q✉❡
❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❡♠♣❡③❛♠♦s ❛ ❡♥❢❛t✐③❛r ❧❛s ✏♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r✐❞❛❞❡s✑ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ✽ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧✱ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✜♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞❛
♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ tr❛♥s♠✐t✐r ❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❈♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r ♣♦r q✉é ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r ✉♥❛
s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s q✉❡✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s♦♥ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❜❧❡s
❛❝✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❙❛❜❡r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❡rs♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡

✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s✳

❙❡r ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s s✐♠♣❧❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧✉③ ② ♠❛t❡r✐❛

❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ② ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
♣✉♥t✉❛❧❡s✳ ❊♥t❡♥❞❡r ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦
✭✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ② ✉♥❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✮✳

❋❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ór❞❡♥❡s ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ tí♣✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛✳

 ✷✳✶✳ ❈❯❆◆❚■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆✳ ❋❖❚❖◆❊❙

2.1✳ ❈❯❆◆❚■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆✳ ❋❖❚❖◆❊❙

➓ ✶✳ ❱❛r✐♦s ❡st✉❞✐♦s ✐♥✐❝✐❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❍❡✐♥r✐❝❤ ❍❡rt③ ❡♥ ✶✽✽✼ ♠♦str❛r♦♥ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦
✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❧✉③ ✐♥❝✐❞í❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ♠❡t❛❧ s❡ ♣♦❞í❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦s
❡♥ s✉ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ ❯♥♦s ❛ñ♦s ❞❡s♣✉és✱ ❏♦s❡♣❤ ❏♦❤♥ ❚❤♦♠s♦♠ r❡❛❧✐③ó s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❛s
❡①♣❡r✐❡♥❝✐❛s ②✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s✉s ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ♣r❡✈✐♦s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r
❞❡ ❧♦s r❛②♦s ❝❛tó❞✐❝♦s✱ ♣r♦♣✉s♦ q✉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝í❛ ❡r❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡
❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❜s♦r❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧✳ ❊st♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛
❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ♦ ❢♦t♦❡♠✐s✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❛ ❛ ❡st❡
❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦✳

❊❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❡①tr❛ñ♦ ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦✿ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥

✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠✉♥✐❝❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❧ ♠❡t❛❧✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❜s♦r❜✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♠❡♥♦s
❧✐❣❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❛❧ ✈❡r ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛❞❛ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡s❝❛♣❛r ❛❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❧
♠❡t❛❧✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧tó r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s♦r♣r❡♥❞❡♥t❡ ❢✉❡ ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s r❡❛❧✐③❛❞❛s
♣♦r P❤✐❧✐♣♣ ✈♦♥ ▲❡♥❛r❞ ❡♥ ✶✾✵✷✱ q✉❡ ♠♦str❛r♦♥ q✉❡ ❛❧ ❤❛❝❡r ✐♥❝✐❞✐r r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ♠❡t❛❧ s❡ t❡♥í❛ q✉❡✿ ✐✮ ♣♦r ❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
✉♠❜r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❧✉③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✱ ❝✉②♦ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♣❡♥❞í❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ♥♦ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝í❛
❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♣♦r ♠✉② ✐♥t❡♥s❛ q✉❡ ❢✉❡s❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥❀ ✐✐✮ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♥
❧❛ q✉❡ s❛❧í❛♥ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✱ s✐♥♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧❀ ✐✐✐✮ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡
❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡r❛ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛
❧✉③❀ ✐✈✮ ❧❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥✱ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐rs❡✱ ❡r❛ ✐♥st❛♥tá♥❡❛ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❢✉❡s❡ ♠✉②
♣♦❝♦ ✐♥t❡♥s❛✳

❊st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ②❛ q✉❡
ést❛ ♣r❡s✉♣♦♥❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ②
✉♥ ♠❡❞✐♦ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳ ❆sí✱ ❛❧ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞
❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❛❜s♦r❜❡rí❛♥ ♠ás ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ②
s❡ ❢❛✈♦r❡❝❡rí❛ s✉ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ s✐♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❥✉❡❣✉❡ ✉♥
♣❛♣❡❧ ♣r✐♠♦r❞✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❡♥✐❣♠❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡s❡♥tó ❆❧❜❡rt ❊✐♥st❡✐♥ ❡♥ ✶✾✵✺✳ ❊❧ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

❡♠♣❧❡❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦✜❝✐♥❛ ❞❡ ♣❛t❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❇❡r♥❛ s✉❣✐r✐ó q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦ ❡st❛❜❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s ❞❡
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✉②♦ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s

ω
Eγ = hν = h ≡ ~ω, ✭✷✳✶✮
2π
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

s✐❡♥❞♦ ν ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ② h ❧❛ ❤♦② ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦

✭h≃ 6, 63 × 10−34 ❏ s✮✳ ❊♥ ✭✷✳✶✮ ❤❡♠♦s r❡❡s❝r✐t♦ hν ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
❛♥❣✉❧❛r ω ✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ~ ≡ h/(2π)✳

❈♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ♣❛r❡❝❡ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ✉♥❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛

❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ❡stá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✱ q✉❡ ❛ñ♦s ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ❊✐♥st❡✐♥ s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r♦♥ ❢♦t♦♥❡s✱ ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡ Eγ = ~ω ✳ P♦r ♦tr♦
❧❛❞♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ✈✐❛❥❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③ c ≃ 3×108
♠✴s✱ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❤❛ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ♠❛s❛ ♥✉❧❛ ✭✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ♠❛s❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈✐❛❥❛r ❛
❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③✮✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ u✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦
❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✲♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦
❊✐♥st❡✐♥✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ s❡rá

1 ~ω h
p γ = Eγ u = u = ~k = u, ✭✷✳✷✮
c c λ

❞♦♥❞❡ k = ku = (ω/c)u ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛

✭❊▼✮ ② λ = 2π/k s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s
IEM ✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❡s

uEM IEM
ργ = = ✭✷✳✸✮
~ω ~ωc

❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ❡s uEM = IEM /c✳ ❊st❛s
❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
✶
❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ✭♥ú♠❡r♦ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✱ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛✮ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡
❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞✱ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✮✳ ❚✐❡♥❡ ❛sí s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡
❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k = pγ /~ ② ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω = Eγ /~ = kc✳
❊s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ✈❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡ ♣❛q✉❡t❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♦ q✉❛♥t❛ ❞❡ ❧✉③
✷
❡①♣❧✐❝❛ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ▲❡♥❛r❞ ♣✉♥t♦ ♣♦r ♣✉♥t♦✳
❙✐ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ r❛❞✐❛t✐✈♦ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❡s ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ~ω = hν
❛❜s♦r❜✐❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ s❡rá ✐♥s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ést❡ ❡s❝❛♣❡ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ✭❛
♥♦ s❡r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❛❜s♦r❜❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦ ♠ás ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t❡♥ ❝❛s✐
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✱ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ q✉❡ ❡s ♠✉② ✐♠♣r♦❜❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr❛

✶
❈✉❛♥❞♦ ♥♦s r❡✜r❛♠♦s ❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❛ r✐❡s❣♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❢✉s✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳
✷
❙✐ ✉s❛♠♦s ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ❧❛tí♥✱ ❡❧ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s q✉❛♥t✉♠ ② ❡❧ ♣❧✉r❛❧ ❡s q✉❛♥t❛✳
▲❛ ❝❛st❡❧❧❛♥✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛ ❞❛ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❝✉❛♥t♦ ② ❛ ❧❛ ♣❧✉r❛❧ ❝✉❛♥t♦s ② ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♠♦ q✉❛♥t✉♠ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♦ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s q✉❛♥t❛ ❛♣❡♥❛s s❡ ✉s❛♥ ❤♦② ❡♥ ❞í❛✳
 ✷✳✶✳ ❈❯❆◆❚■❩❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆✳ ❋❖❚❖◆❊❙

γ e- 6

Kmax (eV)
3

0 14 15 15 15
5.0x10 1.0x10 1.5x10 2.0x10

Metal (Na) ν (Hz)

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✶✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ✭✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✮ ② ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛
♠á①✐♠❛ Kmax ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❢r❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ν ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s♦❞✐♦
✭❞❡r❡❝❤❛✮✳ ▲❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♠✐❡♥③❛♥ ❛ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡r ❧♦s ❢♦t♦❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
tr❛❜❛❥♦ W ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

❛♥t❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ♣✐❡r❞❛ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s
q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ♦ ❝♦♥
♦tr♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s✮✿ só❧♦ ❤❛❜rá ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s s✐ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡s ♠❛②♦r
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧✐❣❛❞✉r❛ ♠í♥✐♠❛ W ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ✭❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ② q✉❡ ❡s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✮✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❛❧❡♥ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♠ás ❞é❜✐❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧✐❣❛❞♦s s❡rá Kmáx = hν−W
✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✶✮ s✐❡♥❞♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ q✉❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♠ás ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❛❧ ♠❡t❛❧
s❛❧❣❛♥ ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s ♣❡r♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ Kmáx ✳ ❆❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛r
❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦ ♠❛♥t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❝r❡❝❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡
❢♦t♦♥❡s ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥tá♥❞♦s❡ ❛sí ❡❧
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
❛❜s♦r❜❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥st❛♥tá♥❡❛ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧
♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❝♦r♣ús❝✉❧♦s ✭❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ② ❡❧
❢♦tó♥✮✳

❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✷✳❛✳ ■❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦

❙♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❞❡ s♦❞✐♦ ❞❡ ✶ ❝♠ 2 ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡

r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ❝✉②❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❞❡ ✷✵✵ ❲✴♠ 2 ✳

❛✮ ❙❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ W ❞❡❧ s♦❞✐♦ ❡s ✷✱✸ ❡❱✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
♠í♥✐♠❛ ν mı́n q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❜✮ ❙✐ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ❡s 2ν mı́n ✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥ ❝♦♥tr❛
❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ♠á①✐♠❛
❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❤❛②❛ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ν ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ♠❛②♦r
q✉❡ ν mı́n = W/h✳ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ✉♠❜r❛❧ ❡s
W 2,3 · 1,6 × 10−19 J
ν mı́n = = = 5,5 × 1014 s−1 ,
h 6,63 × 10−34 J s
q✉❡ ❡stá ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡❧ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✳
❜✮ ❨❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ IEM ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❞❡
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S ✱ ❧❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ❛❜s♦r❜✐❞❛ ❡s IEM S ✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡
✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡s
IEM S IEM S IEM S 200 J m−2 s−1 · 10−4 m2
N= = = = = 2,7 × 1016 fot/s.
hν h (2ν mı́n ) 2W 2 · 2,3 · 1,6 × 10−19 J

❊♥ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ♠á①✐♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s✱ ést❛ ❡s

Kmáx = hν − W = 2hν mı́n − W = 2W − W = 2,3 eV

q✉❡ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ me c2 ≃ 0,511 ▼❡❱✳

2.2✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ P❆❘❆ ❊▲ ❋❖❚Ó◆

➓ ✶✳ ▲❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡ ❊✐♥st❡✐♥ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥

s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ② ❡❧❡❣❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣❡r♦ ❛❜r❡ ❛♣❛r❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡
♦tr♦✿ ➽❝ó♠♦ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐③❛r ❡st❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❜✐❡♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦
❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦
❛♥t❡r✐♦r❄ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ♥♦ ❡s
♦tr❛ ❝♦s❛ q✉❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ➽❝ó♠♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s t❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛
❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❄ ❯♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡s s✉♣♦♥❡r q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s
❊▼ s♦♥ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❝♦❧❡❝t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❣r❛♥
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s✳ ❆sí✱ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s♦♥ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✱
♣❡r♦ s✐ ♣❡♥s❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♠✉② ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛r ❧♦s
❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❤♦s ♣♦r ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ♣❛r❛
❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s✳ ▲❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rí❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✢✉✐❞♦ q✉❡ ❡stá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦
❞❡ ♠♦❧é❝✉❧❛s ✭❝♦r♣ús❝✉❧♦s✮ ♣❡r♦ ❝✉②♦ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛
♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛s ✭❡❧ s♦♥✐❞♦✮✳ ❊st❛ ✐❞❡❛ ♣❛r❡❝❡ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ✉♥
❤❛③ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ♠♦❞❡r❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥t❡♥s♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ♠✐❧❡s ❞❡ ❜✐❧❧♦♥❡s
 ✷✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ P❆❘❆ ❊▲ ❋❖❚Ó◆

❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦

❞é❜✐❧ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s q✉❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❡ ❧❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ q✉❡
❧♦s ♣❛tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦
❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡❧ ❤❛③✿ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼
♥♦ ❞❡s❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ s✐ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡
❢♦t♦♥❡s✮ ❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❝♦♥ ❤❛❝❡s ❢♦r♠❛❞♦s ♣♦r ♠✉② ♣♦❝♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s✱ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s q✉❡ ②❛ ❡r❛♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s
❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ❳❳✳ ❈❛❜rí❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦s❡❡ ✉♥❛
✏♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛✑ ❞✉❛❧✱ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛ ② ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r✱ ② q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛♥✐❢❡st❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ♦tr❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✐r❝✉♥st❛♥❝✐❛s✳

❊st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♠✉② ✈❛❣❛ ② ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♠❛t✐③❛r❧❛✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s

✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ t❛♥ ♣♦❝♦ ✐♥t❡♥s❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ② ❡❧
❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❢♦tó♥ ❛ ❢♦tó♥✳ ❚r❛s ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✱ ❝❛❞❛ ❢♦tó♥
❝❤♦❝❛ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s✳ ❆❧
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞✐❝❤♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞✐str✐❜✉✐rs❡ ❛❧ ❛③❛r ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❡s♣❡r❛♠♦s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡
t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭② ❤❛② ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ ❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❧❛ r❡❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s ❞✉r❛♥t❡
❞í❛s✮ ✈❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s r❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧♦ q✉❡
❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦
❝❛❜rí❛ ❡s♣❡r❛rs❡ ❞❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱
❊▼ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ♥♦ ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ r❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s s✐♥♦ ♠ás
❜✐❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ♣✉♥t♦✳ ❆sí✱
❧❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ✐♥✜❡r❡ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s
♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ② ❡s ❧❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭❞❡s❝r✐t❛ ♣♦r
✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✲t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✮ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡s s✉s❝❡♣t✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦
♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦✳ ❊❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✭❝♦♠♦ ❛sí ♣r✉❡❜❛♥ ❡❧ ❝❤♦q✉❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛
♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❞❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ ♦ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦✮ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s tí♣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛s✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ② t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❛✜r♠ó ♠✉② ❛❣✉❞❛♠❡♥t❡ P✳ ❆✳ ▼✳ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ❧♦s
❢♦t♦♥❡s ♥♦ ✐♥t❡r✜❡r❡♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ✐♥t❡r✜❡r❡ ❝♦♥s✐❣♦ ♠✐s♠♦✳
❊st❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❝♦♥❝✐❧✐❛ ❧❛ ❡✈✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ ② ❧❛
♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡❧ ♣r❡❝✐♦ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s
❞❡ ♣❛❣❛r ❡s ❡♥♦r♠❡✱ ②❛ q✉❡ só❧♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r ❧♦s ❤❡❝❤♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s
❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦
❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ ❧♦s ❤❛❝❡s ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡①❤✐❜❡♥ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ② ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥
❡s ❡①t❡♥s✐❜❧❡ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ❡♥ ❧❛
q✉❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ♥♦ s❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛♥ ♣♦r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ t♦♠❛♥ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❢ís✐❝❛s s✐♥♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♥ t❛❧❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛

❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✳

➓ ✷✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r ❡s ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉é ♦❝✉rr❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛

♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ ❨❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ t♦❞♦ ❤❛③ r❛❞✐❛t✐✈♦ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛
❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ② ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r Ã(k)✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ εEM (k)
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✶✳✹✳✸ s✉❣✐❡r❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❢♦t♦♥❡s
❝♦♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥

1 ǫ0 ω k e
nγ (k) = εEM (k) = |A(k)|2 ✭✷✳✹✮
~ω k 2~

❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ t♦t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ s♦♥

Z Z
3
UEM = ~ω k nγ (k)d k PEM = ~k nγ (k)d3 k ✭✷✳✺✮
R3 R3

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ nγ (k)d3 k ♣♦❞rí❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♣✉❧s♦ ❊▼
❝✉②♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ d3 k ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r
❞❡ k✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡st♦ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ s❡rá
Z
Nγ = nγ (k)d3 k. ✭✷✳✻✮
R3

❊st❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❡s ✐♠♣❡❝❛❜❧❡ ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥ r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✿

❝❛❞❛ ❢♦tó♥ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ② ❡①♣❧✐❝❛ s✐♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛
❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❡♥ s✉ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♥♦ s❡
s♦st✐❡♥❡ s✐ ♥♦s ✜❥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❧♦❝❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❧❛

❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❡s ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡✿ ❧❛

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳
❆❞♠✐t✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦
❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❡q✉✐♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥
❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ pγ = ~k✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡rás❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥ ♣✉❧s♦ ♥♦
♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s
♣γ ✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ✉♥♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s
❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❊st♦ ♦❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❡ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥ ♣✉❧s♦ ❊▼
❡stá ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳

❆ ❧❛ ✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s ♠ás ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦ ♣❡♥s❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣✉❧s♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r
Nγ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡✱ ❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡
 ✷✳✷✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ P❆❘❆ ❊▲ ❋❖❚Ó◆

❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛✱ s❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛♥ ♣♦rq✉❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♥♦ ❡stá
❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ❙✐ s❡ ♠✐❞✐❡s❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥✱ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞

1 1 ǫ0 ω k e
dPr(~k) ≡ nγ (k)d3 k = |A(k)|2 d3 k ✭✷✳✼✮
Nγ Nγ 2~

s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦

~3 d3 k ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ~k✳✸ ❊st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ nγ (k) ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛
❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ✭s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛❝❡♥ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s
❡st❛❞íst✐❝♦s✮ s✐♥♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✳

❊st♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡r ✉♥❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡♠á♥t✐❝❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ q✉❡
s❡ ♣❡r❝❛t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦❢✉♥❞❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❤❛② ❛❧ ❡s❝♦❣❡r ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛✳ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✏❝❧ás✐❝❛✑ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥♦s ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s
♠ár❣❡♥❡s ❞❡ ❡rr♦r q✉❡ s♦♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡
❧❛s tr❡s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ p✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡st❛♠♦s ❞✐❝✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❡st❛❞♦s
❢ís✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ q✉❡ ❡①❤✐❜❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥trí♥s❡❝❛ ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
♦✱ ❡♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ q✉❡ t❛♥ ✈á❧✐❞♦s s♦♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡
s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡stá ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♦tr♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ♥♦✳

◆♦t❡ ❧❛ ❡str❡❝❤❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦

❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r ❞ó♥❞❡ ✈❛ ❛ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛r ✉♥
❢♦tó♥ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r♦♠étr✐❝♦✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦
❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ ❤❛②❛♥ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛❞♦ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❡st❛rá♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ②❛ ♥♦ t♦♠❛rá ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✱ ②
❡st♦ ❡s ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐♥st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛
♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✳

➓ ✸✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❞♦s

♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s q✉❡ s♦♥ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ✭❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❡r♦
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮✱ ❝✉②♦s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s s♦♥ A1 (r, t) ≃
A0,1 exp[i(k1 · r − ωt)] ② A2 (r, t) ≃ A0,2 exp[i(k2 · r − ωt)]✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡s

 
A(r, t) = A1 (r, t) + A2 (r, t) = A0,1 eik1 ·r + A0,2 eik2 ·r e−iωt

✸
◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s k ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✭✷✳✶✵✮✱ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡
❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ k ✏♦❝✉♣❛✑ ✉♥ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ π 3 /V ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦ ✭❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮ ❡♥ ❡❧
♦❝t❛♥t❡ kx,y,z ≥ 0✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

② q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✶✳✺✳✷✮ ❡s

(coh) ǫ0 ω 2 h  i
uEM (r) = |A0,1 |2 + |A0,2 |2 + 2Re A0,1 · A∗0,2 ei(k1 −k2 )·r .
2
▲❧❡✈❛♥❞♦ ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ❡①tr❡♠♦ ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥✱ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡
❝❛❞❛ ❢♦tó♥ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s
~k1 ② ~k2 ✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
2 2
❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ~k1 ② ~k2 s❡rá♥ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ |A0,1 | ② |A0,2 | ✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ pγ ♥♦ ❡stá ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ❉❡❝✐♠♦s✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛
❤❡♠♦s ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡s✱ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦
❝♦♥ pγ ♥♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳

P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❡s ❝♦rr❡❝t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❡♥ q✉❡

❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❊▼✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛♥
❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❢❛s❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ✐♠♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡ ② ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s♦♥ ✐♥❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡s✳
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s

(inc) ǫ0 ω 2

uEM (r) = |A0,1 |2 + |A0,2 |2 .
2
(coh)
❊st❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞✱ ❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ uEM (r)✱ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳
❊st♦ ❡s ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛ ❛ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s
❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s✳
❊♥ ❡st❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ✉♥♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ~k1 ② ❡❧ r❡st♦
❡♥ ♦tr♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ~k2 ✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ |A0,1 |
2

② |A0,2 |2 ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s r❛❞✐❛❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡s ✭② ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s

❢♦t♦♥❡s✮ s♦♥ ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦ ② ♦❜s❡r✈❛rí❛♠♦s ❝❧❛r♦s ♣❛tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s❡rí❛ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛
✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡✳

➓ ✹✳ ❆♣❡♥❛s ❤❡♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✱ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ♣❛r❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r

q✉❡ ❡stá ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❜✐❡♥
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ◆♦ ❡♥tr❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❤❛❝❡r ✉♥ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r
❞❡ ❡st♦ ❡s ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ q✉❡ s❡ ❞é ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❢♦t♦♥❡s✿ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡①✐❣❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
 ✷✳✸✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❈❆❱■❉❆❉ ❘❆❉■❆◆❚❊

❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛r ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❛♣❡❧❛♥❞♦ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s

r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ s♦r♣r❡♥❞❡♥t❡✱ ❡st♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡
❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ q✉❡❞❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛ ♣♦r
s✉ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❦
q✉❡ ❡stá ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✳ ❉✐❝❤❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A(r, t) ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ uEM (r, t)
❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥❢❡r✐r ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣✉❧s♦
❊▼ ❡s ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞♦♥❞❡
♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❢♦t♦♥❡s✳

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ A(r, t) = A0 exp(ik · r − iωt) ♥♦ q✉❡❞❛

✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ pγ ② ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s
ργ ✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❞❛t♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r |A0 | ② k✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ A0 ✱
❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ ♣♦❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛✳ ❙✐ ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛s
❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ✐♥❞✐st✐♥t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦
❊▼ ♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥✱
❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛r ♦tr❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ q✉❡ ❣✉❛r❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛
❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣♦❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼✳ ❊st❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ s❡rá ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✐♥trí♥s❡❝♦✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ❡s♣í♥ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✱ ② q✉❡ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛rá
❡♥ ❧❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■■✳ ❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❞❡❜❡ q✉❡❞❛r ♣✉❡s
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦r s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② s✉ ❡s♣í♥✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❧✉③ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

2.3✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❈❆❱■❉❆❉ ❘❆❉■❆◆❚❊

➓ ✶✳ ❯♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡s ✉♥ r❡❝✐♥t♦ ❛✐s❧❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡♥ ❝✉②♦ s❡♥♦

ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛② r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼✳ ▲❛s ♣❛r❡❞❡s ✐♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ s♦♥ ❝❛♣❛❝❡s
❞❡ ❡♠✐t✐r ② ❛❜s♦r❜❡r r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦
②❛ ♥♦ ❤❛② ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐♦ ♥❡t♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛r❡❞❡s ② r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡s❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦✱
❧❛s ♣❛r❡❞❡s s♦♥ ❡❧ ✐♥str✉♠❡♥t♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❝❛♥❝❡ ❡❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦
t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦✱ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s
♠ás q✉❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s✳ ❈❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❤❛
❞❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦

 
1 ∂2
∇2 − A(r, t) = 0 ; ∇ · A(r, t) = 0,
c2 ∂t2

❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ A(r, t) ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s

❛ ❧❛s ♣❛r❡❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✷✳ ●❡♦♠❡trí❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡

♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ s✉ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r s❡rá

A(r, t) = Re A(r)e−iωt ,

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r A(r) ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s

ω2
∇2 A(r) = − A(r) ; ∇ · A(r) = 0 ✭✷✳✽✮
c2
❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦✳

P❛r❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♥✉❡str❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ ❡s ✉♥ ❝✉❜♦ ❞❡ ❧❛❞♦ L✱ ②

s✐t✉❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡♥ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ s✉s ✈ért✐❝❡s t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡
❛♣r❡❝✐❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r ♣♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ✉♥❛
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ ✭✷✳✽✮ ❡s


 ck = ω
A(r) = A0 sin(kx x) sin(ky y) sin(kz z) , con ✭✷✳✾✮

k · A0 = 0

❞♦♥❞❡ k = kx ux + ky uy + kz uz ✭❝♦♥ kx,y,z ≥ 0✮ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛

❡st❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ k ≡ |k| ② A0 ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s q✉❡✱
❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛♥s✈❡rs❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r✱ ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r
❛ k✳ ▲❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ ❡①✐❣❡♥ q✉❡ A(r) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣❛r❡❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛
❝❛✈✐❞❛❞✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ✭♦ ✈❛r✐❛s✮ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ t♦♠❛♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
0 ♦ L✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ k ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦

π π π
kx = nx , k y = ny , k z = nz ; con nx,y,z ∈ N ✭✷✳✶✵✮
L L L
 ✷✳✸✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❈❆❱■❉❆❉ ❘❆❉■❆◆❚❊

❈♦♠♦ A0 ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ k✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❤❛②
❞♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❞♦s ♠♦❞♦s
♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ②❛ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡
✹
✷✳✷✳✷✳ ❋í❥❡s❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ q✉❡ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s

s♦♥ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ✈✐❛❥❡r❛s✱ ❛q✉í s♦♥ ♦♥❞❛s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛s ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛❧ ❝♦♥✜♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦
❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞✳

➓ ✷✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s

✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛✳
❆❧❝❛♥③❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❛ T✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥
♠♦❞♦ r❛❞✐❛t✐✈♦ ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦ ❛❧ ❛③❛r t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (ε, ε + dε) ❡stá
❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✲❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥

Z ∞
MB e−ε/(kB T )
n (ε, T ) dε = dε siendo Z(T ) = e−ε/(kB T ) dε ✭✷✳✶✶✮
Z(T ) 0

✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞♦♥❞❡ kB ≃

1,38 × 10−23 J K−1 ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥✳ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ε
✭❝❧ás✐❝❛✮ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠♦❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω k = ck s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ②❛ q✉❡✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ nMB (ε, T )✱ ❧❛
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦

Z ∞
1 1 ∂Z(T )
ε(ω k , T ) = ε e−ε/(kB T ) dε = − , ✭✷✳✶✷✮
Z(T ) 0 Z(T ) ∂[(kB T )−1 ]

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡

   
ε ∂ ε
ε exp − =− exp − .
kB T ∂ [(kB T )−1 ] kB T

❊❢❡❝t✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ✭✷✳✶✶✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡

✺
Z(T ) = kB T ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ q✉❡

ε(ω k , T ) = kB T.

✹
P♦r ❡s❡ ♠♦t✐✈♦✱ ❤❡♠♦s r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ k ❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ②❛ q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
❝❛♠❜✐❛r kx ♣♦r −kx ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ♠❛♥t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ kx ♣❡r♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r A0 ♣♦r −A0 ✳
✺
❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡q✉✐♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥ ✱ ❡s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈á❧✐❞♦

❡♥ ❡❧ ✏❧í♠✐t❡ t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦✑ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s s♦♥ t❛♥ ❣r❛♥❞❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ s✉❜②❛❝❡♥t❡ ❡s
♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✳ ❊♥ ♥✉❡str♦ ❝❛s♦ ❡st♦ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ V = L3 ❤❛ ❞❡
s❡r s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❣r❛♥❞❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

X
UEM (T ) = 2 ε(ω k , T ),
k

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❡stá ❡①t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s k ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ✭✷✳✶✵✮ ② ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r
2 ♣r♦❝❡❞❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❣r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦s ❛ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
✈❡❝t♦r✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❤❛② ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡s✱ ② ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡
❝❛❞❛ ♠♦❞♦ ❡s kB T ✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ UEM (T ) = ∞✱ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡
❡s ❛❜s✉r❞♦ ② q✉❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ❛ ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼✳ ➱st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ♥♦ ❡s
❜❛❧❛❞í ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ② ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ s♦♥ ❞♦s
❞❡ ❧♦s ♣✐❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳

➓ ✸✳ P❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❝♦♥ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ q✉é ♦❝✉rr❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉②❡
❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ ▲♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞♦s ❡♥
✭✷✳✶✵✮ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ k ✏♦❝✉♣❛✑ ✉♥ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ π 3 /V ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦
✭❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦❝t❛♥t❡ kx,y,z ≥ 0✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦
✭V ≫ 0✮ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s ❞❡ k ❡stá♥ t❛♥ ❥✉♥t♦s q✉❡ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛r
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✉♠❛t♦r✐♦ s♦❜r❡ k ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♦❝t❛♥t❡ kx,y,z ≥ 0 ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡
❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
X Z
V
−→ d3 k.
π3 kx,y,z ≥0
k
❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❡s
Z
UEM (T ) 2
= 3 ε(ω k , T ) d3 k.
V π kx,y,z ≥0

❙✐ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✱ ② t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❡❧

ár❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❝t❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ πk 2 /2✱ k ❡s

Z ∞ Z ∞ 
UEM (T ) 1 2 1 ε(ω, T ) 2
= 2 ε(ω k , T )k dk = ω dω,
V π 0 0 π 2 c3

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ k → ω = ck ✳ ❊❧

tér♠✐♥♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❝♦r❝❤❡t❡s✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ♣♦r dω ✱ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛❞❛
❡♥ ♠♦❞♦s ❝✉②❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ dω ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛
❡♥ ω✳ ❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡s
Z ∞
1 ε(ω, T ) 2 UEM (T )
ρEM (ω, T ) = 2 ω y = ρEM (ω, T ) dω. ✭✷✳✶✸✮
π c3 V 0
 ✷✳✸✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❈❆❱■❉❆❉ ❘❆❉■❆◆❚❊

❯s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡q✉✐♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ε ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

1 kB T 2
ρEM (ω, T ) = ω (clásico). ✭✷✳✶✹✮
π 2 c3
❊st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✱ ❞❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ♣♦r ▲♦r❞ ❘❛②❧❡✐❣❤ ❛ ✜♥❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ❳■❳✱ ♠✉❡str❛
❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ρEM (ω, T ) ❝r❡❝❡
✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❤❛❝❡r❧♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ω
❙✐ ♥♦s t♦♠ás❡♠♦s ❡♥ s❡r✐♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❤❛❜rí❛ ❞♦s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s✳ ▲❛
♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ♥✉♥❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛r
❡❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛rí❛ ❛❜s♦r❜❡r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ♣❛r❛
✏❛❧✐♠❡♥t❛r✑ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s r❛❞✐❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡ ❛❧t❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛ t❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❛❧
❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s✱ ❧♦ q✉❡
❞❛ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ r❡❝✐♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❤❛②
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡stá ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡❧ ✈✐s✐❜❧❡✳ ❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s♣♦♥tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡
❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛rá ❤❛❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛rí❛ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐♦
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛s ♣❛r❡❞❡s ❞❡❧ r❡❝✐♥t♦ q✉❡ ❢❛✈♦r❡❝❡ ❧❛ ❛♣❛r✐❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♠♦❞♦s ❞❡ ❛❧t❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♠♣❡③❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ✉❧tr❛✈✐♦❧❡t❛✱ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧
✉❧tr❛✈✐♦❧❡t❛ ❧❡❥❛♥♦✱ r❛②♦s ❳✱ ❡t❝✳ ❙✐ tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐❞♦ ❛❧❣♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ s❡ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛s❡ ✉♥
♦r✐✜❝✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛r❡❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞✱ s❛❧❞rí❛ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❛❧t❛s
❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s✳ ❍✉❡❧❣❛ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡st❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❜❛st❛♥t❡
❞r❛♠át✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝❛tástr♦❢❡ ❞❡❧ ✉❧tr❛✈✐♦❧❡t❛✱ ❥❛♠ás s❡ ❤❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦✳

➓ ✹✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝♦rr❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s

✐♥❝♦r♣♦r❛r ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡
❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❘❛②❧❡✐❣❤ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡ ❊✐♥st❡✐♥✱ ❝❛❞❛ ♠♦❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧
❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω = ck ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥t❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
~ω ✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✲❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥
✭✷✳✶✶✮ ❡stá ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞❛✱ ♣✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ t♦♠❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s

εn = n~ω con n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✶✶✮ ♥♦ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡

❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ s✐♥♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ exp[−εn /(kB T )] s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊st♦ ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡ Z(T ) ❞❡♣❡♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω
❞❡❧ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦✿

∞
X   ∞
X   ∞ 
X  n
εn n~ω ~ω
Zω (T ) = exp − = exp − = exp − .
kB T kB T kB T
n=0 n=0 n=0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✸✳ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ✭❘❛②❧❡✐❣❤✮ ② ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ✭P❧❛♥❝❦✮ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛
❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ tér♠✐❝♦ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T✳

❊❧ s✉♠❛t♦r✐♦ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝❛

❞❡ r❛③ó♥ exp[−~ω/(kB T )]✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ Zω (T ) = 1/ (1 − exp(−~ω/kB T )) ② ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s

1 ∂Zω (T ) ~ω
ε(ω, T ) = − =   . ✭✷✳✶✺✮
Zω (T ) ∂[(kB T )−1 ] ~ω
exp −1
kB T

P❛r❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ω ≪ kB T /~✱ r❡❝✉♣❡r❛♠♦s ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡

❡q✉✐♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ε(ω, T ) = kB T ✳ P❡r♦ ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♠❡❞✐❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s
❞❡ ❛❧t❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❝❛❡♥ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳

❙✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ✭✷✳✶✺✮ ❡♥ ✭✷✳✶✸✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞

❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡s

1 (~ω)3
ρEM (ω, T ) =   (cuántico.) ✭✷✳✶✻✮
π ~2 c 3
2 ~ω
exp −1
kB T

❊st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦ rá♣✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❛❧t❛s ② ②❛ ♥♦ ❡①❤✐❜❡

❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❘❛②❧❡✐❣❤ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✶✹✮✱
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ só❧♦ ✈á❧✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✸✮✳ ❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
 ✷✳✸✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❈❆❱■❉❆❉ ❘❆❉■❆◆❚❊

❢✉❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ▼❛① P❧❛♥❝❦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❆❝❛❞❡♠✐❛ ❞❡ ❇❡r❧í♥ ❡❧ ✶✹ ❞❡

❞✐❝✐❡♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✶✾✵✵✱ ❢❡❝❤❛ q✉❡ s❡ t♦♠❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♥❛❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❞❡
✻
P❧❛♥❝❦ ❢✉❡ ♠✉② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❛q✉í ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛✳

✻
▼❛① P❧❛♥❝❦ ✭✶✽✺✽✲✶✾✹✼✮ ❢✉❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ♠ás ♣r♦♠✐♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ s✉ é♣♦❝❛ ✭Pr❡♠✐♦
◆♦❜❡❧ ❡♥ ✶✾✶✽✮ ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❣❡st♦r✳ ▲❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ✐♥st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝❛ ❛❧❡♠❛♥❛
■♥st✐t✉t♦ ▼❛① P❧❛♥❝❦ ❧❧❡✈❛ s✉ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❢✉❡ ❞✐r❡❝t♦r ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❧♦s ❛ñ♦s tr❡✐♥t❛ ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ♣❛s❛❞♦
❞❡ ❧❛ s♦❝✐❡❞❛❞ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡✱ ❝✉②❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ♦✜❝✐❛❧ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡r❛ ❑❛✐s❡r✲❲✐❧❤❡❧♠✲●❡s❡❧❧s❝❤❛❢t✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✷✳❜✳ ▲❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❙t❡❢❛♥ ② ❞❡ ❲✐❡♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ tér♠✐❝♦ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T✳

❛✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✳

❜✮ ❙✐ ω máx ❡s ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ρEM (ω, T ) ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ s✉ ♠á①✐♠♦✱ ➽❝ó♠♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡
ω máx ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛❄✳

Z +∞
x3 π4
❆②✉❞❛✿ dx =
0 ex −1 15
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ ✭✷✳✶✻✮✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T ❡s

Z +∞ 3 Z +∞
 3
UEM (T ) (kB T ) ~ω/(kB T )
= ρEM (ω, T )dω = 2 2 3   dω.
V 0 π ~ c 0 exp k~ω −1
BT

❍❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ω → x = ~ω/(kB T ) ② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛

Z +∞
UEM (T ) (kB T )4 x3 π 2 kB
4
= 2 3 3 dx = T 4 ≡ σ St T 4 ✭✷✳✶✼✮
V π ~ c 0 ex − 1 15~3 c3

❝♦♥ σ St ≃ 7,5 × 10−16 J m−3 K−4 ✳ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❊▼ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❡s ❛sí
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❝✉❛rt❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛✱ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❙t❡❢❛♥✳
❊s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❙t❡❢❛♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡❞✉❝✐r ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s
t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s ♠✉② ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s s✐♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❞❡
▼❛①✇❡❧❧✲❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✷✳✻ ✮✳

❜✮ P❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ω máx ❜❛st❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛r ρEM (ω, T ) r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ ω, ∂ρEM (ω, T )/∂ω|ω=ωmáx = 0,
❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❛r ❛ ❝❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✿

 
1 ~ω máx kB T ζ
  =3 ⇒ ω máx = ζ con = 3. ✭✷✳✶✽✮
~ω máx kB T ~ 1 − e−ζ
1 − exp −
kB T

❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ ω máx ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞✳ ❊st❛ ❡s

❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❧❡② ❞❡❧ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❲✐❡♥✳ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ♥♦s
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ζ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱
❞❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ζ ≃ 2,821 ✭♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ζ/3 ② 1 − e−ζ
② ❧❛ ❛❜❝✐s❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♥♦s ❞❛rá ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ t❛❧ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥✮✳
 ✷✳✹✳ ❊▲ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❈❖▼P❚❖◆

2.4✳ ❊▲ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❈❖▼P❚❖◆

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✕♠❛t❡r✐❛ s❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡

✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✏❣r❛♥♦ ❣r✉❡s♦✑ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ② ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛
② ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡✳ ❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ t❛❧ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛ s✐ ❞❡s❡❛♠♦s
❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡st❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛✳ ❊♥ s✉ ❧✉❣❛r✱ ❞❡❜❡r❡♠♦s ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r
❡st❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛❜♦r❞á♥❞♦❧♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ②
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s✳

❊❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡s❝♦❧❧♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s ❡s q✉❡✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡

❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ♠❛①✇❡❧❧✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❥❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈á❧✐❞♦ ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛
♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛✱ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ t❛♠♣♦❝♦ ❡s ❝♦rr❡❝t❛✳ ➱st❛ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r s✉st✐t✉✐❞❛
♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ q✉❡ ❡♠♣❡③❛r❡♠♦s ❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳
❊❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡s q✉❡ ❞❡s❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ tr❛t❛r ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥
② ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

▲❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛rs❡

♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s✳ ❆ ❡st❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛✱ t❛♥t♦ ❧♦s
❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s s♦♥ tr❛t❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s s❡ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ♠❡❞✐❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ❝r❡❛❞♦s ②
❞❡str✉✐❞♦s✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧t❛s✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❝r❡❛r ♦ ❞❡str✉✐r✳

❊st♦ ♥♦s ❞❛ ✉♥❛ ♣✐st❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞ ❞❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠❡❝❛♥♦❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✲♠❛t❡r✐❛✳ ❆❢♦rt✉♥❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ ♠✉❝❤❛s
♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s ❜❛st❛rá ❝♦♥ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s
❝♦♥ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ♣r❡❞✐❝t✐✈❛ ❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐✈❛✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❣r❛♥ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés q✉❡ tr❛t❛r❡♠♦s

❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❧✐❜r♦ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s
❛s♣❡❝t♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❛❝♦♣❧❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦
q✉❡ ést❡ ❛❝tú❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳

❊♥ ♦tr♦s ❝❛s♦s s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s
♦❜❡❞❡❝❡♥ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛✳ ▲❛s ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ tr❛t❛rá♥
❝♦♠♦ ❝♦❧✐s✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✱ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛rs❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ❡♥tr❛r ❡♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s ♠❡❝❛♥✐s♠♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥✳
❊s ❥✉st❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ s❡❣✉✐r ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ②
❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

pγ(fin)
pγ(in) γ θ
m
φ
m

P
in fin
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✹✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥

➓ ✷✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛✿ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧

❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ❝❛r❣❛ q ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
kin ✳ ❙✐ tr❛t❛♠♦s ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ ② s✐ ♥♦ ❤❛② ❢✉❡r③❛s ❞❡ ❧✐❣❛❞✉r❛ ❛❝t✉❛♥❞♦
s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ s❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs❛ ♦ ❡s♣❛r❝❡ s✐♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐rs❡
✼
❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❡♥ s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ré❣✐♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦
❞❡ ❚❤♦♠s♦♥✱ ❝✉②❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s t❡①t♦s ❞❡
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ q✉❡ ❝✐t❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛✳

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ♠✉② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s s✐ ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧

p(in)
γ = ~kin .

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ② ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ♣✉❡❞❡

✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝❤♦q✉❡ ❡❧ást✐❝♦ ❡♥tr❡ ést❛ ② ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ γ✱ tr❛s ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❤❛
❝❡❞✐❞♦ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡st❛❜❛ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦✱ t❡r♠✐♥❛rá ❛❞q✉✐r✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ P
② ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ K ✳ ■♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
(in) (fin) (in) (fin)
K = Eγ − Eγ = c |pγ | − |pγ |
✭✷✳✶✾✮
(in) (fin)
P= pγ − pγ ,

✼
❊s ❧❛ ✏❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❡❧ást✐❝❛✑ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛❝í❛♠♦s r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✻✳
 ✷✳✹✳ ❊▲ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❈❖▼P❚❖◆

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ γ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ♥♦s r❡❢❡r✐♠♦s ❛❧ ❢♦tó♥ ② ❧♦s ✭✐♥✱ ✜♥✮ ✐♥❞✐❝❛♥ ❧♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ② ✜♥❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ♣♦r ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧✱
K ② P ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

2
c2 |P|2 + M c2 = (M c2 + K)2 .

❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ést❛ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✶✾✮ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ② ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✿

2  2
c2 |p(in)
γ − p(fin)
γ |2 + M c2 = M c2 + c|p(in)
γ | − c|p (fin)
γ | .

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♠♦s ❧♦s ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♠♦s✱

♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
!
(in) (fin)
pγ · pγ 1 1
(in) (fin)
= 1 − Mc (fin)
− (in)
|pγ | |pγ | |pγ | |pγ |

❊❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦s❡♥♦ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ θ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ② ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❞✐s♣❡rs❛❞♦ ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✹✮✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

!
1 1 Mc
cos θ = 1 − M c (fin)
− (in)
=1− (λfin − λin ) ,
|pγ | |pγ | 2π~

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❧❛s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❛♥t❡s ② ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❧❛
❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✷✮✳ ❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱

2π~
λfin − λin = (1 − cos θ) ≡ λC (1 − cos θ) ✭✷✳✷✵✮
Mc

s✐❡♥❞♦

2π~ h
λC = = ✭✷✳✷✶✮
Mc Mc
❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

▲❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✷✵✮ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛

♣♦r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❞✐s♠✐♥✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱
❞✐s♠✐♥✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥✳ ❊st❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❢✉❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦
❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈❡③ ♣♦r ❆rt❤✉r ❍♦❧❧② ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❡♥ ✶✾✷✷ ② r❡❝✐❜❡ ❡♥
s✉ ❤♦♥♦r ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❤✐③♦ ✐♥❝✐❞✐r ✉♥ ❤❛③
❞❡ r❛②♦s ❳ ✭❝✉②❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ➴✮ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ❜❧❛♥❝♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛✜t♦
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ s✉ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝í❛ tr❛s ❝❤♦q✉❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧♦s
♥ú❝❧❡♦s ❞❡ ❝❛r❜♦♥♦✱ ♣❡r♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❧✐❜r❡s ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳ P❛r❛
❧♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ✭✷✳✷✶✮ ❡s

(nuc) h 6,63 × 10−34

λC ≃ ≃ m ≃ 1,1 × 10−6 Å
12mp c 12 · 1,67 × 10−27 · 3 × 108
✭❤❡♠♦s t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥ú❝❧❡♦ ❞❡ ❝❛r❜♦♥♦ tí♣✐❝♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r s❡✐s
♣r♦t♦♥❡s ② s❡✐s ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s✱ ❝✉②❛ ♠❛s❛ ❡s ♠✉② s✐♠✐❧❛r✮✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡s

(e) h 6,63 × 10−34

λC ≃ ≃ m ≃ 0,0243 Å. ✭✷✳✷✷✮
me c 9,11 × 10−31 · 3 × 108
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞✐s♣❡rs❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❧♦s ♥ú❝❧❡♦s ❛tó♠✐❝♦s s✉❢r❡♥ ✉♥❛
✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❡r❝❡♣t✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ ♠✐❧❧ó♥✱
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✮ ♣❡r♦ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞✐s♣❡rs❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❛✉♠❡♥t❛♥ s✉
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ✭❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❝✐❡♥✮✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱
♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ θ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❞❡t❡❝tó r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❞♦s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✿ ✉♥❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ λin ② ♦tr❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
(e)
❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ λC (1 − cos θ)✳
❙✐ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❞❡♥♦t❛♠♦s ♣♦r λC ❛ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❞❡❧
❡❧❡❝tró♥✱ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉③❝❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ tr❛s ✐♠♣❛❝t❛r ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ q✉❡
❞✐❝❤❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ s❡❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ λC ✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡str✐♥❣❡ ❧❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❛ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s r❛②♦s ❳✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❡❧
❢♦tó♥ s❡ ❞❡s✈✐❛rí❛ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛rí❛ s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♦❝✉rr❡ ❡♥
❡❧ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡
❡st❛♠♦s ❛❞♠✐t✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡s ❧✐❜r❡✱ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ s❡ r❡❞✉❝❡ ❛❧
ré❣✐♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❚❤♦♠s♦♥ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ λin ≫ λC ✳ ❊❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✭❝❤♦q✉❡ ❡❧ást✐❝♦✮ ∆λ/λin ≃ 0✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛
❡s❝❛❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ h ≃ 0 ② ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛rs❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦
❚❤♦♠s♦♥ ✭s✐♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✮ ❡s ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ✭♥♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✮
❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥✳

➓ ✸✳ ◆✉❡str♦ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ♥♦ ❡s ♣r❡❞✐❝t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧

❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛ ❝✉á❧ s❡rá s✉
á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ θ✿ ❤❛② ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ✜♥❛❧❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s✱ t♦❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ sí ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡s q✉❡ s✐ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s
❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ② s✉ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ θ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛r
s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✜♥❛❧✱ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
 ✷✳✹✳ ❊▲ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❈❖▼P❚❖◆

❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✶✾✮✳ ❙ó❧♦ ❧❛

❡❧❡❝tr♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rí❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥
s❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs❡ ✉♥ á♥❣✉❧♦ θ ✭❡♥ r✐❣♦r ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ②❛ q✉❡ θ ❡s ✉♥❛
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✮✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡st❡ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ✈❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❛❧❧á ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧
♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧✐❜r♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✷✳❝✳ ❉❡t❛❧❧❡s ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥

❊♥ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ s❡ ✉s❛r♦♥ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ λin = 0,72 Å✳

❛✮ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ θ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s

❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞✐s♣❡rs❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❧✐❜r❡s✳
❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛✱ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ θ ② ❞❡ λin ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ✜♥❛❧ ② ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥
φ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ✭✷✳✷✵✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

λfin = λin + λC (1 − cos θ) = [0,72 + 0,024(1 − cos θ)] Å,

q✉❡ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✺✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ θ = π✱
q✉❡ ❡s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ✏r❡❜♦t❛✑ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✱ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s
♠á①✐♠❛ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r λfin = λin + 2λC = 0,768 Å✳
❜✮ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡

hc hc hc hc
K = Eγ(in) − Eγ(fin) = − = − .
λin λfin λin λin + λC (1 − cos θ)

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✉s❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ λC = h/(me c)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ me
❡s ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✿

   
λC λC 1 1
K = me c2 − = me c 2 −
λin λin + λC (1 − cos θ) λin /λC λin /λC + 1 − cos θ

② ❝♦♠♦ λin /λC = 30 ② me c2 ≃ 0,511 MeV = 511 KeV✱ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛

 
1 1
K ≃ 511 × − KeV
30 31 − cos θ

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✺✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✶✵✵✵ ❡❱✱ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧✐❣❛❞✉r❛
tí♣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ✭❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✶ ❡❱✮✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛♣❛rá♥ ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧
s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛❞♦ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠❛ ❛ ♣♦st❡r✐♦r✐
❡❧ ❤❛❜❡r ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦ ❛❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s t❡ór✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦
❈♦♠♣t♦♥✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

0.78 1250

1000
0.76

K (eV)
λfin (Å)

750
0.74 2λC
500

0.72
250

0.70 0
0 π 2π 0 π 2π
θ θ
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✺✳ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❞✐s♣❡rs❛❞♦ ✭✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✮ ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
✭❞❡r❡❝❤❛✮ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ θ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✹ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❳❨

② s❡❛ ❖❳ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✳ ■♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧

❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
(in) (fin) (in) (fin)
|pγ | = |pγ | cos θ + |P| cos φ 
 |pγ | − |pγ | cos θ = |P| cos φ 

⇒
 
| sin θ − |P| sin φ  | sin θ = |P| sin φ 
(fin) (fin)
0 = |pγ |pγ

② s✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♠♦s ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦

(fin)
|pγ | sin θ λ−1
fin sin θ λin sin θ
tan φ = = =
(in)
|pγ | −
(fin)
|pγ | cos θ λ−1
in − λ−1
fin cos θ λ fin − λin cos θ

❯s❛♥❞♦ ✭✷✳✷✵✮ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡

λin sin θ
tan φ =
λC + λin 1 − cos θ

② ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ tr✐❣♦♥♦♠étr✐❝❛ sin θ/(1 − cos θ) = cot(θ/2)✱

λin θ
tan φ = cot .
λC + λin 2
❨❛ só❧♦ ❢❛❧t❛ ❞❡s♣❡❥❛r ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ φ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛

 
λin θ
φ = arctan cot ✭✷✳✷✸✮
λC + λin 2

q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♣❡❞í❛✳

 ✷✳✺✳ ❋❖❚❖◆❊❙ ❨ P❘❊❙■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

➓ ✹✳ ❈❡rr❡♠♦s ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r✐♦✳ ❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❝✐❡rt❛s

s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ② ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❛♠❜♦s ❝❛s♦s s❡
♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❧❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝♦♥tr❛
✉♥ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s s♦♥ ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✱ ❡♠♣❡③❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r
❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡s ❞✐s♣❡rs❛❞♦ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧
❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ❡s ❛❜s♦r❜✐❞♦✱ ❞❡s❛♣❛r❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ ② ❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ t♦❞❛ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✳
❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥
❡s ♠✉② ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧✐❣❛❞✉r❛ ❛❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡
❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ❛♠❜❛s s♦♥ ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✳ ❊st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❡s
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ②❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s tr❛t❛r ❛❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✳ ❊s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s r❡❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❡♥ ❡st♦s ❞♦s
❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s s❡rá♥

γ + M −→ γ ′ + M+ + e− (dispersión Compton)

γ + M −→ M+ + e− (efecto fotoeléctrico)

❞♦♥❞❡ ▼ ② ▼
+ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛♥ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛♥t❡s ② ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ♣❡r❞❡r ❡❧

❡❧❡❝tró♥✳

❈♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥

❡sté ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧✐❣❛❞♦ ❛❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ q✉❡ ❥✉❡❣❛ ést❡ ❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧
❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❝❡❞❡t♦❞❛ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ s❡rá K = ~ω − W ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ω ❡s ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ② W ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧✐❣❛❞✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❛❧ ♠❡t❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ K ❡s tí♣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
2
♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ me c ✱ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡rá

p p q
P = 2me Ku = 2me (~ω − W )u = 2me (cpγ − W )u,

s✐❡♥❞♦ pγ ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ② u ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ q✉❡
✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❛❧❡ ❡♠✐t✐❞♦ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✱ P✱ ② ❡❧ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✱ pγ ✱ ❡s s✉st❛♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦❡♠✐s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥✳ ❊♥ ❧❛
❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞♦✳

2.5✳ ❋❖❚❖◆❊❙ ❨ P❘❊❙■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❧❛s s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛

r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s s✐♠♣❧❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❧✉③✲♠❛t❡r✐❛
✭❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ② ❈♦♠♣t♦♥✮✱ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡❝t♦ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✻✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠❡t❛❧ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡
r❡✢❡❝t❛♥t❡

❡st❛❞íst✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❝✉②❛ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦

❡①✐❣❡ ❛❝✉❞✐r ❛❧ ❢♦tó♥ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ♠♦str❛rá ❧❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s
❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ② ❧♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❊✐♥st❡✐♥✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ♣♦r❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥

✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❣❡♥ér✐❝♦ r✱ ❞❡ ár❡❛ dA ② s✐❡♥❞♦ n ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r
❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✷✲✻✮✳ ❙♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡
♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ π in = |π in |u ❡s s✉ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥
✽
❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ② u ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ ❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ♥♦s ✈❛
❛ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛r ❡s q✉❡ s✐ π ref = |π ref |u′ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

k k
π⊥ ⊥
in + π ref = 0 ; π in = π ref , ✭✷✳✷✹✮

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s s✉♣❡rí♥❞✐❝❡s ⊥ ② k ❞❡s✐❣♥❛♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s

♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ② t❛♥❣❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ dA✳✾

✽
❙✐ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ r❡✢❡❥❛ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr❡ ❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❡♠✐t❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦
❊▼ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❛ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✳ ❊st❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ✐♥❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❡♥s❛ ❛❧ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r
❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ② s❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦♥❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r✳ ▲♦s ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ✭✏✐♥✑✮
② ❡❧ r❡✢❡❥❛❞♦ ✭✏r❡❢ ✑✮ t❛♥t♦ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣♦❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥
♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r t❡①t♦ ❞❡ ó♣t✐❝❛ ♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✳
✾
▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✷✹✮ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ♥♦
❡s ♦tr❛ ❝♦s❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ u ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥ ❜❧❛♥❝♦ ❞❡
♠❛s❛ M ♠✉② ❣r❛♥❞❡✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛♠♦s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ t✐♣♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥
❝♦♥tr❛ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❧✐❜r❡s ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❜s♦r❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ s❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛r ❧❛
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t❛♥❣❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❛❧ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r tr❛♥s❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
♥❡t❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ❛❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛✳
k k
❊♥ s✉♠❛✱ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s q✉❡ p⊥ ⊥
γ,in + pγ,ref = 0 ② pγ,in = pγ,ref ② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s
♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✭✷✳✷✹✮✳
 ✷✳✺✳ ❋❖❚❖◆❊❙ ❨ P❘❊❙■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✈✐❛❥❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③ c✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛

♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠✉♥✐❝❛ ❛❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ dA ❡♥ ✉♥ ❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡
t✐❡♠♣♦ dt ❡s
dPin = (cπ in dA dt) cos θ,
❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r cos θ t✐❡♥❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡
② ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✳ ❆♥á❧♦❣❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
dPref q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❝❡❞❡ ❛❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ dt ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ dA
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ dA ❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♥❡t❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡❧
♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❡s

dP dPin − dPref
= = c cos θ (π in − π ref ) dA = 2c cos θ π ⊥
in dA.
dt dt
❉✐❝❤❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ dFrad q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡
❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ dA ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ π ⊥ in = (|π in | cos θ)n =
(c−2 Iin cos θ)n✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Iin ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛
 
dP 2Iin cos2 θ
dFrad = = dA n.
dt c

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ dFrad ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡
❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛❧ r❡✢❡❥❛rs❡ s❡rá

(ref) dFrad · n 2Iin cos2 θ

PEM = = ✭✷✳✷✺✮
dA c

✭r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ θ ❡s ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ♦✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s✮✳

❙✐ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛❜s♦r❜❡ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❝❛❞❛ ❢♦tó♥ tr❛♥s✜❡r❡ t♦❞♦ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ pref = 0✳ ▲❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rí❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦

(abs) dFrad · n Iin cos2 θ

PEM = = ✭✷✳✷✻✮
dA c

❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❥✉st♦ ❧❛ ♠✐t❛❞ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✷✳❞✳ ❊❧ ✈✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❙♦❧

❊❧ ✈❡❧❛♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ ✏❉✐❛♥❛✑✱ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✭✜❝t✐❝✐❛✮ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ r❡❣❛t❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❧❡r♦s s♦❧❛r❡s
2
❚✐❡rr❛✲▲✉♥❛✱ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✶ ❦♠ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡✢❡❝t❛♥t❡✳ ❙✐
s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ✈❡❧❛s ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❧❛r ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✶✺✵✵
2
❲✴♠ ✱ ➽❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❧❡r♦❄ ❊st✐♠❡ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ q✉❡
❤❛❜rí❛ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❉✐❛♥❛ ♣❛r❛ r❡❝♦rr❡r ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✹✵✵✳✵✵✵ ❦♠ ❡♥ ❞♦s ♠❡s❡s s✐ ♣❛rt❡
❞❡❧ r❡♣♦s♦ ② ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❢✉❡r③❛s ❣r❛✈✐t❛t♦r✐❛s q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛♥ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♥❛✈❡✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❙✐ A ❡s ❡❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❡❧❛s ✭r❡✢❡❝t❛♥t❡s✮ ② ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ✭♠ó❞✉❧♦✮ q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s

(ref) 2IA 2 · 1500 W m−2 · 106 m2

F = PEM A = = = 10 N,
c 3 × 108 m s−1

q✉❡ ❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✳ P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❛✈❡ t❛r❞❡ ❞♦s ♠❡s❡s ✭t ≃ 5,2 × 106 s✮ ❡♥ r❡❝♦rr❡r ✉♥❛
8
❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ s = 4 × 10 ♠ ✭❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❚✐❡rr❛ ② ❧❛ ▲✉♥❛✮✱ s✉
❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r

2s 2 · 4 × 108 m
a= = ≃ 2,96 × 10−5 m s−2 ,
t2 (5,2 × 106 s)2

❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❧❡r♦

F 10 N
m= ≃ ≃ 3,38 × 105 kg ≃ 340 Tm.
a 2,96 × 10−5 m s−2

◆♦ ❡s ést❡ ✉♥ ♠❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ✜♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❞❡ ❛❧✉♠✐♥✐♦ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❡❧❛s ❞❡❧
❉✐❛♥❛ s❡rí❛ ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✷✺✵ ❚♠✱ ❞✐s♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛s ✶✵✵ t♦♥❡❧❛❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❤❛❜✐tá❝✉❧♦
② ❡❧ ❛♣❛r❡❥♦✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐ ❤❛❝❡ ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❝rít✐❝♦ ✈❡rá q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛tr❛❝❝✐ó♥
❣r❛✈✐t❛t♦r✐❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦✳ ▼ás ❛ú♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ s♦❧ ❞✐s♠✐♥✉②❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡
❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❞❡❜✐❞❛ ❛❧ ✏✈✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❙♦❧✑ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ✭♣❡r♦ ❞❡ s✐❣♥♦ ♦♣✉❡st♦✮ ❛
❧❛ ❛tr❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❣r❛✈✐t❛t♦r✐❛ ❞❡ ♥✉❡str❛ ❡str❡❧❧❛✳ ❊st♦ ❤❛❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡❧
✈❡❧❡r♦ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ s❡❛ ❢r❛♥❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐st❛✳
❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ② ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
s❡❛ ♠✐♥ús❝✉❧❛✱ ❧❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ r♦③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❤❛❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡
❝♦♥str✉✐r ✏✈❡❧❡r♦s ✐♥t❡r♣❧❛♥❡t❛r✐♦s✑ ♥♦ s❡❛ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡s❝❛❜❡❧❧❛❞❛✱ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ s✐ s❡
❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛ ❝♦♥ ♠❡❝❛♥✐s♠♦s ❞❡ ✐♠♣✉❧s✐ó♥ ♠ás ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ❧❛ ❛❣❡♥❝✐❛
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❥❛♣♦♥❡s❛ ❤❛ ❧❛♥③❛❞♦ ❡♥ ♠❛②♦ ❞❡ ✷✵✶✵ ✉♥ ♣r♦t♦t✐♣♦ ✭■❑❆❘❖❙✮✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡
♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ s✉s ✈❡❧❛s ♥♦ ❡s t❛♥ ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♥❛✈❡s q✉❡
❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ r❡❝✉rr❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✜❝❝✐ó♥✳ P✉❡❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ♠ás ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❯❘▲
❤tt♣✿✴✴✇✇✇✳❥s♣❡❝✳❥❛①❛✳❥♣✴❡✴❛❝t✐✈✐t②✴✐❦❛r♦s✳❤t♠❧✳
 ✷✳✻✳ Ó❘❉❊◆❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❨ ❯◆■❉❆❉❊❙ ❆❚Ó▼■❈❆❙

2.6✳ Ó❘❉❊◆❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❨ ❯◆■❉❆❉❊❙ ❆❚Ó▼■❈❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❝✉❛♥t✐t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛ ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡

✉s❛r ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛s✳ ❯♥❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✲✈♦❧t✐♦s
✭1 eV ≃ 1,602 × 10−19 ❏✮ ② s✉s ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s✱ ❧❛s ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❡♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❧❛
2
✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③ c✱ ❧❛s ♠❛s❛s ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❡❱✴c ✱ ❧❛s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❡♥ Å ✭1 Å =
0,1 nm)✱ ② ❧❛s ❝❛r❣❛s ❡♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦
✭e ≃ 1,602 × 10
−19 C✮✳ ❆ ❡st❡ r❡s♣❡❝t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✐♠❛r rá♣✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s

♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜✉❡♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡❧ ♠❡♠♦r✐③❛r ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ λC = h/(me c) ≃ 0, 0243 Å

❞❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ q✉❡

hc = λC me c2 ≃ 0, 0243 Å · 0, 511 MeV ≃ 12400 eV Å ✭✷✳✷✼✮

♦✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ q✉❡

~c ≃ 2000 eV Å = 200 eV nm.

➓ ✷✳ ❊s ❛sí ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ✭❙■✮ ❡s r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡

✐♥❝ó♠♦❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡st❛r❡♠♦s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡
❧✐❜r♦✳ ❊s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡❥♦r ✉s❛r ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛r q✉❡
❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥ ❝♦♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❧✐❜❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞✳
❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ✭✉✳❛✳✮ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ ❞❡ ❧❛
s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛✿

✶✳ ▲❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ✭❡♥❡r❣í❛×t✐❡♠♣♦✮ ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛

✭~ = 1,054572 × 10−34 J s✮✳
✷✳ ▲❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ✭me = 9,109382 × 10−31 kg✮✳
✸✳ ▲❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ✶✵ ✭e = 1,602176×
10−19 C✮✳
✹✳ ▲❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛×❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❡s e2 /(4πǫ0 )✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ǫ0 = 8,854188×10−12 F/m✳
✺✳ ▲❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✴t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥ ✭kB =
1,380650 × 10−23 J/K✮✳
❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❝✐♥❝♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦
✐❧✉str❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

✶✵
▼✉❝❤♦s ❛✉t♦r❡s ❞❡s✐❣♥❛♥ ♣♦r e ❛ ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✱ q✉❡ s❡rí❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✷✳❡✳ ✭✦✮ ❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ❙■ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱

✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳
❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❡①♣rés❡❧❛ ❡♥ ✐✮ ❏✱ ✐✐✮ ❡❱✱ ✐✐✐✮ ❦❝❛❧✴♠♦❧✳
❝✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ✭❡♥ ❑✮✳

❉❛t♦s✿ ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❆✈♦❣❛❞r♦✿ NA = 6,022142 × 1023 mol−1 ❀ 1 kcal = 4184 J.

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r {M, L, T} ❧❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♠❛s❛✱ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ② t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ▲❛s ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s
❛tó♠✐❝❛s s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ML2 T−1 ✭❡♥❡r❣í❛ ×t✐❡♠♣♦✮✱ M ✭♠❛s❛✮ ②
ML3 T−2 ✭❡♥❡r❣í❛×❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✮✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛

e2 (1,602176 × 10−19 )2
Λu.a. ≡ ≃ J m ≃ 2,307077 × 10−28 J m
4πǫ0 4π · 8,854188 × 10−12
❈♦♠♦ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡
3
1 ML2 T−1
T=

M ML3 T−2 2
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ tu.a. ❡s

1 ~3
tu.a. = = 2,418884 × 10−17 s.
me Λ2au
P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱

2
1 ML2 T−1
L=
M ML3 T−2
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ a0 ✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❬r❛❞✐♦ ❞❡❪ ❇♦❤r✱ ❡s

1 ~2 ~2
a0 = = 4πǫ0 = 5,291772 × 10−11 m.
me Λu.a. me e2
❉❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❡s

a0 ~
vu.a. = = = 2,187691 × 106 m s−1 .
tu.a. me a0
❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥✱ s✉ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❡s ~✳
❜✮ ❈♦♠♦
ML3 T−2
E = ML2 T−2 =
L
❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s

e2 1
EH = = 4,359744 × 10−18 J ≃ 27,211 eV,
4πǫ0 a0
 ✷✳✻✳ Ó❘❉❊◆❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❨ ❯◆■❉❆❉❊❙ ❆❚Ó▼■❈❆❙

②❛ q✉❡ 1 eV = 1,602176 × 10−19 J✳ ❊st❡ ✈❛❧♦r EH s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❍❛rtr❡❡✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦

❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❆✈♦❣❛❞r♦

~NA 1 J kcal
EH = ≃ 2,626 × 106 ≃ 627,5 .
tau NA mol mol

❝✮ ❉✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ❡s ✭✉s❛♠♦s ❡st❛

♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♥❢✉♥❞✐r❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❚ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✮

EH 4,359744 × 10−18
Θau = = K ≃ 3,157747 × 105 K.
kB 1,380650 × 10−23

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❛r ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ a0 ✱ EH ✱ ~✱ EH /kB ✱ e✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❝✐♥❝♦ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞❡s
❢ís✐❝❛s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ❝✉②♦ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s ✶ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡
♣✉❡❞❡ ✉s❛rs❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ me . ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ♥♦ ❡s ❡①tr❛ñ♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r
❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③ c ❛♣❛r❡③❝❛ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ✉s❛r ❡❧ ❡❱ ❡♥
❧✉❣❛r ❞❡❧ ❍❛rtr❡❡✱ ♦ ❡❧ ♥♠ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✳

▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❙í♠❜♦❧♦ ❱❛❧♦r ✭❙■✮ ❱❛❧♦r ✭♦tr❛s ✉♥✐❞✳✮

❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ (L) a0 5,292772 × 10−11 m 0,529 Å

♠❛s❛ (M) me 9,109382 × 10−31 kg 0,511 MeV/c2

❡♥❡r❣í❛ (E) EH 4,359744 × 10−18 J 27,211 eV

❛❝❝✐ó♥ (E T) ~ 1,054572 × 10−34 J s 1973 eV Å/c

❝❛r❣❛ (Q) e 1,602176 × 10−19 C −

t❡♠♣✳ (Θ) Eh /kB 3,157747 × 105 K 27,211 eV/kB

❚❆❇▲❆ ✷✲✶ ❯♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ② s✉ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❙■✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✶✳ ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❛ T✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡

q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ t❡r❝❡r❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✷✳ ❖tr♦ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❲✐❡♥

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ tér♠✐❝♦ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T✱ ❧❛

❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ω ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
ρEM (ω, T ) ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ω ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω máx ♣❛r❛ ❧❛
q✉❡ ρEM (ω, T ) ❡s ♠á①✐♠❛✳
Z +∞ Z +∞
x3 x4
❆②✉❞❛s✿ dx ≃ 6. 494 ; dx ≃ 24,886
0 ex − 1 0 ex − 1

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✸✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦t♦❡♠✐s✐ó♥

❊♥ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦❡♠✐s✐ó♥✱ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❛❜s♦r❜❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ② ❛❞q✉✐❡r❡

✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ Kout q✉❡ ❧❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡s❝❛♣❛r ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡❜❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛rs❡✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ γ + e− → e− ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❧✐❜r❡

♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❜s♦r❜❡r ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥✳
❜✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ q✉❡ ❡st❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥♦ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ s✉
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧✐❣❛❞✉r❛ ❡s −Win ✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡
❢♦t♦❡♠✐s✐ó♥ sí ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ t❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧
❡❧❡❝tró♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ ❤❛ ❡s❝❛♣❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳

◆♦t❛✿ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❜✮ ❡s ❧❡❣ít✐♠♦ tr❛t❛r ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♥♦

me c2 ✳
r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ tí♣✐❝❛ ✈❛ ❛ s❡r ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✹✳ ✭✦✦✮ ❊❧ ✏r❛❞✐ó♠❡tr♦✑ ❞❡ ❈r♦♦❦❡s

❊❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ❡❥❡r❝❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❛❧ ✐♥❝✐❞✐r s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡

✉♥ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ✐♥s♣✐ró ❛ ❙✐r ❲✐❧❧✐❛♠ ❈r♦♦❦❡s ❛ ✐♥✈❡♥t❛r ❡♥ ✶✽✼✸ ✉♥ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦
❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r♠❡♥t❡ ✏♠♦❧✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❧✉③✑ ② q✉❡ ❤♦② ❡♥ ❞í❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❞q✉✐r✐r ♣♦r ♣♦❝♦s ❡✉r♦s ❡♥
t✐❡♥❞❛s ❞❡ ❝❛❝❤✐✈❛❝❤❡s ② ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❝✉r✐♦s♦s✳ ❊❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✱ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦t♦❣r❛❢í❛✱
❝♦♥st❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❛s♣❛s ✉♥✐❞❛s ❛ ✉♥ ✜♥♦ t✉❜♦ ❤✉❡❝♦ ❞❡ ✈✐❞r✐♦✳ ❯♥ ❡❥❡ ♠❡tá❧✐❝♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧
❡stá ❡♥❝❛str❛❞♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ t✉❜♦ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛s♣❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❣✐r❛r ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ ❞✐❝❤♦
❡❥❡ s✐♥ ❛♣❡♥❛s r♦③❛♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ❚♦❞♦ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡stá ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛♠♣♦❧❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛
❤❡❝❤♦ ♣❛r❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦ ♣❛r❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❛r ❧❛ r❡s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❛✐r❡✳ ❯♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝❛r❛s ❞❡
❝❛❞❛ ❛s♣❛ ❡stá ♣✐♥t❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣r♦ ❛❜s♦r❜✐❡♥❞♦ ❛sí ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛
♦tr❛ ❡stá ♣✉❧✐❞❛ ② ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ r❡✢❡❝t❛♥t❡✳ ❆❧ ✐❧✉♠✐♥❛r ❡st❡ ✏r❛❞✐ó♠❡tr♦✑
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

1 cm

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✷✲✼✳ ▼♦❧✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❧✉③ ❛❞q✉✐r✐❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦r❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❘❛str♦ ❞❡ ▼❛❞r✐❞

❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ❡❥❡r❝❡rá ✉♥ ♣❛r ❞❡ ❢✉❡r③❛s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♠♦❧✐♥♦✱ q✉❡ ❡♠♣❡③❛rí❛ ❛ ❣✐r❛r ❡♥ ❡❧

s❡♥t✐❞♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ❡s ♠❛②♦r s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ❝❛r❛s
♣✉❧✐❞❛s q✉❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s t✐♥t❛❞❛s ❞❡ ♥❡❣r♦✳ ❊①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❛❧
❡①♣♦♥❡r ❡❧ ♠♦❧✐♥♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❧✉③ s♦❧❛r ✭❝✉②❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✶✵✵✵ ✇❛tt✴♠ 2 ✮ ❛q✉é❧
❛❞q✉✐❡r❡ ♠✉② rá♣✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ r♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛s ✺ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦r s❡❣✉♥❞♦✳
❊st❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛r ♠ás ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧♦s ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ❢r✐❝❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦✱
❛♣❛r❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❡✈✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❝❧❛r❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ tr❛♥s♣♦rt❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ❢✉❡ ❡❧ ❡✈❛❧✉❛❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❞❡
❈r♦♦❦❡s ② ❛❝❡♣tó ❝♦♥ ❡♥t✉s✐❛s♠♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠♦❧✐♥♦ ❣✐r❛❜❛ ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❊▼✳
❙✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❛s♣❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ✶ ❝♠ 2 ✱ ✉♥❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡ ✵✱✺ ❣r ② ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ s✉ ❝❡♥tr♦ ②
❡❧ ❡❥❡ ❞❡ ❣✐r♦ ❡s ❞❡ ✶ ❝♠✱ ❡st✐♠❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛s♣❛s ❞❡❧ ♠♦❧✐♥♦ ❛❧
✐♥❝✐❞✐r ❧❛ ❧✉③ s♦❧❛r✳
❙✐ t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞✉❞❛ ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❤❛ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r❧❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠♦❧✐♥♦
❣✐r❛ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ✳ ▲❛ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦rr❡❝t❛ ❞❡❧
❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❢✉❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❖s❜♦r♥❡ ❘❡②♥♦❧❞s ✉♥♦s ♣♦❝♦s ❛ñ♦s ❞❡s♣✉és✱ ❡♥ ✶✽✼✾✳ ❙✐ t✐❡♥❡
❝✉r✐♦s✐❞❛❞ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛r ❧❛ ❯❘▲ ✭❡♥ ✐♥❣❧és✮
❤tt♣✿✴✴♠❛t❤✳✉❝r✳❡❞✉✴❤♦♠❡✴❜❛❡③✴♣❤②s✐❝s✴●❡♥❡r❛❧✴▲✐❣❤t▼✐❧❧✴❧✐❣❤t✲♠✐❧❧✳❤t♠❧
② ✈❡rá q✉❡ ♥✐ ❡❧ ❜✉❡♥♦ ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ♥✐ ❧❛ ❊♥❝✐❝❧♦♣❡❞✐❛ ❇r✐tá♥✐❝❛ s❛❧❡♥ ❜✐❡♥ ♣❛r❛❞♦s✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✺✳ ✭✯✯✮ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ V ≫ 0 ❡♥ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ tér♠✐❝♦ ❛
t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ P❘❖P■❊❉❆❉❊❙ ❈❖❘P❯❙❈❯▲❆❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❘❆❉■❆❈■Ó◆

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r q✉❡ t♦♠❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ε(ω, T ) ❞❡
✉♥ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s

1
PEM = UEM ✭✷✳✷✽✮
3V
❞♦♥❞❡ UEM ❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ② PEM ❡s ❧❛ ♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡ s♦❜r❡
❧❛s ♣❛r❡❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞✳
❜✮ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❙t❡❢❛♥✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ✉t✐❧✐❝❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥
t❡r♠♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
   
∂UEM ∂PEM
=T − PEM , ✭✷✳✷✾✮
∂V T ∂T V

❞♦♥❞❡ ( )T ② ( )V s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♠❛♥t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ② ❡❧ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥

❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✻✳ ❈❛♥t✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ✭❡♥ ❙■✮ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ② ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦
♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦✳
❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ❞❡✿ ✐✮ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③ c✱ ✐✐✮ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
2
❞❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧✱ ✐✐✐✮ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ me c ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✳
❝✮ ❊st✐♠❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ tér♠✐❝❛ ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✶ ❑ ② ❛ ❧❛
t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ s♦❧ ✭✉♥♦s ✻✵✵✵ ❑✮✳
❞✮ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ✜♥❛ α ❝♦♠♦ α = e2 /(4πǫ0 ~c)✳ ➽❈✉á❧❡s s♦♥
s✉s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s❄ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s s✉ ✈❛❧♦r❄ ❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡ α ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝♦❝✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥tr❡ EH ②
me c2 ✳

❉❛t♦s✿ c = 299792458 m/s; GN ≃ 6,674 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✷✳✼✳ ❆♥á❧✐s✐s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

▼✉❝❤♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s ❡stá♥ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞♦s ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❧❛s
❡s❝❛❧❛s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧❧♦s t✐❡♥❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r✳ ❙✐ ♥♦s ❝❡ñ✐♠♦s ❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛s✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ tr❡s ❞❡ ❡s❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s
♣❡r♠✐t✐rí❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛✳ ❆ñ❛❞✐❡♥❞♦
✉♥❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ② ✉♥❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s
❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦s ② tér♠✐❝♦s✳ ❊st❛ té❝♥✐❝❛✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✱ ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r ❡♥
♠✉❝❤❛s ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❝✐❡rt❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦
❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ✏❞❡❞✉❝✐r✑ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❧❡②❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✳

❯s❛♥❞♦ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✿

❛✮ ✏ ❉❡❞✉③❝❛✑ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❙t❡❢❛♥✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ② ❧❛ ❞❡ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛s q✉❡ s♦♥ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s ❡♥

❣r❛✈✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ✭ ◆♦t❛✿ ❧❛ ❣r❛✈✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡s r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛✮
 ❚❡♠❛ ✸
❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊

■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡

✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ♣♦st✉❧❛r ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❜ás✐❝♦s✱
♣r♦❝❡❞❡r❡♠♦s ♣♦❝♦ ❛ ♣♦❝♦ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡
❝♦♥❞✉③❝❛♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ② ❛ ❧❛ ♠❡t♦❞♦❧♦❣í❛ ❞❡ t❛❧
❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❊♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧✉❣❛r ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s q✉é ❡s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱

r❡♠❛r❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❤❛② ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛
② ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦✳ ❱❡r❡♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rs❡
t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✳

❯♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞♦ ❝ó♠♦ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱

❡①♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡s❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❆❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦✱ ✐❧✉str❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s

♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡s
❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳ ❊❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s❡ ❝❡rr❛rá ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦
❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳ ❈♦♠♣r♦❜❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❜❛s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛s ✐♠♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

▲♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s♦♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧❡s✳ P♦r

❡❧❧♦ ♥♦s ❡①t❡♥❞❡r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❝❧❛✈❡s✳ P♦r
❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s q✉❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❡①❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
❞✐❢í❝✐❧❡s✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ❧♦s ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❡st❛rá♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞♦s ♣❛r❛
❛②✉❞❛r❧❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❛✉tó♥♦♠♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♣❛r❡❝❡r ♣r♦❧✐❥♦s ❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛
✈✐st❛✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦ ❡❧❧♦✱ s✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ♣❛r❛ s✉ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ✉♥❛s ✶✺ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛❀ s❛❜❡r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r❧❛ ❝♦♠♦
❝♦♥t✐♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✳

❈♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

❙❛❜❡r ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r ② r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛r ❧❛s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡♥

♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❆♥❛❧✐③❛r s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡s ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r

❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ s✉❜②❛❝❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

❈♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r ❧❛ í♥t✐♠❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ② ❡❧

♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳
 ✸✳✶✳ ❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆

3.1✳ ❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆

➓ ✶✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦✿ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛

✶
M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❋ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛✳ ❉❡
❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ t♦♠❛♥ s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ② s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ p✳
❊st❛s ❞♦s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱
✷
q✉❡ s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ (r, p)✳ ❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛
t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ t = 0✱ s✉ ❡st❛❞♦

❡s (r(0), p(0))✳ ❊♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ❞❛♠♦s ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡st❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s
❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ✭❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ✮✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱
q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ✸
✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ✏♣r❡♣❛r❛❞❛✑✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♠♣✐❡③❛ ❛

❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❋✳ ▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✱ q✉❡ ♥♦s
♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ s❛❜❡r ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦(r(t), p(t)) ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ♣♦st❡r✐♦r✳
❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛F ❡s ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛✱ ❡st❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ✿ (r(t), p(t))
q✉❡❞❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ (r(0), p(0)) ♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ s✉❡❧❡
❞❡❝✐r✱ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥

❝✐❡rt♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✉❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❡❧❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✳ ❚❛❧ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡✿

✐✮ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣❡rt✉r❜❛r ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥❞♦❀

✐✐✮ t♦❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡r ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛✳

❆ú♥ ❛sí✱ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ♣r❡s✉♣♦♥❡ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡✿

✐✮ s❡ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛ ❧❛ ♣❡rt✉r❜❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s✉❢r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛❀

✐✐✮ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♠❡❞✐r ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ✉♥❛ ♦ ✈❛r✐❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③✳

✶
❊♥ r✐❣♦r✱ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡st❛rí❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ❧❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❛sí ❧❛
❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ❢✉❡♥t❡✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛♠♦s ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ✭❞❡ r❡❛❝❝✐ó♥✮
q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s r❡❞✉❝✐r ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳
✷
❊st♦ ❡s✱ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢❛s❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳
✸
◆♦ ❡♥tr❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❛ ❞✐s❝✉t✐r s✐ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s t❡❝♥♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❢❛❝t✐❜❧❡✳ ▲❛
ú♥✐❝❛ ❡①✐❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ ✈✐♦❧❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❧❡② ❢ís✐❝❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

Z
r1

D Y
r2

L
A B
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✶✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r♦♠étr✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳ ▲❛
❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❡s D✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s
② ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ❡s L✳ ▲❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆✳ ❊❧ ❡❥❡ OX ❡s
♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦♥❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ s✐ ❞❡s❡❛♠♦s

♠❡❞✐r ✉♥❛ ✭♦ ✈❛r✐❛s✮ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✭❡s✮ ❢ís✐❝❛✭s✮ ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ q✉❡
❞❡s❡❡♠♦s✳ ❊❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ r(t) ② p(t)✳
P♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛✳ ❊❧❧♦
❡s ❛sí ♥♦ só❧♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❧♦ s❡❛✱ s✐♥♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❡s❡
❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐s♠♦ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s✱ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ❉❡❜❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛r♥♦s s✐ ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s s✐❣✉❡♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ✈á❧✐❞❛s

❛❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛r s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛ ✳ ▲❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❝❛t❡❣ór✐❝❛ ❡s
♥♦✳ ◆✐ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❛♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r
q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t♦♠❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r❡❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦s✱ ♥✐ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡❛❧✐③❛rs❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ ❧❛
❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳

P❛r❛ ✐❧✉str❛r ❡s❛ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r♦♠étr✐❝♦

❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ ✭❝❢r✳ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✻✮ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ✉t✐❧✐③❛r r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥
❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳ ❊❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦
♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❞✐s♣✉❡st❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛♥ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❞♦ ❞♦s
r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❡str❡❝❤❛s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛s s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ D ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✶✮✳ ❙♦❜r❡
❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
 ✸✳✶✳ ❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆

❧✐♥❡❛❧ pin = p0 uy ✱ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡♠✐s♦r ❧❡❥❛♥♦✳ ❆ ❧❛ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆

❤❛② ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❇ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ y = L ✳ ❊st❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ r❡❣✐str❛
❡❧ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣♦❝❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❤❛♥ s✐❞♦ ❝❛♣❛❝❡s ❞❡ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡
❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✳ ❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❤❛ ❞✐s♣✉❡st♦ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
q✉❡ ❛tr❛✈✐❡s❛♥ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❤❛❜rá ❞❡ s❡r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♥ ♣♦r ❧❛
✐♥❢❡r✐♦r✳

❊♥ ❧❛ ❝❛r❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s

✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❢✉❡s❡ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✱
❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ❤❛❜rí❛ ❞❡ s❡r s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳
✸✲✷✳ ❆❧ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛rí❛♥ ❡❧ást✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥
s✉s ❜♦r❞❡s s✉❢r✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ②✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s❡rí❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡
❤❛♥ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛❞♦ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ♠ás ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛❞♦ ❧❛
✐♥❢❡r✐♦r✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥
❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✸✿ ✉♥ ❝❧❛r♦ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✱ tí♣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦✳

❈❛❜rí❛ ♣❡♥s❛r q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛❧❣ú♥ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥

❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡❧ ❤❛③✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡❧ ❡♠✐s♦r ❡s ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❡♠✐t✐r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
✉♥❛ ❛ ✉♥❛✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❛sí ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥t❛r ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s✳ ❘❡❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ♠✉❝❤♦ ❡❧ r✐t♠♦ ❞❡
❡♠✐s✐ó♥ s❡ ✈❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞✐str✐❜✉✐rs❡ ❛❧❡❛t♦r✐❛♠❡♥t❡
✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ✜❣✳ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✸✮✱ ♣❡r♦ tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐❞♦ ❝✐❡rt♦ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
✐♠♣❛❝t♦s t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ r❡♣r♦❞✉❝✐r ❡❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✱ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❛sí s❡r
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✳ ❆❧ s❡r ❡❧ r✐t♠♦ ❞❡ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥
♠✉② ❧❡♥t♦ ♥♦ ❤❛② ❝♦rr❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s s✉❝❡s♦s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦s ❛❧
♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧
❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇✳ ❊st♦ ❡s
♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr✐rí❛ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✷✳✷✳✶✮✳

❘❡♣✐t❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣❛s❛

❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s s❡ ❡♠✐t❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❛ ✉♥❛✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛
❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡r ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿ ❛♥t❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ s❡ ❡♠✐t❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t❛♣❛♠♦s ✉♥❛
❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✱ ❛sí q✉❡ s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇
❡s q✉❡ ❤❛ ♣❛s❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♦tr❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳ ❱❛♠♦s r❡♣✐t✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛
✹
❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧ ♣❡r♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ ❛❧❡❛t♦r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ t❛♣❛❞❛ P❛r❛ ♥✉❡str❛
s♦r♣r❡s❛ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡s ❛❤♦r❛ ➼❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✷✦ ② ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s✱
❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③✳ ▲❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧
❝❛s♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ q✉é r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❤❛ ♣❛s❛❞♦ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛

✹
❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❡❧ ú♥✐❝♦ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❡s♣❡r❛❜❧❡ ❡s q✉❡ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s q✉❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r ♣♦r ❞♦s ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡

r❡❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥s❡❣✉✐r ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

8
I (z ) = I (z ) + I (z )
tot 1 2

6
I (z )
1

4 I (z )
2

0
z/

-2

-4

-6

-8
0 1 2

Densidad de impactos (unid. arb.)

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✷✳ ❘❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s♣❡r❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
t✉✈✐❡s❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳ P❛♥❡❧ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦✿ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ✭❧í♥❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✮
② ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡❜✐❞❛s ❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ♣❛s❛rí❛♥ ♣♦r ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ✭❧í♥❡❛ ❞❡
tr❛③♦s✮ ② ♣♦r ❧❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ✭❧í♥❡❛ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ② tr❛③♦s✮✳ P❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦✿ ✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❝♦♥tr❛
❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ✭♠ás ❝❧❛r✐❞❛❞ ❝✉❛♥t♦s ♠ás ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s✮

❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❛♥t❡s s❛❜í❛♠♦s
q✉❡ ❤❛❜í❛ ♣❛s❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♣♦r ❝✉á❧ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✳

➓ ✸✳ ❊❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♠✉❝❤♦s

❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❛❧ ❤❛❝❡r ✐♥t❡r❛❝t✉❛r ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s ❝♦♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦s ✭♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛s ♣❡r✐ó❞✐❝❛s
q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ r❡❞ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥✮✳ ❙✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ r❛❞✐❝❛ ❡♥ q✉❡✱ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡
s✉ s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞✱ ♠✉❡str❛ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉á❧❡s s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛
❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ② ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❱❡á♠♦s❧❛s ♣✉♥t♦ ♣♦r ♣✉♥t♦✳

• ▲❛s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ t❡♥í❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❛❜✐❡rt❛s s♦♥
▲❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r ❜❛❥♦ ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳
♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛sí ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ②
❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❤❛❜rá ❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐rs❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠♦❞♦ r❛❞✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✉♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦✱ ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❛✜r♠❛r
q✉❡✿
 ✸✳✶✳ ❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✸✳ ❘❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ r❡❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❡s♣❡r❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ✭❝✉r✈❛ ❛ tr❛③♦s✮✳ ❊❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ♠✉❡str❛ ❧❛
✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ✭♠ás ❝❧❛r✐❞❛❞ ❝✉❛♥t♦s ♠ás ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s✮✳ ❊♥ ❧♦s ♣❛♥❡❧❡s
s✉♣❡r✐♦r❡s s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥
♠ás ② ♠ás ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳ ❊st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ❡stá t♦♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ ❚♦♥♦♠✉r❛ ❡t ❛❧ ✭❆♠✳
❏✳ P❤②s✳ ✺✼✱ ✶✶✼ ✭✶✾✽✾✮✮ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③ó ❝♦♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♠✐❝r♦s❝♦♣✐♦
❡❧❡❝tró♥✐❝♦✳ ❊❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❧♦ ❥✉❡❣❛ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ✉♥ ❜✐♣r✐s♠❛ ❞❡ ▼ö❧❧❡♥st❡❞t

❛✮ ❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛

♦♥❞❛ q✉❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛s✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s
✺
♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✳

❜✮ ❊s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ✭♦ ❡❧

❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✮ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❛❧ q✉❡
❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

• ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣✱ ❡❧ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡

✐♠♣❛❝t❛rá ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦ ❡s ✐♠♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s
❞❡ ✉♥ ❣r❛♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ s✉❝❡s♦s ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s✐❣✉❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛✉t❛
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✿

✺
❊❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ❛♣❡♥❛s s❡ ✉s❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ ♣❡r♦ ❤❡♠♦s ♣r❡❢❡r✐❞♦ ♠❛♥t❡♥❡r❧♦ ❛❧

♠❡♥♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❝✮ ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡rs❡ ❡♥ ❝❧❛✈❡

❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ s❛❜❡r ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ✏❡❧✑ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡
✉♥❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✱ ♣❡r♦ sí ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✮ ❞❡ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦
✈❛❧♦r✳✻
• P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❝♦♥ s✉ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦
q✉❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛♥ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡
✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✜❧tr❛♥t❡✳
✭✐✮ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❡stá♥ ❛❜✐❡rt❛s✱ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❛♣❛r❛t♦
q✉❡ ♠✐❞❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡
❧❧❡❣❛♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ❡♠✐s♦r✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s
|z| ∼ D/2✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♣❛s❛♥ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ y > 0❀ ❡♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ s♦♥
❞❡t❡♥✐❞❛s✳
✭✐✐✮ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❡stá t❛♣❛❞❛ ✭♦ s✐ s✐t✉❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❞❡t❡❝t♦r q✉❡ ✐♥❞✐q✉❡
♣♦r q✉é r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ♣❛s❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✮✱ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✜❧tr❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z✱ ❞❡❥❛♥❞♦ ♣❛s❛r ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❧❡❣❛♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❝♦♥ ♦ ❜✐❡♥
z ∼ +D/2 ♦ ❜✐❡♥ z ∼ −D/2✳
❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛s♦s✳ ❊♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ✭✐✐✮✳
❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r Ψ1 (r, t) ② ♣♦r Ψ2 (r, t) ❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
y > 0 q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❤❛ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛❞♦
♦ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ♦ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❚♦❞❛✈í❛ ♥♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s
✼
❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛❞♠✐t✐r q✉❡
s♦♥ ♦♥❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❝✉②♦s ❢♦❝♦s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s s♦♥ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ♦ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛
✐♥❢❡r✐♦r✳ ❆❞♠✐t❛♠♦s ✐❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥
✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❆sí✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦
♣r❡♣❛r❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✜❧tr❛♥t❡ ❞❡ z ✱ ❝♦♠♦ s✉ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s Ψ1 (r, t) ó Ψ2 (r, t)✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❇ s❡rá ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ Itot (r, t) ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s I1 (r, t) ❡ I2 (r, t)✿

Itot (r, t) = I1 (r, t) + I2 (r, t)

❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✷✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❛
♥✐♥❣ú♥ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳ ▲❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ s❡rí❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛
✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s Ψ1 (r, t) ② Ψ2 (r, t)✳

✻
❊st♦ ♥♦ ❡①❝❧✉②❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡sté ✏❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✑✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ s❡rí❛ ✉♥♦ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥
✈❛❧♦r ✭❛q✉é❧ q✉❡ ✏t♦♠❛✑ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✮ ② ❝❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s r❡st❛♥t❡s✳
✼
❙✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ❤✐③♦ ❡♥ ➓✶✳✻✳✸✳
 ✸✳✶✳ ❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆

▲❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♠✉② ❞✐st✐♥t❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❡stá♥ ❛❜✐❡rt❛s✳ ❆❤♦r❛
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ t♦♠❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r |D/2| ❛ ❧❛ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥
s❛❜❡r s✐ z ∼ +D/2 ♦ s✐ z ∼ −D/2✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ sí ♦❜s❡r✈❛♠♦s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥ ❧❛
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛rs❡ s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛
❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ y>0 ❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛
✉♥❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ z ∼ +D/2 ② ❛ ♦tr❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ z ∼ −D/2✳ ❊st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ t♦t❛❧ s❡rá

Ψtot (r, t) = Ψ1 (r, t) + Ψ2 (r, t)

② ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ B✱ q✉❡ ♠♦str❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✸✱

♥♦ s❡rá ❛❤♦r❛ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s✱ s✐♥♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❊st♦ ❧♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛r
❝♦♠♦✿

❞✮ ❊❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ❛ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡

♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❤✐③♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❊▼ ✭②✱ ❝♦♠♦
✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✱ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s✮✳

• ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❤❛ ♠♦♥t❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✱ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥

❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ❡♠✐s♦r ❧❡❥❛♥♦ ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t♦♠❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
pin = p0 uy ✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ pz ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳ ❚r❛s
r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡ s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✭❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✜❧tr❛♥t❡✮✱
❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s
s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛rs❡ s✐ pz ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥♦
♥✉❧♦s✳ ▼ás ❛ú♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ pz tr❛s ❧❛
♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✭♦ tr❛s ❧❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✮ ♥♦ ❡stá ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ❡st♦
❡s✱ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✉❧t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ pz ♥♦ ❡s ♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛
q✉❡✿

❡✮ ❊♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡

✐❞❡❛❧❡s ✽ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❢❡❝t❛r ❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▼ás ❛ú♥✱ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡
❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♦tr❛
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✳

➓ ✹✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r✱ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❛

❡s❝❛❧❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r r❛❞✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛

✽
❯♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❡s ❛q✉❡❧❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ M ② ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ❉❡❜❡♠♦s r❡♥✉♥❝✐❛r ❛ ♠✉❝❤❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s q✉❡ s❡ ❞❛❜❛♥ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st❛s

❡♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥✱ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r❡♠♦s
❡st❛❞♦s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❛♥ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡r ♣r❡♣❛r❛❞♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊st♦
❡①❝❧✉②❡ t❛①❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s (r, p) ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦
❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ t♦♠❛♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱
❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
✾
s♦♥ ♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡s✮✳ ❊st❛ ❧✐♠✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡ ❡❧
❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❝✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ q✉❡
❡①❛♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♥♦ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ②

❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❉❡
s❡r ❛sí s❛❜rí❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ r ② p t♦♠❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✱ ❡♥ ❝❧❛r❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st❡
t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s s♦♥ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ②
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❛s ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦ ♠ás ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s q✉❡ s♦♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❡♥
❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡❛❧✐③❛rs❡ ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦s✳ ❉❡ ❡st❡ ♠♦❞♦✱ ❧❛
✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
❡s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ s✐ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳ ◆♦
♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡❜❡ ❝♦♥t❡♥❡r t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ✐♥s✐st✐♠♦s ❡♥ q✉❡
t❛❧ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rá ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳

➓ ✺✳ ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❤❛ s✐❞♦

♣r❡♣❛r❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✱ ést❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛rá ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❝♦♠♦
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F✳ ❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr❡ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱
❞✐❝❤❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ② ❝✉❛♥❞♦ F s❡❛ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛

❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊st❛ ♣r❡❝❛✉❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣♦rq✉❡ ♥♦

♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r s✐♥ ♠ás ✭❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❤❛❝í❛ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✮ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥
❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ✉♥ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳

▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♥♦ s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❡♥
♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳

❊♥ s✉♠❛✱ s✐ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✭r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡

✉♥❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✮ ② s✉ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡r❡♠♦s ❝❛♣❛❝❡s ❞❡ ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r
❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛
✭s✐❡♠♣r❡ ② ❝✉❛♥❞♦✱ ❝❧❛r♦ ❡stá✱ t❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s❡❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✮✳ ❊s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✐♥❝♦rr❡❝t♦

✾
❈♦♠♦ ②❛ s❡ ❤❛ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❡♥ ✸✳✶✳✸✱ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡

❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳

 ✸✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❉❊ ❉❊ ❇❘❖●▲■❊

❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛✳ ❙í ❧♦ ❡s✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡s❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐s♠♦

❡stá ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ✐♠♣✐❞❡♥ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s
❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦✳

➓ ✻✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ s✉ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡
♠❛t❡r✐❛✳ ❈♦♥ ❡❧❧♦ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❝✉②♦ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ♦❝✉♣❛rá ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t❡①t♦✳

❊❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ q✉❡ s❡❣✉✐r❡♠♦s s❡rá s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ♣♦rq✉❡✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛

❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ②
❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥
s✐ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ✭❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s ✭❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s✱ ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳ ❆sí✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤✐❝✐♠♦s ❞❡❧
❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♣♦❞rá ❛♣❧✐❝❛rs❡✱ ❝♦♥ ♣♦❝❛s ✈❛r✐❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱
❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

3.2✳ ❊▲ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❉❊ ❉❊ ❇❘❖●▲■❊

➓ ✶✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
k = ku t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❛❞♦s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r

2π~
pγ = ~k = u
λ ✭✸✳✶✮

Eγ = c|pγ | = ~ω,

❞♦♥❞❡ u ❡s ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ② ω = c|k| ❡s s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛

❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ω ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
ν −✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦− ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ω = 2πν ✮✳✶✵
◆♦ ♦❧✈✐❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❧í♠✐t❡ ✐❞❡❛❧✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦✱ ②
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦♥❡r ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ k ② ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω k = c|k|✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✷✳✷✳✷✱ ❧❛ ❛♣♦rt❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♠♦❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ ❧✐❜r❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡

✶✵
P♦r ❛❜✉s♦ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥
u t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ λ ② ✉♥❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r ❡s q✉❡ ❡stá
❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ pγ ② ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Eγ ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✳ ❙♦❜r❡❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛s
❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✸✳✶✮✱ ❧❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❛❧ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s

q✉❡ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r p = ~k ✭❡♥ r✐❣♦r✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧
✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s✱ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ p✮✳ ❙❡❣ú♥ ❧❛
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✷✳✼✮✱ ❡st❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐rs❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ e
A(k, t) ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✳ ❆sí✱ ❡❧
❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✏❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✑ q✉❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s
♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ❝✉②❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s s♦♥ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s
♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳

➓ ✷✳ ■♠♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✸✳✶✮ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛
♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❤✐stór✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦
❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✳
✶✶
❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ s✐ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥
❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ E✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t✐❡♥❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ s✉
♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ❝✉②♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s

1
k= p ✭✸✳✷✮
~
② s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

1
ω= E. ✭✸✳✸✮
~
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ✭❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✮ ❡s
2π h
λ= = . ✭✸✳✹✮
|k| |p|
❆❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s s✉r❣❡♥ ❝❛s✐ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿

✲ ➽❊stá ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♦❝✉rr❡
❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✱ ♣♦r ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r❄

✲ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ✜❥❛❞♦ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♥❡r❝✐❛❧ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❛sí ❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✿ ➽❞❡❜❡ ✐♥❝❧✉✐rs❡ ❧❛
♠❛s❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦❄ ➽❝ó♠♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω❄
✲ P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ❡s

ω E 1
vf = uk = uk , con uk = k
|k| |p| |k|

✶✶
Pr♦♣✉❡st♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ▲♦✉✐s ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❡♥ ✶✾✷✹✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s q✉❡ é❧ ✉só ❢✉❡r♦♥

♠✉② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❛q✉í s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦✳

 ✸✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❉❊ ❉❊ ❇❘❖●▲■❊

♣❡r♦✱ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❢♦tó♥✱ E/|p| ♥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

✲ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s❛❧✈♦ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❝♦♥
❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ➽❝ó♠♦ s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❡①t❡r♥❛❄

❘❡s♣♦♥❞❡r❡♠♦s ♣♦❝♦ ❛ ♣♦❝♦ ❛ ❡st❛s ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s✱ ♣❡r♦ r❡t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✿

❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ s❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❛♣❛r✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ❡♥ ❧❛
✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦s✱ ② t❛❧❡s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s
♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s
✶✷
❡stá♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛s ♣♦r ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳

➓ ✸✳ ❊s ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ q✉❡ s❡ ♣❡r❝❛t❡ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧♦ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ♥♦ ❡s t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛

❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ s✐♥♦ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❛ ❡①tr❛❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♦♥❞❛✳

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦
q✉❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛
ú♥✐❝❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛r ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

▲♦ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ s❡rá ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡r ✉♥❛ ✏r❡❝❡t❛✑ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❝❛❞❛ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② q✉❡✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ést❛✱ s❡❛♠♦s ❝❛♣❛❝❡s ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞é ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ✈❛❧♦r✳ ❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ s✐♥♦

q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▲❛s ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s

q✉❡ ♥♦s ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❜❡♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❞❡s❞❡
✉♥❛ ♣❡rs♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ♣r❛❣♠át✐❝❛✿ ➽❝ó♠♦ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ Ψ(r, t) ♣❛r❛ q✉❡
s✐r✈❛ ❛ ♥✉❡str♦s ♣r♦♣ós✐t♦s❄

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❡①tr❛❡rs❡

❞❡ Ψ(r, t)✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t✉✈✐❡s❡ ✉♥ ❣r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ✐♥t❡r♥♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Ψ(r, t)
❞❡❜❡rí❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r❧♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❡ s❛❜❡ ❞❡ ❝✉rs♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t♦r✐♦s ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛✱
♠✉❝❤❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✐♥trí♥s❡❝♦ ✭❡❧ ❡s♣í♥✮ ② ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦
❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❡♠♦s s✉❣❡r✐❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣í♥ ❞❡❧ ❢♦tó♥ ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
A(r, t) s❡❛ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r✳ ◆♦ ❤❛② ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ r❛③ó♥ q✉❡ ♥♦s ✐♠♣✐❞❛ ❡①t❡♥❞❡r
❡st❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ❛ ♦tr❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ s✉♣♦♥❡r q✉❡ s✐ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❡s♣í♥ ✉ ♦tr♦ ❣r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡r♥♦ ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❜❡
t❡♥❡r ✈❛r✐❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ②✱ ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡rá ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦

❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡❛ ❡s❡ ✭♦ ❡s♦s✮

✶✷
P♦❞rí❛ ♣❡♥s❛r s✐ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ M ② ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ q ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❛❧ s❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✱

t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡stá♥ ❛❢❡❝t❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❡st❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❆❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♥♦s

✈❛♠♦s ❛ ♠♦✈❡r ❧❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❡s ♥♦✱ ② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r❡♠♦s ❛ m ② q ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ✐♥trí♥s❡❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠❛ s✐♥♦ ✉♥ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❡s♣í♥ ❧❛

❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦✭s✮ ❣r❛❞♦✭s✮ ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞✳ ❘❡❝í♣r♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳ ❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❡st❛r ✐♥t❡r❡s❛❞♦s
♣r✐♠♦r❞✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✱ s✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳ ❉❡❥❛r❡♠♦s ♣❛r❛ ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❡s♣í♥✳

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ✶✸ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱
❛❞♠✐t❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ s❡ ✈❛ ❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛
❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♦
|Ψ(r, t)|2 ✳ ▲❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ② ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ❡s

Ψ (r, t) = Ψ0 ei(k·r−ωt) , ✭✸✳✺✮

❞♦♥❞❡ Ψ0 ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✳ ❈♦♥❢♦r♠❡ ❛❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ❡st❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p = ~k ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛
E = ~ω ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦✱ s✐ ❛ñ❛❞✐♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ E0
❛ t❛❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❧❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ s❡rí❛ ω + ω0✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ω 0 = E0 /~✳ ❊❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ q✉❡
s✉❢r✐rí❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s

Ψ0 ei(k·r−ωt) −→ Ψ0 ei(k·r−ωt) e−iω0 t = Ψ0 ei(k·r−ωt) e−iE0 t/~

② ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ exp (−iE0 t/~) ❛♣❛r❡❝❡rá s✐❡♠♣r❡✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡

❝✉á❧ s❡❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✐♥ ❛❢❡❝t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ②❛ q✉❡
| exp(−iE0 t/~)|2 = 1 ② ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ |Ψ0 |2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s
❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ✐♥❝❧✉✐r ♦ ♥♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❛❧ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r
❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ② q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ E/|p| ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ♥♦ ✈❛ ❛ t❡♥❡r
✉♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ s✉ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡
❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳

➓ ✹✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦ ❡st♦ ②❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s r❡❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ②

❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s✐♥ ❡s♣í♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡
❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ✭q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✮

 k = p/~
θp (r, t) = θ0 ei(k·r−ωt) , con ✭✸✳✻✮

ω = E/~

✶✸
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡r❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♣❝✐ó♥✱ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♦❜❧✐❣❛t♦r✐❛✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❛q✉í

s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐❡rt❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞✳

 ✸✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❉❊ ❉❊ ❇❘❖●▲■❊

❞♦♥❞❡ θ0 ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✳

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s✐ ♥♦s

r❡str✐♥❣✐♠♦s ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ E = K = |p|2 /(2M )✳
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱

~|k|2
ω= ✭✸✳✼✮
2M

q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♦tr❛ ❝♦s❛ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r
✶✹
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

➓ ✺✳ ❙ó❧♦ q✉❡❞❛rí❛ ✈❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛

❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❡①t❡r✐♦r✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡❝♦♥♦♠í❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧
❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❡①tr❛❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ♦tr❛ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❞❛✱
❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ ❝❛s♦ ② ♦tr♦ r❛❞✐❝❛rá ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ t0
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡①❤✐❜❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✭✸✳✻✮✱ ❡st♦ ❡s s✐ Ψ(r, t0 ) ∝
exp(ik · r)✱ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡s❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t0 ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡stá ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ② ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ~k✳ ❯♥❛ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❛♠❜✐❛rí❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ② ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ s❡ r❡✢❡❥❛rá
♣✉❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ Ψ(r, t)✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✸✳❛✳ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s

❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛s ❛✿

❛✮ ❯♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✶✵ ❡❱✳

❜✮ ❯♥❛ ♠♦❧é❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ O2 ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛✐r❡ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❛♠❜✐❡♥t❡✳

❝✮ ❯♥ ♣r♦tó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛❝❡❧❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ 0,99c✳

❉❛t♦s✿ me c2 ≃ 511 KeV✱ mp c2 ≃ 938 MeV✱ kB ≃ 8,617 × 10−5 eV/K

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡s K = 10 ❡❱✱ ✈❛❧♦r ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥

✶✹
❙✐ ❡st❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❢✉❡s❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ✭s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❛♣❡♥❛s ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ t❡①t♦✮✱ ② t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦
❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❤❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣árr❛❢♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ω ❡stá ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ✭♥♦ ❛
q
❧❛ t♦t❛❧✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rí❛ ω= c2 |k|2 + ω 20 − ω 0 ❝♦♥ ω 0 = M0 c2 /~ ② s✐❡♥❞♦ M0 ❧❛
♠❛s❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

r❡♣♦s♦ me c2 ≃ 511 × 103 ❡❱ ✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛sí ✉s❛r ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ♦❜t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡

h h hc 12400 eV Å
λ= =√ =√ ≃√ ≃ 3,88 Å.
|p| 2me K 2
2me c K 2 · 511 × 103 · 10eV
❜✮ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ tí♣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠♦❧é❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ❣❛s❡♦s❛ ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T
❡s
3
K= kB T
2
❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠♦❧é❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ O2 ❡s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ mO2 ≃ 32mp ✱ ❝♦♥ mp ❧❛ ♠❛s❛
❞❡❧ ♣r♦tó♥✱ s✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s T ≃ 300 K ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❡s
h h hc
λ≃ p ≃p =p ≃ 0,257 Å
2mO2 K 96mp kB T 96mp c2 kB T
❝✮ ❆❤♦r❛ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ✉s❛r ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ v ❞❡❧ ♣r♦tó♥ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥
❞❡ c✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s
mp v
|p| = p
1 − (v/c)2
② t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ v = 0,99c
p p
h h 1 − 0,992 1 − 0,992 hc 12400 eV Å
λ= = = ≃ 0,1425 ≃ 1,88 × 10−6 Å
|p| 0,99mp c 0,99 mp c2 938 × 106 eV
❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❞❡ ✉♥♦s 0,19 ❢♠✳

❚♦❞♦s ❡st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♠❡r❡❝❡♥ ✉♥ ❜r❡✈❡ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r✐♦✳ ▲❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡

❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳ P❛r❛ s✐st❡♠❛s
❝✉②❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ s❡❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ λ ❧❛s ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛
✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ✐♠♣❡r❝❡♣t✐❜❧❡s ② ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐♦s ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦s s❡rá♥ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s✳ P♦r ❡❧
❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ s✐ λ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛
❡s ❞❡ ❡s♣❡r❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♦ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ s❡❛♥ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ✭❛✮✱ s✐
❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥ só❧✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❡s ❞❡❧
♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ➴ ✭❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ tí♣✐❝❛ ❡♥tr❡ át♦♠♦s✮ ❡s ❡s♣❡r❛❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❛♣❛r✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s
✏♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦s✑ ✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ✭❜✮ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♠♦❧é❝✉❧❛s ❞❡❧ ❣❛s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛
❡s❝❛❧❛ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✱ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡
λ✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❣❛s tí♣✐❝♦✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧
♣r♦tó♥ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ✭❝✮ t❡♥❞rá ✉♥❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ② ❝✉❛♥❞♦
♥♦ ❡①♣❧♦r❡♠♦s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ♠❡♥♦r❡s q✉❡ ✶ ❢♠ ✭q✉❡ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛
❢ís✐❝❛ ♥✉❝❧❡❛r ② s✉❜♥✉❝❧❡❛r✮✳

3.3✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❯◆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

➓ ✶✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❝ó♠♦ ❤❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

q✉❡ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s✐❣✉❡ s✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s
 ✸✳✸✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❯◆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✿

s✐ Ψ1 (r, t) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ② Ψ2 (r, t) ❡s ❧❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ♦tr♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

Ψ(r, t) = α1 Ψ1 (r, t) + α2 Ψ2 (r, t) , con α1,2 ∈ C, ✭✸✳✽✮

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ t❡r❝❡r ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❊st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s

❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ♣❛r❛ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛
✭♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧✐❜r❡✮ ❝♦♠♦

Z Z
Ψ̃(k, t) e+ik·r 3 Ψ(r, t)e−ik·r 3
Ψ(r, t) = d k siendo Ψ̃(k, t) = d r. ✭✸✳✾✮
R3 (2π)3/2 R3 (2π)3/2

❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ♥♦s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ❝♦♥

❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ p = ~k✱ ❡s ♠✉② ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❡❧
❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ k → p/~ ❡♥ ✭✸✳✾✮ ② tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡
p✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❬❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡❪ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

Z
1
Ψ̃(p, t) = Ψ(r, t) e−ip·r/~ d3 r ✭✸✳✶✵✮
(2π~)3/2 R3

❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡

Z
1
Ψ(r, t) = Ψ̃(p, t) e+ip·r/~ d3 p. ✭✸✳✶✶✮
(2π~)3/2 R3

❆✉♥q✉❡ ✉s❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ sí♠❜♦❧♦ Ψ̃ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ✭❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s k✮ ② ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ✭❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s p✮✱
❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❞❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ Ψ̃ s❡ r❡✜❡r❡ ❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✳ ❊s ♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡✱ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ❡❧
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧ t♦♠❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧

Z Z
∗ 3
Ψ (r, t)Φ(r, t) d r = Ψ̃∗ (p, t)Φ̃(p, t) d3 p. ✭✸✳✶✷✮
R3 R3

●❡♥❡r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ s♦❜r❡❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s Ψ(r, t)✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥

r✐❣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r, t) ② Ψ̃(p, t) s♦♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❡♥t✐❞❛❞✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛r t❛♥t♦ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♦tr❛
♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r, t) r❡❝✐❜❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❬❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡❪
♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛❞♦✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❛❞♠✐t❛♠♦s

q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡
✉♥ ❢♦tó♥ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛✳ ❋✐❥❛❞♦ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡
t✐❡♠♣♦ t✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✸✳✶✶✮ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡
Ψ(r, t) ❡s ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
Ψ̃(p, t) exp(+ip · r/~) ❝✉②❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✳
2 3
❊st♦ s✉❣✐❡r❡ q✉❡ |Ψ̃(p, t)| d p ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡
❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r
3
❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ ✏✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✑ d p ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ p✳

❙✐ ρmom (p, t) ∝ |Ψ̃(p, t)|2 ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r
❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ Ṽ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡s

Z
Pr(p ∈ Ṽ) = ρmom (p, t) d3 p. ✭✸✳✶✸✮
Ṽ

❈♦♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ρmom (p, t) ❤❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛r

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱

Z
3
Pr(p ∈ R ) = 1 ⇔ ρmom (p, t)d3 p = 1, ✭✸✳✶✹✮
R3

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s

|Ψ̃(p, t)|2
ρmom (p, t) = Z . ✭✸✳✶✺✮
|Ψ̃(q, t)|2 d3 q
R3

➓ ✸✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❡♥tr❡ Ψ(r, t) ② Ψ̃(p, t) ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛

tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ ❡s ❞❡ ❡s♣❡r❛r q✉❡ |Ψ(r, t)|2 t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ s✐♠✐❧❛r
♣❛r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊st♦ s❡rí❛ ❛sí ♥♦ só❧♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ s✐♥♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❧✉❣❛r❡s
❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) t♦♠❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡s s❡❛ ♠ás
♣r♦❜❛❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ q✉❡
 ✸✳✸✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❯◆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

♥♦s ❤❛ ❧❧❡✈❛❞♦ ❛ ✭✸✳✶✺✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡

❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s

|Ψ(r, t)|2
ρ(r, t) = Z ✭✸✳✶✻✮
|Ψ(a, t)|2 d3 a
R3

② ❛sí ρ(r, t)d3 r ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥

✉♥
3
✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❧❛ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ d r ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦
r✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
V ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s Z
Pr(r ∈ V) = ρ(r, t) d3 r. ✭✸✳✶✼✮
V

➓ ✹✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛

❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ r❡❛❧ ② ♥♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛

Z 1/2 Z 1/2
2 3 2 3
kΨ(t)k ≡ |Ψ(r, t)| d r = |Ψ̃(p, t)| d p ✭✸✳✶✽✮
R3 R3

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧ ✭✸✳✶✷✮✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s

❡✈❛❧✉❛r kΨ(t)k ❜✐❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✳
❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✸✳✶✺✮ ② ✭✸✳✶✻✮ t❡♥❣❛♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✜♥✐t❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ρ(r, t)
② ρmom (p, t) s❡rí❛♥ ❝❡r♦✳ ❊st♦ ❡s✱ t♦❞♦ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✜♥✐t❛ ✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡
q✉❡ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❡s s✐♥ó♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✮✳ ❆ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❧❛s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳
❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❞✐✜❡r❡♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈♦ q✉❡
♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r, t) = α(t)Φ(r, t) ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r α(t) ✈❛ ❛ s❡r ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ❡♥
❡st❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ♣♦rq✉❡ s❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❛rá ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ρ(r, t) ②
ρmom (p, t)✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛r q✉❡ ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ♦❝✉rr✐rá ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞
❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❞✐✜❡r❛♥ ❡♥
❝♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ② ❛sí
✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡❧
♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳ ✶✺
✶✺
◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✉♥
❢❛❝t♦r ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ✭❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ s❡rí❛ Ψ̃(p, t) = α(t)Φ̃(p, t)✮
② ❧❛s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛rí❛♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ♠♦❧❡st♦s ❢❛❝t♦r❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s

❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s✐ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝á♥❞♦❧❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❡ ❡♥ ♦tr❛ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦
❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s♦♥


ρ(r, t) = |Ψ(r, t)|2 
si kΨ(t)k = 1. ✭✸✳✶✾✮

ρmom (p, t) = |Ψ̃(p, t)|2

➓ ✺✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ t❡♥❣❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ✜♥✐t❛ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛

❛♣❛r❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✿ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ θ0 exp(ik · r)✱ ♥♦ ❡s
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❊♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ s✐♥♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛t❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r p0 ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡
p ❞é ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r p0 ✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♥♦ ❤❛② ♥❛❞❛ ✏❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✑ ❡♥ ❡st❡
❤❡❝❤♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ t❛❧ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s
❞❡ p t♦♠❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ r✐❣✉r♦s♦
❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠ás ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡sté
❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t0 ✭♦ s❡❛✱ ❝✉❛♥t♦
♠ás ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡sté ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρmom (p, t0 ) ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ✉♥
✈❛❧♦r p0 ✮ ♠ás ♣❛r❡❝✐❞❛ s❡rá ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t0 ) ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡
θ0 exp(ip0 · r/~)✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✳
❆sí✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✱
♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ s✉
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ❜✐❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞♦ q✉❡ ést❛
❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ Ψ(r, t) ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❛♠♣❧✐❛ ♣❡r♦ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❊s
❞❡❝✐r✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❛❞♠✐t✐r ❧❛ ♣r❡s❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡
❤❛❣❛ q✉❡ Ψ(r, t) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |r| → ∞✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❛❝í❛♠♦s ❛❧ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✸✳❜✳ ▲❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③

❙❡❛♥ Φ(r) ② Ψ(r) ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛✳ ❯♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③

Z
Φ∗ (r) Ψ (r) d3 r ≤ kΦk kΨk ✭✸✳✷✵✮
R3
 ✸✳✹✳ ❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ▼❊❉■❖❙ ❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊❙

2
❉❡♠✉éstr❡❧❛ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ kΨ − ζΦk ≥ 0✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ζ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✱ ② ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✐❝❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛
Z
1
ζ= 2 Φ∗ (r) Ψ (r) d3 r
kΦk R3

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ s✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦✱

Z Z
2 2 ∗
kΨ − ζΦk = |Ψ (r) − ζΦ (r)| d3 r = [Ψ (r) − ζΦ (r)] [Ψ (r) − ζΦ (r)] d3 r
R3 R3
Z
 
= |Ψ (r) |2 + |ζ|2 |Φ (r) |2 − ζΨ∗ (r) Φ (r) − ζ ∗ Φ∗ (r) Ψ (r) d3 r ≥ 0
R3
② ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ② ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
Z Z
kΨk2 + |ζ|2 kΦk2 − ζ Ψ∗ (r) Φ (r) d3 r − ζ ∗ Φ∗ (r) Ψ (r) d3 r ≥ 0
R3 R3
P❛r❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ζ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ♣♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ q✉❡
Z 2
2 1
kΨ − ζΦk = kΨk2 − Φ∗ (r) Ψ (r) d3 r
kΦk2 R3

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
Z 2
2 2
0 ≤ kΨ − ζΦk ⇒ Φ∗ (r) Ψ (r) d3 r ≤ kΨk kΦk2 .
R3

❨❛ ❜❛st❛ t♦♠❛r r❛í❝❡s ❝✉❛❞r❛❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③ ✭✸✳✷✵✮✳

3.4✳ ❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ▼❊❉■❖❙ ❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊❙

➓ ✶✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r g ≡ g(r) ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡

❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✭s✐ g ❢✉❡s❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛rí❛♥ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡✮✳ ▲❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡
❞✐❝❤❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♣❛s❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ②✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱
s❡ t❡♥❞rá ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ g✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦ r
❡stá ❞✐❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(r, t)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ♦
❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ hgi ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ g ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ♣♦♥❞❡r❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✿
Z Z
1
hgit = g(r)ρ(r, t) d3 r = Ψ∗ (r, t)g(r)Ψ(r, t) d3 r ✭✸✳✷✶✮
R3 kΨ(t)k2 R3
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡r ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❤í ❡❧ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡✮✳
❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ h ≡ h(p) ❡s ♦tr❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♣❡r♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱

Z Z
13
hhit = h(p)ρmom (p, t) d p = Ψ̃∗ (p, t)h(p)Ψ̃(p, t) d3 p.
R3 kΨ(t)k2 R3

✭✸✳✷✷✮
❊st❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛ ♦tr❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✱ ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡
♥♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❝♦♥ ❛♠❜♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♥♦ s✐r✈❡♥✱ ♣♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ s✉ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❛♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳ ❚❡♥❞r❡♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ q✉❡ ❛✈❛♥③❛r ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦
♠ás ❡♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ♣❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

▲❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ g ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s ❧❛

❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ g✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r
p q
(∆g)t = h(g − hgit ) i = hg 2 it − hgi2t .
2 ✭✸✳✷✸✮

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛rá♥

❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ hgi✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝✉②❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ 2∆g ✳ ❉❡ ❡st❡ ♠♦❞♦✱
❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠❛②♦r s❡❛ ∆g ♠❡♥♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡stá ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ g ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
Ψ(r, t) ♦ Ψ̃(p, t) ② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✳ ▲❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ g t♦♠❛rá ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ hgi ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ g ❞❛rí❛ ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
hgi✮ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ∆g = 0✳

➓ ✷✳ ❊♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡s ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s s✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦

❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ ✭❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ N = 1✮ ♦ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦ (N = 2)✳ ▲❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡❞❛♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛s ❛ N ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s
tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ✐❞♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛s ♣á❣✐♥❛s s❡ r❡❞✉❝❡♥ ❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s
◆−❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s✱ ② ❡❧ ♣r❡❢❛❝t♦r (2π~)3/2 ❞❡ ❧❛s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡❜❡
❝❛♠❜✐❛rs❡ ❛ (2π~)
N/2 ✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡♥

❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✮✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✸✳❝✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❧♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t✱ q✉❡ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ♦♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡❧

❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s✐♥ ❡s♣í♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥

❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛

eik0 x
Ψ(x) = A ,
x2 + a20
 ✸✳✹✳ ❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ▼❊❉■❖❙ ❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊❙

❞♦♥❞❡ a0 ✱ k0 ② A s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s r❡❛❧❡s ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛s✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(x) ❡s ♣✉❡s ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡
❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✭❡①❝❧✉✐❞❛ s✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✮ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❧♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛✳

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ A✳

❜✮ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [−a0 , +a0 ]✳
❝✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ρmom (px )✳
❞✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ x ② px ✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ∆x∆px
❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳
❡✮ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ∆px → 0 ✭❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✮ ② ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ∆x → 0 ✭❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✮✳
Z Z +1 Z
du π du π+2 1 cos(κu)
❆②✉❞❛s✿
2 2
= ❀ 2 2
= ❀ du = e−|κ|
(u + 1) 2 −1 (u + 1) 4 π u2 + 1
ZR Z R
u2 du π
2 + 1)2
= ❀ 2 −|u|
u e du = 4
R (u 2 R

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ▲❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ Ψ(x) ❡s

Z Z Z
2 |eik0 x |2 A2 1 π
kΨk = |Ψ(x)|2 dx = A2 2 2 2
dx = 3 du = 3 A2 ,
R R (x + a0 ) a0 R (u2 + 1)2 2a0

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ | exp(ik0 x)| = 1 ✱ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → u = x/a0 ② ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦

❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❛②✉❞❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ kΨk2 = 1 t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

r
π 2 2a30
A =1 ⇒ A=
2a30 π

②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
r r
2a30 eik0 x 2 eik0 x
Ψ(x) = =
π x2 + a20 πa0 (x/a0 )2 + 1
✭❢í❥❡s❡ q✉❡✱ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ Ψ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❡❧❡✈❛❞❛ ❛ −1/2✮✳
❜✮ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛

❋■●✳ ✸✲✹✱ ❡s
2 1
ρ(x) = |Ψ(x)|2 =
πa0 [(x/a0 )2 + 1]2
② ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❡❞✐❞❛ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ρ(x) s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [−a0 , +a0 ]✿
Z +a0 Z +a0
2 dx π+2
Pr (x ∈ [−a0 , a0 ]) = ρ(x)dx = 2 2
= ≃ 0,818
−a0 πa0 −a0 [(x/a0 ) + 1] 2π

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ♦tr❛ ✈❡③ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → u = x/a0 ② ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❛②✉❞❛✳ ▲❛

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s♦❧✐❝✐t❛❞❛ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞❡❧ ✽✷ ✪✱ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

0.75 1.00

0.75

0.50

0
( p ) /a
(x)

x
0.50
0
a

0.25

0.25

0.00 0.00
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0

x/a a p /
0 0 x

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✹✳ ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x) ② ρmom (px )

e ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❝
✭k0 a0 = 5✮✳ ❊❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡st❛❝❛❞❛ ❡♥ ρ(x) ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s♦❧✐❝✐t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❜✮

❝✮ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ✭✸✳✶✵✮ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✐③❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧

Z Z
1 1 ei(k0 −px /~)x
Ψ̃(px ) = √ Ψ(x)e−ipx x/~ dx = √ dx.
2π~ R π ~a0 R (x/a0 )2 + 1

❘❡s✉❧t❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ✈♦❧✈❡r ❛ ❤❛❝❡r ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → u = x/a0 ② ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ κ ≡ a0 (k0 − px /~) ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s❝❛r❣❛r ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✿
r Z r Z Z 
a0 1 eiκu a0 1 cos(κu) sin(κu)
Ψ̃(px ) = du = du + i du .
~ π R u2 + 1 ~ π R u2 + 1 R u2 + 1

▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❛②✉❞❛s ② ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡s ❝❡r♦ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ R ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❛r✳ ❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛
r  
a0 −|κ| a0 2a0
Ψ̃(px ) = e ⇒ ρmom (px ) = |Ψ̃(px )|2 = exp − |px − ~k0 | ,
~ ~ ~

❡st❛♥❞♦ ρmom (px ) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✹✳

❞✮ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
Z Z
2 x
hxi = xρ(x)dx = dx = 0
R πa0 R [(x/a0 )2 + 1]2

②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✳ ▲❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡st❛rá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

q Z 1/2  Z 1/2
2 x2
∆x = hx2 i|Ψi = x2 ρ(x)dx = dx = a0 ,
R πa0 R [(x/a0 )2 + 1]2

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → u = x/a0 ② ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛✳

 ✸✳✺✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆❙

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ρmom (px ) ❡stá ❞✐str✐❜✉✐❞❛ s✐♠étr✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ ~k0 ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
Z
hpx i = px ρmom (px )dpx = ~k0 .
R

❊❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡rá

Z Z
2 2 a0
(∆px ) = (px − hpx i) ρmom (px )dpx = (px − ~k0 )2 e−2a0 |px −~k0 |/~ dpx
R ~ R

② ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ px → u = 2a0 (px − ~k0 )/~ ② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛

Z 1/2
~ 1 ~
∆px = √ u2 e−|u| du =√ .
2 2a0 R 2 a0
❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s
~
∆x∆px = √
2
q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ a0 ✳ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ❞❡ a0 ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡stá ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡
❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❣r❛♥❞❡✳ ❙✐ a0 ≫ 0 t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ❧❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥
❝♦♥tr❛r✐❛✿ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ② ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❛❝✉s❛❞❛✳ ❊st❛
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✐❧✉str❛ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ q✉❡ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♣❛r ❞❡ s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡✳
❡✮ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ s✐ |x| ≪ a0 ✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛rs❡ ♣♦r
r
2 ik0 x
Ψ(x) ≃ e si |x| ≪ a0
πa0
q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
px = ~k0 ✳ ❆ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ a0 ✱ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ ❡♥
✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡③ ♠ás ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱
a0 ≫ 0 ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ~k0 ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ②✱ ❝♦♠♦
❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✱ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛ ♣❛r❡❝❡rs❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ θ0 exp(ik0 x)✳
P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ s✐ |x|/a0 ≫ 0✳ ❆sí✱ s✐ ∆x = a0 → 0✱ Ψ(x)
t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛rs❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡③ ♠❡♥♦r ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✳

3.5✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❡③ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❜ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱

②❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

♦❜s❡r✈❛♥ ❡♥ ❤❛❝❡s ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ t♦❞❛✈í❛ ♥♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s

❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ◆✉❡str❛ ú♥✐❝❛
❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ s❡rá✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ❡❧
✶✻
❞❡ ❍✉②❣❡♥s✲❋r❡s♥❡❧ ✭❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❊▼ s✐♥♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✮✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✶✳✻✳✶✱ ♣❡r♦

s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❊▼ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱
♣❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ pin = p0 uy q✉❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥
❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆✱ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ y = 0✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❛❞♦ ✉♥❛
❛❜❡rt✉r❛ S ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ② ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ y<0 ✭❛♥t❡s
❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛r ❝♦♥tr❛ ❆✮ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡rá


 k = p0 /~
Ψin (r, t) = Ψ0 ei(ky−ωt) , con ✭✸✳✷✹✮

ω = E/~ = p20 /(2m~).

❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✉②❣❡♥s✲❋r❡s♥❡❧✱ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ y > 0 ❡s ❧❛

s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s s❡❝✉♥❞❛r✐❛s ❡♠✐t✐❞❛s ❞❡s❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡
❧❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛✳ ❘❛③♦♥❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❤✐❝✐♠♦s ❡♥ ➓✶✳✻✳✷✱ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛
❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ s❡rá

Z ′
kΨ0 e−iωt eik|r−r | 2 ′
Ψ(r, t) = d r si y ≫ λ ✭✸✳✷✺✮
2πi S |r − r′ |

❙✐ ❧❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ❢✉❡s❡ ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ℓ ② ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ b ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ s✐t✉❛❞❛

❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆✱ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛

e−iπ/4 kb Ψ0 ei(kr−ωt) ei(kr−ωt)

Ψ(r, t) = √ √ ≡C √ si ℓ ≫ y ≫ λ, ✭✸✳✷✻✮
2π kr kr

❞♦♥❞❡ r = (y 2 + z 2 )1/2 ❡s ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ② ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r ♠ás ❝✉❛♥t✐t❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s

❞❛t♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s
❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✶✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s
r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❛❜✐❡rt❛s✱ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡♥ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ✭✸✳✷✹✮ ❛❧ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s

✶✻
❙✐ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✉②❣❡♥s ❡st❛♠♦s s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✈❛

❛ ❡st❛r r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s✳ ❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✱ q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧

❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻✳
 ✸✳✺✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆❙

❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✳ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ s❡rá ❛sí ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ❛❧ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇✳

❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✶ ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦
❡❧ ❢♦❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ B
✭s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ x = L✮ s♦♥
 q


 2 D 2
Ceikr1 Ceikr2  r1 = L + z − 2
Ψ1 (z, t) = √ e−iωt ; Ψ2 (z, t) = √ e−iωt con q
kr1 kr2 


 r = L2 + z + D 2
2 2

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✸✳✷✻✮✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ s❡rá

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ Ψtot = Ψ1 +Ψ2 ✱ ② ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✱
Itot (z)✱ s❡rá ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ |Ψ1 + Ψ2 |2 ✳ ❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦
 
Itot (z) ∝ |Ψtot (z, t) |2 = |Ψ1 (z, t) |2 + |Ψ2 (z, t) |2 + 2Re Ψ∗1 (z, t) Ψ2 (z, t) .
✭✸✳✷✼✮
❆sí✱ Itot (z) ❡①❤✐❜❡ ❝❧❛r♦s ♠á①✐♠♦s ② ♠í♥✐♠♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s
❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛s ② ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❞❡❜✐❞❛s ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✳

❙✐ L ≫ D ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞❡r t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤✐❝✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✶✳✻✳✸ ②

❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛rí❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉②❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛♥❞♦ ❢r❛♥❥❛s ♠✉② ♥ít✐❞❛s
❝✉②♦s ❝❡♥tr♦s ❡stá♥ s❡♣❛r❛❞♦s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ∆ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

λL hL
∆= = . ✭✸✳✷✽✮
D p0 D
❆q✉í h = 2π~ ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦✱ λ = 2π/k ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❉❡
❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s ② p0 ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s✳

➓ ✸✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣ t❛♣❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s

r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♦tr❛✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ y>0 s❡rá ❛sí
(
Ψ1 (r, t) s✐ t❛♣❛♠♦s ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r
Ψ (r, t) =
Ψ2 (r, t) s✐ t❛♣❛♠♦s ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s✉♣❡r✐♦r

|Ψ1 (z, t) |2
P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ s❡rá ❜✐❡♥
2
♦ ❜✐❡♥ |Ψ2 (z, t) | ✳ ❙✐ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛♠♦s ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s✱ t❛♣❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♠✐t❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❡❝❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

Z Pantalla
r – r' 2yλ/b

I (unid. arb.)
r z
Y
z'

y
b

X z (unid. arb.)

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✺✳ ❉✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛r❣❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ✜♥✐t❛ b✳
❊❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ré❣✐♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❋r❛✉♥❤♦❢❡r
y ≫ kb2

✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ② ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ♠✐t❛❞ ❧❛ ♦tr❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇ ❡s

♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ✿
Itot (z) ∝ |Ψ1 (z, t) |2 + |Ψ2 (z, t) |2 ✭✸✳✷✾✮

q✉❡ s❡rí❛ ❧♦ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦✳ ◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❡❧

❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ t❛♥
❞r❛♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❛❜✐❡rt❛s ②❛ q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ♥♦
❤❛② ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊st✉❞✐❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ✜♥✐t❛ b

♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ λ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✳ ❆ t❛❧ ✜♥✱ ❞✐✈✐❞❛♠♦s
❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡♥ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s s✉❜r❡♥❞✐❥❛s
′
❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ dz t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♠✉❡str❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳
✸✲✺✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ✭✸✳✷✻✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ s✉❜r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❡s

′
ei(ks −ωt) ′
dΨ(r, t) = C √ dz si ℓ ≫ y ≫ λ
ks′
❞♦♥❞❡
p p
ks′ = k y 2 + (z ′ − z)2 = k r2 − 2zz ′ + (z ′ )2 con z ′ ∈ [−b/2, +b/2]

s✐❡♥❞♦ r = (y 2 + z 2 )1/2 ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❛❧ ❡❥❡ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳ P❛r❛ ♣✉♥t♦s ♠✉②

❛❧❡❥❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ✭y ≫ b✮✱ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ (z ′ )2 − 2zz ′ s❡rá s✐❡♠♣r❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❡♥
❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ y✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛sí ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❧❛ r❛í③ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦
q✉❡
kzz ′ k(z ′ )2
ks′ ≃ kr − +
r 2r
 ✸✳✺✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆❙

② ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ |z ′ | t♦♠❛ ❛ ❧♦ s✉♠♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r b/2✱ ② r ❡s ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ y ✱ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s
❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ tér♠✐♥♦ s✐

kb2 b2
∼ ≪ 1. ✭✸✳✸✵✮
8y λy
❊st❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ré❣✐♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❋r❛✉♥❤♦❢❡r ❡♥ ó♣t✐❝❛✳
❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ −kzz ′ /r ♣❡r♦ s♦❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦r ❞❡
dΨ(r, t)❀ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❞❡❧ ♥✉♠❡r❛❞♦r ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡ s❡r ♠ás ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦s♦s ②
♣r❡s❡r✈❛r❧♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s
♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ s✉❜r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦ ❡❧❧♦

ei(kr−ωt) −ikzz ′ /r ′
dΨ(r, t) ≃ C √ e dz .
kr
▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r t♦❞❛ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s❡rá

Z +b/2 Z +b/2
ei(kr−ωt) ′
Ψ(r, t) = dΨ(r, t) ≃ C √ e−ikzz /r dz ′ .
−b/2 kr −b/2

▲❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛✱ ❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

sin u
sinc u =
u
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
 
bei(kr−ωt) kbz
Ψ(r, t) ≃ C √ sinc . ✭✸✳✸✶✮
kr 2r
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ y ❞❡ ❧❛
r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s❡rá ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ |Ψ(r, t)|2 ✿
    p
1 kbz 1 πbz
I(r) ∝ sinc2 = sinc2 con r = y2 + z2. ✭✸✳✸✷✮
r 2r r λr

P♦❞❡♠♦s s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❡st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ sinc u s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ♣❛r❛
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❡♥t❡r♦s ❞❡ πu = 0 ❞♦♥❞❡ t♦♠❛
✭❡①❝❡♣t♦ ♣❛r❛
❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✶✮ ② só❧♦ t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [−π, π]✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❧❛
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛rá ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢r❛♥❥❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ 2λr/b✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ b ≫ λ✱ ❡st❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ r ②

♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛r s✐♥ ♠❛②♦r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ r ♣♦r y ❡♥ ✭✸✳✸✷✮✳ ❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱


   ℓ≫y≫λ
1 πbz
I(r) ∝ sinc2 si ✭✸✳✸✸✮
y λy 
y ≫ b2 /λ ≫ b

q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✺✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡

❛♣r❡❝✐❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢r❛♥❥❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ∆imp ≃ 2yλ/b ❡stá r♦❞❡❛❞❛
❞❡ ♦tr❛s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r✳

• ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ❡stá ❡♥

✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s

pin ≃ p0 uy ; con p0 = h/λ.

◆❛❞❛ ♠ás ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ zout ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (−b/2, +b/2)❀ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ zout ∈ (−b/2, +b/2) ②
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡❞❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✿ ❛q✉❡❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✐
♠✐❞✐és❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ❥✉st❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (−b/2, +b/2)✳
❙✐ ❡s❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✱ ❡s♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❛❧ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ s❡ ❤❛ ❞❡s✈✐❛❞♦ ✉♥ á♥❣✉❧♦
α ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
z z
sin α = p ≃
z2 + y2 y
②❛ q✉❡ só❧♦ s❡ ❝♦♥t❛❜✐❧✐③❛♥ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ♣❛r❛ |z| ≪ y ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡st❛♠♦s s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡s

p0 z
pout ≃ (p0 cos α)uy + (p0 sin α)uz ≃ p0 uy + uz
y

♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥ s✐ |z| ≤ ∆imp /2 ≃ yλ/b

♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥❢❡r✐r q✉❡

   
p0 λ p0 λ h h
pout ≃ p0 uy + pz uz con pz ∈ − ,+ = − ,+ .
b b b b

❉❡ ❡st❡ ♠♦❞♦✱ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❡♥ ❡❧ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❛rí❛ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ (−h/b, +h/b)✳
 ✸✳✺✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆❙

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❛sí ♣r❡♣❛r❛❞♦✱ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦

❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ z ✭❛ ❧❛ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✮ ❡s ❡♥ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ✵ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆z ∼ b/2✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ pz ❞❛rí❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥
❝❡r♦ ❡♥ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆px ∼ h/b✳ ❆♠❜❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s
♥♦ s♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✱ ②❛ q✉❡

h
∆z ∆pz ∼ .
2

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✿ s✐ ❞❡s❡❛♠♦s ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r

✶✼
❞❡ s✉ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ ❡①❤✐❜❡ ✉♥
✈❛❧♦r ♠✉② ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✭② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✮✳

❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❧♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡♥

❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❝✱ ❡st❡ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ✐❧✉str❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐t❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳ ▲❛ ✏✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✑ ♦ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡
s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦r
❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♠í♥✐♠♦✱ ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦✳

➓ ✺✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛ ✉♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ r❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡❜❡r❡♠♦s t❡♥❡r

❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ t❛♥t♦ ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s
❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❝♦rr❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❜✐❞❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳
❊st❡ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞♦ ❡s ❡❧ q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✸✳❞✳ ✭✯✮ ❊❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❩❡✐❧✐♥❣❡r

❊♥ ✉♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❆♥t♦♥ ❩❡✐❧✐♥❣❡r ② ❝♦❧❛❜♦r❛❞♦r❡s ❬❘❡✈✳ ▼♦❞✳ P❤②s✳ ✻✵✱ ✶✵✻✼ ✭✶✾✽✽✮❪
s❡ ❤✐❝✐❡r♦♥ ✐♥❝✐❞✐r ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s ❢rí♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ λ = 18,5 ➴ s♦❜r❡
✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✻✮✳ ▲❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛
b = 22 µm ② s✉s ❝❡♥tr♦s ❡stá♥ s❡♣❛r❛❞♦s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ D = 128 µm✳ ▲❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❞❡
♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❡stá s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ y=5 ♠✳

❛✮ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s❄ ➽❆ q✉é t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ s❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛r♦♥❄

❜✮ ❙✐ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✱ ➽❝✉á❧ s❡rá ❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❝❡♥tr♦s
❞❡ ❧❛s ❢r❛♥❥❛s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛rí❛♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇❄ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❡❧
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✳

❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

✶✼
❊st♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ b ❡s ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✻✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❩❡✐❧✐♥❣❡r ❡t ❛❧✳ ❆
❧❛ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❡❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♠á①✐♠♦s ❡s ❞❡ ✵✳✵✼
♠♠ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡

❛✮ ▲❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s s❡rá

p h 6,63 × 10−34
v= = = ≃ 215 m/s
mn λmn 18,5 × 10−10 · 1,67 × 10−27
▲❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st✐♠❛r ✐❣✉❛❧❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ tér♠✐❝❛
❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❡q✉✐♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥ (3/2)kB T ❝♦♥ p2 /(2mn )✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡
 2
p2 h2 hc 1
T = = 2 = ≃ 1,75 K
3kB mn 3λ kB mn λ 3mn c2 kB
✭❞❡ ❛❤í ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s ❢rí♦s✮✳
❜✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✭✸✳✷✽✮

λy 1,85 × 10−9 · 5
∆0 = = m ≃ 0,072 mm
D 128 × 10−6
q✉❡ ❡stá ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧ ✭✈❡❛ ❡❧ ♣✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✻✮✳

❝✮ ❈♦♠♦ b2 /λ = 0,26 m✱ ✈❛❧♦r s✉st❛♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ y = 5 m, ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✉s❛r

✭✸✳✸✶✮ ♣❛r❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✐♥ ♦❧✈✐❞❛r q✉❡ ❡stá♥
❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛s ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ ❖❳✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡stá ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡
t❛♠❛ñ♦ ♠✐❧✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ z = 0 ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r r ≃ y ❡♥ ✭✸✳✸✶✮ ❡①❝❡♣t♦✱
♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✳ P♦r ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❡s
" #
D D
kb(z − 2) kb(z + 2)
Ψ(r, t) ≃ Ce−iωt eikr1 sinc + eikr2 sinc
2y 2y

s✐❡♥❞♦ C ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✳ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ r1 ② r2 s♦♥

s  2 s  2
D p D p
r1 = y2 + z − ≃ y 2 − Dz ; r2 = y2 + z+ ≃ y 2 + Dz,
2 2
 ✸✳✺✳ ❉■❋❘❆❈❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✼✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ t❡ór✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❞
✭❧í♥❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✮ ② ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❩❡✐❧✐♥❣❡r ✭❧í♥❡❛ ❝♦♥ ♣✉♥t♦s✮

❝✉♠♣❧✐é♥❞♦s❡ q✉❡ r2 − r1 ≃ Dz/y ✳ ▲❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐♥❝ ❡s z0 = 2yλ/b ≃

0,84 mm✱ ❡st❛♥❞♦ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ z = 0 ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ D/2 = 0,063 mm✳ ◆♦ ❡s
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❧❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ±D/2 ❡♥ s✉s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s✱ ♣♦r
❧♦ q✉❡  

kbz
Ψ(r, t) ≃ Ce−iωt eikr1 + eikr2 sinc .
2y
❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s❡rá
     
2πz k(r2 − r1 ) kbz
I(z) ∝ |Ψ(r, t)|2 ∝ |eikr1 + eikr2 |2 sinc2 = 4 cos2 sinc2
z0 2 2y

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ r2 − r1 ≃ Dz/y ② k = 2π/λ q✉❡❞❛

       
πDz 2 πbz πz 2 2πz
I(z) ∝ cos2 sinc = cos 2
sinc
λy λy ∆0 z0

❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛

❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡ ♣❡r♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐♥❝ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦✱ ❡s
❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ✜♥✐t❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✸✲✼ ❤❛②
✉♥ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❜✉❡♥♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ t❡ór✐❝♦ ② ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡♥
❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s✱ t❛♥t♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛s✱ s♦♥ ♠❡♥♦s ✐♥t❡♥s❛s
❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❧❛s ❢r❛♥❥❛s ❡①t❡r✐♦r❡s ❛♣❡♥❛s ❡stá♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✳
❊st❛s ❞✐s❝r❡♣❛♥❝✐❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛rs❡ s✐ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♠♦s q✉❡✿ ✭✐✮ ♥♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t♦r❛❀ ✭✐✐✮ ♥♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s t✐❡♥❡♥
✐❣✉❛❧ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s✱ ❝❛❞❛
✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣❡r♦ ❝✉②♦ ✈❛❧♦r s❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❞✐str✐❜✉②❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❛❧❡❛t♦r✐❛ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ p0 = mn v0 uy ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ v0 = 215 m/s✳

❊✈✐❞❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ✏❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✑✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧♦s
♥❡✉tr♦♥❡s ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ r❡♣♦s✐t♦r✐♦ ❛ ✉❧tr❛❜❛❥❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✉s ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡s
t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ s❡ ❝♦❧✐♠❛♥
❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♣❛r❛ r❡❞✉❝✐r❧❛ ❛❧ ♠á①✐♠♦✱ ❡st❛ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s té❝♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡
❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r❧❛ ❞❡❧ t♦❞♦✳ ❆sí✱ s✐Ip (z) ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛
❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ p✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞
t♦t❛❧ s❡rá ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s Ip (z) ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ p ❞✐str✐❜✉✐❞♦s ❡♥
t♦r♥♦ ❛ p0 ✳ P♦r ❧♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ p ② p0 ✈❛♥ ❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛r ♠ás ❛❧ tér♠✐♥♦
cos2 [πDz/(λy)] q✉❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞♦r❛ sinc2 [kbz/(2y)]✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r q✉❡ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ♥♦ s❡ ✈❡ ❛❢❡❝t❛❞❛ ② ❤❛❝❡r ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s
❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣✳

❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❞❡s✈✐❛❝✐ó♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ❝❡♥tr♦
❞❡❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛ ✭♣♦❞rá ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦
✸✳✺✮✳ ❆❧ s✉♠❛r ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❝✉②♦s ♣❡r✜❧❡s s♦♥ ♠✉② s✐♠✐❧❛r❡s ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛s
❡♥tr❡ sí ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛t❡♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠á①✐♠♦s ② ♠í♥✐♠♦s r❡❧❛t✐✈♦s✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧
❡❢❡❝t♦ ♠ás ♥♦t♦r✐♦ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦ ❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛r ❧❛ ♣r❡❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ t❡ór✐❝❛ ② ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✳

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ✈❛r✐❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ |p| ❛♣❡♥❛s ❛❢❡❝t❛♥ ❛❧ ♣❛tró♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ z = 0✱ ♣❡r♦ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❛❧❡❥❛♠♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s s♦♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❛❧ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ s♦❜r❡ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❧❛s ❢r❛♥❥❛s ❝❡♥tr❛❧❡s
❛♣❡♥❛s ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛s ❡①t❡r✐♦r❡s s❡ ❞✐❢✉♠✐♥❛♥✱ ❡❢❡❝t♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ q✉❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛
❋■●✳ ✸✲✼✳

3.6✳ ❊▲ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ❉❊ ❍❊■❙❊◆❇❊❘●

➓ ✶✳ ❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ q✉❡ ❡s❜♦③❛♠♦s

❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✶✱ ② ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡stá♥
í♥t✐♠❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳ ❙✐ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥
❡❧ q✉❡✱ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
s❡❛♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s✱ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r ❣❛r❛♥tí❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❛♠♦s
♣r❡❞❡❝✐r ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛✳

❊st❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✈❡rs❡ s✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❛❧ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✳ ❊❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s q✉❡ ❤✐❝✐♠♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s
♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛
♥♦s ❧❧❡✈ó ❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ❡r❛ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ z ② pz ❡st✉✈✐❡s❡♥ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✳ ❊st❡ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ s❡ ❤❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦
❡♥ ❧♦s ❧❛❜♦r❛t♦r✐♦s r❡♣❡t✐❞❛s ✈❡❝❡s ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❤❛② ♦tr♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥
 ✸✳✻✳ ❊▲ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ❉❊ ❍❊■❙❊◆❇❊❘●

❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈✐st♦s ❤❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❛ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛
❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✿♥♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡♥
❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡sté♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✳
➓ ✷✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❛r ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♠ás ❝✉❛♥t✐t❛t✐✈♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❝ ✈✐♠♦s q✉❡
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❧♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧í❛ q✉❡

1
∆x∆px = √ ~.
2
❙✐ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ✉s❛r ✉♥❛ ❧♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♠♦s ✉♥❛
❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❡ ✈❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡
x ② px t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❧✐❣❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r✿

1
∆x∆px = ~.
2
❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦t❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❡str✐❝t❛ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✉♣✉❡st♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ ✐♥✜❡r❛♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
✶✽
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r, t) ② ❧❛s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r Ψ̃(p, t)✳ ❊st❛
❛❝♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ x ② px ✭② ❞❡ (y, py ) ② (z, pz )✮
r❡✢❡❥❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❝✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈❛✿ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ✭♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✮ ❡stá ♠✉②
❡①t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ✭♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ♦ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✮✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡

♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s✿

eikx x eiky y eikz z

Ψ(r) = A ,
(x/ax )2 + 1 (y/ay )2 + 1 (z/az )2 + 1

❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳ Ψ(r) ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ tr❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛sí ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r
❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
s❡♣❛r❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❝✿

∆x = ax ∆y = ay ∆z = az
~ ~ ~
∆px = √ ∆px = √ ∆px = √ .
2ax 2ay 2az

✶✽
▲❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ té❝♥✐❝❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ s✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❧❛ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

◆♦ ❤❛② ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛

❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞✐st✐♥t❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ ax ∼ 0 ② ay ≫ 0 ∆x∆py ∼ 0✳ ❍❛② ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡st❛❞♦s
s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ x ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ y ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡st❛r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ② ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✳

➓ ✸✳ ❚r❛s ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ②❛ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛r ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡

✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ✿

❊s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡

✉♥❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡sté♥
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❛ ✈♦❧✉♥t❛❞✳
❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s ❡stá ❛❝♦t❛❞♦
✐♥❢❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✿

~ ~ ~
∆x∆px ≥ ; ∆y∆py ≥ ; ∆z∆pz ≥ .
2 2 2
❚❛❧❡s r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥ ♥✐ ❛ ❞♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ♥✐ ❛ ❞♦s
❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✱ ♥✐ ❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳

❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s r❛③♦♥❛❞♦✱ ♣✉❞✐❡r❛ ♣❛r❡❝❡r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡

❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✳ ❊♥ r✐❣♦r ❡s ❛❧
r❡✈és✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❛✜r♠❛ q✉❡ |Ψ̃(p, t)|2 ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ❧❛
✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ②✱ ❝♦♠♦ r❡❝♦r❞❛rá✱ s✉♣✉s✐♠♦s
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ♦❝✉rr✐r ❝♦♥ |Ψ(r, t)|2 ♣❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡st❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s ♦❜❧✐❣❛❞❛ ❛❧ s❡r ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ q✉❡
❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ ❡❧ ❝✉♠♣❧✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳ ◗✉❡ ❧❛s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡sté♥ ❧✐❣❛❞❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s ❞❡
❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s ❧❛ ✏tr❛❞✉❝❝✐ó♥✑ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊♥ ❧❛s s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✸✳✶ ② ✸✳✺ ✈✐♠♦s q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✜❧tr❛♥t❡✱ ❝✉②♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ s❛❜❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✜♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❙❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❛sí q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♠❡❞✐r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ② ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❧❛
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✳ ❙✐ ❡st♦ ❢✉❡r❛ ❢❛❝t✐❜❧❡
♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞✐s❡ñ❛r ✉♥ ♠ét♦❞♦ ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛s❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ∆r ② ∆p ❢✉❡s❡♥ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③ t❛♥ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❞❡s❡❡✳
 ✸✳✻✳ ❊▲ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ❉❊ ❍❊■❙❊◆❇❊❘●

➓ ✺✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣í❛ ❛❝✉ñ❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞é❝❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛ñ♦s ✈❡✐♥t❡ ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦
♣❛s❛❞♦ ♣♦r ◆✐❡❧s ❇♦❤r s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛r❡❥❛s {x, px }, {y, py }, {z, pz }
s♦♥ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐❛s✱ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧❡s ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ♣❛r❛
❧❛s q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡sté♥
✶✾
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✳

▲❛ ❝é❧❡❜r❡ ❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♦♥❞❛✲❝♦r♣ús❝✉❧♦ ❞❡❜❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❧✉③ ❞❡ ❧❛

❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐❡❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳ ▲❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥
❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ s❡rá ❜ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r
s✐ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r) ❡stá ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ P♦r
❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r p0 ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
s❡rá ♠✉② ♣❛r❡❝✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ exp(ip0 ·r/~)✳ ❊st❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡st❛rá ♠✉② ❡①t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ② ❧❛s ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥
❧❛s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡①❤✐❜✐rá♥ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s tí♣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛s✱ t❛❧❡s
❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❢r❛♥❥❛s ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣✳

❖tr❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❡st❛ ❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛

♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡①♣❧♦r❛♠♦s s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❝♦r♣✉s❝✉❧❛r❡s ♣❡r♦ s✐
♠❡❞✐♠♦s s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛s✳ ❆♠❜❛s ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♣❡r♦ ♥✉♥❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♠❛♥✐❢❡st❛rs❡
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❛s ② s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ❞❡ ❧❛
✷✵
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡stá♥ ✈❡t❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛✳

➓ ✻✳ ▲❛s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♣✐st❡♠♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ s♦♥ ❞❡

❣r❛♥ tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❆❞♠✐t❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❞❡
❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦s ♦✱ ♠❡❥♦r ❞✐❝❤♦✱ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s q✉❡
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡✳ ❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡

✶✾
◆✐❡❧s ❇♦❤r ✭✶✾✽✺✲✶✾✻✷✮✱ q✉✐❡♥ ②❛ ❤❛❜í❛ s✐❞♦ ❣❛❧❛r❞♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r❡♠✐♦ ◆♦❜❡❧ ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡♥ ✶✾✷✷
♣♦r s✉ ❢❛♠♦s♦ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❛tó♠✐❝♦✱ t✉✈♦ ✉♥ ♣❛♣❡❧ ♠❡♥♦r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡♥
❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❊r✇✐♥ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✱ ❲❡r♥❡r ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ▼❛① ❇♦r♥✱ P❛s❝✉❛❧ ❏♦r❞❛♥✱ ❲♦❧❢❛♥❣ P❛✉❧✐
♦ P✳❆✳▼✳ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ❡♥tr❡ ♦tr♦s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ s✉s ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝♦♠♦
✉♥ t♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❢✉❡r♦♥ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ s✉ ❧✐❞❡r❛③❣♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐✈✉❧❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♦tr♦s ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝♦s✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ♣✉❜❧✐❝ó ❡♥ ✶✾✷✼ s✉ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦
❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡r❛ ❛s✐st❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r ❡♥ ❈♦♣❡♥❤❛❣✉❡✱ ❧✉❣❛r q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐rt✐ó ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✏♥✉❡✈❛
❢ís✐❝❛✑✳ ❚❛♥t♦ ❡s ❛sí q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❈♦♣❡♥❤❛❣✉❡ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♠ú♥♠❡♥t❡ ❛❞♠✐t✐❞❛
❡♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ➱st❛ ❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ t❡①t♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣í❛ ❛❧❣♦
♠ás ❝♦♥t❡♠♣♦rá♥❡❛✳
✷✵
❊♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝❛s♦ ♥♦ ♦❧✈✐❞❡ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ✐♥str✉♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✏r❡♣♦s✐t♦r✐♦✑ ❞❡
✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✿ ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ s❡❛ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ♦ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥✱
t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❞✉❛❧✿ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛rá♥
❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❧í♠✐t❡✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❤❛❜rá ❛s♣❡❝t♦s q✉❡ s♦♥ ✐♥❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡s ❛ ❧❛

♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✳

●r❛♥❞❡s ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝♦s ❝♦♠♦ P❧❛♥❝❦✱ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ② ❊✐♥st❡✐♥

r❡❝❤❛③❛r♦♥ ❞❡ ♣❧❛♥♦ ❡st❛ ✐❞❡❛✳ ❊✐♥st❡✐♥ ❛s✉♠✐ó ❡❧ ❧✐❞❡r❛③❣♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡❢❡♥s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
✈✐s✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ② s✉s ❞❡❜❛t❡s ❝♦♥ ◆✐❡❧s ❇♦❤r ❛❧❝❛♥③❛r♦♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s
✐♥t❡❧❡❝t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ é♣✐❝❛s✳ ❊✐♥st❡✐♥ s❛❧✐ó ✏✈❡♥❝✐❞♦ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐❞♦✑ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❞❡
❡s♦s ❞❡❜❛t❡s r❡s✉❧tó ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♥♦ ❡r❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛
② s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡s♦ ♥♦ ❝❡rr❛❜❛ ❧❛ ♣✉❡rt❛ ❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❛s q✉❡
♣✉❞✐❡r❛♥ ❞❡s✈❡❧❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦❝✉❧t❛s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐rí❛♥ s✐♥ ❛♠❜✐❣ü❡❞❛❞
❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ s✉ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
♣♦st❡r✐♦r✳ ❉é❝❛❞❛s ❞❡s♣✉és✱ ❣r❛❝✐❛s ❛ ❧♦s tr❛❜❛❥♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❏♦❤♥ ❙✳ ❇❡❧❧ ② ❛
❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦s ♣✐♦♥❡r♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❞❡ ❆❧❛✐♥ ❆s♣❡❝t✱ s❡ ♣✉❞♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ t❛❧❡s
♠❡❞✐❞❛s ✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❛s t❛♠♣♦❝♦ ❡r❛♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✸✳❡✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t✱ q✉❡ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ♦♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡❧
❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s✐♥ ❡s♣í♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛
 
eik0 x (x − x0 )2
Φ(x) = exp − .
(πa2 )1/4 2a2

❞♦♥❞❡ x0 ✱ k0 ② a s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ a > 0✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φ(x) ❡s ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡
✭❡①❝❧✉✐❞❛ s✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✮ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦
x = x0 ✳

❛✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s Φ̃(px )✳
❝✮ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳
❞✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ∆x∆px ② ❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ s❡ s❛t✉r❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡
❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳
Z Z √ Z
2 √ 2 π 1 2 2
❆②✉❞❛s✿ e−u du = π❀ u2 e−u du = ❀ √ e−u /2 −iκu
e du = e−κ /2
R R 2 2π R

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❊❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ ❛❧ ❡♠♣❧❡❛❞♦

❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❝✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♦♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ♠✉❝❤♦s ♣❛s♦s ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐♦s✳ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s

1 2 2
ρ(x) = √ e−(x−x0 ) /a
πa
 ✸✳✻✳ ❊▲ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ❉❊ ❍❊■❙❊◆❇❊❘●

q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞✐str✐❜✉✐❞❛ s✐♠étr✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ x0 ✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦

hxi = x0
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

∆x = [hx2 i − hxi2 ]1/2 = [hx2 i − 2x0 hxi + 2x0 hxi − hxi2 ]1/2
② ②❛ q✉❡ hxi = x0 ✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

∆x = [hx2 i − 2x0 hxi + x20 ]1/2 = h(x − x0 )2 i1/2 .

❍❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → u = (x − x0 )/a ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡
Z 1/2  Z +∞ 1/2
1 2 a
∆x = (x − x0 )2 ρ(x)dx = ··· = a √ u2 e−u du =√ .
R π −∞ 2
▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛sí ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
 
1 (x − hxi)2
ρ(x) = √ exp − , ✭✸✳✸✹✮
2π(∆x) 2(∆x)2
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❜✐❡♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧✳

❜✮ ❍❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → u = (x − x0 )/a

Z  ik0 x  
1 e (x − x0 )2
Φ̃(px ) = √ exp − e−ipx x/~ dx = ...
2π~ R (πa2 )1/4 2a2
Z
(a2 /π)1/4 e−i(px −~k0 )x0 /~ 2
... = √ e−u /2 e−ia(px −~k0 )u/~ du
2π~ R
② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛ ② ♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦
 2 
e−i(px −~k0 )x0 /~ a (px − ~k0 )2
Φ̃(px ) = exp −
(π~2 /a2 )1/4 2~2
✭♦tr❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛✮✳

❝✮ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡s

   
1 (px − ~k0 )2 1 (px − ~k0 )2
ρmom (px ) = √ exp − =√ √ exp − √ .
π~/a (~/a)2 2π[~/( 2a)] 2[~/( 2a)]2
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛ ❡s ♦tr❛ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛✳ ❆sí✱
s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✸✳✸✹✮

~
hpx i = ~k0 ; ∆px = √ .
2a
❞✮ ❉✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡✱
1
∆x∆px = ~,
2
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡ s❡ s❛t✉r❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✶✳ ❖♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛
❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ M0 s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
p✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ p ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ λ = h/|p| ② ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ω = c2 |k|2 + ω 20 − ω 0 ❝♦♥ ω 0 = M0 c2 /~✱ ❡♥tr❡ s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
ω k = E/~ ② ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k = p/~✳
▼✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ω = ~|k|2 /(2M )✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
✭✸✳✼✮✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✷✳ ❊❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ❣❛s❡♦s❛ ❞❡ N ≫ 0 ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡♥
❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ r❡❝✐♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ V ✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❣❛s ❡stá ❛ t❡♠♣❡r❛t✉r❛ T ❧❛s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡♥ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
tér♠✐❝❛ kB T ✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s♦♥ ✐♥❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡s s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡
h3 V
∆deg (T ) ≪ 1, donde ∆deg (T ) =
(2M kB T )3/2 N
❡s ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❣❛s✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✸✳ ❖♥❞❛s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛s

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥
❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
Ψ(r) = Φ(r) exp(ik0 · r)

❞♦♥❞❡ Φ(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s
hpi ≡ hpx iux + hpy iuy + hpz iuz = ~k0

② q✉❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ p ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡

❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φ(r)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✹✳ ✭✯✮ ▲❛ r❡❞ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥

❯♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p = p0 uy ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛
❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ❞✐s♣✉❡st❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XZ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❤❛② 2N + 1 r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ♠✉② ❡str❡❝❤❛s ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛s
❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ OY ② s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ d✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡
❡s ❧♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❛♥❝❤♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❛❞♠✐t✐r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❛tr❛✈✐❡s❛
❝❛❞❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡s ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✳ ❆ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ yB ≫ N d s✐t✉❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇✱ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❛ ❛
❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆✱ q✉❡ r❡❝♦❣❡ ❧♦s ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❤❛②❛♥ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛❞♦
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✲✽✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♥♦ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥
♥♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t♦r❛ ✭ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✸✳✺ ✮

❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s♦❜r❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ N ≫ 1✳
❉✐s❝✉t❛ ❡♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❧♦s ❝❛s♦s✿
✭✐✮ λ ≪ b✱
✭✐✐✮ λ ∼ b✱
✐✐✐✮ λ ≫ b✱
❞♦♥❞❡ λ ❡s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✳

2N
X ei(2N +1)β − 1 sin[(N + 12 )β] iN β
❆②✉❞❛✿ einβ = = e .
n=0
eiβ − 1 sin( 21 β)

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✺✳ ✭✯✮ ■♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s

❯♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ pin ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛
❆ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ♠✉② ❡str❡❝❤❛s s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ D✳ ▲❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♥♦
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐♥♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❞❡s✈✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ á♥❣✉❧♦ α r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥
♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆ ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■● ✸✲✽✮✳
✭❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❇ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❛
✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ yB ≫ D ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧á♠✐♥❛ ❆✳
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ❤❛♥ s✐❞♦ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❞❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ hpi = p0 uy ✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♥♦ ❡stá
♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳ P❛r❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡s
❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r

 Ψ̃0 si py = p0 , px = 0, pz ∈ [−p0 sin α, +p0 sin α]
Ψ̃in (p)e−iωt con Ψ̃in (p) =

0 en el resto de los casos

s✐❡♥❞♦ Ψ̃0 ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ ω = p20 /(2m~) ② α = 0,2 rad ≃ 11,5o ✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❖◆❉❆❙ ❉❊ ▼❆❚❊❘■❆✳ P❘■◆❈■P■❖ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊

✭❜✮❪ ❉✐s❝✉t❛ ❧❛ ❜♦♥❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥✳ ➽❈✉á❧ s❡rá ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛

♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❇❄
✭❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s s✐ ❡❧ ❤❛③ ❡st✉✈✐❡s❡ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛
✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ pin = p0 uy +pz u✱
❡st❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ pz ❞✐str✐❜✉✐❞♦ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [−p0 sin α, +p0 sin α]✳
❈♦♠♣❛r❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
❆②✉❞❛✿ ❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ α ❡s ❧♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡
s❡❛♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛s ❧❛s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s cos α = 1❀ sin α = α❀ sin2 α ≃ 0✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✻✳ ▲❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛
❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r
kΨ + Φk ≤ kΨk + kΦk ✭✸✳✸✺✮
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
ϑ(r) = αΨ(r) + βΦ(r) con α, β ∈ C
❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✼✳ ✭✦✦✮ ❉✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛❣r❡❣❛❞♦s

❙❡ ❤❛♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ♣❛r❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s t❛♥ ❣r❛♥❞❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s
❢✉❧❧❡r❡♥♦s C60 ✱ ❛❣r❡❣❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✻✵ át♦♠♦s ❞❡ ❝❛r❜♦♥♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❞✐á♠❡tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✶ ♥♠✳
❊♥ ✉♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❣r✉♣♦ ❞❡ ❩❡✐❧✐♥❣❡r s❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③ó ❧❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③
❞❡ ❢✉❧❧❡r❡♥♦s C60 ❝♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✷✷✵ ♠✴s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s ❞❡
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ✺✵ ♥♠ ② ❝✉②♦s ❝❡♥tr♦s ❡stá♥ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✶✺✵ ♥♠✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❡③ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞♦✱ ❧❛s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❛ ✶✳✷✺ ♠ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✳ ✷✶

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ λf ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✉❧❧❡r❡♥♦ ② ❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡

♠á①✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s r❡❝♦❣✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✳
❜✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❤❛❜rá ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛❞♦✱ λf ❡s s✉st❛♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❡❧ t❛♠❛ñ♦ ❞❡❧ ❢✉❧❧❡r❡♥♦
❧♦ q✉❡ s✉❣✐❡r❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞♦s ❞❡ s✉ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛ ✭❡♥
♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❧❛ ✈✐❜r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú❝❧❡♦s ❞❡ ❝❛r❜♦♥♦ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ s✉s ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛ ❧❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✵✳✶ ❡❱✮✳ ❊♥
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦✱ s✉ ❞❡t❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♠✐t✐rí❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❢♦❝♦ ❞❡ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ②✱ ♣♦r
t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛ ♣❛s❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❢✉❧❧❡r❡♥♦✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤♦s
❢♦t♦♥❡s s❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ♥♦ s❡ ✈❡ ❛❢❡❝t❛❞❛✳
❊①♣❧✐q✉❡ ♣♦r q✉é✳
❆②✉❞❛✿ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❢♦t♦♥❡s✳

✷✶
❊♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③ó ✉♥❛ r❡❞ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❛ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❡s

r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✸✳✽✳ ✭✦✦✮ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❡r♦

❯♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ♠ás ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳
■♠❛❣✐♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛
❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [−L/2, L/2]✳ ❈❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♠í♥✐♠❛ s♦♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛
❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ [−L/2, L/2]✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡
❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ❡st✐♠❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠í♥✐♠❛ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❡st♦
❡s✱ ❡❧ ♠❡♥♦r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♣r✉❡❜❡ ♣r❡✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡
q✉❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡
❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ∆x ≤ L/2 ② q✉❡ (∆px )2 ≤ hp2x i✳ ❆ ❡st❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠í♥✐♠❛ s❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❡r♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳
 ❙❊●❯◆❉❆ P❆❘❚❊
▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❖♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛
 ❚❡♠❛ ✹
❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✳ ❊❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦
❡s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❛❜str❛❝t❛✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
♦♥❞❛✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② q✉❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ r♦❜✉st❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

■♥✐❝✐❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛r
❧❛ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✳ ❆❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❢♦r♠❛ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳
❊❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❡s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛s✱ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❊st❛s ❜❛s❡s✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛s
❣❡♥ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ s♦♥ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✳

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt

❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❡①♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞❡ s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✱ s❡ñ❛❧❛♥❞♦
s♦♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉á❧ s❡rá s✉ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢✉t✉r♦✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ tr❛t❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❛ ♣❛rt✐r

❞❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦s✳ ❊st❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣❛r❛ tr❛t❛r ❝♦♥ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡s ❡♥
✈❛r✐♦s s✉❜s✐st❡♠❛s✳ ❆♣r♦✈❡❝❤❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡❧
❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳

❉❡❜❡rí❛♠♦s ✉s❛r r✐❣✉r♦s❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡

❍✐❧❜❡rt✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ s✉ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞ ✏s✉❛✈✐③❛r❡♠♦s✑ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s
q✉❡ s❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❞❡ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇ ✱ ❝✉②❛ ❧❡❝t✉r❛ ❡s ♦♣t❛t✐✈❛
♣❡r♦ r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛❜❧❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❯♥❛s ✶✺ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ s♦♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛s ♣❛r❛ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳ ❍❛② ♠ás
❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s q✉❡ ❢ís✐❝♦s✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧♦s s❡❣✉♥❞♦s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❞❡s❞❡ñ❛❜❧❡s✿ ❧❛
s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡s❝r✐t❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❡❧ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦
s♦♥ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❝❛♣✐t❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❊❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♥♦ s❡rá s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦✿
❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ② ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ❝♦♥
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r s❡rá♥ ❡❧ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♠♦✈❡r❡♠♦s✳ ❆ú♥ ❛sí✱
❜❛st❛♥t❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s s♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐❞❡❛s ②❛ ❛♣r❡♥❞✐❞❛s
❡♥ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛s ❞❡ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❙❛❜❡r ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛r ❧❛ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦

❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡ s✉s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

❘❡❝♦r❞❛r ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛t✐✈❛s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳

❋❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥

❡❧ ♠❛r❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✿ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

■❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r ❧❛s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ② ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛

❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡

❍✐❧❜❡rt✳

❘❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝♦♥t❛❝t♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❜str❛❝t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✳

❊♥t❡♥❞❡r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ② s✉ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧

❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳
 ✹✳✶✳ ❙■▼■▲■❚❯❉ ❨ P❘❖❉❯❈❚❖ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

4.1✳ ❙■▼■▲■❚❯❉ ❨ P❘❖❉❯❈❚❖ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ t❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢❛s❡s (r(t), p(t))
q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ s✐♥ ❛♠❜✐❣ü❡❞❛❞ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❉♦s
♣✉♥t♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢❛s❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ②✱ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s ♦ s♦♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♦
s♦♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳

❊♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❧❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♦tr❛✳ ❙✐ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ②

Φ(r, t)✱ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ✭♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ s❡♥❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
❢ís✐❝♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧

Θ(r, t) = αΨ(r, t) + βΦ(r, t) con α, β ∈ C

t❛♠❜✐é♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❊st♦ ❡s ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡

s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ②✱ ♠ás ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r

kΨ(r, t) + Φ(r, t)k ≤ kΨ(r, t)k + kΦ(r, t)k ✭✹✳✶✮

✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✸✳✻✮ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ q✉❡ s✐ Ψ(r, t) ② Φ(r, t) s♦♥

❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Θ(r, t) ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳
❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r Θ(r, t) ❝♦♠♣❛rt❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❞❡
❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s Ψ(r, t) ② Φ(r, t)✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♣♦❞❛♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ Θ(r, t) ②
Ψ(r, t) ✭♦ q✉❡ Θ(r, t) ② Φ(r, t)✮ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛s❡❣✉r❛r
❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ q✉❡ s❡❛♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦s✳ ❊st❛ ❛♣❛r❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛r ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❊s ❛sí ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦
❞❡ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜q✉❡ ❤❛st❛ q✉é ♣✉♥t♦ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✱
♣❛r❡❝✐❞♦s ♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆ t❛❧ ✜♥ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦

Z
hΨ|Φi ≡ Ψ∗ (r) Φ (r) d3 r. ✭✹✳✷✮
R3

❊st❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ kΨk✱ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✸✳✶✽✮✱
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ♣✉❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

p
kΨk = hΨ|Ψi. ✭✹✳✸✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❆❞❡♠ás✱ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❞✐❝t❛ ❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✭✈❡❛
❧❛ ❚❆❇▲❆ ✹✲✶✮ ② ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ✜♥✐t♦
❣r❛❝✐❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③✳

❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛r hΨ|Φi ✉s❛♥❞♦

✐♥❞✐st✐♥t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ♦ s✉s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s
❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ✭r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✮✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦✱ s✐ Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥
s❡♥❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡❝✐rs❡✱
♣♦r ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥✱ q✉❡ ✭✹✳✷✮ ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✳

❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s

s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✱ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❞❡ t♦❞♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② t♦❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛✿

Producto escalar Norma

hΦ|Φi ∈ R+ kΦk ∈ R+

hΦ|Φi = 0 ⇔ Φ(r) = O(r) kΦk = 0 ⇔ Φ(r) = O(r)

hΦ|Ψi = hΨ|Φi∗

hΦ|aΨi = ahΦ|Ψi kaΦk = |a| kΦk

haΦ|Ψi = a∗ hΦ|Ψi

hΦ|Ψ + Γi = hΦ|Ψi + hΦ|Γi kΦ + Ψk ≤ kΦk + kΨk (des. triang.)

hΦ|Oi = hO|Φi = 0 para toda Φ(r) |hΨ|Φi| ≤ kΨk kΦk (des. Schwarz)

❞♦♥❞❡ O(r) = 0 ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❧❛ ② a ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ✭❡♥

r✐❣♦r✱ ❧❛s ❞♦s ú❧t✐♠❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡❞✉❝✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✮✳

◆♦t❛✿ P♦r ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛q✉í s❡ ❤❛ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❚❆❇▲❆ ✹✲✶ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛

➓ ✸✳ ❙❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ ② Φ s♦♥ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s

s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ λ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ Ψ(r) =
λΦ(r)✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ Ψ(r) ❡s❝❛❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r Φ(r) ② ♣♦r Ψ(r) ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ q✉❡

hΦ|Ψi = hΦ|λΦi = λhΦ|Φi ; hΨ|Ψi = hΨ|λΦi = λhΨ|Φi.

 ✹✳✶✳ ❙■▼■▲■❚❯❉ ❨ P❘❖❉❯❈❚❖ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘

❉✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❤♦r❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❡st❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡✿

hΦ|Ψi hΦ|Φi hΦ|ΨihΨ|Φi |hΨ|Φi|2

Ψ(r) = λΦ(r) ⇔ = ⇔ =1 ⇔ = 1,
hΨ|Ψi hΨ|Φi hΨ|ΨihΦ|Φi kΨk2 kΦk2

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ hΦ|Ψi = hΨ|Φi∗ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦
❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✷✮ ② ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✸✮ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛✳

❊st♦ s✉❣✐❡r❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ s❡♠❡❥❛♥③❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡

|hΨ|Φi|2
∆sem = ∈ [0, 1] ✭✹✳✹✮
kΨk2 kΦk2

✭∆sem ≤ 1 ❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③✮ ② ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ s❡rá♥

♠ás ✏♣❛r❡❝✐❞♦s✑ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠ás ♣ró①✐♠♦ ❡sté ∆sem ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳ ❉♦s ❡st❛❞♦s s❡rá♥
❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s s✐ ∆sem = 0✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ s✉s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s♦♥
♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ✭♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✮✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❡r
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♦tr♦ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ♣❡r♦ ést❡✱ ❜❛s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ✈❛ ❛ s❡r ❡❧ ♠ás
❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦ ❛ ♥✉❡str♦s ♣r♦♣ós✐t♦s t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ✐rá ✈✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣ró①✐♠♦s ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s✳

➓ ✹✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥

❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s Ψ(r)✳ P♦r ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✷✮ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱
Ψ(r) s❡rá ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Φ(r) q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡

Ψ∗ (r) Φ(r) = 0 para todo r ∈ R3

✭❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛✮✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) s♦♥
♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❞✐s❥✉♥t❛s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡
❡①t❡♥s✐❜❧❡ ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛s ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ t♦t❛❧ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❛s s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s✳

▲♦ ♠✐s♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ s✐ ❤❛❜❧❛♠♦s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ s✐ ♥♦ ❤❛② ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❞❡ p ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ Ψ̃(p) ② Φ̃(p) s♦♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s✱ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ p
❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❛rá ❝♦♥ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡✱
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱

Ψ̃∗ (p)Φ̃(p) = 0 para todo p ∈ R3

❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r hΨ|Φi s❡rá ❝❡r♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí ✉♥❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❙✐ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✭♦ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✮ ❡♥
❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❡s♦s ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳ ❊st❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ♣❧❛s♠❛
❡♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❛s ❡s ♥✉❧♦✳

P❡r♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♥✉❧♦
s✐♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s t❡♥❣❛♥ s♦♣♦rt❡s ❞✐s❥✉♥t♦s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞
❞❡ q✉❡ Ψ∗ (r)Φ(r) = 0 ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ r ✭♦ Ψ̃∗ (p)Φ̃(p) = 0 ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ p✮✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s✱
♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧

   
x2 x2
Ψ(x) = A exp − 2 ; Φ(x) = Bx exp − 2
2α 2α

✭A ② B s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ② α ❡s ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r r❡❛❧ ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✮✳ P✉❡st♦

q✉❡ Ψ(x) ❡s ♣❛r ② Φ(x) ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
Z +∞
hΨ|Φi = Ψ∗ (x)Φ(x)dx = 0,
−∞

②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❛r✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡s❝r✐t♦s ♣♦r ❡st❛s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) ♣✉❡❞❡♥
❞❛r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❤❛② ♦tr❛
✶
♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ✏❞✐st✐♥t✐✈❛✑ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥ ♠✐s♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r
❡♥ ❛♠❜♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✳

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞❛r ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞

❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❉♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ s❡♥❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛
♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ✳

4.2✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ▲❆❙ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

➓ ✶✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ s❡ ❝♦♠❡♥tó ❡♥ ❡❧ t❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ❡s ✉♥

♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳ ◆♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ♦❧✈✐❞❛r ❞❡ t
s✐ ♥♦ ❡st❛♠♦s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥

✶
❊s❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♣♦r q✉é s❡r ♥✐ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥✐ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ ✈❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡

♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ r❡❝✉♣❡r❛❞♦r❛✳
 ✹✳✷✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ▲❆❙ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s s✉♠❛ ② ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱

❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ R3 ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s
q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❛ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣❧❛s♠❛r ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛✿

✐✮ ▲❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦

✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✮ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥
❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✱ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ sí♠❜♦❧♦ L2 (R3 )✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ✉♥❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s ❊qs✳ ✭✹✳✷✮ ② ✭✹✳✸✮✳

✐✐✮ ❊❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ L2 (R3 ) t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ s✉ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛

❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❛
②❛ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡♥ é❧ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡
✷
❣r❛♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✳

✐✐✐✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❛❞♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ q✉❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✏♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❛✉s❡♥t❡✑ ♦ ❡❧ ✏❡st❛❞♦ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡✑✳

❊❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛✱ ❡♥ r✐❣♦r✱ ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦

✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ s✉♠❛♥❞♦s✳ ❆✉♥ ❛sí✱ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❛ s✉♠❛s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s q✉❡✱ ❞✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ✜♥✐t♦s✱ s♦♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ❛ s✉♠❛s ❞✐s❝r❡t❛s ❞❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s tér♠✐♥♦s q✉❡
❞❡❜❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿

∞
X m
X
Φ(r) = αn Ψn (r) = lı́m αn Ψn (r) ≡ lı́m Φm (r),
m→∞ m→∞
n=1 n=1

❞♦♥❞❡ αn ❡s ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ② Ψn (r) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ P✉❡❞❡

✸
♦❝✉rr✐r q✉❡ ❡st❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞✐✈❡r❥❛ ♣❡r♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡rí❛ ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡ ❡s q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤❛
s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣✐❡s❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❢✉❡s❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡s♣r❡♦❝✉♣❛❞❛ ❞❡ s✉♠❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t❛s ♦ s❡r✐❡s ♥♦ s❡rí❛ ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡ ✭② ②❛ ♥♦ ❞✐❣❛♠♦s ❧❛
❡✈❛❧✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉♠❛s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s✮✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡
s✉❝❡❞❡r ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✿ s✐ ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s Φn ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ést❛ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳
❋♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡st♦ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❝♦♠♦

si {Φn (r)} ⊂ L2 (R3 ) y lı́m kΦn − Φk = 0 ⇒ Φ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 ), ✭✹✳✺✮

n→∞

✷
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿ ❡s❝♦❥❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ t♦♠❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ ♦tr❛ ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❡r♦ tr❛s❧❛❞❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞✐s❥✉♥t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛✱ ② ❛sí
s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳
✸
❊st♦ ♥♦ s❡rí❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣r❡♦❝✉♣❛♥t❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧♦ ú♥✐❝♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❜rí❛ ♣❛s❛❞♦ ❡s q✉❡ ❤❛❜rí❛♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦
✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❝♦rr❡❝t❛ ❞❡ Φ(r)✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡❧ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛

♥♦r♠❛✱ kΨk = 0 ⇔ Ψ(r) =0✳
❊♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✺✮ ❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✱ ② ❛ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ②
❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r s❡ ❧❡s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛
❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ✳ ❙♦❜r❡ ❡st❛s ❡str✉❝t✉r❛s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛s s❡ ✈❛ ❛ ❝✐♠❡♥t❛r t♦❞♦

❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ q✉❡ ✉s❛rá ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ❞❡❧ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ▲✐♥❡❛❧ ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛s✱

❛✉♥q✉❡ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♠❛t✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❜✐❞❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ L2 (R3 )✳
❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡✿

• ❊♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❡st❛❞♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s
Ψ(r, t) ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ t♦❞❛ ❧❛
✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡ ❛❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s
❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳

• ❊❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ L2 (R3 ) ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦

✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡✢❡❥❛ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✿
s✐ Ψ(r, t) ② Φ(r, t) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❡st❛❞♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ αΨ(r, t) + βΦ(r, t)✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ α ② β ❞♦s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳

• ❊♥ L2 (R3 ) s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r hΨ|Φi✱ q✉❡ ❧♦ ❞♦t❛ ❞❡

❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✱ ② q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞
❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✳ ▲♦s ❡st❛❞♦s s❡rá♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❡♥
✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❞❛❞♦ s✐ s✉s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ✭hΨ|Φi = 0✮
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ s❡rá♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ✭❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✮ s✐

Z
|hΨ|Φi|2
= 1 con hΨ|Φi ≡ Ψ∗ (r)Φ(r)d3 r , kΨk ≡ hΨ|Ψi1/2 .
kΨk2 kΦk2 R3

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦✱ t♦❞♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❡
❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ② ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛❜❧❛♥❞♦✱ ❧❛ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ♥♦ ❡s
❝✐❡rt❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧
♠✉② ♣♦❝♦ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡✳
❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) q✉❡✱ ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐✱ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛♥
❛♣❛r❡❝❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❛✉♥q✉❡ t❡♥❣❛♥ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛ ❝❛❜✐❞❛ ❡♥
 ✹✳✷✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ▲❆❙ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ t♦❞❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛

❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✜♥✐t♦✱
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❞❡ ♠✉② ❝♦rt♦ ❛❧❝❛♥❝❡✳ ▲♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ❤❛ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r ♣❛r❛ ❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ Ψ̃(p) t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❞❡ ♠✉② ❝♦rt♦ ❛❧❝❛♥❝❡✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡
ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦❝✉rr❡ s✐ Ψ(r) ❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✳✹
▲❛s ❞♦s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛r s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
S(R3 ) ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s✉❛✈❡s ❞❡
✺
❞❡❝❛✐♠✐❡♥t♦ rá♣✐❞♦ ✿

 ℓ m n

 x y z Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 )

Ψ(r) ∈ S(R3 ) ⇔ para todo ℓ, m, n ∈ N. ✭✹✳✻✮

 ∂ ℓ+m+n Ψ(r)
 ℓ m n ∈ L2 (R3 )
∂ x∂ y∂ z

❊❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ S(R3 ) ❡s t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥s♦ ❡♥ L2 (R3 )✳ P♦r ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡♥s♦✱ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 ) ② ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ǫ > 0 s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡s
♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ Φ(r) t❛❧ q✉❡ kΨ − Φk < ǫ✳ ❊♥ ♦tr❛s
♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛rs❡ ❝♦♥
♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳ ❉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✈✉❡❧t❛ ❛❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✱

t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r✈✐r ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡

❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛
❡st❛ s❛❧✈❡❞❛❞✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✱ s❡❛ ♦ ♥♦ ❞❡
S(R3 )✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳

P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ s❡❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❡s ♣r❡❝✐s♦ tr❛❜❛❥❛r s♦❜r❡

✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳ ❊st♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛ ♣♦r q✉é ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡s L2 (R3 ) ② ♥♦ S(R3 )✿ ❡❧
♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ✭t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✮ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦✱ s✐❡♥❞♦
❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ♥♦ ❡s ❝❡rr❛❞♦✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✉❜✐❝✉❛ ❡♥

❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ❜✐❡♥ s❡❛ ♣❛r❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞❛ ❞❡
✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ❜✐❡♥ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❡st❛❞♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
s♦♥ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛r✳

✹
➱st❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ tí♣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r q✉❡ ❡stá ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥
❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ②❛ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛ ❡♥
❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✳
✺
▲❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s S(R2 ) ② S(R)✱ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥♦
♦ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

• ◆♦s♦tr♦s ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r

1
θq (r) = exp(iq · r/~) ✭✹✳✼✮
(2π~)3/2

✭❡❧ ♣r❡❢❛❝t♦r (2π~)3/2 s❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✮✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡✱

❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ θq (r) ❡s ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❛❧ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❧❛
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s hpi = q ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆p → 0✳
❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ s❡ ✈❛ ❛ ❡①tr❛❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✱
♥♦s ❡✈✐t❛r❡♠♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ í♥❞♦❧❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s s✐ s✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ❡s ✜♥✐t♦✳
❊st♦ ❡s✱

)
/ L2 (R3 ) representa un
Λ(r) ∈
⇒ hΛ|Φi ∈ C para toda Φ(r) ∈ S(R3 )
❡st❛❞♦ ❧í♠✐t❡ ✐❞❡❛❧ ✭♥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✮
✭✹✳✽✮
❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r q✉❡ hΛ|Φi ∈ C ❞❛♠♦s ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ t❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡s
✜♥✐t♦✳ ❙❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥
✭✹✳✽✮✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦
✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱

Z Z Z
e−ip·r/~ eiq·r/~ 3 e−i(p−q)·u 3
hθp |θq i = θ∗p (r)θq (r)d3 r = d r= d u
R3 R3 (2π~)3 R3 (2π)3

② r❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✶✳✸✳✸✱


 ∞ si p = q
hθp |θq i = δ(p − q) = ✭✹✳✾✮

0 si p 6= q.

❊st❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛sí ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ s✐❣✉❡✿ ♥♦ s✐❡♥❞♦

♥✐♥❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ♣♦r θq (r) ② θp (r) s♦♥
❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ♣♦rq✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞
❢ís✐❝❛✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s q ② p✳
• ❈♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ❝✐❡rr❛ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❡st❛s ♠✐s♠❛s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s
t❛♠❜✐é♥ s♦♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡s❝r✐t♦s ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞❡❧t❛s ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝
δ a (r) = δ(r − a). ✭✹✳✶✵✮
 ✹✳✷✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ▲❆❙ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ δ a (r) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡rá ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡

❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡stá ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ✭❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s a✱ ❝♦♥
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ♥✉❧❛✮✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦

♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s♦♥ ❞❡ tr❡s t✐♣♦s✿

❛✮ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✱ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ S(R3 ) ❞❡

L2 (R3 )✳ ❊st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ♣♦r
❡❧ q✉❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳

❜✮ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳ ❊st❛s

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ②✱ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❡♥ ♣✐❡ ❞❡
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❥✉♥t♦ ❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ S(R3 )✳ ❙✉ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦
r❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ♥♦ só❧♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐♥♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ s♦♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛s
♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡❛ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳

❝✮ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✽✮✳ ❙✐r✈❡♥

♣❛r❛ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡st❛❞♦s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s✱ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛r✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✹✳❛✳ ✭✦✮ ❊st❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛

❯♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ t❡♥❞rí❛ ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ a ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ s✐ hri = a ② s✐ ❧❛s
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s tr❡s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❢✉❡s❡♥ ❝❡r♦✳ ❉❡s✐❣♥❡♠♦s ♣♦r δ a (r)
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❡s❡ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦ ❡st❛❞♦✳
❛✮ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ δ a (r) ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ δ(r − a)✳
❜✮ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ q✉❡ s✐ a 6= b ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ δ a (r) ② δ b (r) s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s

Z
1
hxi = Ψ∗ (r) x Ψ(r) d3 r.
kΨk2 R3

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❢❛❝t♦r✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛

Ψ(r) = δ(x − ax )Φ(y, z)

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ xδ(x − ax ) = ax δ(x − ax )

Z R
1 ∗ 3 R3
Ψ∗ (r)Ψ(r)d3 r kΨk2
hxi = 2
Ψ (r)a x Ψ(r)d r = a x 2
= ax = ax .
kΨk R3 kΨk kΨk2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❡ ♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦

Z
1
(∆x)2 = Ψ∗ (r)(x − ax )2 Ψ(r)d3 r
kΨk2 R3

♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ (x − ax )2 δ(x − ax ) = (ax − ax )2 δ(x − ax ) = 0✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡

(∆x)2 = 0✳ P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ δ(x − ax )Φ(y, z)
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ✭✐❞❡❛❧✮ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ x ❡stá ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r ax ✳ Pr♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦
❛♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ❞♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

δ a (r) = δ(x − ax )δ(y − ay )δ(z − az ) = δ(r − a).

❜✮ ❊s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡s r❡❛❧✿

Z
hδ a |δ b i = δ ∗ (r − a)δ(r − b)d3 r = δ ∗ (b − a) = δ(b − a),
R3

q✉❡ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ s✐ b 6= a✳

◆♦t❛✿ ❖❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐t♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦✱
✐♥❝❧✉✐❞❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ kΨk2 ✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ♣❡♥s❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥
❧í♠✐t❡ ❧♦s ♣❛s♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❡stá♥ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❞♦s✳

4.3✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘ ❨ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆

✹✳✸✳❛ ❇❛s❡s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❣❡♥ér✐❝♦ W ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ✜♥✐t❛
N✳ ❯♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ B ❞❡ W ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ t♦❞♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ W s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ B✳
❯♥ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❜ás✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛r❞✐♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❜❛s❡ ❡s
✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ N✱ ② q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ W ❧❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡
❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ B ❡s ú♥✐❝❛✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
q✉❡❞❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ t❛❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡
❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ B✱ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳

❆ ♣r✐♦r✐✱ ❡st♦s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ ♣♦r q✉é s❡r ✈á❧✐❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥

❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r
❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡ q✉❡ L2 (R3 ) ❡s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡
❜❛s❡s ❢♦r♠❛❞❛s ♣♦r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡✱ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ▲❛ ú♥✐❝❛
s❛❧✈❡❞❛❞ ❡s q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❜❛s❡s t❡♥❞rá ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s
 ✹✳✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘ ❨ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆

tér♠✐♥♦s✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ ❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ✭❢♦r♠❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ② ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✮ ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡s✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛s ❝♦♠♦
✻
❜❛s❡s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✳

▲❧❛♠❡♠♦s B ≡ {Φ1 (r), Φ2 (r), Φ3 (r), ...} ❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ L2 (R3 )✳
❈♦♠♦ B ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡


Z  1 si n = m
hΦn |Φm i = Φ∗n (r)Φm (r)d3 r = δ n,m = ✭✹✳✶✶✮
R3 
0 si n 6= m,

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❑r♦♥❡❝❦❡r δ n,m ✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ B ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡✱
t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

∞
X
Ψ(r) = cn Φn (r)
n=1

s✐❡♥❞♦ cn ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r)✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧

♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ✭✹✳✶✶✮✱

∞
X ∞
X
hΦm |Ψi = cn hΦm |Φn i = cn δ m,n = cm
n=1 n=1

❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛

∞
X Z
Ψ(r) = cn Φn (r) , con cn = hΦn |Ψi = Φ∗n (r)Ψ(r) d3 r. ✭✹✳✶✷✮
n=1 R3

❊st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡s
✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r)✳
▲❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✶✷✮ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② s✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ λ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ s✉s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡♥
✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✳ ❆sí✱ s❡❛♥ Ψ(r) ϑ(r) ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❝✉②❛s
②
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ B{cn } ② {zn }✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ cn + zn ❡s ❧❛
s♦♥
n✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ Ψ(r) + ϑ(r)✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ λcn ❡s ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ λΨ(r)✳

✻
P✉❡st♦ q✉❡✱ s❡❣ú♥ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r✱ t♦❞❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❡s ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡✱
♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡♥ L2 (R3 ) ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❞♦s ❛

❞♦s✳ ❊st♦ t❡♥❞rá ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢✉t✉r♦✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♠♦ s✐❣✉❡✱

∞ X
X ∞ ∞ X
X ∞ ∞ X
X ∞
hϑ|Ψi = hzn Φn |cm Φm i = zn∗ cm hΦn |Φm i = zn∗ cm δ n,m
n=1 m=1 n=1 m=1 n=1 m=1

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❑r♦♥❡❝❦❡r✱

∞
X
hϑ|Ψi = zn∗ cn . ✭✹✳✶✸✮
n=1

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ s✉s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳ ▲♦ ♠✐s♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡✿

∞
!1/2
X
1/2 2
kΨk = hΨ|Ψi = |cn | .
n=1

◆ót❡s❡ ❛❞❡♠ás q✉❡ ❧❛s s✉❝❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s {c1 , c2 , ...} ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❜❛❥♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✹✳✶✸✮✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛ ❝♦♠♦ C∞2 ✳
❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ L (R ) ② C∞
2 3
2
s♦♥ ✐s♦♠♦r❢♦s✳

• ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✱ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

Ψ(r, t) q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ B ≡
{Φ1 (r), Φ2 (r), Φ3 (r), ...}✱ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛
✼
❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s {c1 (t), c2 (t), c3 (t), ...} t❛❧❡s q✉❡

Z X
cn (t) = hΦn |Ψ(t)i = Φ∗n (r)Ψ(r, t)d3 r , con |cn (t)|2 finito
R3 n

▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ s❡ ♣❧❛s♠❛ ❛sí ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡

❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B ✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡
{c1 (t), c2 (t), c3 (t), ...} ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡ ✉♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✳ ❋í❥❡s❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❣r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛❜str❛❝❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s✉♣♦♥❡✿ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ②❛
♥♦ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ s✐♥♦ ➼❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛
s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✦

✼
❆ ❡st❡ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♦❝✐♦s♦ ✐♥s✐st✐r ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡s ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ✭♥♦ ✉♥❛
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✮ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳
 ✹✳✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘ ❨ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆

h0 (u) = 1 h1 (u) = 2u h2 (u) = −2 + 4u2

h3 (u) = −12u + 8u3 h4 (u) = 12 − 48u2 + 16u4

h5 (u) = 120u − 160u3 + 32u5 h6 (u) = −120 + 720u2 − 480u4 + 64u6

dn exp(−u2 )
hn (u) = (−1)n exp(u2 )
dun
❚❆❇▲❆ ✹✲✷ P♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ ♠ás ❜❛ ❥♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡

♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✳ ❙❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ s✉ tér♠✐♥♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡

❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡s✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦♥❡r ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡
❞❡ L2 (R)✱ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✱ Φn (x)
( 2 2)
)
hn (x/α)e−x /(2α +
BH,α = Φn (x) ≡ √ con α ∈ R ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✹✳✶✹✮
(2n n! πα)1/2
❞♦♥❞❡ hn (u) ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❚❆❇▲❆ ✹✲✷✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡
❛♣r❡❝✐❛rs❡✱ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❡s❛ ❜❛s❡ s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳

✽
❚♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(x) ❞❡ L2 (R) s❡ ♣♦❞rá ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♠♦
∞
X Z
Ψ(x) = cn Φn (x) con cn = Φ∗n (x)Ψ(x)dx. ✭✹✳✶✺✮
n=0 R

❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ✭✹✳✶✺✮ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧

s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❧í♠✐t❡✿

M
X
Ψ(x) = lı́m ΨM (x) , con ΨM (x) ≡ cn Φn (x),
M →∞
n=0
②✱ ❛ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ♣rá❝t✐❝♦s✱ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❛✉♠❡♥t❡♠♦s M t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❡❥♦r
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(x) ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ést❛ ♥♦ s❡❛ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳

❙❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱


 1 − |x/α| si |x| ≤ α
Tα (x) =

0 si |x| > α.

✽
▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡ Φn (x) s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ñ❛❧❛r ❧❛ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ♥♦ ❡s
♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ♣❛r❛ ♠❛♥t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✭✹✳✶✷✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

1.00

M
1.00

= 20 M = 60
0.75 0.75
( )

( )
x

x
0.50 0.50
T

T
0.25 0.25

0.00 0.00

x x
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2

/ /

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✹✲✶✳ ❆♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r Tα (x) ♣♦r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ M +1

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✹✲✶✱ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥

r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❜✉❡♥❛ ❝♦♥ M = 20✱ ② ❝♦♥ M = 60 ❡❧ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❡s ②❛ ♠✉② ❜✉❡♥♦✳

❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r ②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❜❛s❡s

♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡s✱ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (RN ) ❞❡ ❧❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ◆ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✳

✹✳✸✳❜ ❇❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥

➓ ✸✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s δ a (r) ② θq (r) q✉❡✱
r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧í♠✐t❡ ♥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡stá♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ② ❞❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ✈❡r q✉❡

Z Z
3
Ψ(r, t) = Ψ(a, t)δ a (r) d a = Ψ̃(q, t)θq (r) d3 q ✭✹✳✶✻✮
R3 R3

❞♦♥❞❡
Z
Ψ(a, t) = δ ∗a (r) Ψ(r, t) d3 r = hδ a |Ψi
Z R3
✭✹✳✶✼✮
Ψ̃(q, t) = θ∗q (r) Ψ(r, t) d3 r = hθq |Ψi.
R3

❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ a ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ Ψ(a, t)
♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✏ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ✑ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❡♥ ✉♥❛
 ✹✳✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘ ❨ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆

✏ ❜❛s❡ ✑ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ L2 (R3 ) ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s δ a (r), ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ q✱ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s Ψ̃(q, t) s❡rí❛ ✉♥❛

✏ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ✑ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ♦tr❛ ✏ ❜❛s❡ ✑ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s θq (r)✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s✳

▲❛ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ✏❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✑ ❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ② q✉❡ ❧❛s

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ✏❜❛s❡✑ t✐❡♥❡♥ ♥♦r♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ② ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
L2 (R3 )✳ ❆sí✱ ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦rr❡❝t♦ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ② ❧❛s ❞❡❧t❛s
❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ♣✉❡❞❛♥ ❢♦r♠❛r ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡s ✭♦ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✮
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ L2 (R3 )✳
➓ ✹✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡❧
❞❡ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ B L2 (R3 ) q✉❡ ❡s
❞❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡✿
✭✐✮ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡ {Φn (r)} ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧
í♥❞✐❝❡ n t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐s❝r❡t♦s❀
✭✐✐✮ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ {Λλ (r)}✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ í♥❞✐❝❡ λ t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ ✉♥
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✱ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✽✮✳

❆❞❡♠ás✱ t♦❞❛s ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r✿

✭❛✮ ▲❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r

hΦn |Φm i = δ n,m ; hΛλ |Λµ i = δ(λ − µ) ; hΦn |Λλ i = 0 ✭✹✳✶✽✮

❞♦♥❞❡ δ(λ − µ) ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✳ ◆♦t❡ q✉❡ n ② m ✐♥❞✐❝❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐s❝r❡t♦s✱

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ λ ② µ s♦♥ í♥❞✐❝❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s✳

✭❜✮ ◗✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ♣✉❡❞❛ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦


X Z  cn = hΦn |Ψi
Ψ(r) = cn Φn (r) + cλ Λλ (r) dλ con ✭✹✳✶✾✮

n cλ = hΛλ |Ψi

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ s♦❜r❡ n ② ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ λ s❡ ❡①t✐❡♥❞❡♥ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ t♦♠❛r ❡st♦s í♥❞✐❝❡s✳ ▲♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s {cn } ② {cλ } s♦♥ ❛sí ❧❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B✳
P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s δ a (r) ② θq (r)✱ ❞❡ ❧❛s q✉❡
❤❡♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ➓ ✸✱ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ s❡♥❞❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛s
q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ♠♦t✐✈♦s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡s✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱
✾
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✾
❙✐ t✐❡♥❡ r❡♣❛r♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s✱ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❡ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇ ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ② ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦

❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✶✸✮ ❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s cλ ② zλ ✱ ❞❡
♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡
❡①♣r❡s❛r ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦

X Z
hϑ|Ψi = zn∗ cn + zλ∗ cλ dλ. ✭✹✳✷✵✮
n

❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) s❡rá

X Z
2 2
kΨk = |cn | + |cλ |2 dλ. ✭✹✳✷✶✮
n

❚❛♠♣♦❝♦ ❡s ❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ② s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡

✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ {{Φn (r)},{Λλ (r)}} ❢♦r♠❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
2 3
L (R ) ❡s q✉❡ s❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❣❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✐❡rr❡
X Z
Φ∗n (r)Φn (r′ ) + Λ∗λ (r)Λλ (r′ ) dλ = δ(r − r′ ). ✭✹✳✷✷✮
n

❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✽✮ ♥♦

só❧♦ s✐r✈❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s ✭♥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮✱ s✐♥♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥
2 3 ✶✵
♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ L (R ) ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳
❖❜sér✈❡s❡ q✉❡✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ❡♥
✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ s♦♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ✜♥✐t♦s✱ {cn } ② {cλ }✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡❛ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r
q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ cλ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ s❡❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡s❡ ✈❛❧♦r
✐♥✜♥✐t♦ s❡rá ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✹✳✶✾✮✱ ✭✹✳✷✵✮ ② ✭✹✳✷✶✮✳

➓ ✺✳ ▲❛ ❡t✐q✉❡t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛✳ ❊♥ ♠✉❝❤♦s ❝❛s♦s
s❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ í♥❞✐❝❡s✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✱ q✉❡ t♦♠❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐s❝r❡t♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ② ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s {δ a (r)} ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s♦♥ ❧❛s tr❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
a x , ay , az ✱ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ t♦♠❛r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r r❡❛❧ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛✳

✶✵
❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡♥ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ tr❛❜❛ ❥❛ s❡rá RN ✱ ❡♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡ R3 ✳
 ✹✳✸✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❋❖❯❘■❊❘ ❨ ❇❆❙❊❙ ❉❊ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆

✹✳✸✳❝ Pr♦②❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s

➓ ✻✳ ❚♦❞♦s ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s ❛ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡
❍✐❧❜❡rt W ❞❡ L2 (R3 )✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❛ ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦ ② t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
❝❡rr❛❞♦✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ✈❛ ❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛♥ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞
❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳

❙❡❛♥ W ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ N ✭✜♥✐t❛ ♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛

♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡✮✱ BW = {Φ1 (r), ..., ΦN (r)} ✉♥❛ ❞❡ s✉s ❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ② Ψ(r) ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧
❞❡ Ψ(r) s♦❜r❡ W ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

N
X
ΨW (r) = hΦn |ΨiΦn (r) ✭✹✳✷✸✮
n=1

q✉❡✱ ♦❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛ W ✳ P♦❞rí❛ ♣❛r❡❝❡r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΨW (r) ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡

❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡s❝♦❣✐❞❛ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❛sí✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) − ΨW (r) ❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧
❛ W ②❛ q✉❡ ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦✮ Ψ(r) − ΨW (r) ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s
❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ BW ❀ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r Ψ(r) − ΨW (r) s❡rá ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧
❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝r✐t❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ BW ✱ ❡st♦
❡s✱ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ W ✳
❆sí✱ ❡st❡ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛
❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥


  ΨW (r) ∈ W
 
Ψ(r) = ΨW (r) + Ψ(r) − ΨW (r) , con   ✭✹✳✷✹✮

 Ψ(r) − ΨW (r) ⊥ W

❡s ú♥✐❝❛✿ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΨW (r) s✐ ❤✉❜✐és❡♠♦s ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦ ♦tr❛ ❜❛s❡

❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ W✳
➓ ✼✳ ❊❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ W ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉♥
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ② s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛❞♦ ❛ ✈❡❝❡s
❝♦♠♦ W ⊥✳ ❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ✭✹✳✷✹✮ s❡ñ❛❧❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡
❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ W ② ❞❡ ♦tr❛ ❞❡ W ⊥✳
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ t♦❞♦ L2 (R3 ) s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❣✉❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
⊥
❜❛s❡ ❞❡ W ② ❞❡ ♦tr❛ ❞❡ W ✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ L2 (R3 ) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛
❞✐r❡❝t❛ ⊥
❞❡ ❧♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt W ② W ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

4.4✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊◆ ❯◆ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙

✶✶
➓ ✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉③❝❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s L2 (RN )
❞♦♥❞❡ N = 1, 2, 3, ... ❊♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s r❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s✳

• ❯♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ❞❡ L2 (RN ) ❡s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❛

2 N
✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L (R ) ♦tr❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (RN )✿

 : L2 (RN ) 7→ L2 (RN ) tal que ∀Ψ(r) ∈ D(Â) 7→ ÂΨ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ). ✭✹✳✷✺✮

❯♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛ ♣♦r✿

✐✮ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ÂΨ(r)
s✉
❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ Ψ(r)❀
✐✐✮ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ D(Â) ⊂ L2 (RN )✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ L2 (RN ) ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ♥♦ s❡ ❡s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛s❡ s❡ s♦❜r❡❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡
q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❉♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ✭Â = B̂ ✮ s✐ s✉s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦♥ ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s
② s✉s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥✳

◆♦t❛✿ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ L2 (RN ) ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♦tr♦ ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦✱ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ RN ✱ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Â ♣✉❡❞❡ t❡♥❡r
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r π̂ x ❝✉②❛ r❡❣❧❛
❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s

∂Ψ(r) Ψ(x + dx, y, z) − Ψ(x, y, z)

π̂ x Ψ(r) = −i = −i lı́m ✭✹✳✷✻✮
∂x dx→0 dx
♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛rs❡ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ π̂ x ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ s♦♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ∂Ψ(r)/∂x t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳

• ❯♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ L2 (RN ) ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s✐ ❛sí ❧♦ ❡s s✉ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❊s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ D(Â) ②
(α, β) ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣❛r ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✱

 i) αΨ(r) + βΦ(r) ∈ D(Â)
 es lineal ⇔ ✭✹✳✷✼✮

ii)  (αΨ(r) + βΦ(r)) = αÂΨ(r) + β ÂΦ(r)

✭❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ s❡rí❛ r❡❞✉♥❞❛♥t❡ s✐ ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❛rt✐✜❝✐❛❧❡s

❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Â✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦ ♣♦r ❝❧❛r✐❞❛❞✮✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡

✶✶
▲♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳
 ✹✳✹✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊◆ ❯◆ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙

✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ L2 (RN )✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ D(Â) ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡

❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ✭♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✮✳

❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r π̂ x ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r

x̂Ψ(r) ≡ xΨ(r). ✭✹✳✷✽✮

➓ ✷✳ ❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛ Â ② B̂ ② ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦

❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ λ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ♦tr♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s✿

❛✮ ❙✉♠❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✿ (Â + B̂)Ψ(r) = ÂΨ(r)+B̂Ψ(r)

❜✮ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✿ (λÂ)Ψ(r) = λ ÂΨ(r)


❝✮ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✿ (ÂB̂)Ψ(r) = Â B̂Ψ(r)

❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ s♦❜r❡❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❞❡ Â

② B̂ ❡♥ ❛✮✱ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Â ❡♥ ❜✮✱ ② q✉❡ Ψ(r) ∈ D(B̂) ② B̂Ψ(r) ∈ D(Â) ❡♥ ❝✮✳

❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛ (Â + B̂ =

B̂ + Â)✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♥♦ ❧♦ s❡❛ ✭❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ÂB̂ 6= B̂ Â✮✳
❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✏♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡ Â✑ ❝♦♠♦

Ân ≡ Â
| Â{z
. . . Â} ✭✹✳✷✾✮
n veces

❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(z) q✉❡ ❛❞♠✐t❡ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡

❚❛②❧♦r
g(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + a3 z 3 + ... con ai ∈ C
② ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â✳ ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r g(Â) ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡
❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧
g(Â) ≡ a0 + a1 Â + a2 Â2 + a3 Â3 + ... ✭✹✳✸✵✮

❝✉②♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r) ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s

∞
X
an Ân Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R2 ).
n=0

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ Î ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞ ✭❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡ Î = 1 ♣❛r❛

❛❜r❡✈✐❛r✮✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✐♥✈❡rs♦ ❞❡ Â ❡s ❛q✉é❧ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

ÂÂ−1 Ψ(r) = ÎΨ(r) = Ψ(r) ; Â−1 ÂΦ(r) = ÎΦ(r) = Φ(r)

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

♣❛r❛ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ∈ D(Â−1 ) t❛❧ q✉❡ Â−1 Ψ(r) ∈ D(Â)✱ ② ♣❛r❛ t♦❞❛ Φ(r) ∈
D(Â) t❛❧ q✉❡ ÂΦ(r) ∈ D(Â−1 )✳ ❉❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st❛s ❧❛s ♠❛t✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣r❡❝✐s❛s ❡♥
❧♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡

ÂÂ−1 = Â−1 Â = Î.

➓ ✸✳ ❉❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ L2 (RN ) s❡

♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❛❧❣✉♥♦s s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞♦s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳
❙✐ s❡❣✉✐♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✿
Z Z
hΨ|ÂΦi = Ψ∗ (r){ÂΦ(r)} dN r ; hÂΨ|Φi = {ÂΨ(r)}∗ Φ(r) dN r
RN RN

t❡♥❡♠♦s tr❡s ❝❧❛s❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s✿

❛✮ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s ✭q✉❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✮

Û es unitario ⇔ hÛ Ψ|Û Φi = hΨ|Φi ∀Ψ(r), Φ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ). ✭✹✳✸✶✮

❜✮ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s ✿

 es simétrico ⇔ hΨ|ÂΦi = hÂΨ|Φi ∀Ψ(r), Φ(r) ∈ D(Â). ✭✹✳✸✷✮

❝✮ Pr♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ❬♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s❪ ✿

P̂ es proyector ⇔ P̂ es simétrico y P̂ 2 Ψ(r) = P̂Ψ(r) ∀Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ).

✭✹✳✸✸✮
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❛ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s ② ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s
t✐❡♥❡♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (RN )✳
✲ ▲♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✿ ✭✐✮ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛
❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱ ✭✐✐✮ ♣❛r❛ ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❝❛♠❜✐♦s ❞❡ ❬❜❛s❡ ❞❡❪ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✭✐✐✐✮ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛✳
✲ ▲♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳
✲ ▲♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s✱ ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❛ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ② s❡
✉s❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s✳

• ❊st♦s tr❡s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés

q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♠✉② ❞✐❢í❝✐❧❡s ❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r ✭❤❛ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❧❛s ❡♥ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛s ❞❡
➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ▲✐♥❡❛❧✱ s✐ ❜✐❡♥ r❡str✐♥❣✐❞❛s ❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛✮✿
 ✹✳✹✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❊◆ ❯◆ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙

✭❛✮ B = {Φ1 (r), Φ2 (r), ...} ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L2 (RN ) ② Û ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
❙✐
2 N
✉♥✐t❛r✐♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s {Û Φ1 (r), Û Φ2 (r), ...} t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L (R )✳
✭❜✮ ❙✐ W ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ N ✭✜♥✐t❛ ♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛
♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡✮✱ BW = {Φ1 (r), ..., ΦN (r)} ✉♥❛ ❞❡ s✉s ❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ② ΨW (r)
❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ s♦❜r❡ W ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r)✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r P̂W
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦

N
X
P̂W Ψ(r) = ΨW (r) = hΦn |ΨiΦn (r) para todo Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ) ✭✹✳✸✹✮
n=1

❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛✱ Î − P̂W ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r s♦❜r❡ W ⊥✳

❘❡❝í♣r♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r P̂ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧
s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ L2 (RN ) q✉❡ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♥ s✉ r❡❝♦rr✐❞♦✳
✭❝✮ ❙✐ P̂ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r

hP̂Ψ|P̂Φi = hΨ|P̂Φi = hP̂Ψ|Φi para todos Ψ(r), Φ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ) ✭✹✳✸✺✮

✭❞✮ ❙✐ α, β s♦♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s r❡❛❧❡s✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

(
α + β B̂ , ÂB̂ + B̂  , iα(ÂB̂ − B̂ Â) , Ân , B̂ n
Â, B̂ s✐♠étr✐❝♦s ⇒ ✭✹✳✸✻✮
s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s✐♠étr✐❝♦s

➓ ✹✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ Â✱ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ s✉ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ † ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝♦♥
♠❛②♦r ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ t❛❧ q✉❡

hΨ|ÂΦi = h† Ψ|Φi para todos Ψ(r) ∈ D(† ), Φ(r) ∈ D(Â). ✭✹✳✸✼✮

❆❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ s♦♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✭♥♦ ♣r❡st❛♠♦s

❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✮✿

( + B̂)† = † + B̂ † (λÂ)† = λ∗ †

(ÂB̂)† = B̂ † † (Â−1 )† = († )−1 ✭✹✳✸✽✮

❝✉②❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✸✼✮✳

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ s✐ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ s✉ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ✭r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡

❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✮✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡  = † ② q✉❡ D(Â) = D(† )✳
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ Û ❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ s✐ Û † = Û −1 ✳
❍❛② q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡r ♥♦t❛r q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ ♣♦r q✉é s❡r
❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✳ ❙✐ Â ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡  ② † ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦
♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦✳ ❙ó❧♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❞❡  ② † s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s s❡
♣✉❡❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ Â ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✳ ❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s s♦♥
❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ♣♦rq✉❡ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡s t♦❞♦ L2 (RN )✳

➓ ✺✳ ❘❡s✉❧t❛ ♠✉② ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❡❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s  ② B̂

❝♦♠♦
 
Â, B̂ ≡ ÂB̂ − B̂ Â ✭✹✳✸✾✮

 
② s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s  ② B̂ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥ s✐ Â, B̂ = 0̂✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥
❡♥ s✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♦ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳

❊❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿

         
Â, B̂ = − B̂,  λÂ, B̂ = Â, λB̂ = λ Â, B̂ con λ ∈ C
           
Â, B̂ + Ĉ = Â, B̂ + Â, Ĉ Â + B̂, Ĉ = Â, Ĉ + B̂, Ĉ
           
Â, B̂ Ĉ = Â, B̂ Ĉ + B̂ Â, Ĉ ÂB̂, Ĉ = Â B̂, Ĉ + Â, Ĉ B̂
 †      
Â, B̂ = − † , B̂ † Si Â, B̂ = 0̂ entonces f (Â), g(B̂) = 0̂.
✭✹✳✹✵✮

▲❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❡❧❧❛s ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿

 
Â, B̂ Ĉ = ÂB̂ Ĉ − B̂ Ĉ Â = ÂB̂ Ĉ − B̂ Ĉ Â − B̂ ÂĈ + B̂ ÂĈ
   
= (ÂB̂ − B̂ Â)Ĉ + B̂(ÂĈ − Ĉ Â) = Â, B̂ Ĉ + B̂ Â, Ĉ

✭❢í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ❤❛② q✉❡ s❡r ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦s♦s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✮✳

4.5✳ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ▼❆❚❘■❈■❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❧♦s ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛✱ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡♥ s✉s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s

♣rá❝t✐❝❛s✱ ❡s ❞❡ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡
✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ Â✱ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ② ✉♥❛

❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ B = {Φn (r)} ❞❡ L2 (RN ) ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥
❡❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ Â ✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥ ❧❛
†

❜❛s❡ B ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s Ai,j ≡ hΦi |ÂΦj i✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s
 ✹✳✺✳ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ▼❆❚❘■❈■❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘

❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❜❛s❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③

 
A1,1 A1,2 A1,3 ...
 A2,1 A2,2 A2,3 ...  Z
 

A≡ A3,1 A3,2 A3,3 ...  con Ai,j ≡ hΦi |ÂΦj i = Φ∗i (r) ÂΦj (r) d3N r
  RN
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳

✭✹✳✹✶✮

• ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ÂΨ(r) ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  s♦❜r❡

✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r)✳ ❙✐ zn = hΦn |ÂΨi ② cn = hΦn |Ψi s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ÂΨ(r)
② Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

∞
X
zn = An,i ci , ✭✹✳✹✷✮
i=1

❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ② ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱

∞
X ∞
X
P (∗)
zn = hΦn |ÂΨi = hΦn |Â ( i ci Φi )i = ci hΦn |ÂΦi i = An,i ci ,
i=1 i=1

✶✷
❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✹✶✮ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③✳ ▲❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s zn ❞❡ ÂΨ(r) ❡stá♥ ❛sí ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ A s♦❜r❡
❧❛ ∞✲✉♣❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s cn ❞❡ Ψ(r)✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱

    
z1 A1,1 A1,2 A1,3 ... c1
 z2   A2,1 A2,2 A2,3 ...  c2 
    
 z3 = A3,1 A3,2 A3,3 ...  c3  ✭✹✳✹✸✮
    
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

• ❙✐ J Jˆ ② ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
❡s ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
ˆ
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ B t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ J ② ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞❡ s✉ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱

✶✷
❊❧ ♣❛s♦ ✭✯✮ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛r ❞✉❞♦s♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ Â ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✳ ❊❧ q✉❡
❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B ♣❡rt❡♥❡③❝❛ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ † ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❝❡r❧♦✿
P P P P
hΦn |Â( i ci Φi )i = h† Φn | i ci Φ i i = i ci hÂ
†
Φn |Φi i = i ci hΦn |ÂΦi i,

②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s♦❜r❡ s✉♠❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t❛s ❛❧ ❡st❛r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ✭❡s❛ ❡s✱
❥✉st❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ✈❡♥t❛❥❛ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❝♦♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

ˆ
Si F̂ = Â + J, Fi,j = Ai,j + Ji,j ⇒ F=A+J ✭✹✳✹✹✮

Si Ŝ = λÂ, Si,j = λAi,j ⇒ S = λA ✭✹✳✹✺✮

∞
X
ˆ
Si Ĝ = ÂJ, Gi,j = Ai,n Jn,j ⇒ G = AJ ✭✹✳✹✻✮
n=1

❞♦♥❞❡ λ ❡s ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✳ ❊st❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❡①✐ó♥

❡♥tr❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ✭s✉♠❛✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦✮ s❡ tr❛s❧❛❞❛♥ ❛
✶✸
s✉s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s✳

❊st❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥

s❡ r❡✢❡❥❛ ❡♥ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦s✿

 
Â, B̂ = 0̂ ⇔ AB = BA ✭✹✳✹✼✮
† †
Û es unitario ⇔ U U = UU = I ✭✹✳✹✽✮

 es simétrico ⇔ A = A† ✭✹✳✹✾✮
† 2
P̂ es proyector ⇔ P=P y P =P ✭✹✳✺✵✮

❞♦♥❞❡ A† r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ tr❛s♣✉❡st❛ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛ ❞❡ A ✭A†i,j = A∗j,i ✮ ❡ I

❡s ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ✭Ii,j = δ i,j ✮✳ ❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❡stá
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❤❡r♠ít✐❝❛ ✭❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ s✉ tr❛s♣✉❡st❛ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛✮
② q✉❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ❧♦ ❡stá ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛ ✭s✉ ✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛
s✉ tr❛s♣✉❡st❛ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛✮✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ✭✹✳✹✸✮ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❞❡ ÂΨ(r)

❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

∞
X ∞ X
X ∞
ÂΨ(r) = hΦn |ÂΨi Φn (r) = An,i hΦi |Ψi Φn (r), ✭✹✳✺✶✮
n=1 n=1 i=1

❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Â ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥

♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧✳

✶✸ (1)
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✹✳✹✻✮ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿ Gi,j = hΦi |ÂB̂Φj i = h† Φi |B̂Φj i =
∞
X
P∞ †Φ
P∞
n=1 h i |Φn ihΦn |B̂|Φj i = n=1 hΦi |ÂΦn ihΦn |B̂Φj i = Ai,n Bn,j ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛s♦ ✭✶✮ ❤❡♠♦s
n=1
❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B✳
 ✹✳✺✳ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ▼❆❚❘■❈■❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✹✳❜✳ ✭✦✮ ❆❧❣✉♥♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L (R ) ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s x̂
2 3

② π̂ x ❝♦♠♦
∂Ψ(r)
x̂Ψ(r) = xΨ(r) ; π̂ x Ψ(r) = −i .
∂x
❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✉s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ✭♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦✱ ❧♦s ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s✮ ② ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s♦♥
s✐♠étr✐❝♦s✳ ➽❙♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s❄
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❊❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ D(x̂) ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ xΨ(r)
❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ D(π̂ x ) ❡stá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ x t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳

❊❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❞❡ x̂ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦✿
Z Z
∗
hΨ|x̂Φi = Ψ (r) (xΦ(r)) d3 r =
∗
(xΨ(r)) Φ(r) d3 r = hx̂Ψ|Φi,
R3 R3
❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♣❛s♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ x ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡❛❧❡s✳

❊♥ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ❛ π̂ x ✱ ♣❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡
Z Z Z 
∂Φ(r) 3 ∂Φ(r)
hΨ|π̂ x Φi = −i Ψ∗ (r) d r = −i Ψ∗ (r) dx dydz.
R3 ∂x R2 R ∂x
❙✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ x ② t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡✱

♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ s♦♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛♥ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ x → ±∞
q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡
Z Z  Z
∂Ψ∗ (r) ∂Ψ∗ (r)
hΨ|π̂ x Φi = +i Φ(r)dx dydz = +i Φ(r) d3 r.
R2 R ∂x R 3 ∂x
❨❛ só❧♦ q✉❡❞❛ ✉s❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦

❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ q✉❡

Z  ∗ Z  ∗
∂Ψ(r) 3 ∂Ψ(r)
hΨ|π̂ x Φi = +i Φ(r) d r = −i Φ(r) d3 r = hπ̂ x Ψ|Φi,
R3 ∂x R3 ∂x
q✉❡❞❛♥❞♦ ❛sí ♣r♦❜❛❞♦ q✉❡ π̂ x ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦✳

▲♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s s❡ ❤❛♥ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s

♠í♥✐♠❛s ❛ L2 (R3 )✳ ▲♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ t❡♥❡r ❛sí ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦s

②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s x̂ ② π̂ x s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✳

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❞❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ s❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rí❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s

∂Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r)
ŷΨ(r) = yΨ(r) ; ẑΨ(r) = zΨ(r) ; π̂ y Ψ(r) = −i ; π̂ z Ψ(r) = −i
∂y ∂z
s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✳ ❚♦❞♦s ❡st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s

♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s q✉❡ ❡①♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣ró①✐♠♦ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

4.6✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ▲❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙✳ ◆❖❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❉■❘❆❈

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ➓✹✳✸✳✹✱ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✶✾✮✱ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

q✉❡❞❛ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦r s✉s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s {cn , cλ } ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ❛❜str❛❝t❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❬❞❡
❍✐❧❜❡rt❪ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛2✱ q✉❡ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛r❡♠♦s ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦
E✳ ▲♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s L (R3 ) ✭r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♦
❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✮✱ ❡❧ ❞❡ s✉❝❡s✐♦♥❡s
∞
❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s C2 ✭r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛s✮ ② ❡❧
❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s E ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛♥ s❡r ❛sí ✐s♦♠♦r❢♦s✳

❙✐ tr❛❜❛❥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s E ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❛❞♦♣t❛r ✉♥❛

✶✹
♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜✐❞❛ ❛ ❉✐r❛❝✿ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s Ψ(r, t) t✐❡♥❡
❛s✐❣♥❛❞♦ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ✭♦ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ✮ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ E q✉❡ s❡
s✉❡❧❡ s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛r ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ✏ ❦❡t✑ |Ψ(t)i ✳ ❊st♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥
❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r s✉s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ E❀
❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❡❧
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rá♥ ❧❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ s✉s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧♦s

❡st❛❞♦s ✭♥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮ |δ a i ❝♦♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳ ❚♦❞♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ s❡
❡①♣r❡s❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✹✳✶✻✮ ② ✭✹✳✶✼✮✮
Z
|Ψ(t)i = Ψ(a, t)|δ a i d3 a ✭✹✳✺✷✮
R3

❝♦♥ Ψ(a, t) = hδ a |Ψ(t)i |Ψ(a, t)|2 = |hδ a |Ψ(t)i|2 ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛

② s✐❡♥❞♦
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ a✱ q✉❡ ❡s ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |δ a i✳

▲♦ ♠✐s♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡rí❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✿ ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦

❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ Ψ̃(q, t)✱ |hθq |Ψ(t)i|2 ✱ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s✱ s❛❧✈♦
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r q✱ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ |θq i✳

✶✹
P❛✉❧ ❆❞r✐❡♥ ▼❛✉r✐❝❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ✭✶✾✵✷✲✶✾✽✹✮✱ ❢✉❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠ás ❣r❛♥❞❡s ❢ís✐❝♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ❞❡❧
❙✐❣❧♦ ❳❳ ✭② ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❡❧ ♠ás ❣r❛♥❞❡ ✮✳ ❯♥✐✜❝ó ❧❛s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ q✉❡
❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✲❇♦r♥✲❏♦r❞❛♥ ② ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r♦♥ ❡♥ ✶✾✷✺ ② ✶✾✷✻✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ② ❢✉❡ ❡❧ ♣❛❞r❡
❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛✳ ❙✉ ❝✐r❝✉♥s♣❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❧❧❡❣❛❜❛ ❤❛st❛ t❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ q✉❡ s✉s ❝♦❧❡❣❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❡r♦♥
❡♥ ❜r♦♠❛ ❡❧ ✏❞✐r❛❝✑ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ♠í♥✐♠❛ ❞❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳ ❋✉❡ ❛✉t♦r ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝é❧❡❜r❡ tr❛t❛❞♦✱
Pr✐♥❝✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ✱ q✉❡ s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ ♣❛s❛❞♦s ♦❝❤❡♥t❛ ❛ñ♦s ❞❡s❞❡ s✉ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✉♥❛
❞❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ❝❧❛r❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳
 ✹✳✻✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ▲❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙✳ ◆❖❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❉■❘❆❈

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ t❡♥❞rá♥ ✉♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦

❞✐r❡❝t♦ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉②♦s ❦❡ts ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡
❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦✳

❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧♦ ❞✐s❝✉t✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❙❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✹✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐r ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s

❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s E✱ ② s✉s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡❞❛♥
❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❧❛s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❜❛s❡
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ E✳
➓ ✷✳ ▲❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❡♥ E ✭s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❦❡ts✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❦❡t ♣♦r ✉♥
❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r✮ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛♥ ❝♦♠♦

|Ψi + |Φi ≡ |Φ + Ψi ; λ|Ψi ≡ |λΨi ; Â|Ψi ≡ |ÂΨi. ✭✹✳✺✸✮

❊st❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ t♦❞❛ s✉ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ s✐ r❡❝♦r❞❛♠♦s ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❜ás✐❝♦ ❞❡❧

á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ |Θi ② |Φi ♣✉❡❞❡
t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦✈❡❝t♦r
❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❦❡t |Φi✱
♦
❝✉②♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r hΘ|Φi✳ ❆sí✱
|Θi t✐❡♥❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ✉♥❛
t♦❞♦ ❦❡t
❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ q✉❡ ❉✐r❛❝ s✐♠❜♦❧✐③ó ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ✏ ❜r❛ ✑ hΘ|✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ s✉ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥
s♦❜r❡ |Φi ❡s
hΘkΦi = hΘ|Φi. ✭✹✳✺✹✮

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❜❛rr❛ q✉❡ s❡♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝♦✈❡❝t♦r s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r
✶✺
❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ r❡❞✉♥❞❛♥t❡✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❜r❛ hΘ| r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛ ♦ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r |Θi✳ ❘❡❝í♣r♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ t♦❞♦ ❝♦✈❡❝t♦r hΨ| t✐❡♥❡
❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi❀ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❧❛
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s

λ|Φi + µ|Θi = |λΦ + µΘi ←→ hλΦ + µΘ| = λ∗ hΦ| + µ∗ hΘ|. ✭✹✳✺✺✮

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦s ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ♣♦r ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳

◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❦❡ts ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s ✭r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s

♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r r✐❣✉r♦s❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛
tr❛✈és ❞❡ s✉s ❢♦r♠❛s ❞✉❛❧❡s ✭❝♦♥sú❧t❡s❡ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇ ♣❛r❛ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s✮✳

➓ ✸✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ |ΦihΛ| r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ②❛ q✉❡ s✉
❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❦❡t |Ψi ❡s
(|ΦihΘ|) |Ψi = |ΦihΘkΨi = |ΦihΘ|Ψi = hΘ|Ψi |Φi

✶✺
❊❢❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ✈❡❝t♦r |Θi ❞❡

E ❧❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r hΘ|Φi✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r |Φi ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ hΘ|Ψi✳

❙✐ BW = {|Φ1 i, |Φ2 i, ...} ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
W ❞❡ E ✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ✭✹✳✷✸✮ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi s♦❜r❡ W s❡
❡①♣r❡s❛ ❝♦♠♦

!
X X X
|ΨW i = hΦn |Ψi|Φn i = |Φn ihΦn |Ψi = |Φn ihΦn | |Ψi, ✭✹✳✺✻✮
n n n

❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛ré♥t❡s✐s s❡rá ❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r P̂W s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
W✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ✭✹✳✺✺✮✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ s✐ ✉♥❛
❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡stá ❡①♣r❡s❛❞❛ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❦❡ts ② ❜r❛s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛
❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥✈✐rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s✱ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ ❦❡ts ♣♦r
❜r❛s✱ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣♦r s✉ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ✭s✐ ♥♦ ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦✮ ② t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s
❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✳ ▲❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
 s❡ ❤❛rí❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ r❡❣❧❛✳

❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈✐rt✉❞❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦

✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t♦r✐♦ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ s❡❣✉✐r❡♠♦s ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡
s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦
|Ψ(t)i ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳ Ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ s✐♠❜♦❧♦❣í❛
❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡♥ ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s ♠✉② ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛s ✭❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✮ ②✱ ❡♥
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝❛s♦✱ s✐♥ ❡①♣❧♦t❛r t♦❞❛s s✉s ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s✳

4.7✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❉❯❈❚❖ ❚❊◆❙❖❘■❆▲✳ ❊◆❚❘❊▲❆❩❆▼■❊◆❚❖

➓ ✶✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 ) q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

Ψ(r) = ϕ(x)ξ(y)η(z),

❞♦♥❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❢❛❝t♦r ❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳

◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♥♦ ❤❛② ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❡♥ t♦♠❛r ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❝♦♠♦
❡❧ ✉s✉❛❧ ❡♥tr❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❤❛② ✉♥ ♠❛t✐③ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡
s✐ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦s✿ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ Ψ(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❧❛s
2
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ϕ(x)✱ ξ(y) ② η(z) s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L (R) q✉❡✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❡stá♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s
s♦❜r❡ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦s✳ ▲❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ϕ(x)ξ(y)η(z) ❡s ❡❧
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ tr❡s ♦❜❥❡t♦s s✉st❛♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✱ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦
 ✹✳✼✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❉❯❈❚❖ ❚❊◆❙❖❘■❆▲✳ ❊◆❚❘❊▲❆❩❆▼■❊◆❚❖

s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ ♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧✳ ❙✐ ✉s❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❦❡t ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝

♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❡❜❡r❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r

|Ψi = |ψ (x) i ⊗ |ξ (y) i ⊗ |η (z) i,

❞♦♥❞❡ |ψ (x) i r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R) ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ✱ |ξ (y) i
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞✐st✐♥t♦ L2 (R) ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ Y✱ ② ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ t❡r❝❡r♦ ✭② ❞❡ ❛❤í ❧♦s s✉♣❡rí♥❞✐❝❡s✱
s✉♣❡r✢✉♦s s✐ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ✉♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞♦ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ❛②✉❞❛♥✮✳

➓ ✷✳ ❋♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❛❞♦s ❞♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt E (1) ② E (2) s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦

t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❦❡ts |ψ (1) i ∈ E (1) ② |φ
(2)
i ∈ E (2) ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦
(1) (2)
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ |ψ i ⊗ |φ i✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s ② s✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛♥✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
 
|ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i + |ψ (1) i ⊗ |ξ (2) i = |ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i + |ξ (2) i
 
|ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i + |ζ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i = |ψ (1) i + |ζ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i ✭✹✳✺✼✮

     
λ |ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i = λ|ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i = |ψ (1) i ⊗ λ|φ(2) i

t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❣❛r❛♥tí❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ♦❜❥❡t♦s |ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i
② s✉s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s E
(1) ⊗ E (2) ✱

② q✉❡ ✏❤❡r❡❞❛✑ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ E (1) ② E (2) ✳

❙✐ ♣❛r❛ ❛❜r❡✈✐❛r ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ✭♠✉② ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✮ |ψ, φi ≡ |ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i✱ ❡❧
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥ E
(1) ⊗ E (2) ♣❛r❛ ❦❡ts ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦

hψ, φ|ζ, ηi = hψ|ζihφ|ηi. ✭✹✳✺✽✮

• ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ E (1) ⊗ E (2) ❤❛❜rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❦❡ts✿ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡
s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ ② ❧♦s r❡st❛♥t❡s✱ ❡s❝r✐t♦s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦
s✉♠❛s ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❞✐r❡❝t♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❆ ❧♦s s❡❣✉♥❞♦s ❧♦s ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s
❦❡ts ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦s ✭❞❡❧ ✐♥❣❧❡s ❡♥t❛♥❣❧❡❞ ✮✳✶✻
P❛r❛ ❦❡ts ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦s s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛ s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
❞❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❦❡ts ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦

✶✻
P♦❞rí❛♥ ❤❛❜❡rs❡ ✉s❛❞♦ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ✏❡♥r❡❞❛❞♦✑ ♦ ✏❡♥♠❛r❛ñ❛❞♦✑✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ❞❡ ✏❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦✑ ❡s ❡❧ q✉❡
s❡ ❤❛ ✐♠♣✉❡st♦ ❡♥ ❝❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

❞✐r❡❝t♦✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❣❛r❛♥tí❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ E (1) ⊗ E (2) ❡s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳

• ❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❞♦s ❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s E (1) ② E (2) ✱ B (1) =

(1) (1) (2) (2)
{|Φ1 i, |Φ2 i, ...} ② B (2) = {|ϑ1 i, |ϑ2 i, ...}✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r
❧♦s ❦❡ts

(1) (1)
|Φj , ϑ(2) (2)
n i ≡ |Φj i ⊗ |ϑn i con j = 1, 2, . . . ; n = 1, 2, ...

❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ E (1) ⊗E (2) ✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❧❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r
E (1) E (2) ❡s ❤❛❧❧❛r ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s
❞❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ② ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛s s✉♠❛s✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r
❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❦❡ts ❡♥ ❡s❛ ❜❛s❡✳

• ❙✐ Â(1) ❡s ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ E (1) ✱ s✉ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥

❦❡t ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ ❡s
 
Â(1) |ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i = |Â(1) ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i con |Â(1) ψ (1) i ≡ Â(1) |ψ (1) i
✭✹✳✺✾✮
✭❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦✮✳ ❆♥á❧♦❣♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ Â(2)
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt E
(2) ✳ ▲❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❦❡ts ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦s s❡

t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s❀

♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
 
Â(2) |ψ (1) i ⊗ |φ(2) i + |η (1) i ⊗ |ϕ(2) i = |ψ (1) i ⊗ |Â(2) φ(2) i + |η (1) i ⊗ |Â(2) ϕ(2) i.

P♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s Â(1) ② Â(2) ✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❛❝tú❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ E
(1) ⊗ E (2) ✱ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❛ tr❡s ♦ ♠ás ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s

❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❜❛s❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s {ϕn (x)}✱ {ξ n (y)}✱
{η n (z)} n = 1, 2, 3, ... ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (R) ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♥
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ✱ Y ② Z ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❈♦♥str✉②❛♠♦s ❡❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
2 3
❞❡ L (R )

 nx = 1, 2, ...
Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) = ϕnx (x) ξ ny (y) η nz (z) con ny = 1, 2, ...

nz = 1, 2, ...
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r ✭t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡✮ ❡♥tr❡ sí t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s tr❡s
❜❛s❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s L2 (R)✳ ❊st❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ②✱
♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱
L2 (R3 ) = L2 (R) ⊗ L2 (R) ⊗ L2 (R).
 ✹✳✼✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❉❯❈❚❖ ❚❊◆❙❖❘■❆▲✳ ❊◆❚❘❊▲❆❩❆▼■❊◆❚❖

▲❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛✳ ❙✐ ♥♦s ✜❥❛♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ x ❞❡

✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 )✱ ést❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

∞
X Z
Ψ(r) = ψ nx (y, z) ϕnx (x) con ψ nx (y, z) = ϕ∗nx (x) Ψ(r)dx
nx =1 R

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♠♦s q✉❡ ψ nx (y, z) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ y

∞
X Z
ψ nx (y, z) = ψ nx ,ny (z) ξ ny (y) con ψ nx ,ny (z) = ξ ∗ny (y) ψ nx (y, z)dy
ny =1 R

②✱ ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱

∞
X Z
ψ nx ,ny (z) = cnx ,ny ,nz η nz (z) con cnx ,ny ,nz = η ∗nz (z) ψ nx ,ny (z) dz.
nz =1 R

❯♥✐❡♥❞♦ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 )✿

∞ X
X ∞ X
∞
Ψ(r) = cnx ny ,nz Φnx ny ,nz (r)
nx =1 ny =1 nz =1
✭✹✳✻✵✮
con Φnx ny ,nz (r) ≡ ϕnx (x) ξ ny (y) η nz (z)
Z
y cnx ny ,nz = Φ∗nx ny ,nz (r) Ψ(r) d3 r = hΦnx ,ny ,nz |Ψi,
R3

❝♦♠♦ q✉❡rí❛♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r✳

❋ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r) ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦

❞✐r❡❝t♦✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛s ❛ s✉ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦
❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s X, Y, Z ❡stá♥ ❞❡s❛❝♦♣❧❛❞❛s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ Ψ(r) = ϕ(x)ξ(y)η(z)
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ x ② px só❧♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ϕ(x)✱
s✐❡♥❞♦ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❡♥ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ξ(y) ② η(z)✳ ❙✐♥
❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧♦ ♠ás ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ s❡❛
❢❛❝t♦r✐③❛❜❧❡✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ♥♦s s❡r✈✐rá ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦

❞❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉❜s✐st❡♠❛s ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡s✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❞♦s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ♣✉♥t✉❛❧❡s ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐❜❧❡s✳ ❙✐ r1 ❡s ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ② r2 ❧❛ ❞❡
❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦
❡st❛rá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ Φ(r1 )Ψ(r2 ) ✭✉♥❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r1
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

② ♦tr❛ ❞❡ r2 ✮ ② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧❛s✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛

❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞❛ αΦ(r1 )Ψ(r2 ) + βΩ(r1 )Γ(r2 )
❝♦♥ α ② β ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦s✱ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s
♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ②❛ q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❝♦rr❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

❊❧ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦✱ tér♠✐♥♦ ❛❝✉ñ❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❊r✇✐♥ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✱ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❞❡

❧❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ♠ás ❞✐st✐♥t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❈♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡s
❧❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ s✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛
✈❛ ♠ás ❛❧❧á ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳
❙✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❆❜♥❡r ❙❤✐♠♦♥②✱ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥
♦❜❥❡t✐✈❛ ✭❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✮✱ ❡❧ ❛③❛r ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ✭❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮ ② ❡❧ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✹✳✶✳ ❊st❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♦ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ♥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s |θq i ② |δ a i ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱
q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r q ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ② ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r a ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❍❛❧❧❡ s✉s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ θ̃q (p) ② δ̃ a (p) ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✹✳✷✳ ❯♥✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❡s ú♥✐❝❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ s✐ W ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡
❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ L2 (R3 )✱ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❝♦♠♦

Ψ(r) = ΨW (r) + ΨW ⊥ (r) con ΨW (r) ∈ W y ΨW ⊥ (r) ⊥ W.

❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛✿ Pr♦❝❡❞❛ ♣♦r r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❛❜s✉r❞♦ ② s✉♣♦♥❣❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② ♦tr❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡
❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) = ΦW (r) + ΦW ⊥ (r) ✳ ❘❡st❛♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡
q✉❡ kΨW − ΦW k = 0 ❧♦ q✉❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ s✐ ΨW (r) = ΦW (r)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✹✳✸✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞✐s❝r❡t♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ {Φn (r)}✱ ❡♥ ♦tr♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ {Λλ (r)} ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ② ❡♥ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ B
❞❡ ❛♠❜♦s✳ ❚♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ B s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ② ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛s
Λλ (r) ❝♦♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ❡s ✜♥✐t♦✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✿

❛✮ ❙✐ B ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡♥ ❧❛s

r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✹✳✷✵✮ ② ✭✹✳✷✶✮✳
❜✮ ▲❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ② s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ B s❡❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❡s q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❣❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✐❡rr❡ ✭✹✳✷✷✮✱
X Z
Φ∗n (r)Φn (r′ ) + Λ∗λ (r)Λλ (r′ ) dλ = δ(r − r′ ).
n

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✹✳✹✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s

❙✐ Â ② B̂ s♦♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s ② α, β ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s r❡❛❧❡s✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s♦♥
s✐♠étr✐❝♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s Ân ✱ α + β B̂ ✱ ÂB̂ + B̂  ② i(ÂB̂ − B̂ Â) ❝♦♥ n ∈ N✮✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✹✳✺✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s

❊♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ L2 (R3 ) ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s P̂ ✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ ❧❛s
s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✿
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❊❙P❆❈■❖ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆

✐✮ ❙✐ W ❡s ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♣r♦②❡❝t❛ P̂ ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s P̂Ψ(r) = Ψ(r) s✐ Ψ(r) ∈ W

② P̂Φ(r) = 0 s✐ Φ(r) ∈ W ⊥ ✳
✐✐✮ P̂ ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❡ ✐❞❡♠♣♦t❡♥t❡✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ P̂ † = P̂ ② q✉❡ P̂ 2 = P̂ ✳
✐✐✐✮ ❙✐ P̂i s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s Wi ✭i = 1, 2✮✱

W 1 ⊥ W2 ⇔ P̂1 P̂2 = P̂2 P̂1 = 0̂.

✐✈✮ ❙✐ W1 ② W2 s♦♥ ❞♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ② P̂1 ✱ P̂2 s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s
♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡sP̂1 + P̂2 ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ s✉♠❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ W1 ⊕ W2 ✱ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ✉♥❛
s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ W1 ♠ás ♦tr❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ W2 ✳
 ❚❡♠❛ ✺
▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❯♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥
❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (R3 )✱ ❡st❛♠♦s
❡♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❡r ❝ó♠♦ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❡♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r A ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ✳ ❊❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✏❝❧ás✐❝♦✑ ❞❡ A ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♣♦r q✉é ❡st❛r ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s
❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✿ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ❞❛rá ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✐♠♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡✳
❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡
A s❡ ♣♦❞rá ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❧
❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸ ✈✐♠♦s q✉❡ ést❡ ❡r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❊❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s❡rá ❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s
❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✳

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❜ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥
❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s ❤❛❧❧❛r❡♠♦s✱ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ r❡st♦ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❞❡
✐♥t❡rés ✭❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✱ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ❡t❝✳✮✳

▲♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❛sí ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s s❡r✈✐rá♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ② ❧❛s
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✳ ❆ú♥ ❛sí✱ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ♥♦ ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦✳ P❛r❛
❡❧❧♦ ❞❡❜❡r❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❧♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ② ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♣✐♦✱ q✉❡ ♥♦s
❧❧❡✈❛rá♥ ❛❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❱❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❢ís✐❝❛ s❡rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✱ ❡♥
❧❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ t❛❧❡s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s s❡rá ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ t❛❧ ❜❛s❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❍❛② ❜❛st❛♥t❡s ✐❞❡❛s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ s✉t✐❧❡s✳

❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ✉♥❛s ✶✵ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥ ❡st❛r r❡♣❛rt✐❞❛s ❛
♣❛rt❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ② s✉s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ q✉❡
s❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s r❡s✉❡❧t♦s ② ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❊♥t❡♥❞❡r ♣♦r q✉é ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s

❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❙❛❜❡r ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r s✐st❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡

✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛✳ ❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛r t❛❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝♦s
✭❡s♣❡❝tr♦✱ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r✱ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦✱ ❡t❝✳✮

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ✏❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧✑ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✳
 ✺✳✶✳ ▲❖❙ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ P❖❙■❈■Ó◆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ▲■◆❊❆▲

5.1✳ ▲❖❙ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ P❖❙■❈■Ó◆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ▲■◆❊❆▲

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M✱ ❝✉②♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡

❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ❡s |Ψ(t)i✱ ② q✉❡ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)
✶
♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (R3 ) ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳
❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✹✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s
Z Z  
1 3
hpx it = px ρmom (p, t) d p = Ψ̃∗ (p, t) px Ψ̃(p, t) d3 p, ✭✺✳✶✮
R3 kΨ(t)k2 R3

❝á❧❝✉❧♦ q✉❡ ♦❜❧✐❣❛ ❡♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ♣r❡✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥

♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡
❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡✈✐t❛r ❡st❡ ♣❛s♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ p =
px u x + p y u y + p z u z ✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

∂ exp(ip · r/~)
px exp(ip · r/~) = −i~ ,
∂x
❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❡ px Ψ̃(p, t) ❡s
Z Z
1 −i~ ∂
px Ψ̃(p, t)eip·r/~ d3 p = Ψ̃(p, t)eip·r/~ d3 p
(2π~)3/2 R3 (2π~)3/2 ∂x R3
∂Ψ(r, t)
= −i~ .
∂x
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧ ❛ ✭✺✳✶✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
Z  
1 ∗ ∂Ψ(r, t) 3
hpx it = Ψ (r, t) −i~ d r, ✭✺✳✷✮
kΨ(t)k2 R3 ∂x
❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ♠✉② s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ x ❞❡❧
❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✸✳✹✳✶✳
Z
1

hxit = Ψ∗ (r, t) xΨ(r, t) d3 r.
kΨ(t)k2 R3

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡

∂ n exp(ip · r/~)
pnx exp(ip · r/~) = (−i~)n con n = 1, 2, 3, ...
∂xn

✶
❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛r ❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛
♠❡t♦♥✐♠✐❛ ②❛ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♥♦ ♦❧✈✐❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ t
❡s ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ✐♥tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ❧♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

♣r♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ pnx ② xn s♦♥

Z  n 
1 ∂
hpnx it = Ψ∗ (r, t) −i~ Ψ(r, t) d3 r
kΨ(t)k2 R3 ∂x
Z
1

hxn it = Ψ∗ (r, t) xn Ψ(r, t) d3 r,
kΨ(t)k2 R3

❞♦♥❞❡ (−i~∂/∂x)n ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ n ✈❡❝❡s

❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r −i~∂/∂x✳ P❛r❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s y ✱ z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛s ❛ ❧❛s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✳

➓ ✷✳ ❊st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s s✉❣✐❡r❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ❞❡

♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❝✉②❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦♥✿

x̂Φ(r) = xΦ(r) ŷΦ(r) = yΦ(r) ẑΦ(r) = zΦ(r)

∂Φ(r) ∂Φ(r) ∂Φ(r)

p̂x Φ(r) = −i~ p̂y Φ(r) = −i~ p̂z Φ(r) = −i~ ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
✭✺✳✸✮
❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡
❡s♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❡s

Z  
n 1 1
hA it = 2
hΨ(t)|Ân Ψ(t)i = Ψ∗ (r, t) Ân Ψ(r, t) d3 r,
kΨ(t)k kΨ(t)k2 R3

✭✺✳✹✮
❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✐st❛ A = {x̂, ŷ, ẑ; p̂x , p̂y , p̂z }✳ ❆q✉í
n ❡s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡♥t❡r♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ② Ân ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡ Â✱ ♣♦r ❧♦
q✉❡ Ân ❡st❛rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ An ✳
❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

q
(∆A)t = hA2 it − hAi2t ✭✺✳✺✮

② ❡✈❛❧✉❛♥❞♦ hA2 it ② hAi2t ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✺✳✹✮✳

➓ ✸✳ ❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ② ❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

✹✳❜ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✺✮✱ ❡st♦s s❡✐s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✭{x̂, ŷ, ẑ; p̂x , p̂y , p̂z }✮ s♦♥ s✐♠étr✐❝♦s
✭❧❛ ❛♣❛r✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ~ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛ ❛
 ✺✳✶✳ ▲❖❙ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ P❖❙■❈■Ó◆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ▲■◆❊❆▲

❡st❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✮✱ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ q✉❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ tr❛s❧❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ s✉s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s✳

❊st♦ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✺✳✹✮ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r r❡❛❧❡s ②✱ s✐ n ❡s ♣❛r✱
❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛s✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ t❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✷✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s

✭✺✳✹✮ s♦♥ ✜♥✐t♦s ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳ ❙✐ r❡❧❛❥❛♠♦s ❡st❛ ♦❜✈✐❛
❡①✐❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❢ís✐❝❛✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♠✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s s❡rá ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✱
❧♦ ♠í♥✐♠♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ✐♠♣♦♥❡r ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s
② ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡❛♥ ✜♥✐t♦s✳ ❊st♦ q✉❡❞❛
❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛❞♦ s✐ Ψ(r, t) ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛ ❧♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ❡♥
❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✺✳✸✮ ② s✐ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ri Ψ(r,t)✱ ❝♦♥ ri = x, y, z ✱ s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡
L2 (R3 )✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ Ψ(r, t) ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ② s✉s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s x̂, ŷ, ẑ ② p̂x , p̂y , p̂z
❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦ ✭❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛✮ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ s✐ ❡stá♥ ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛❞❛s
❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❡s❡ ❝❛s♦

∂Ψ(r) ∂ {xΨ(r)}
x̂p̂x Ψ(r) = −i~x = −i~ + i~Ψ(r) = p̂x x̂Ψ(r) + i~Ψ(r)
∂x ∂x
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
 
(x̂p̂x − p̂x x̂)Ψ(r) ≡ x̂, p̂x Ψ(r) = i~Ψ(r)
Pr♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ✐❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ y ② z t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

x̂p̂x − p̂x x̂ = ŷ p̂y − p̂y ŷ = ẑ p̂z − p̂z ẑ = i~Î

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡✱



 i, j = 1, 2, 3
x̂i x̂j − x̂j x̂i = p̂i p̂j − p̂j p̂i = 0̂ 


con x1 ≡ x , x 2 ≡ y , x3 ≡ z


x̂i p̂j − p̂j x̂i = i~δ i,j Î 


p 1 ≡ px , p 2 ≡ p y , p 3 ≡ p z
✭✺✳✻✮
s✐❡♥❞♦ δ i,j ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❑r♦♥❡❝❦❡r✳ ➱st❛s s♦♥ ❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✼✱ ❡stá♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s
❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✺✳❛✳ ✭✦✮ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s

▲❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡s ♠✉② ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✱ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ ❡♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛
❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ só❧✐❞♦✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦✱ ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❛❝tú❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧❧❛ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s
❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ② ♣❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡
Z Z
hxit = Ψ∗ (r, t)xΨ(r, t) d3 r ; hpx it = Ψ̃∗ (p, t)px Ψ̃(p, t) d3 p. ✭✺✳✼✮
R3 R3

❙✐ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ x ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ p ✭s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦

♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ ❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✶ ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

Z Z
∂ Ψ̃(p, t) 3
hxit = +i~ Ψ̃∗ (p, t) d p ; hpx it = Ψ̃∗ (p, t)px Ψ̃(p, t) d3 p
R3 ∂px R3

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ x̂ ② p̂x s♦♥

∂ Φ̃(p)
x̂Φ̃(p) = +i~ ; p̂x Φ̃(p) = px Φ̃(p) ✭✺✳✽✮
∂px

❝♦♥ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ŷ, ẑ, p̂y , p̂z ✳

5.2✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❚■❱❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉

➓ ✶✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡s❝❛❧❛r A ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ ▲❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧

q✉❡ s✉r❣❡ ❡s s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  t❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A s♦❜r❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❡st❛❞♦ Ψ(r, t) ❡sté ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✺✳✹✮✳

❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r)✱ s✉ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ s❡rá

Z Z
1
hV it = V (r)ρ(r, t) d3 r = Ψ∗ (r, t)V (r)Ψ(r, t) d3 r
R3 kΨ(t)k2 R3

②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r❧♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♠♦

1
hV it = hΨ(t)|V̂ Ψ(t)i con V̂ Φ(r) = V (r)Φ(r). ✭✺✳✾✮
kΨ(t)k2
 ✺✳✷✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❚■❱❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉

❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V̂ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá✱ ❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ V (r) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧✱ V̂ ❡s
✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦✳

▲❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✜r♠❛t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ K ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M✳ ❈♦♠♦

1 1
K= |p|2 = (p2 + p2y + p2z )
2M 2M x
s✉ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❡st❛rá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

1
1
hKit = hp2x it + hp2y it + hp2z it = hΨ(t)|K̂Ψ(t)i
2M kΨ(t)k2
❝♦♥  
1 2 2 2

~2 2
K̂Φ(r) = p̂x + p̂y + p̂z Φ(r) = − ∇ Φ(r),
2M 2M
❞♦♥❞❡ K̂ ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ② ∇2 ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥❛✳ ❊❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r K̂ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ s✐♠étr✐❝♦✱ ❛❧ s❡r ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s✳

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ H ❡st❛rá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r

❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♦ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ ✱ ❝✉②❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s

   
~2 2
ĤΦ(r) = K̂ + V̂ Φ(r) = − ∇ + V (r) Φ(r) ✭✺✳✶✵✮
2M

q✉❡✱ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦✱ ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❛❧ s❡r ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s✳

➓ ✷✳ ❍❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ♥♦s ❤❡♠♦s ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ❛ r❡❢♦r♠✉❧❛r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥✜❡r❡♥

❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r Lz = xpy −
ypx ✳ P♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡rí❛ ❡♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ L̂z =
x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x ✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡st❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♠ás ♣r♦❢✉♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s
❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ②❛ q✉❡ t♦❞❛✈í❛ ♥♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦♥❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡
✉♥ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ♦tr♦ q✉❡ ❧♦ s❡❛ ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

▲❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ②

❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s✱ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝❛s♦✱ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ só❧✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡✿
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❚♦❞❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ A ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ❡①♣r❡s❛❜❧❡ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦

❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p✱ q✉❡❞❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥
❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ Â ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ L2 (R3 )✳

❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ A ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ Ψ(r, t)

❡stá♥ ❞❛❞♦s ♣♦r
Z  
1 1
hAit = hΨ(t)|ÂΨ(t)i = Ψ∗ (r, t) ÂΨ(r, t) d3 r
kΨ(t)k2 kΨ(t)k2 R3

q
1
(∆A)t = hA2 it − hAi2t con hAn it = hΨ(t)|Ân Ψ(t)i
kΨ(t)k2

◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳

❉❡❜❡♠♦s ♠❛♥t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛s ♠í♥✐♠❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦s ② ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s✐ A ② B s♦♥ ❞♦s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s
② Â ② B̂ s✉s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡
q✉❡

F = αA + βB −→ F̂ = α + β B̂ (con α, β ∈ R)

G = AB −→ Ĝ = 21 (ÂB̂ + B̂ Â) ✭✺✳✶✶✮

An −→ Ân (con n ∈ N)

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❛sí ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Ĝ ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ q✉❡

❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ Â ② B̂ s❡❛ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦ ♦ ♥♦✮✳

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ s✐ A = A(r; p) ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ s✉

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ Â ❞❡❜❡ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡r ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧ Â =
A(x̂, ŷ, ẑ; p̂x , p̂y , p̂z )✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ A ❞❡❜❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ s❡❛ s✐♠étr✐❝♦✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ r ✭❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛
r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✮ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r̂ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
p
r̂Ψ(r) = rΨ(r) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 Ψ(r),
❝✉②♦ ❝❛rá❝t❡r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✳

➓ ✸✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ✭✺✳✶✶✮ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

1
Lz = xpy − ypx −→ L̂z = (x̂p̂y + p̂y x̂ − ŷ p̂x − p̂x ŷ) = x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x ,
2
 ✺✳✷✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❚■❱❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉

♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ s♦♥ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦s ❞❡

❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ✭✺✳✻✮✳ ▲♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛s tr❡s
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r L ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣♦r
s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ s♦❜r❡ s✉s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s✿

 
∂ ∂
L̂x = ŷ p̂z − ẑ p̂y = −i~ y −z
∂z ∂y
 
∂ ∂
L̂y = ẑ p̂x − x̂p̂z = −i~ z −x ✭✺✳✶✷✮
∂x ∂z
 
∂ ∂
L̂z = x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x = −i~ x −y
∂y ∂x

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✺✳❜✳ ✭✦✮ ❖tr❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❆

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦r

k(Â − ā)Ψ(t)k
(∆A)t = , con ā ≡ hAit , ✭✺✳✶✸✮
kΨ(t)k

❞♦♥❞❡ k(Â − ā)Ψ(t)k ❡s ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ (Â − ā)Ψ(r,t)✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
P❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡
p
(∆A)t = h(A − ā)2 it con ā = hAit .

❙✐ Â2 r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A2 ❡s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ (Â − āÎ)2 ❡stá ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ (A − ā)2 ✱
②❛ q✉❡ ā ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛❞✐t✐✈❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦
s
p 1
(∆A)t = h(A − ā)2 it = hΨ(t)|(Â − āÎ)2 Ψ(t)i.
kΨ(t)k2

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐ Â ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Â−āÎ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s ✭ā ❡s r❡❛❧ ✮✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
♣❛s❛r❧♦ ❛❧ ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ✿
s
1 k(Â − ā)Ψ(t)k
(∆A)t = 2
h(Â − āÎ)Ψ(t)|(Â − āÎ)Ψ(t)i =
kΨ(t)k kΨ(t)k

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ② ❡s❝r✐t♦ āÎ = ā✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✺✳❝✳ ✭✯✮ ▲❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧

❊♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r
1
pr = r·p
r
▲❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ p̂r ❡s ❞❡❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ ❡❧
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦✳

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ Πr ≡ r · p✳

❜✮ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ②✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✱
♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ p̂r ✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❈♦♠♦ r · p = xpx + ypy + zpz ✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ✭✺✳✶✶✮✱
1 3i~
r · p −→ (x̂p̂x + p̂x x̂ + ŷ p̂y + p̂y ŷ + ẑ p̂z + p̂z ẑ) = x̂p̂x + ŷ p̂y + ẑ p̂z − Î ≡ Π̂r
2 2
❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛
s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦r s✉s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱
 
i~ ∂ ∂ ∂ i~
Π̂r Ψ(r) = − 3 + 2x + 2y + 2z Ψ(r) = − (3Ψ(r) + 2r · ∇Ψ(r)) .
2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 2
❜✮ ❊♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❆✮
∂
r · ∇Ψ(r) = r Ψ(r)
∂r
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡  
i~ ∂
Π̂r Ψ(r) = −3Ψ(r) + 2r Ψ(r) .
2 ∂r
▲❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❛ 1/r ❡s✱ ❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ (1/r)Ψ(r)✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛
  
1 1 1  1
pr = Πr −→ p̂r Ψ(r) = Π̂r Ψ(r) + Π̂r Ψ(r)
r 2 r r
② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦
   
−i~ 1 ∂ −i~ Ψ(r) ∂ Ψ(r)
p̂r Ψ(r) = 3Ψ(r) + 2r
Ψ(r) + 3 + 2r =
4 r ∂r 4 r ∂r r
   
3i~ Ψ(r) i~ ∂Ψ(r) i~r ∂ Ψ(r) Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r)
=− − − = −i~ + .
2 r 2 ∂r 2 ∂r r r ∂r
❊♥ s✉♠❛ ✭❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦✮✱

 
1 ∂ 1 ∂{rΨ(r)}
p̂r Ψ(r) = −i~ + Ψ(r) = − i~ . ✭✺✳✶✹✮
r ∂r r ∂r
 ✺✳✸✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ P❯◆❚❯❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❋❮❙■❈❆

5.3✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ P❯◆❚❯❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❋❮❙■❈❆

➓ ✶✳ ❊♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✳ ❙❡❛ A ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ Â✳ ❙✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❞❡
t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ést❡ s❡rá ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ♦
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ A s✐ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A ♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
a✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ a ❡s ✉♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ♦ ✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ Â✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡♥
✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a ② s✉ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡
❡s ♥✉❧❛✳✷ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ a ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ Â✱ σ P (Â)✳
◆❛❞❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ q✉❡ s✐ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t0 ❡s ♣r♦♣✐♦
❞❡ Â ❧♦ s✐❣❛ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ♣♦st❡r✐♦r✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦ ♦♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❞❛♥❞♦ ❛sí ♣♦r
s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✏❝♦♥❣❡❧❛❞♦✑ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
s❡ tr❛t❛rá ❡♥ ❡❧ ❚❡♠❛ ✻✳

➓ ✷✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ Ψ(r)✳ ❙✐ t❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a✱
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s hAi = a ② ∆A = 0✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡

1
∆A = k(Â − hAi)Ψk
kΨk
② q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ só❧♦ ❡s ❝❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❧❛✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥tís✐♠♦
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦

|Ψi es propio de  con autovalor a ⇔ ÂΨ(r) = aΨ(r). ✭✺✳✶✺✮

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r) ❞❡❧ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❡s ❛sí s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ÂΨ(r) = aΨ(r)✱ ② s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a✳
❊♥ ❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ σ p (Â) ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦
❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s a ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s t✐❡♥❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s✳ P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❢ís✐❝❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦✳ ❯s❛r❡♠♦s
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ sí♠❜♦❧♦ σ p ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛r ✐♥❞✐st✐♥t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥♦ ✉ ♦tr♦ ②✱ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦

✷
◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ t♦❞♦ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A
❤❛② ✉♥❛ ✐♥❡✈✐t❛❜❧❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ δa > 0✳ ❆sí✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❛✜r♠❛♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦♥
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a✱ ❡st❛♠♦s s❡ñ❛❧❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐❞❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ δa → 0✱ ❞❛rá
❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ A = a✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❝❛r❣❛r ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱ só❧♦ ❡♥ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ s❡ñ❛❧❛r❡♠♦s ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛

q✉é ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ✭♦ ❛ q✉é ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r✮ ♥♦s ❡st❛♠♦s r❡✜r✐❡♥❞♦✳

❊❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ Â ❡s r❡❛❧✱ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡

♥♦ ❡①✐st❡♥ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥♦ r❡❛❧❡s (a 6= a∗ ) ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
ÂΨ(r) = aΨ(r)✳
Ψ(r)
❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❡ a

hΨ|ÂΨi = hÂΨ|Ψi ⇒ hΨ|aΨi = haΨ|Ψi ⇒ ahΨ|Ψi = a∗ hΨ|Ψi

② ❝♦♠♦ hΨ|Ψi =
6 0 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s a = a∗ ✿ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ Â ❡s r❡❛❧✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡✱ ✜❥❛❞♦ a✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦

❞❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ② q✉❡
❞❡s✐❣♥❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ Wa ✿
n o
Wa = Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 ) tal que ÂΨ(r) = aΨ(r) . ✭✺✳✶✻✮

▲❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ga ❞❡ Wa ✱ ✜♥✐t❛ ♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡✱ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞

♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦ra ②✱ ♣♦r ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ❞❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ Wa ✳
❉❡s✐❣♥❡♠♦s ♣♦r {Ψa,n (r)} ❝♦♥ n = 1, 2, ..., ga ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛
❞❡ Wa ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❡ Wa ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
ga
X
Ψ(r) = cn Ψa,n (r) con cn = hΨa,n |Ψi. ✭✺✳✶✼✮
n=1

❙✐ ga = 1 ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❡s ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❀ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❤❛②

✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ t❛❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
✸
♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ Wa ✭❡①❝❡♣t♦ ❧❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✮ ②❛ q✉❡ t♦❞❛s s♦♥ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s
❡♥tr❡ sí✳ P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ s✐ ga > 1 ✭s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ga −❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✮ ❡①✐st✐rá♥
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❞❡ a✱ ♣❡r♦ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥
♠á①✐♠♦ ❞❡ ga ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ Wa ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♦✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❡
ga ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

➓ ✹✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❞♦s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â✱ Ψa1 (r) ② Ψa2 (r)✱
❝♦♥ a1 6= a2 ✱ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ s❡♥❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❞❡ A✳ ❍❛② ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞

✸
❙✐ ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s Ψ(r) = 0✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ ❡❧
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❞✐❝❤❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡✱ r❡❝✉❡r❞❡✱ ❤❛❜í❛♠♦s ❛s✐❣♥❛❞♦ ❛❧ ✏❡st❛❞♦
✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡✑✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ✈❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♣♦rq✉é ❞❡ t❛❧ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥✿ s✐ ÂΨ(r) = aΨ(r) só❧♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ♣❛r❛ Ψ(r) = 0
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥♦ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ A t♦♠❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦ra ❝♦♥ t♦t❛❧ ❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳
 ✺✳✸✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ P❯◆❚❯❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❋❮❙■❈❆

❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ A✱ q✉❡ ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡st♦s
❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✿ ❡s ❛sí ♠✉② r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❡st♦s ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
❞✐st✐♥t♦s✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♥✉❡str♦ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❜❛s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
❡s❝❛❧❛r ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ➓ ✹✳✶✳✹✮ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s q✉❡ hΨa1 |Ψa2 i = 0 ②✱ ❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❡❧❧♦ q✉❡❞❛
❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛❞♦ ❣r❛❝✐❛s ❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦✳ ❱❡á♠♦s❧♦✳ ❈♦♠♦  ❡s
s✐♠étr✐❝♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

hΨa1 |ÂΨa2 i − hÂΨa1 |Ψa2 i = 0

② ❛❧ s❡r Ψa1 (r) ② Ψa2 (r) ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡❛❧❡s

hΨa1 |a2 Ψa2 i − ha1 Ψa1 |Ψa2 i = 0 ⇒ (a2 − a1 )hΨa1 |Ψa2 i = 0.

P❡r♦✱ ♣♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s✱ a1 6= a2 ✱ ② ♥♦ q✉❡❞❛ ♠ás r❡♠❡❞✐♦ q✉❡ hΨa1 |Ψa2 i = 0✳

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ✿

a1 6= a2 ⇔ W a1 ⊥ W a2 . ✭✺✳✶✽✮

❊st♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡✿ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡s

♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡✱
σ p = {a1 , a2 , . . . } ⊂ R. ✭✺✳✶✾✮

❊❢❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ♥♦ ❧♦ ❢✉❡s❡ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♥♦ ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡ ❞❡

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡s❝♦❣✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣♦r ❝❛❞❛
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ σ p ✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦
❝♦♥ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r✳
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ s✐ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ❡♥
❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ❡s♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡st❛rá♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞♦s✳
▲❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s
❡①♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s tr❡s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s✿

✶✳ ❊❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ✭❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A ♥♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦

❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✮❀

✷✳ ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ✭❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ A s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮ ②

✸✳ ❊❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✭❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛

♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ A ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
❧✐♥❡❛❧✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✺✳❞✳ ✭✦✮ ▲❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

▲❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂z ❡s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ s✐ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s Ψ(r) ❡♥
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✱ Ψ(r) = Ψ(r, θ, ϕ)✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭❆✳✶✼✮ ② ✭❆✳✸✶✮
❞❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❆ ♥♦ ❡s ❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡

 
∂Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r)
L̂z Ψ(r) = −i~ x −y = −i~ ✭✺✳✷✵✮
∂y ∂x ∂ϕ

② ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r só❧♦ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛

❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ϕ✳
❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ Lz ✳
❜✮ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ Lz ❄
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ Lz t✐❡♥❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❛❝❝✐ó♥✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♥♦t❛r ❧♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♠♦
m~✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ m ❡s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡
❛ L̂z ❡s✿
∂Ψ(r)
L̂z Ψ(r) = m~Ψ(r) ⇒ −i = mΨ(r)
∂ϕ
q✉❡ ❡s s❛t✐s❢❡❝❤❛ ♣♦r t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = Θ(r, θ) exp(imϕ). ✭✺✳✷✶✮

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❛③✐♠✉t❛❧ ϕ✱

Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) =Ψ(r, θ, ϕ + 2π) ⇒ exp(2πim) = 1

❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ m ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❡♥t❡r♦✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦

σ(L̂z ) = σ p (L̂z ) = {m~ con m = 0, ±1, ±2, ...} . ✭✺✳✷✷✮

❖❜s❡r✈❛♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r Lz ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ Lz ❡sté ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✭②✱ ♣♦r s✐♠❡trí❛✱ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✮ ❡stá♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞♦s✱ s✐❡♥❞♦
♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❡♥t❡r♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ~✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝♦♥t❡①t♦ ❞❡
❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❛♥t✐❣✉❛ ést❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♦tr♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r
❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳
❜✮ ❋✐❥❛❞♦ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ m✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s
❡♥tr❡ sí ❝✉②❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✭✺✳✷✶✮✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r m~ ❞❡ Lz ❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡st❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❡s ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♦
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r✳
 ✺✳✹✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❈❖◆❚■◆❯❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❋❮❙■❈❆

➓ ✺✳ ▲❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ②❛ q✉❡✱ ♣♦r

❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛
s♦♥ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞❛s ✭σ p = {∅}✮✳
❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ② s✉s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ♣❛r❛
x̂ ② p̂x s♦♥

x̂Ψ(r) = ax Ψ(r) ⇒ xΨ(r) = ax Ψ(r) ⇒ Ψ(r) = δ(x − ax )ψ(y, z)

∂Φ(r)
p̂x Φ(r) = qx Φ(r) ⇒ −i~ = qx Φ(r) ⇒ Φ(r) = exp(iqx x/~)ϕ(y, z)
∂x

❞♦♥❞❡ ψ(y, z) ② ϕ(y, z) s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✳ ❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) ♥♦
s♦♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♥♦ ❡①✐st✐r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ♣❛r❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❣❡♥ér✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ax ♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ qx ✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❡st♦s
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦✳

P❛r❛ ❡st❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❡①✐st❡♥✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛

✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡r♦✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s

 
eik0 x (x − x0 )2
Ψ(r) = exp − ϕ(y, z) con β ∈ R+ ,
(πβ 2 )1/4 2β 2

♣❛r❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦✮

β ~
hxi = x0 ; hpx i = ~k0 ; ∆x = √ ; ∆px = √ .
2 2β

❙✐ β ≃ 0 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s

❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ s✐ β ≫ 0 ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥ px ❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✳
❊♥ ❛♠❜♦s ❝❛s♦s ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❣❡♥✉✐♥♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧❛
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✱ ♣❡r♦ sí ❞❡ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s✳
❊❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❡①✐❣❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ♥✉❡✈❛s
❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s✱ q✉❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳

5.4✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❈❖◆❚■◆❯❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❋❮❙■❈❆

➓ ✶✳ ❙❡❛ A ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ② Â s✉ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦✳ ❯♥ ✈❛❧♦r r❡❛❧

α ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ σp ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✱ σ c (Â)✱ ❞❡ Â✱ s✐
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡st❛❞♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ hAi = α ② q✉❡ ∆A s❡❛ t❛♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

✹
♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ q✉✐❡r❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛


 α∈
/ σ p (Â), pero para todo ǫ > 0 existe un
α ∈ σ c (Â) ⇔

estado |Φi de E tal que hAi = α y 0 < ∆A < ǫ.

❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r α ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ σ c ❡

✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆A ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✱ t♦❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A r❡❛❧✐③❛❞❛ s♦❜r❡ t❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥
✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❝✉②❛ ✐♠♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ δa s❡❛ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ∆A ❞❛rá ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞
✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ α ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♠❛r❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡
♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ Ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ♠❛♥✐❢❡st❛rá q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥ ❣❡♥✉✐♥♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦
❞❡ A s✐ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ♠✉② ♣r❡❝✐s♦ ✭δa ≪ ∆A✮✱ ②❛ q✉❡
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞é ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ♥❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦
❞❡ α✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠✉② ❝❡r❝❛♥♦✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡✱ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ❞❡
❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A✱ ❧♦s s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ②
❞❡❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ s♦♥ ♠✉② s✐♠✐❧❛r❡s✱ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s
❞❡ σ c (Â)✳

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✺✳✶✸✮ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ Â ② s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s

q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Φ(r) ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Φi ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r
❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛


α∈/ σ p (Â), pero para todo ǫ > 0 existe

α ∈ σ c (Â) ⇔ una Φ(r) normalizada (esto es, ∈ L2 (R)) ✭✺✳✷✸✮

tal que 0 < k(Â − α)Φk < ǫ

q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ q✉❡✱ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡❧

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â✿ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ α ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛ σ c (Â) s✐ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s
ÂΦ(r) = αΦ(r) ❡s s❛t✐s❢❡❝❤❛ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❡rr♦r
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ✭❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥✉♥❝❛ ♥✉❧♦✮✳

α ∈ σ c ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✱ s✐
′
❡①✐st✐rá ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r α ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣ró①✐♠♦ q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥
✭✺✳✷✸✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ t❡♥❡r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛✐s❧❛❞♦s✱
❧♦ q✉❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛ s✉ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ σ c ❡st❛rá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥♦ ♦ ✈❛r✐♦s
✺
s✉❜✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡❛❧✳

✹
❙✐ ∆A ❢✉❡r❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ α ❢♦r♠❛rí❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ σp ✳
✺
❊♥ r✐❣♦r ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❞❡❜❡

❝♦♥t❡♥❡r ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳ ❆sí✱ s✐ A ❡s ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ② σp =
{1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ...}✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r 0 ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ A✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s
 ✺✳✹✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❈❖◆❚■◆❯❖ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉ ❋❮❙■❈❆

➓ ✷✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ✭✺✳✷✸✮ ❡s ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ tr❛♥s♣❛r❡♥t❡✱ ♥♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ ♠✉②

♣rá❝t✐❝♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❤♦r❛ ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✳
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r α✱
❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡s
√ Φ(r)✱ ❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉③❝❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛✉①✐❧✐❛r
Λ(r) = Φ(r)/ ∆A✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡

1 √
k(Â − α)Λk = √ k(Â − α)Φk = ∆A
∆A
❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ∆A → 0 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ (Â − α)Λ(r) s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❛✉♥ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ q✉❡
Λ(r) t✐❡♥❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✿

 existe Λ(r) no normalizable tal que
α ∈ σ c (A) ⇒ ✭✺✳✷✹✮

ÂΛ(r) = αΛ(r)
② ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛sí ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A r❡❧❛❥❛♥❞♦ ❧❛
✐♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  s❡ ❤❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ② ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
ÂΛ(r) = αΛ(r) t❡♥❣❛ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣✉r✐❛s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ♥♦
♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛ σ c (A)✳ ❆❝✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s✱ Λ(r) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡
❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ♥✉❧❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞✐s❝r✐♠✐♥❛r ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s
❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈❛s ✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r→∞ ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ |Λ(r)| ❞❡ ❧❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♠❛♥t❡♥❣❛ ❛❝♦t❛❞♦✳ ❊s ❧ó❣✐❝♦ q✉❡ ❛sí s❡❛✿ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❡sté ♠ás ② ♠ás ❞❡s❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❧❛
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆A s❡❛ ♠❡♥♦r✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥✉♥❝❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❞♠✐t✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❛✉♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ r t✐❡♥❞❛ ❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦✳
❊♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠ás té❝♥✐❝♦✱ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s
✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇✮✳ ❙✐ Â ❡s ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ❝✉②♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡
t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ✭r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ s✐ Â r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛
✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛✮ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

 α∈
/ σ p (A) pero existe Λ(r) no normalizable tal que
α ∈ σ c (A) ⇒ ✭✺✳✷✺✮

hΛ|ÂΨi = αhΛ|Ψi para toda Ψ(r) ∈ S(R3 )

❞❡ σ c s♦♥ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ♠✉② ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ② ❧♦s ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s❡rá♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❣❡♥✉✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A✳ ❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱
❡st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❛✐s❧❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❡♥ sí
♠✐s♠♦ ②❛ q✉❡ s✉ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❤❛ ❞❡ t♦♠❛rs❡ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❧✐t❡r❛❧✱

Z
hΛ|Ψi = Λ∗ (r) Φ(r) d3 r ∈ C.
R3

❱❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Λ(r) ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s
✏❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛s✑ ❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡
➓✹✳✷✳✸✱ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✹✳✺✮ ② ✭✹✳✽✮✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ A ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s

♠✐s♠❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❣❡♥✉✐♥♦s ❞❡ A✳
❊s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱

si ÂΛ1 (r) = α1 Λ1 (r) y ÂΛ2 (r) = α2 Λ2 (r) con α1 6= α2 ⇒ hΛ1 |Λ2 i = 0

✭✺✳✷✻✮
❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ r❡s✉❧t❛ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) s❡❛♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♦ ♥♦ ✭❞❛♥❞♦
♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛♥ ✭✺✳✷✺✮✮✳ ▲❛
❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈ó ❛ ✭✺✳✶✽✮ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡ s♦❜r❡❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡
q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❧í♠✐t❡s s✐ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛❞❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡

❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Λ(r) α ∈ σ c (A) ❢♦r♠❛rá♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r
2 3
❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ só❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ L (R )✳ ▲❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ gα ❞❡ t❛❧
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r α ② ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❡♥ é❧ ✉♥❛
❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ✭♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡✮ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r gα ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Λα,i (r) ❝♦♥
i = 1, 2, ..., gα ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡
gα
X
ÂΛ(r) = αΛ(r) ⇔ Λ(r) = ui Λα,i (r) con ui ∈ C. ✭✺✳✷✼✮
i=1

➓ ✹✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳ ▲❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s❡rá♥

x̂Λ(x) = αΛ(x) ; p̂x ϑ(x) = qϑ(x)

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✱

d
(x − α) Λ(x) = 0 ; −i~ ϑ(x) = qϑ(x).
dx
 ✺✳✺✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ P❘❖P■❆❙✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆

❊st❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s t✐❡♥❡♥ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r r❡❛❧✱

exp(iqx/~)
Λ(x) = Aδ(x − α) = Aδ a (x) ; ϑ(x) = B = Bθq (x) ✭✺✳✷✽✮
(2π~)1/2

s✐❡♥❞♦ A, B ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✳

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ x̂ ② p̂x ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ t♦❞♦ R✱ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡

❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❡s ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ② ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡❧t❛s ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝
δ a (x) ② ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ θq (x)✱ ❝✉②♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s✳

➓ ✺✳ ❉❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦S σ(Â)

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦s ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✱ σ(Â) = σ P (Â) σ c (Â)✳
❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛s ❞♦s s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✺✳✸ ② ✺✳✹✮✱
❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐rs❡ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r
❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦♥
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ✭② ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✮✳ ❆ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ s❡ ❧❡s ❧❧❛♠❛
t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧❡s ② ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s✳

5.5✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ P❘❖P■❆❙✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆

➓ ✶✳ ▲♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s✱ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ♦ ❧í♠✐t❡s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s✱ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A s♦♥

✐♥❞✉❞❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ♣♦rq✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧❧♦s ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛rs❡ q✉❡ A t♦♠❛ ✉♥
✈❛❧♦r ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✿ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A r❡❛❧✐③❛❞❛ s♦❜r❡ t❛❧❡s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❛rá ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛
❝❡rt❡③❛ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ a ✭❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♠❛t✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ②❛ ❞✐s❝✉t✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ q✉❡
❤❛❜❧❡♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✮✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ✈✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ r❡✢❡❥❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❛s✳

❉❡s✐❣♥❡♠♦s ♣♦r {Φa,n (r)} ❝♦♥ n = 1, ..., ga ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
♣r♦♣✐♦ Wa ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r
a ∈ σ p ② ♣♦r {Λα,i (r)} ❝♦♥ i = 1, ..., gα ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r α ∈ σ c ✳ ❚♦❞❛s ❡st❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ α t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r ❝❛❞❛ Λα,i (r) ♣♦r ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡
r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❛♣❛r❡③❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✿

hΦa,n |Φa′ ,n′ i = δ a,a′ δ n,n′

hΦa,n |Λα,i i = 0 ✭✺✳✷✾✮

hΛα,i |Λα′ ,i′ i = δ(α − α′ )δ i,i′

❞♦♥❞❡ δ(α − α′ ) ❞❡❜❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧

Z
g(α) δ(α − α′ ) dα = g(α′ ). ✭✺✳✸✵✮
σc

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ Φa,n (r) ② Λα,i (r) ❞❡ Â

✹✳✸✮ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
2 3
♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛r ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L (R )✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐
❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s✐♠étr✐❝♦ Â ❡s ❛❞❡♠ás ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛
❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s
❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡ ♣♦r sí ♠✐s♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛
♦ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ A✳
✻

P✉❞✐❡r❛ ♣❛r❡❝❡r q✉❡ ✐♠♣♦♥❡r q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦s

❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ s❡❛♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡
❢✉❡rt❡✳ ❊♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ ❧♦ ❡s t❛♥t♦✳ ❨❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❜ás✐❝♦s
❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✱ ♥♦ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ❧♦s
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ② ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ s♦♥✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱
s✐ V (r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ q✉❡ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✱ V̂
t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧♦s ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦s ❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
s✐♠étr✐❝♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s♦♥ t❛♥ ❛♠♣❧✐♦s q✉❡ s✉
❝❛rá❝t❡r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❡s ❝❛s✐ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ②✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛✱ ❧♦ ❞❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r
s✉♣✉❡st♦✳

✻
▲❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❡s ♠ás t❡❞✐♦s❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✉ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ r✐❣✉r♦s❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥
✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ♥❛❞❛ ❞❡s❞❡ñ❛❜❧❡✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s✐ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r t✐❡♥❡ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✳
 ✺✳✺✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ P❘❖P■❆❙✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ Ψ(r) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

" ga # Z " gα #
X X X
Ψ(r) = ca,n Φa,n (r) + cα,i Λα,i (r) dα
a∈σ p n=1 σc i=1

 Z
 ✭✺✳✸✶✮

 c = hΦ |Ψi = Φ∗a,n (r)Ψ(r) d3 r
 a,n a,n
3 R
con Z



 cα,i = hΛα,i |Ψi = Λ∗α,i (r)Ψ(r) d3 r
R3

▲♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s {ca,n }, {cα,i } s♦♥ ❛sí ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡✳
▲♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛ s♦♥
❡❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ✉♥ í♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✱ q✉❡ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦
♣❛r❛ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r ❧❛s ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s
t❡♥❣❛♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ✉♥♦✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛
♥♦ ❡s ú♥✐❝❛ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ s✐ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡s ga ② gα s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡①✐st✐rá ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛
❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✮✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

ÂΦa,n (r) = aΦa,n (r) , ÂΛα,i (r) = αΛα,i (r)

② ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

" ga
# Z " gα
#
X X X
ÂΨ(r) = a ca,n Ψa,n (r) + α cα,i Λα,i (r) dα ✭✺✳✸✷✮
a∈σ p n=1 σc n=1

✼
P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ {aca,n }, {αcα,i } s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ÂΨ(r) ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡✳

✼
▲❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ✭✺✳✸✷✮ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡r ❢♦r③❛❞❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡①t✐❡♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ Â ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛
❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❤❛② ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛❞❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧❧♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦
♣♦rq✉❡ ÂΛα,i (r) = aΛα,i (r) ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ❡♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás r✐❣✉r♦s❛s ❞❡
❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ s❡ ✉s❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✺✳✸✷✮ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ② ♥♦r♠❛s ❡♥

✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ✈✐st❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✸✱

" ga # Z " gα
#
X X X
2 2 2
kΨk = |ca,n | + |cα,i | dα ✭✺✳✸✸✮
a∈σ p n=1 σc n=1
" ga
# Z " gα
#
X X X
hΨ|ÂΨi = a |ca,n |2 + α |cα,i |2 dα. ✭✺✳✸✹✮
a∈σ p n=1 σc n=1

❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♠♦

" ga
# Z " gα
#
X 1 X 1 X
hAi = a |ca,n |2 + α |cα,i |2 dα. ✭✺✳✸✺✮
a∈σ p
kΨk2 σc kΨk2
n=1 i=1

❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡

Ân Φa,n (r) = an Φa,n (r) , Ân Λα,i (r) = αn Λα,i (r),

② r❛③♦♥❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ An ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

" ga
# Z " gα
#
X 1 X 1 X
n n 2 n 2
hA i = a |ca,n | + α |cα,i | dα. ✭✺✳✸✻✮
a∈σ p
kΨk2 σc kΨk2
n=1 i=1

▲❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A ❡s ❛sí

❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ s✐ tr❛❜❛❥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ Â✳

➓ ✸✳ ❊st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♥♦s ✈❛♥ ❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❛
② ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳ ▲❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ An ❡s

X Z
hAn i = an PrA (a) + αn ρA (α)dα ✭✺✳✸✼✮
a

❞♦♥❞❡ PrA (a) ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❬❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❪ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi
s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞✐s❝r❡t♦ a ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ρA (α) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
② ρA (α)dα ♥♦s ❞❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ❞é ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡♥tr♦
❞❡ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ dα ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ α✳
◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ✭✺✳✸✼✮ ② ✭✺✳✸✻✮ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ❞❛r ✐❣✉❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
 ✺✳✺✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ P❘❖P■❆❙✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r)✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ q✉❡❞❛ ♠ás r❡♠❡❞✐♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞✐s❝r❡t❛ s❡❛ ❡❧
❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ σp ② ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ s❡❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ σc✳ ❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✱

ga ga
1 X 2 1 X
PrA (a) = |ca,n | = |hΦa,n |Ψi|2
kΨk2 kΨk2
n=1 n=1
✭✺✳✸✽✮
gα
X gα
X
1 1
ρA (α) = |cα,i |2 = |hΛα,i |Ψi|2
kΨk2 kΨk2
i=1 i=1

❧❧❡❣❛♥❞♦ ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✿

❊❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s

❞❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✳

▲❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥

❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛
❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ A✳

▲❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ✭✺✳✸✽✮ ♥♦s ✈❛♥ ❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡

♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❜ás✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱
s✐S ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛
✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ S ❡s

X Z  Sp = S ∩ σ p (A)
Pr(A ⊂ S) = PrA (a) + ρA (α)dα con ✭✺✳✸✾✮
Sc 
a∈Sp Sc = S ∩ σ c (A)

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✺✳✸✸✮ ② ✭✺✳✸✽✮

X Z
Pr(A ⊂ R) = PrA (a) + ρA (α)dα = 1. ✭✺✳✹✵✮
a∈σ p σc

❊st♦ ❡s ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝❛❜í❛ ❡s♣❡r❛r✿ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❧❣ú♥

✈❛❧♦r t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ s❡r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳✽

✽
❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ❡s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s

tr❡s ❛①✐♦♠❛s ❞❡ ❑♦❧♠♦❣♦r♦✈ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ Pr✱ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rí❛♥ ❝♦♠♦✿

i) Pr(A ⊂ S) ≥ 0
ii) Pr(A ⊂ R) = 1
iii) Pr(A ⊂ S) = Pr(A ⊂ S1 ) + Pr(A ⊂ S2 ) s✐ S = S 1 ∪ S2 ② S1 ∩ S2 = {∅}✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

➓ ✹✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ F = F (A)✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ A✳ ❙✉

✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ s❡rá

X Z
hF i = F (a)PrA (a) + F (α)ρA (α)dα ✭✺✳✹✶✮
a∈σ p σc

❞♦♥❞❡ ❞❛♠♦s ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ F (a) ❡s r❡❛❧ ② ✜♥✐t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r a ∈ σ(A)✳ ❈♦♠♦
t♦❞❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ A ❧♦ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡ F (A)✱ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ F̂ ❡s

" ga
# Z " gα
#
X X X
F̂ Ψ(r) = F (a) ca,n Φa,n (r) + F (α) cα,i Λα,i (r) dα ✭✺✳✹✷✮
a∈σ p n=1 σc n=1

❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❝♦♠♦ F̂ = F (Â)✳

◆♦t❛✿ ❊st❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛

N
X N
X
F (A) = Fn An −→ F̂ = Fn Ân
n=1 n=1

q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❥♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✷ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ F (A) ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s

✐♥❞✐❝❛❞❛s✳

➓ ✺✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✸ ❡s ✉♥ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❡st❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✳ ❙✐
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱
❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s δ a (x) ② θq (x) ❢♦r♠❛♥ s❡♥❞❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R)
❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛s ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ x̂ ② p̂x ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❚♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φ(x)
♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

Z Z
Φ(x) = Φ(a) δ a (x) da = Φ̃(q) θq (x) dq
R R

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

|Φ(a)|2 |Φ̃(q)|2
ρ(a) = ; ρmom (q) =
kΦk2 kΦk2
s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛s ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ▲❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✺✳✸✾✮ ♥♦s ❞❛rí❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s
❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ✜♥✐t❛ [a, b] ♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞é ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ r❛♥❣♦ [p0 , p1 ] ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ px ✳
 ✺✳✺✳ ❇❆❙❊❙ P❘❖P■❆❙✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆

■❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ V (x) ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡

❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✺✳✹✷✮ s✉ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rá
Z
V̂ Φ(x) = V (a)Φ(a)δ a (x) da = V (x)Φ(x)
R
❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ✭✺✳✾✮✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✺✳❡✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞

❙❡ s❛❜❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A só❧♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s an = na✱ ❞♦♥❞❡
n ❡s ✉♥ ❡♥t❡r♦✱ ② q✉❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s t✐❡♥❡♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞♦s✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
1 h√ i
Ψ(r) = × 3Φ−1,1 (r) + Φ0,1 (r) − iΦ0,2 (r) + 2Φ1,1 (r)
3
❞♦♥❞❡ Φn,i (r) s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r an ❡♥ ✉♥❛
❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ A✳ ❊❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ i ❡s ❡❧ í♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳

❛✮ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

❜✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r A ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄
❝✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ hAi ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆A✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❈♦♠♦ Ψ(r) ❡stá ❡①♣❛♥❞✐❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧✱

1 √ 2  1
kΨk2 = × | 3| + |1|2 + | − i|2 + |2|2 = × 9 = 1
9 9
②✱ ❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ Ψ(r) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

❜✮ P♦r ✐♥s♣❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ Ψ(r)✱ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A só❧♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s

{−a, 0, +a}✳ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ✭✺✳✸✽✮ ② q✉❡ kΨk2 = 1✱

√ 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 −i 2 2 4
PrA (−a) = = ; PrA (0) = + = ; PrA (a) = =
3 3 3 3 9 3 9
✭❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❡s ✶✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ✮✳

❝✮ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✺✳✸✼✮ ② ✭✺✳✹✶✮

1
hAi = (−a) × PrA (−a) + 0 × PrA (0) + a × PrA (a) = a
9
②
7 2
hA2 i = (−a)2 × PrA (−a) + 02 × PrA (0) + a2 × PrA (a) = a .
9
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s √
p 62
∆A = hA2 i − hAi2 = a.
9
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❆●◆■❚❯❉❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙ ❨ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✶✳ ❯♥✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ Â ❡s
ú♥✐❝♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r ♦tr♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â′ q✉❡ r❡♣r♦❞✉③❝❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s
❞❡ A ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦✳
❆②✉❞❛✿ ❯s❡ ❡st❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛✿ B̂ = 0̂ ⇔ hΨ|B̂Ψi = 0 para toda Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (R3 )

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✷✳ ❉♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡

❙❡❛ Â ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡
q✉❡ s✐ Ψ(r) ∈ D(Â) ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆A s♦♥ ✜♥✐t❛s ❡♥ ❡❧
❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✸✳ ■♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ♠á①✐♠❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦

❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ W[a,b] ❛❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❡st❛❞♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♥
❝❡rt❡③❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [a, b]✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ b > a✳
❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ W[a,b] ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ L2 (R3 )✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [a, b]✳

❜✮ Pr✉❡❜❡ q✉❡
b−a
0 ≤ ∆A ≤ si Ψ(r) ∈ W[a,b] , ✭✺✳✹✸✮
2
❞♦♥❞❡ ∆A ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ A ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi✳
❝✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s s♦♥ ❡str✐❝t❛s ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ ❧❛s ≤ s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐❡rt❡♥ ❡♥
<✮ s✐ [a, b] ⊂ σ c (A)✳
❞✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❜❛❥♦ q✉é ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ s❛t✉r❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❡♥ ✭✺✳✹✸✮✳

❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛✿ ❘❛③♦♥❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡r ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛♠✐❡♥t♦

♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✹✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛

❊♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r K̂ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❡s
~2 d 2
K̂ = − .
2M dx2
❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ s✉ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦✱ s✉s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧✳
❜✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ K ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi ❡s
Z 2
~2 dΨ(x)
hKi = dx. ✭✺✳✹✹✮
2M kΨk2 R dx
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❝✮ ●❡♥❡r❛❧✐❝❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✺✳✹✹✮ ❛ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✳

❞✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ hKi > 0 ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✺✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛s

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ hAi ≥ 0✳ ➽❈✉á♥❞♦ s❡
♣✉❡❞❡ s❛t✉r❛r ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❄
❉❡♠✉❡str❡ ✐❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ s✐ A = B2✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ B ❡s ♦tr❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s A ❡s
♣♦s✐t✐✈❛✳
◆♦t❛✿ ❯♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛ s✐ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦s✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✻✳ ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧
❡s♣❡❝tr♦✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ s✉s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡
❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✿
✐✮ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ K ❀
✐✐✮ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r ❀
✐✐✐✮ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ px ❀
✐✈✮ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥❀
✈✮ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ pr ✳

❆②✉❞❛✿ ❊♥ ✈✮ ✉s❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ exp(ikr)/r ❝♦♥ k ∈ R✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✺✳✼✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ Lz

❊s s❛❜✐❞♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r✐ó❞✐❝❛ g(ϕ) ❝♦♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ 2π ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧
❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r
∞
X Z 2π
exp(inϕ) 1
g(ϕ) = gn √ con gn = √ g(ϕ)e−inϕ du. ✭✺✳✹✺✮
n=−∞
2π 2π 0

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❞❡❞✉③❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❛ ❡①♣❛♥❞✐r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ Ψ(r) ❝♦♠♦ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L̂z ✳
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡
z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡s Ψ(r) s❡
♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ m~ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

Z 2
1
PrLz (m~) = e−imϕ Ψ(r) d3 r con m ∈ Z. ✭✺✳✹✻✮
2π R3
 ❚❡♠❛ ✻
❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❚r❛s ❤❛❜❡r ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ②
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ◆✉❡str♦ ❡s❝❡♥❛r✐♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s❡rá ❡❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M
s✉❥❡t❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ F(r) q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r)✳
■♥✐❝✐❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ② ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦
❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ▲♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♥♦s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛rá♥ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡
♣❧❛✉s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r Ψ(r, t) ❡♥
❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡sté s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛✳ ➱st❛ ❡s ❧❛
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ s✉st❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛✳

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❤✐❞r♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
ρ(r, t) ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❊❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛s♦ s❡rá ❧❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ② ❧❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ té❝♥✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ s✉ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❞♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s
s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦s ♣❡r♦ ♠✉② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✿ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ② ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❊st❡ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♠♦str❛rá ❡❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ❞❡❧ q✉❡ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❚❡♠❛ ✺✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥
❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s s✐st❡♠❛s s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡s✿ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♠✉❧t✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s q✉❡
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡❞✉❝✐r ❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❞❡s❛❝♦♣❧❛❞♦s✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s

q✉❡ ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r s✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ s✐♥
♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ❊♥ ✉♥❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡ ❧❡❝t✉r❛
♦♣t❛t✐✈❛✱ ❞✐s❝✉t✐r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡①✐st❡♥t❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ②
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

▲❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡①✐❣❡♥ té❝♥✐❝❛s ②

♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝♦s✱ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s ♥❛❞❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦s✳ ❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ❛sí ✷✵
❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ ❞✐str✐❜✉✐❞❛s ❛ ♣❛rt❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ② ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ② ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❙❡r ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✳

P❧❛♥t❡❛r ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧

❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛✳

❊♥t❡♥❞❡r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ② s✉s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❙❛❜❡r ✉s❛r

t❛❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✐♥str✉♠❡♥t❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❛ ❧❛
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳

❖❜t❡♥❡r ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛

❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✳

❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡

s✐st❡♠❛s ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

❙❛❜❡r ♦❜t❡♥❡r ② r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s

♠❡❞✐♦s ❡♥ s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛s✳
 ✻✳✶✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆ ▲■❇❘❊

6.1✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆ ▲■❇❘❊

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡stá

s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥✐♥❣ú♥ ❛❣❡♥t❡ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ✭❡st♦ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥
❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦s ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✮✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱
s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t✉✈✐❡s❡ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡rí❛

1 Ep |p|2
θp (r, t) = eip·r/~ e−iωt , con ω = = , ✭✻✳✶✮
(2π~)3/2 ~ 2M ~

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦ ♣♦r ♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❡❧ ♣r❡❢❛❝t♦r (2π~)−3/2 ✳

❨❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❛❝t✉❛♥❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ✭✻✳✶✮ ❡s ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✳

❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ t♦❞❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

✭✻✳✶✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
Z
Ψ(r, t) = a(p)θp (r, t)d3 p
R3
❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡ ❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❬❛q✉í✱ a(p) s♦♥ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡
t❛❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧❪✳ ❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ θp (r, t) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✶✮✱ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s
q✉❡ Z
1 n o
Ψ(r, t) = a(p)e−iEp t/~ eip·r/~ d3 p. ✭✻✳✷✮
(2π~)3/2 R3

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡
s✉ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ✭r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✮ ❝♦♠♦
Z
1
Ψ(r, t) = Ψ̃(p, t)eip·r/~ d3 p. ✭✻✳✸✮
(2π~)3/2 R3

❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ② ❣r❛❝✐❛s ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ s✐

✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♠♦s ✭✻✳✷✮ ❝♦♥ ✭✻✳✸✮ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✿

Ψ̃(p, t) = a(p)e−iEp t/~ con a(p) = Ψ̃(p, 0), ✭✻✳✹✮

q✉❡ ❡s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ t❛❧ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡s

Z
1 1
Ψ(r, t) = Ψ̃(p, 0)ei(p·r−Ep t)/~ d3 p con Ep = |p|2 . ✭✻✳✺✮
(2π~)3/2 R3 2M
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❖❜s❡r✈❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✹✮ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ |Ψ̃(p, t)|2 = |Ψ̃(p, 0)|2 ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✿

ρmom (p, t) = ρmom (p, 0). ✭✻✳✻✮

❊❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ❧ó❣✐❝♦✿ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ t♦❞❛ ❧❛

✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡✱ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❞❡❝✐rs❡ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❜ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛ ❞❡ p✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✱ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭✻✳✺✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s ❛sí ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❞❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ② ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ω k = ~|k|2 /(2M )✱
❝♦♥ ✏❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞❡s✑ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
♠♦♠❡♥t♦s Ψ̃(p, 0) ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0✳ ❊s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♠✉② ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛
❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✻✳✺✮✳✶
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s✱ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞✱ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭✻✳✺✮ ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛
② q✉❡ ❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳
❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❝♦♠♦

Z Z
2
xg (t) = x|Ψ(x, t)| dx = Ψ∗ (x, t)xΨ(x, t) dx = hxit ✭✻✳✼✮
R R

q✉❡✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦✱ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✳ ❙❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦ vg (t)
❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❝❡♥tr♦ xg (t)✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱
Z
d d d
vg (t) = xg (t) = hxit = x|Ψ(x, t)|2 dx. ✭✻✳✽✮
dt dt dt R

❖♣❡r❛♥❞♦✱

Z  
∂Ψ∗ (x, t) ∂Ψ(x, t)
vg (t) = xΨ(x, t) + Ψ∗ (x, t)x dx
R ∂t ∂t

✶
❊s t❛♥ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦ ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞✐♦ ❊r✇✐♥ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ s✉s ❤✐stór✐❝♦s tr❛❜❛ ❥♦s ❞❡ ✶✾✷✻ ❢✉❡ q✉❡ ❡r❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧✱

s✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ |Ψ(r, t)|2 ✳ ❋✉❡ ▼❛① ❇♦r♥ q✉✐❡♥ ♣r♦♣✉s♦ ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡s♣✉és q✉❡

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡st❛❜❛ ❧✐❣❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳

 ✻✳✶✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆ ▲■❇❘❊

② s✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ♣❛s❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡

P❛rs❡✈❛❧ ② ❧❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛ x ↔ i~∂px ❛❧ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱
♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s

Z !
∂ Ψ̃∗ (px , t) ∂ Ψ̃(px , t) ∂ Ψ̃∗ (px , t) ∂ Ψ̃(px , t)
vg (t) = i~ − dpx .
R ∂t ∂px ∂px ∂t

❈♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ Ψ̃(px , t) = Ψ̃(px , 0) exp[−ip2x t/(2M ~)]✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s✳ ❚r❛s ♦♣❡r❛r ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r✱

Z
−1 ∂|Ψ̃(px , t)|2
vg (t) = p2x dpx .
2M R ∂px

❈♦♠♦ |Ψ̃(px , t)| = 0 s✐ px → ±∞ ✭❞❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ ♣♦❞rí❛

s❡r ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✮✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

Z
d 1 1
vg (t) = hxit = px |Ψ̃(px , t)|2 dpx = hpx it .
dt M R M

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ✭✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥

t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✮ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
❞✐✈✐❞✐❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♠❛s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ♠✉② r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ② ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❧❛ ❜♦♥❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✳ ❙✐ ❡①t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛ tr❡s
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡

d 1 1
hrit = hpit = hpi0 ✭✻✳✾✮
dt M M

② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ s✐❣✉❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❧❡② t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❝❧ás✐❝❛✳✷

✷
❙❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ✭✻✳✾✮ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠❡♥♦s té❝♥✐❝♦ q✉❡✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❛❞♦❧❡❝❡ ❞❡ ❢❛❧t❛
❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞✳ P❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ✭❝❛❞❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❞❡
❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✮ s❡ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r vf (k) = ~k/2m✳ P❡r♦ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦
❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❡s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ♣❛q✉❡t❡s ❝✉❛s✐♣❧❛♥♦s ✭♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s
♣❧❛♥❛s q✉❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ❡stá♥ r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦s ❛ ✉♥ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r k0 ✮✱ ❧❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦rv g ≃ ∇k [ω(k)]|k=k0 ✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♦❝✉♣❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s
ω(k) = ~|k|2 /(2M )✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

d ~ ~k0 1
vg = rg (t) ≃ ∇k (k · k)|k=k0 = = 2vf (k) = p0
dt 2M M M
❞♦♥❞❡ p0 ❡s ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ k0 q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❜✉❡♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✻✲✶ ✉♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡

♦♥❞❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ❝✉②❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦ ❡s vg ✱ ② q✉❡ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛
s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛♥ ❝♦♥ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉✐❞❛s ❡♥
t♦r♥♦ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r vg /2✳

➓ ✸✳ ❖tr♦ ❤❡❝❤♦ ♥♦t❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❡♥s❛♥❝❤❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧

♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ✿ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ s✉ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧
❛✉♠❡♥t❛✳ ❈✐ñé♥❞♦♥♦s ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❝✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❡♥s❛♥❝❤❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❛❝✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳
■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ t = 0 ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s t❛❧ q✉❡
hxi0 = 0✳ ▲❧❛♠❡♠♦s p0 ② (∆p)0 ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ② ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✭❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✮✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ② (∆x)0 ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡
❡♥ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡✱
❝♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡
❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ② ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛
❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ [p0 − (∆p)0 , p0 + (∆p)0 ]✳ ❚r❛♥s❝✉rr✐❞♦ ✉♥ t✐❡♠♣♦ t≫0 ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡st❛rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
   
(p0 − (∆p)0 )t (p0 + (∆p)0 )t (∆p)0 t (∆p)0 t
, = hxit − , hxit + .
M M M M
❙✐ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ t=0 ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ s❡ s❛t✉r❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡
(∆x)0 (∆p)0 = ~/2✱

(∆p)0 ~
(∆x)t ∼ t∼ t si t ≫ 0. ✭✻✳✶✵✮
M 2M (∆x)0
❊❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✻✳✶✵✮ ❡s ❝✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛ q✉❡ (∆x)t ❛✉♠❡♥t❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❝♦♥ t✳ ❆❜♦r❞❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✉♥ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s♦ q✉❡✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱
♥♦s s❡r✈✐rá ♣❛r❛ ✈❡r ✉♥ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛r❛❞✐❣♠át✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❛✳ ✭✯✮ Pr♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦

❙✉♣♦♥❣❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t=0 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡

♠❛s❛ M s✐♥ ❡s♣í♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡s

exp[−x2 /(2a2 )]
Ψ(x, 0) = exp(ip0 x/~, )
(πa2 )1/4
❞♦♥❞❡ p0 ② a s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ a > 0✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x, t)
❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ②✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧

❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳

 ✻✳✶✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❯◆❆ P❆❘❚❮❈❯▲❆ ▲■❇❘❊

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✻✲✶✳ Pr♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ❝✐♥❝♦ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛
❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✭❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s r❡❛❧❡s❀ ❧❛s
❛❜s❝✐s❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✮✳ ❊❧ ❝❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ s❡ s✐tú❛ ❡♥ ❛q✉❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧♦s
♠á①✐♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❡stá♥ ❛❧✐♥❡❛❞♦s✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛✱ ❧❛
✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❞♦❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❝♦♥st✐t✉t✐✈❛s
❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡✳

Z  
1 2
(p−q)2 /2 −iγp2 /2 1 iβ 2 γq 2
❆②✉❞❛✿ √ e−β e du = p 2 exp −
2π R β + iγ 2(β 2 + iγ)

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ t = 0,
✱ Ψ(x, 0) ❡s ✉♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡
❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡
a ~
hxit=0 = 0 , (∆x)t=0 = √ , hpx it=0 = p0 , (∆px )t=0 = √ ,
2 2a
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

② s✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s

 2 
1 a (px − p0 )2
Ψ̃(px , 0) = exp − .
(π~2 /a2 )1/4 2~2

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✉s❛♠♦s ✭✻✳✹✮✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ t ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡s

 2   
1 a (px − p0 )2 ip2x
Ψ̃(px , t) = exp − exp − t .
(π~2 /a2 )1/4 2~2 2M ~
▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡rá✱ ♣✉❡s✱
Z
1
Ψ(x, t) = √ Ψ̃(px , t)eipx x/~ dpx .
2π~ R

❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ② r❡❛❣r✉♣❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s✱

2 2 Z "  2 #
e−x /(2a ) e+ip0 x/~ a2 ~x it 2
Ψ(x, t) = √ exp − 2 px − p 0 − i 2 − p dpx .
(π~2 /a2 )1/4 2π~ R 2~ a 2M ~ x

❨❛ só❧♦ q✉❡❞❛ ✉s❛r ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛✱ ♦♣❡r❛r ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ q✉❡

" #
2
eiξ(x,t) (x − (p0 t/M ))
Ψ(x, t) = p exp − . ✭✻✳✶✶✮
π 1/4 a + i~t/(M a) 2 (a2 + (~2 t2 /M 2 a2 )

❞♦♥❞❡ ξ(x, t) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞

❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t s❡rá✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ❧❛ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛
"
#
p0 2
2 1 x−Mt
ρ(x, t) = |Ψ(x, t)| = √ q exp − a2 ~ 2 t2

,
2π a2
+ ~ 2 t2 2 2 + 2M 2 a2
2 2M 2 a2

❝✉②❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✻✲✷✳ P♦r ♦tr❛
♣❛rt❡✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛ ❡s
 
1 (x − hxi)2
ρGauss (x) = √ exp − ✭✻✳✶✷✮
2π(∆x) 2(∆x)2

♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r q✉❡ ρ(x, t) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥

p0
hxit = t.
M
◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ✭✻✳✾✮✱ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡rá
r s
a2 ~ 2 t2 ~2
(∆x)t = + = (∆x)20 + t2 , ✭✻✳✶✸✮
2 2M 2 a2 4M 2 (∆x)20

q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ t ≫ 0 ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈♦ ✭✻✳✶✵✮✳

 ✻✳✷✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❙❈❍❘Ö❉■◆●❊❘

0.6 t=0
t=
( , )
xt

0.4

t=2
t=3
a

0.2

0.0

0 15 30 45
x /a
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✻✲✷✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛
❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ✭ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳❛ ✮✳ ▲❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
v0 = 15a/τ ✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ τ = M a2 /~

❊s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❞❛rs❡ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(x, t) ❡s ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡

❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦ só❧♦ ♣❛r❛ t = 0✱ ♣✉❡s ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ exp[iξ(x, t)] ❧❛ ❤❛❝❡ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡
✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣❛q✉❡t❡s ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦s ❡s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧❧♦s s❡ s❛t✉r❛♥
❧❛s ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ≤ s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐❡rt❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥
❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞✮✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♥♦ ♦❝✉rr❡ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱

hpx it = p0 ; (∆px )t = (∆px )t=0

② ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ tr❛♥s❝✉rr❡ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ (∆x)t (∆px )t ✈❛ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r✳

6.2✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❙❈❍❘Ö❉■◆●❊❘

➓ ✶✳ ❊❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ♥♦s ❤❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛

t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡stá ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ F(r) q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ❡s ♦❜✈✐♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✭✻✳✶✮ ②❛ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s
s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦✳

❊❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡♥ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐♥st❛♥❝✐❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ ♣♦st✉❧❛rs❡ ♣❡r♦
q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✳

■♠♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✿

✐✮ ▲❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✭✻✳✶✮ ❧❛ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ s✐ V (r) = 0✳

✐✐✮ ❍❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

✐✐✐✮ ❍❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦r❞❡♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

✐✈✮ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛

❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ✱Ψ(r, t) = Ψ(r)e−iωt ✱
❝♦♥ Ψ(r) = Ψ(r, 0)✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s hHit =
✸
~ω ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

▲❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐✮ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ✈✐st♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥

❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ▲❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ✐✐✮ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ▲❛
✐♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✐✐✐✮ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ Ψ(r, t)✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡❜❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛rs❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❛❞♦ t0 ❀ ❡❧❧♦ ❡①✐❣❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ s❡❛ ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦r❞❡♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥t❛r✐♦ s❡rí❛ ✐♠♣r❡s❝✐♥❞✐❜❧❡
❝♦♥♦❝❡r t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ Ψ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t0 ✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛
❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐✈✮ ❡①t✐❡♥❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡
♠❛t❡r✐❛ ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ❧✐❜r❡✳

❯♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿

∂Ψ(r, t) ~2 2
i~ =− ∇ Ψ(r, t) + V (r)Ψ(r, t) ✭✻✳✶✹✮
∂t 2M

q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡✱

❛❞❡♠ás✱ q✉❡ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❞❡ ✭✻✳✶✹✮

~2 2
ĤΨ(r, t) = − ∇ Ψ(r, t) + V (r)Ψ(r, t) ✭✻✳✶✺✮
2M
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✉ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ✭❝❢r✳ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✷✱
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✺✳✶✵✮✮✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
♠ás ❝♦♠♣❛❝t❛ ❝♦♠♦
∂Ψ(r, t)
i~ = ĤΨ(r, t). ✭✻✳✶✻✮
∂t
❈♦♠♣r♦❜❡♠♦s q✉❡✱ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛s
❝✉❛tr♦ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♠♣✉❡st♦✳ P♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ ✭✻✳✶✹✮ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦r❞❡♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ② ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ✈❡r ♣♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛
q✉❡ ❡s s❛t✐s❢❡❝❤❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ s✐ V (r) = 0✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐

✸
❯s❛r❡♠♦s H ♣❛r❛ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛r ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ E r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛rá ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❡s♣❡❝í✜❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✳
 ✻✳✷✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❙❈❍❘Ö❉■◆●❊❘

❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ H ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Ĥ ② ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

✭✻✳✶✻✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

Z
Ψ∗ (r, t)ĤΨ(r, t) d3 r Z
R3 i~ ∂Ψ(r, t) 3
hHit = = Ψ∗ (r, t) d r ✭✻✳✶✼✮
kΨ(t)k2 kΨ(t)k2 R3 ∂t

❙✐ Ψ(r, t) = Ψ(r) exp(−iωt) ❡s ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❞❡

❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ∂t Ψ(r, t) = −iωΨ(r, t)✱ s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r t❡♥❡♠♦s
Z
~ω
hHit = Ψ∗ (r, t)Ψ(r, t)d3 r = ~ω
kΨ(t)k2 R3

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ✐✈✮✳

➓ ✷✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥

♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❜❛st❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ ĤΨ(r, t)✱
Z  
1
Ĥ Ψ̃(p, t) = e−ip·r/~ ĤΨ(r, t) d3 r,
(2π~)3/2 R3

❞♦♥❞❡ s❡❣✉✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦st✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✉s❛r ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r

✹
❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❙✐ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦
s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ĤΨ(r, t) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✶✺✮✱ ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s Ψ(r, t) ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡
Ψ̃(q, t) ② ♦♣❡r❛♠♦s t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡
❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

Z
∂ Ψ̃(p, t) |p|2
i~ = Ψ̃(p, t) + Ṽ (p − q)Ψ̃(q, t)d3 q = Ĥ Ψ̃(p, t)
∂t 2m R3
✭✻✳✶✽✮
Z
1
con Ṽ (p) = V (r)e−ip·r/~ d3 r
(2π~)3 R3

✺
q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡❣r♦✲❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❙✐ V (r) ♥♦ ❞❡❝❛❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦
r→∞ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ Ṽ (p) ♥♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ② ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

✹
❆❧❣✉♥♦s t❡①t♦s sí ❞✐st✐♥❣✉❡♥✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❡①tr❛ñ♦ ♥♦t❛r ❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦♠♦ Ĥ(r)
✭♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✮ ♦ Ĥ(p) ✭♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✮✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♣r♦❝✉r❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡❥❛r s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❝❧❛r❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ tr❛❜❛❥❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝r❡❡♠♦s q✉❡ t❛❧ ♠❛t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛✳
✺
❈♦♠♦ s❡ ✈❡✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛Ψ̃(q, t) ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ② ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ d3 q✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥tr❛♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) s❡ ❧❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ② ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

Ĥ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡❜❡rá ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ♦tr❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s

❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❜✳ ❊❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

r❡❝✉♣❡r❛❞♦r❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) = M ω 2 x2 /2✳ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❊♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✱

1 2 1
Ĥ = p̂ + M ω 2 x̂2 .
2M x 2

❊♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

∂ Ψ̃(p, t)
p̂x Ψ̃(p, t) = pΨ̃(p, t) ; x̂Ψ̃(p, t) = +i~ ,
∂p

❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡

 
∂ Ψ̃(p, t) M ω 2 ~2 ∂ 2 1 2
i~ = Ĥ Ψ̃(p, t) = − + p Ψ̃(p, t),
∂t 2 ∂p2 2M

❝✉②❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❡s s✐♠✐❧❛r ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦✮ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ❧❛

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

➓ ✸✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❞✐s❝✉t✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Ĥ ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✳

❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣❛r ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r)
♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Ĥ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

Z Z  ∗
Φ∗ (r)ĤΨ(r) d3 r = ĤΦ(r) Ψ(r) d3 r o hΦ|ĤΨi = hĤΦ|Ψi.
R3 R3

✭✻✳✶✾✮
❊st❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✈❛ ❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞✐❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ✿

d
hΨ(t)|Φ(t)i = 0. ✭✻✳✷✵✮
dt
 ✻✳✷✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❙❈❍❘Ö❉■◆●❊❘

❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ ❞❡r✐✈❛♠♦s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ hΨ(t)|Φ(t)i ② ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ s✉ ❢♦r♠❛ ✭✻✳✶✻✮✱ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡

Z  
dhΨ(t)|Φ(t)i ∂Ψ∗ (r, t) ∂Φ(r, t)
= Φ(r, t) + Ψ∗ (r, t) d3 r
dt R3 ∂t ∂t
Z  
i
= [ĤΨ(r, t)]∗ Φ(r, t) − Ψ∗ (r, t)[ĤΦ(r, t)] d3 r
~ R3

② ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✻✳✶✾✮ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛

kΨ(t)k ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❉❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛♥❡r❛ s❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ |Ψ(t)i✱

d d hΨ(t)|ĤΨ(t)i 1 d  
hHit = = hΨ(t)| ĤΨ(t)i =0 ✭✻✳✷✶✮
dt dt kΨk2 kΨk2 dt

❞♦♥❞❡ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❡①❝❧✉✐❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ |Ψ(t)i✳

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡
❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ■❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ∆H ② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦
❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❛ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡rá♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✿

• ▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛

❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ❡stá ❞✐❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

 
∂Ψ(r, t) ~2 2
i~ = − ∇ + V (r) Ψ(r, t) ≡ ĤΨ(r, t),
∂t 2M

❞♦♥❞❡ Ĥ ❡s ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡

❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

• ❊st❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Ĥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✿

Z
1
hHi = Ψ∗ (r, t)ĤΨ(r, t)d3 r
kΨ(t)k2 R3

q✉❡ ❡s r❡❛❧ ② ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

• ▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡

q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✿

dhΨ(t)|Φ(t)i
= 0.
dt
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

• ❊♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s

Z
∂ Ψ̃(p, t) |p|2
i~ = Ψ̃(p, t) + Ṽ (p − q)Ψ̃(q, t)d3 q,
∂t 2M R3

❞♦♥❞❡ Z
1
Ṽ (p) ≡ V (r)e−ip·r/~ d3 r.
(2π~)3 R3

6.3✳ ❊▲ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❉❊ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲

➓ ✶✳ P♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ s✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧
t0 ✳ ❘❡❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r

∂Ψ(r, t) 1 ∂ 2 Ψ(r, t)
Ψ(r, t) = Ψ(r, t0 ) + (t − t0 ) + (t − t0 )2 + ...
∂t t=t0 2! ∂t2 t=t0

② ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ∂/∂t =

−(i/~)Ĥ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

   2
−i[t − t0 ] 1 −i[t − t0 ]
Ψ(r, t) = Ψ(r, t0 ) + ĤΨ(r, t0 ) + Ĥ 2 Ψ(r, t0 ) + ...
~ 2! ~

♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦✱

∞
X  
1 −i[t − t0 ] n n
Ψ(r, t) = Ĥ Ψ(r, t0 )
n! ~
n=0
 ✻✳✸✳ ❊▲ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❉❊ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲

❘❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

Ψ(r, t) = Û (t − t0 )Ψ(r, t0 )
  ∞
X   ✭✻✳✷✷✮
iτ 1 −iτ n n
con Û (τ ) ≡ exp − Ĥ ≡ Ĥ
~ n! ~
n=0

❞♦♥❞❡ Û (τ ) ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ Ĥ ✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♣♦r q✉é s❡r t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt

L2 (R3 )✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Û (τ ) ❡s t♦❞♦ L2 (R3 )✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱
♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣❛r ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡✱ ♣♦r
❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ q✉❡

hΨ|Φi = hÛ (τ )Ψ|Û (τ )Φi

✭❜❛st❛ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r Ψ(r) ② Φ(r) ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ s❡♥❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡♥ t = 0✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Û (τ ) ♥♦s ❞❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❡♥ t = τ ✮✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦
②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱
 †  −1
Û (τ ) = Û (−τ ) = Û (τ ) ✭✻✳✷✸✮

❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r s✐ r❡❝♦r❞❛♠♦s ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❞❡❧

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ✈✐st❛s ❡♥ ➓✹✳✹✳✹✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✷✷✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥

tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ♥♦ só❧♦ ❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ s✐♥♦
q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❞❛ ❞❡ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t♠♦s ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦
❝♦♠♣✉t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳ ✻ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ s♦♠♦s ❝❛♣❛❝❡s
❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ s✐ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ✉♥ ♣❛s♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✜♥✐t♦ δt ② tr✉♥❝❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ Û (τ ) ❛ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞♦s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r q✉❡

iδt (δt)2  
Ψ(r, t + δt) ≃ Ψ(r, t) − ĤΨ(r, t) − Ĥ ĤΨ(r, t) . ✭✻✳✷✹✮
~ 2!~2

✻
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳ P❡r♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❡sq✉❡♠❛t✐③❛r ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✳ ❊st♦s ♠ét♦❞♦s ✭❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ♠ét♦❞♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ✜♥✐t❛s ✮ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥
❝♦♠ú♥♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s ② ♥♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✱ ② ♠✉② ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s q✉❡
❞❡❜❡♥ r❡s♦❧✈❡rs❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ Ψ(r, t) ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s Ψ(r, t + δt)✱ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rí❛
❡✈❛❧✉❛r Ψ(r, t + 2δt) ② ❛sí s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡st❡ ♠ét♦❞♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❧✐♠✐t❛❝✐ó♥
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✿ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s r❡✈❡rs✐❜❧❡✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s Ψ(r, t+δt) ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ Ψ(r, t)✱ ❞❡❜❡rí❛♠♦s ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ Ψ(r, t) s✐ ♣❛rt✐♠♦s ❞❡ Ψ(r, t+δt) ♣❡r♦ r❡tr♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦
❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❝♦s❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♦❝✉rr❡ ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❡❧ t❡r❝❡r tér♠✐♥♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡
❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❞♦s ✈❡❝❡s ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛r
❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ② ❝♦st♦s♦ ❡♥ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❝✐ó♥✳
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ✉♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ✭✻✳✷✹✮✱ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ δt ♣♦r −δt ❞❛
iδt (δt)2 h i
Ψ(r, t − δt) ≃ Ψ(r, t) + ĤΨ(r, t) − Ĥ ĤΨ(r, t)
~ 2! ~2
② r❡st❛♥❞♦ ❡st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r r❡s✉❧t❛
iδt
Ψ(r, t + δt) ≃ −2 ĤΨ(r, t) + Ψ(r, t − δt), ✭✻✳✷✺✮
~
❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❛ ❞❡s❛♣❛r❡❝✐❞♦ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ♠♦❧❡st♦✳ ❊st❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t♠♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t + δt s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧♦s ✐♥st❛♥t❡s t ② t − δt✱
❡s ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡♥♦s ❝♦st♦s♦ q✉❡ ✭✻✳✷✹✮ ② ❛❞❡♠ás ♣r❡s❡r✈❛ ❧❛ r❡✈❡rs✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛
❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥❛ ♣❛r❛ δt ✜♥✐t♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ✐♥s♣❡❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ✭✻✳✷✺✮✳✼
❆ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ♣rá❝t✐❝♦s✱ s✐ ♣❛rt✐♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ t0 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t0 +δt)
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✻✳✷✹✮❀ ❝♦♥ ❡st♦s ❞♦s ❞❛t♦s ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ s✉❝❡s✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✭✻✳✷✺✮ ♥♦s
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛rá ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧♦s ✐♥st❛♥t❡s t0 + 2δt✱ t0 + 3δt✱ ❡t❝✳ ❖❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡
❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ s❡rá ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s♦ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠❡♥♦r s❡❛ ❡❧ ♣❛s♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ δt✳
❍❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ ♦tr♦s ❛❧❣♦r✐t♠♦s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás s♦✜st✐❝❛❞♦s✱ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r r❡s✉❧t❛
❜❛st❛♥t❡ ♣r❡❝✐s♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ s✉ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❡③✳

6.4✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❈❖◆❚■◆❯■❉❆❉

➓ ✶✳ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r✐❣❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ②✱ ♣♦r ❡♥❞❡✱ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s✳ P♦r

✼
❉❡s❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦✱ ❡st❡ ❛❧❣♦r✐t♠♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ✜♥✐t❛s ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛s✱
∂Ψ(r, t) Ψ(r, t + δt) − Ψ(r, t − δt)
≃ ,
∂t 2δt
q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ s✐♠étr✐❝❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ t ② ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❡rr♦r ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ O(δt)2 ✱ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❛❞❛s

∂Ψ(r, t) Ψ(r, t + δt) − Ψ(r, t)

≃ ,
∂t δt
q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝❛ ② q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❡rr♦r O(δt) ✭♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ s✐ δt < 1✮✳
 ✻✳✹✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❈❖◆❚■◆❯■❉❆❉

s✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❡s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡

♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ q✉❡ r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

1
ρ(r, t) = Ψ∗ (r, t)Ψ(r, t).
kΨk2

❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ② r❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ kΨ(t)k2 ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥

❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦
 
∂ρ(r, t) 1 ∂Ψ∗ (r, t) ∂Ψ(r, t)
= Ψ(r, t) + Ψ∗ (r, t)
∂t kΨk2 ∂t ∂t
i  
= Ψ(r, t)[ĤΨ(r, t)]∗ − Ψ∗ (r, t)ĤΨ(r, t) .
~kΨk2

❊❧ tér♠✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) s❡ ❝❛♥❝❡❧❛ ❛❧ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r

❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ só❧♦ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛♥ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦s ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✿

∂ρ(r, t) i~  
∗ 2 2 ∗
= Ψ (r, t)∇ Ψ(r, t) − Ψ(r, t)∇ Ψ (r, t) .
∂t 2M kΨk2

P❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ∇·(ΨG) = (∇Ψ)·G+Ψ(∇ · G) ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡

❆ ✮ ❛❧ ❝❛s♦ G = ∇Ψ✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s tr❛s s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r q✉❡

  
∂ρ(r, t) i~ ∗ ∗
= −∇ · Ψ(r, t)∇Ψ (r, t) − Ψ (r, t)∇Ψ(r, t) .
∂t 2M kΨk2
▲❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

 
i~ ∗ ∗
J(r, t) = Ψ(r, t)∇Ψ (r, t) − Ψ (r, t)∇Ψ(r, t) ✭✻✳✷✻✮
2M kΨk2

s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▲❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥

❡♥tr❡ ést❛ ② ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r✱

∂ρ(r, t)
= −∇ · J(r, t), ✭✻✳✷✼✮
∂t

❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞✳ ❊❧ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧✐s♠♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥

❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❤✐❞r♦❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❡s
❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡✱ só❧♦ q✉❡ ❛q✉í ρ(r, t) ♥♦ ❡s✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ ✉♥❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

r❡❛❧ s✐♥♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡t❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥

✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❞❛❞♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ V ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡
S ✳ ▲❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡s✿
Z Z
d d ∂ρ(r, t) 3
Pr|Ψ(t)i (r ∈ V) = ρ(r, t) d3 r = d r.
dt dt V V ∂t
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ② ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ✭✈é❛s❡✱ ❞❡
♥✉❡✈♦✱ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❆✮✱ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s
Z Z Z
∂ρ(r, t) 3
d r=− ∇ · J(r, t) d3 r = − J(r, t) · dS. ✭✻✳✷✽✮
V ∂t V S
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ V ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S q✉❡ ❧✐♠✐t❛ ❛ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❡❣✐ó♥✳ ❘❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡
❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❛ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡
❤❛❝✐❛ ❛❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ V✳
❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♠♦✈✐❡s❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ② ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ s❡rí❛♥
 
i~ ∂Ψ∗ (x, t) ∗ ∂Ψ(x, t)
Jx (x, t) = Ψ(x, t) − Ψ (x, t) ✭✻✳✷✾✮
2M kΨk2 ∂x ∂x
∂ρ(x, t) ∂Jx (x, t)
=− ✭✻✳✸✵✮
∂t ∂x
② ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❞❛rí❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡
Z b
d
d
Pr|Ψ(t)i x ∈ [a, b] = ρ(x, t)dx = Jx (a) − Jx (b). ✭✻✳✸✶✮
dt dt a

➓ ✸✳ ❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❡str❡❝❤❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ρ(r, t) ② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ J(r, t)✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱
Z
i~
hpit = − Ψ∗ (r, t)∇Ψ(r, t) d3 r
kΨk2 R3

❝♦♥hpit = hpx it ux + hpy it uy + hpz it uz ✳ ❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ Ψ(r, t) t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦
r → ∞✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s q✉❡❞❛
Z
i~
hpit = Ψ(r, t)∇Ψ∗ (r, t) d3 r.
kΨk2 R3
 ✻✳✹✳ ▲❆ ❊❈❯❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ❈❖◆❚■◆❯■❉❆❉

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ s✐ s✉♠❛♠♦s ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❧❛s ❞♦s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s

❛❧ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦

Z Z
hpit = M J(r, t) d3 r ; hrit = rρ(r, t) d3 r ✭✻✳✸✷✮
R3 R3

❞♦♥❞❡✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡t✐t✉❞✱ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ hrit ✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s
✉♥ s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❝✳ ❈♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛
M ❡s Ψ(r) = ϕ(r) exp(ik0 · r)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ϕ(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧✳ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❈♦♠♦


∇Ψ(r) = ∇ ϕ(r)eik0 ·r = eik0 ·r ∇ϕ(r) + ϕ(r)∇eik0 ·r = eik0 ·r ∇ϕ(r) + ik0 ϕ(r)eik0 ·r

② ♣♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ϕ(r) = ϕ∗ (r) ② kΨk2 = 1✱ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

i~
~ ~k0
J(r) = Ψ(r)∇Ψ∗ (r) − Ψ∗ (r)∇Ψ(r) = |Ψ(r)|2 k0 = ρ(r).
2M M M
❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ✭✻✳✸✷✮
Z Z
hpi = M J(r) d3 r = ~k0 |Ψ(r)|2 d3 r = ~k0
R3 R3

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s k0 = 0 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r) ❡s r❡❛❧✱ ❝❛s♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡

s✐❡♠♣r❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ hpi = 0✮✳

➓ ✹✳ ❙✐ ❞❡r✐✈❛♠♦s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ hrit ✱ ✉s❛♠♦s

❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ② ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♠♦s ❛ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s✱ ♥♦ ❡s
❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ✈❡r q✉❡

Z
d 1
hrit = J(r, t) d3 r = hpit , ✭✻✳✸✸✮
dt R3 M

r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✻✳✾✮ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ F(r) = −∇V (r)✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ s✐ ❞❡r✐✈❛♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ hpit r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧

t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ Ψ(r, t)
❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
✽
❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦✱ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♠♦s ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♠♦s✱ s❡ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛ q✉❡

Z Z
d 1 ∂J(r, t) 3
hpit = d r= [−∇V (r)] ρ(r, t)d3 r = hF(r)it . ✭✻✳✸✹✮
dt M R3 ∂t R3

❊st❛s ❞♦s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✭✻✳✸✸✮ ② ✭✻✳✸✹✮✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✱

s♦♥ ❛sí ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥ ♣❡r♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛s ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
♠❡❞✐♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ s✐ F(r) ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱
♥♦ s❡ ✈❛ ❛ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r q✉❡ 6 F(hrit )✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s
hF(r)it =
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st ② ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞❡ ◆❡✇t♦♥ ♥♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞✐rá♥ s❛❧✈♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝❛s♦s ❡♥
❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ s❡❛ ♥✉❧❛✱ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ ♦ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛✳

6.5✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙✳ ❆❯❚❖❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ❯♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s

❛q✉❡❧❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱
Φ(r, t) = Φ(r) exp(−iωt)✳ ❆❧ ❡st❛r ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡s❛❝♦♣❧❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ |Φ(t)i ❡s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦
❞❡ q✉❡ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❈♦♠♦ s❡ r❡❝♦r❞❛rá✱ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❝♦♥❞✉❥♦ ❛

❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❢✉❡ ❡①✐❣✐r q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❞❡ ❡s❡ t✐♣♦ s❡❛ hHi = ~ω ✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛
Φ(r, t) = Φ(r) exp(−iωt) s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

∂Φ(r, t)
ĤΦ(r, t) = i~ = ~ωΦ(r, t) ⇒ ĤΦ(r) = ~ωΦ(r) ✭✻✳✸✺✮
∂t

② q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s hHi = ~ω ✱ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛

❝❛♥❝❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢❛❝t♦r❡s exp(±iωt)✳ ❙✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❧❛ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ E = ~ω ✱
t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E

✽
❍❡♠♦s ♦♠✐t✐❞♦ ❧♦s ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❝♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❞❡

❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❡st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✳

 ✻✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙✳ ❆❯❚❖❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

❡s

Φ(r, t) = Φ(r) exp(−iEt/~) cumpliendo que

  ✭✻✳✸✻✮
~2 2
ĤΦ(r) = − ∇ + V (r) Φ(r) = EΦ(r).
2m

▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ĤΦ(r) = EΦ(r) s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ② t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✳

ĤΦ(r) = EΦ(r) ❡s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❉❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❡rs♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ Ĥ ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❞❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡rs❡
❡s ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❧❧❛♠❛r ❛ Φ(r) ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s✐❡♥❞♦ E ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✭♦
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✮ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳
❊♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡stá ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛
✭∆H = 0✮ ♦✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r
Z 1/2
1 2
3
∆H = (Ĥ − hĤi)Φ(r,t) d r = 0.
kΦk R3

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ② s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ s❡❛ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦
✭❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✸✺✮ ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡❛ ❝❡r♦✳ ❊st❡ ❡s ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❊♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ s♦♥

❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❡s ❛sí ✉♥ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦
♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛ ♥✉❡str❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❞❡
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stát✐❝❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♥✉❧♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ sí ❧♦ ❡s✿ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st hpit = M dhrit /dt ②
❝♦♠♦ hrit ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ hpit = 0✳ ❆ ❧♦ s✉♠♦✱ ❡❧
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ♠ás ❝❡r❝❛♥♦ s❡rí❛ ❡❧ ❞❡ ré❣✐♠❡♥ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✳

❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♣❛r❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❛❞é♠✐❝♦ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛♥

✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❞✳ ✭✦✮ ▲❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ♣❡r♦ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡
❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ s❡❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ L✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ②
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♠♦✈❡r ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s x=0 ② x = L✳
❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦✱
❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ / (0, L)✳
Φ(x, t) = 0 si x ∈ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧
r❡q✉❡r✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠í♥✐♠♦ q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡
❡s q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦

Φ(x, t) = 0 si x = 0 o x = L.
❈♦♠♦ ♥♦ ❤❛② ❢✉❡r③❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s✐ ❡stá ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (0, L)✱
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡s

∂Φ(x, t) ~2 ∂ 2 Φ(x, t)
i~ =− con x ∈ (0, L),
∂t 2M ∂x2
❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ΦE (x, t) =

ΦE (x) exp(−iEt/~) ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡s

~2 d2 ΦE (x)
− = EΦE (x) con ΦE (0) = ΦE (L) = 0.
2M dx2
▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥✱ s✐♥ ✐♠♣♦♥❡r ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❡❧ ❝✉♠♣❧✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦✱ ❡s
p
ΦE (x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx) con k ≡ 2M E/~2 ≥ 0.
❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ΦE (0) = 0✱ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ B = 0✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

ΦE (x) = A sin(kx).
■♠♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦✱ ΦE (L) = 0✱ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛

π 2π
sin(kL) = 0 ⇒ k = 0, , , ...
L L
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ k = 0 ♥♦ ❡s ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛♥✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳
❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ✏♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s✑ ❞❡ k s♦♥
nπ
k= con n = 1, 2, 3, ...
L
② ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ✭q✉❡ ❡t✐q✉❡t❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ n ✮ s♦♥

π 2 ~2 2
En = n con n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ✭✻✳✸✼✮
2M L2
 ✻✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙✳ ❆❯❚❖❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

18

16
n=4
14
2
n ( ) +
12

10
n=3
x E

8
1/2
L

4
n=2
2
n=1
0
0.0 0.5 1.0

x/L
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✻✲✸✳ Pr✐♠❡r❛s ❝✉❛tr♦ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡
❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ 0 ≤ x ≤ L✳ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛
❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛r s✉ ✈✐s✐ó♥

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ✈❡✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡stá♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞❛s✱ ❛❧ ♣♦❞❡r t♦♠❛r ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❞✐s❝r❡t♦s✳
▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s❡rá♥ ΦEn (x) = A sin (nπx/L) ② ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ A ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛rs❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✿
Z L Z L  nπx  L
1 = hΦEn |ΦEn i = |ΦEn (x)|2 dx = |A|2 sin2 dx = |A|2
0 0 L 2
② s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡
r  nπx 
2
ΦEn (x, t) = sin e−iEn t/~ con n = 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✻✳✸✽✮
L L

▲❛s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✻✲✸✳ ❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛s s♦♥
2π 2L λn
λn = = ⇒ n = L,
kn n 2
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ L ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡stá ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧
❛ ✉♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦ ❡♥t❡r♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s s❡♠✐❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✳ ▲❛s s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞❡s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♠♦❞♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ ✈✐❜r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✉❡r❞❛ ✈✐❜r❛♥t❡
❝♦♥ ❡①tr❡♠♦s ✜❥♦s s♦♥ ❛sí ♠ás q✉❡ ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

➓ ✷✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ❡①♣✉❡st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡♥ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡

s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s ♥♦ ❤❛② ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ r❡✢❡❥❛rá ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás ❝❧❛r♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❧✐❜r❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ q✉❡

~2 2
− ∇ ΦE (r) = EΦE (r) con E ≥ 0 ✭✻✳✸✾✮
2M
✭s✐ V (r) = 0 ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛✮✳ ❊st❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡

exp(iq · r/~) √
θq (r) = con |q| = 2M E. ✭✻✳✹✵✮
(2π~)3/2
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧í♠✐t❡
✐❞❡❛❧❡s✿ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t0 ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t0 )
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❡s s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ✭✻✳✹✵✮ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
♠✉② ❛♠♣❧✐❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧❛ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ ✏❝❛s✐✑ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭✻✳✸✾✮✳
❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡rá ❛sí ✏♠✉② ♣❛r❡❝✐❞♦✑ ❛ ✉♥♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦
♣✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❝❛❧✐✜❝❛rs❡ ❞❡ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✳ ❯♥ ❝❛s♦ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦ s❡rí❛ ❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡
❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ a ≫ 0✳
❘❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ ❧♦ ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺ ❛❧ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡
✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r✱ ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ΛE (r) ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐rá ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ∆H → 0 s✐ |ΛE (r)| s❡ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡
❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |r| → ∞✳✾

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❡✳ ✭✯✮ P❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ■

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛
❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ Fx ✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s V (x) = −Fx x✱ ② ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡s  
2 2
~ d
− − Fx x ΛE (x) = EΛE (x). ✭✻✳✹✶✮
2M dx2

✾
▲❛ ♠❛t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①✐st✐r s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❝✉②♦ ♠ó❞✉❧♦
❝r❡③❝❛ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ |r| → ∞✳ ❨ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ ♥✐♥❣ú♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳
 ✻✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙✳ ❆❯❚❖❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

1.0
Bi( u)
u) , Bi( u)

0.5

Ai( u)
Ai(

0.0

-0.5

-10 -5 0 5
u
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✻✲✹✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❆✐r②✳ ▲❛ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❞❡ s✉s ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ♠á①✐♠♦s
❞❡❝r❡❝❡♥ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ x → −∞✳

❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ x0 ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ~2 /(2M x30 ) = −Fx ✳ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✹✶✮ s❡

♣✉❡❞❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦
 
d2 x ~2 E
−x20 + − ΛE (x) = 0.
dx2 x0 2M
❊st♦ s✉❣✐❡r❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧
x − xr 2M x30 E E
u= con xr = 2
=−
x0 ~ Fx

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ xr ❡s ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ r❡tr♦❝❡s♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
V (xr ) = E ✮ ② ❤❛❝❡r ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ x → u✳
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✭✻✳✹✶✮ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛
   
d2 x − xr E
− 2 + u φ(u) = 0 con ΛE (x) = φ , xr = − . ✭✻✳✹✷✮
du x0 Fx

❚♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ♣✉❡s ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛s s❛❧✈♦ tr❛s❧❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st♦ ❡s ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛
s✐♠❡trí❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✿ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ② ♦tr❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ′ ❡s ❧❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡
r❡tr♦❝❡s♦❀ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡stá♥ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛s
❡♥tr❡ sí✳
▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭✻✳✹✷✮ ❡s φ(u) = AAi(u) + BBi(u)✱
❞♦♥❞❡ A, B s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s ② Ai(u)✱ Bi(u) ❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❆✐r②✱
♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛ L2 (R) ② q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✻✲✹✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛rs❡✱
Bi(u) ❞✐✈❡r❣❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ u → ∞ ② ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉✐r ❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΛE (x) ②❛ q✉❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s✉ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❝r❡❝❡rí❛ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ◆♦ q✉❡❞❛ ♠ás r❡♠❡❞✐♦ q✉❡ B = 0✱ ② ❧❛s

❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E s♦♥

 xr = −E/Fx , E ∈ R
  

x − xr
ΛE (x) = AAi con  1/3 ✭✻✳✹✸✮
x0 
 ~2
 x0 = −
2M Fx

s✐❡♥❞♦ A ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ ❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ♥♦ ❤❛② ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛
❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ♣✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ést❛ t♦♠❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✈❛❧♦r r❡❛❧✳

➓ ✸✳ ❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❞♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✐♥t❡rés ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ĤΨE (r) = EΨE (r)✿

✐✮ ❆✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE (r) q✉❡ s♦♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ② q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❣❡♥✉✐♥♦s

❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
ΦE (r) exp(−iEt/~)✱ ② ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ∆H = 0✳ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s E ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥
❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ Ĥ ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❡stá♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❞❛s✳ ❆ ❡st♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s s❡ ❧❡s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳
✐✐✮ ❆✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΛE (r) q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s L2 (R3 ) ♣❡r♦
q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡
✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ E ❝✉❛♥❞♦
s✉ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ✳ P♦r ♠♦t✐✈♦s q✉❡ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✵✱ ❛ ❡st♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s s❡ ❧❡s ❧❧❛♠❛ ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥✳

❆♠❜♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❜❡♥ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡

♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ t♦❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✿


ĤΦE1 (r) = E1 ΦE1 (r) 
⇒ hΦE1 |ΦE2 i = 0 si E1 6= E2 . ✭✻✳✹✹✮

ĤΦE2 (r) = E2 ΦE2 (r)

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ t❡r♠✐♥♦❧♦❣í❛ q✉❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❥✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛

❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧❡s ❞❡ Ĥ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛
✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥✿

▲♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s WE ❢♦r♠❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ♠✐s♠❛

❡♥❡r❣í❛ E s❡ s✉❡❧❡♥ ❧❧❛♠❛r ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳
 ✻✳✻✳ ▲❆ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

❊❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❝♦♥ ♠❡♥♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧♦s r❡st❛♥t❡s s♦♥ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦s ✭♣r✐♠❡r♦✱ s❡❣✉♥❞♦✱
❡t❝✳✮ ✉sá♥❞♦s❡ t❛❧❡s ❛❞❥❡t✐✈♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ✭♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ s✐ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧
❡s ✉♥♦✮ ② ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳

6.6✳ ▲❆ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ▲❛ ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ♣r❡st❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♥♦ ❤❛ s✐❞♦

❣r❛t✉✐t❛✳ ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✭✈é❛s❡ s✉ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✺✮ ♣❡r♦✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡rá
♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r s✐ tr❛❜❛❥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❝✉②♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s Ĥ ✳

❆ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s E ❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ σ p
❞❡ Ĥ ② {ΦE,n (r)}✱ ❝♦♥ n = 1, 2, 3, ..., gE ✭s✐❡♥❞♦ gE ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ E ✮✱ ❛ ✉♥
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ E q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦✳ ❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ε ❡s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ σ c ❝♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ gε ✱ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r {Λε,j (r)} ❝♦♥ j = 1, 2, ..., gε
❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ ②❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱
s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Λε,j (r) ❡stá ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥
❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

Z
hΦE1 ,n1 |ΦE2 ,n2 i = Φ∗E1 ,n1 (r)ΦE2 ,n2 (r) d3 r = δ E1 ,E2 δ n1 ,n2
R3

Z
hΦE,n |Λε,j i = Φ∗E,n (r)Λε,j (r) d3 r = 0 ✭✻✳✹✺✮
R3

Z
hΛε1 ,j1 |Λε2 ,j2 i = Λ∗ε1 ,j1 (r)Λε2 ,j2 (r) d3 r = δ(ε1 − ε2 ) δ j1 ,j2 ,
R3

❞♦♥❞❡ δ(ε1 − ε2 ) ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✳

P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

L2 (R2 )✱ Ĥ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ s❡r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ✭❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❞❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦

gE
X X Z gε
X
Ψ(r) = cE,n ΦE,n (r) + cε,j Λε,j (r) dε
E∈σ p n=1 σ c j=1
Z
✭✻✳✹✻✮
con cE,n = hΦE,n |Ψi = Φ∗E,n (r)Ψ(r) d3 r
3
Z R
y cε,j = hΛε,j |Ψi = Λ∗ε,j (r)Ψ(r) d3 r
R3

s✐❡♥❞♦ {cE,n }, {cε,j } ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❡st❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡✱ ♣♦r
♠♦t✐✈♦s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡s✱ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳
◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ q✉❡
✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺✿ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ✉♥ í♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ t♦♠❛
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡s❞❡ ✶ ❤❛st❛ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡st❛
❡t✐q✉❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✳ ❊♥ ♠✉❝❤♦s ❝❛s♦s ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r ❛
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ♦tr♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s
❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡❛ s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ s❛❜❡r ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳ ❊❧
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♠ás ❝❧❛r♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✉♥❛
❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡s ❧❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡

1 1
θp (r) = 3/2
eip·r/~ con Ep = |p|2 , hθp1 |θp2 i = δ(p1 − p2 )
(2π~) 2M

s✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s px , py , pz ✳

➓ ✷✳ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛

♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳ ❨❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛s ❡s

ΦE,n (r, t) = ΦE,n (r)e−iEt/~ ; Λε,j (r, t) = Λε,j (r)e−iεt/~ ,

s✐ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✭✻✳✹✻✮ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ t = 0✱

♣♦r ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s

gE
X X Z gε
X
Ψ(r, t) = cE,n ΦE,n (r, t) + cε,j Λε,j (r, t) dε.
E∈σ p n=1 σ c j=1
 ✻✳✻✳ ▲❆ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

X gE
X Z gε
X
−iEt/~
Ψ(r, t) = e cE,n ΦE,n (r) + e−iεt/~ cε,j Λε,j (r) dε, ✭✻✳✹✼✮
E∈σ p n=1 σc j=1

❞♦♥❞❡ {cE,n }✱{cε,j } s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r, 0)✳ ❍❡♠♦s ❛sí ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥
tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ Ψ(r, 0) ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣♦st❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳
❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ Ψ(r, t) t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ t✱
gE
X X Z gε
X
Ψ(r, t) = cE,n (t)ΦE,n (r) + cε,j (t)Λε,j (r) dε,
E∈σ p n=1 σ c j=1
✭✻✳✹✽✮

con cE,n (t) = hΦE,n |Ψ(0)ie−iEt/~ y cε,j (t) = hΛε,j |Ψ(0)ie−iεt/~ .

❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥

❡♥❡r❣í❛s s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω = E/~ ó ω=
ε/~✳ ❙✉s ♠ó❞✉❧♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✳

➓ ✸✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❞♦s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s Ψ(r, t) ② ϑ(r, t) ❞❡ ❧❛

❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ❙✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛rs❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ s✉s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s cE,n (t) ② zE,n (t)✿
gE
X X Z gε
X
∗ ∗
hϑ(t)|Ψ(t)i = zE,n (t) cE,n (t) + zε,j (t) cε,j (t) dε,
E∈σ p n=1 σ c j=1

② ❝♦♠♦ | exp(−iEt/~)|2 = | exp(−iεt/~)|2 = 1✱

gE
X X Z gε
X
∗ ∗
hϑ(t)|Ψ(t)i = zE,n cE,n + zε,j cε,j dε = hϑ(0)|Ψ(0)i. ✭✻✳✹✾✮
E∈σ p n=1 σ c j=1

❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥✜r♠❛ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛✳ ❍❛❝✐❡♥❞♦

ϑ = Ψ✱ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s✿

gE
X X Z gε
X
kΨ(t)k2 = kΨk2 = |cE,n |2 + |cε,j |2 dε. ✭✻✳✺✵✮
E∈σ p n=1 σ c j=1
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

➓ ✹✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♠ó❞✉❧♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r, t) ♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧

t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛s ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s♦♥
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❊s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s s♦♥

gE gE
1 X 2 1 X
PrH (E) = |cE,n | = |hΦE,n |Ψi|2
kΨk2 kΨk2
n=1 n=1
✭✻✳✺✶✮
gε
X gε
X
dε dε
ρH (ε)dε = |cε,j |2 = |hΛε,j |Ψi|2
kΨk2 kΨk2
j=1 j=1

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡①❝❧✉✐❞♦ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t ❛❧ s❡r ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳

❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

X Z
hΨ|ĤΨi
hHi = = E PrH (E) + ε ρH (ε) dε ✭✻✳✺✷✮
kΨk2 σc
E∈σ p

② s✉ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

!1/2
k(Ĥ − hHi)Ψk hΨ|Ĥ 2 Ψi
∆H = = − hHi2
kΨk kΨk2
 1/2
X Z
= (E − hHi)2 PrH (E) + (ε − hHi)2 ρH (ε) dε . ✭✻✳✺✸✮
E∈σ p σc

g(H) s❡rá
❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞

X Z
hΨ|g(Ĥ)Ψi
hg(H)i = = g(E) PrH (E) + g(ε) ρH (ε) dε, ✭✻✳✺✹✮
kΨk2 σc
E∈σ p

q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞✐s❝✉t✐ó ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✺✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❢✳ ■❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❍

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ t0 = 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❜❛ ❥♦
❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ F(r) ❡s
 
Ψ(r, 0) = A φ1 (r) + φ2,a (r) + 2φ2,b (r) ,

❞♦♥❞❡ φ1 (r)✱ φ2,a (r) ② φ2,b (r) s♦♥ tr❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s ② ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱

❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s E1 ✱ E2 ② E2 ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙✉♣ó♥❣❛s❡ q✉❡ E2 > E1 ✳

 ✻✳✻✳ ▲❆ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ A✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳
❝✮ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛s tr❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✻✳✺✵✮
  1
1 = kΨk2 = hΨ|Ψi = |A|2 |1|2 + |1|2 + |2|2 = 6|A|2 ⇒ |A| = √ .
6

❜✮ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✹✱

1 1 4 E1 + 5E2
hHi = E1 + E2 + E2 =
6 6 6 6
1 2 1 2 4 2 E 2 + 5E22
hH 2 i =E1 + E2 + E2 = 1
6 6 6 6
√

1/2 5
∆H = hH 2 i − hHi2 = (E2 − E1 ).
6
❝✮ ▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s
1 h
i
Ψ(r, t) = √ φ1 (r)e−iE1 t/~ + φ2,a (r) + 2φ2,b (r) e−iE2 t/~ ,
6
q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦


 Ω = (E2 − E1 )/~
e−iE1 t/~h √ i 
Ψ(r, t) = √ φ1 (r) + 5φ2 (r)e−iΩt con φ2,a (r) + 2φ2,b (r)
6 

 φ2 (r) = √
5
❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s
Z
hpit = −i~ Ψ∗ (r, t)∇Ψ(r, t)d3 r
R3

② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ② ♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦ ✭❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s✮

Z Z
−i~ −5i~
hpit = φ1 (r)∇φ1 (r) d3 r + φ2 (r)∇φ2 (r) d3 r+
6 R 6 R
√  Z Z 
− 5i~ iΩt
+ e φ1 (r)∇φ2 (r) d3 r + e−iΩt φ2 (r)∇φ1 (r) d3 r .
6 R3 R3

▲❛s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s s♦♥ ❝❡r♦ ✭❜❛st❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛r ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s ♣❛r❛ ✈❡r❧♦✮✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ s✐
✐♥t❡❣r❛♠♦s ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧
√ Z "√ Z #
5~ eiΩt − e−iΩt 3 5~ 3
hpit = φ1 (r)∇φ2 (r) d r = φ1 (r)∇φ2 (r) d r sin(Ωt)
6 i R3 3 R3
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❡♥tr❡ ♣❛ré♥t❡s✐s ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦s ❝♦♠♦ pA ✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ hpit =

pA sin(Ωt)✳
P♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❞♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ♦s❝✐❧❛♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦
❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ Ω = (E2 − E1 )/~ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❝✉á❧ s❡❛ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ✈✐♦❧❛ ❧♦s
t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✱ ②❛ q✉❡ s❡❣ú♥ ❡st♦s
dhrit hpit pA [cos(Ωt) − 1] dhpit
= ⇒ hrit = hri0 − ; hF(r)it = = pA Ω cos(Ωt)
dt M MΩ dt
② ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐r ♥❛❞❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ F(r)✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❣✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦
❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, L]✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0 s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡s

√ x
 si x ∈ (0, L/2)
2 3
Ψ(x, 0) = ×
L3/2  (L − x) si x ∈ (L/2, L)

❝✉②♦ ♣❡r✜❧✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✱ ❡s tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❜✮ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(x, t) ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ t✳
❝✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧
❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳
❞✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ hHi ② ❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡
❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛✮✳
∞
X ∞
X
1 1 4 1 1 2
❆②✉❞❛s✿ 4 = π ❀ 2 = π
s=0 (2s + 1) 96 s=0 (2s + 1) 8

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❛❝❛❞é♠✐❝♦✱ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ❧♦ r❡❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s
~2 ∂ 2
Ĥ = −
2M ∂x2
② ♥♦s r❡str✐♥❣✐♠♦s ❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ só❧♦ s♦♥ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, L] s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝❡r♦ ❡♥
❧♦s ❡①tr❡♠♦s✳ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s
Z L Z L
~2 ∂ 2 Ψ(x, 0)
hHi = Ψ∗ (x, 0)ĤΨ(x, 0)dx = − Ψ∗ (x, 0) dx.
0 2M 0 ∂x2
 ✻✳✻✳ ▲❆ ❘❊P❘❊❙❊◆❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙

▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ Ψ(x, 0) ❡s ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s
② ✉s❛♠♦s q✉❡ Ψ(0, 0) = Ψ(L, 0) = 0
Z L 2 √ !2
~2 ∂Ψ(x, 0) ~2 2 3 6~2
hHi = + dx = L=
2M 0 ∂x 2M L 3/2 M L2

✭t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❡r ❡❢❡❝t✉❛❞♦ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ Ψ(x, 0) ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡

❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐s❝✉t✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇ ✱ ♦❜t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✮✳
◆♦t❛✿ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ Ψ(x, 0) ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✶✵✵ ✪ ❛❞♠✐s✐❜❧❡ ❛❧ ❡①❤✐❜✐r ✉♥❛
❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✳ ❊st♦ ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡ Ψ(x, 0) ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡③❝❛ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Ĥ
② ❛ q✉❡ ∆H s❡❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦✮✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦✱ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣❛r❛ ❡st❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✳
❜✮ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s♦♥ ✶✵
r
2 nπx π 2 ~2 2
Φn (x) = sin ; En = n ≡ ~Ωn2 con n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
L L 2M L2
② ♣❛r❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ✭✻✳✹✼✮ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛r hΦn |Ψ(0)i ✭❢í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ n ❡s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧✱ ♥♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥♦ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✮✳ ❖♣❡r❛♥❞♦
② t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ n ❡s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♥❛t✉r❛❧
√ "Z L/2  nπx  Z L  nπx 
#
2 6
cn ≡ hΦn |Ψ(0)i = 2 x sin dx + (L − x) sin dx =
L 0 L L/2 L
" #
√ Z 1/2 Z 1 √ 2 sin(nπ/2)
=2 6 u sin(nπu)du + (1 − u) sin(nπu)dx = 2 6 .
0 1/2 n2 π 2

❯s❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ sin(nπ/2) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ s✐ n ❡s ♣❛r ② ❛ (−1)(n−1)/2 s✐ n ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✱

√ impar  nπx 
8 3 X (−1)(n−1)/2 e−in Ωt
2
π2 ~
Ψ(x, t) = √ sin con Ω= .
π2 L n n2 L 2M L2

❊♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✻✲✺ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x, t) =

|Ψ(x, t)|2 q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r t❡♠♣♦r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡r✐ó❞✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥ τ =
M L2 /(2π~)✳ P✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛r ❝ó♠♦ ρ(x, t) s✐❣✉❡ ❝✐❝❧♦s ❞❡ ❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥✲❝♦♥tr❛❝❝✐ó♥✳
❝✮ P❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✻✳✺✶✮✿

 96 1
 4 4 si n = 1, 3, 5, ..
2 2
PrH (En ) = |hΦn |Ψ(t)i| = |hΦn |Ψ(0)i| = π n


0 si n = 2, 4, 6, ..

✶✵
❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♥♦ s♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L2 (R)✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦
❛❧ ❝♦♥✜♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s L2 ([0, L])✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, L]✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

3 3 3 3
t=0 t= t = 0.05 t = 0.95 t = 0.10 t = 0.90 t = 0.15 t = 0.85
2 2 2 2
xt L
( , )/

1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0
0 L 0 L 0 L 0 L
3 3 3 3
t = 0.20 t = 0.80 t = 0.25 t = 0.75 t = 0.30 t = 0.70 t = 0.35 t = 0.65
2 2 2 2
xt L
( , )/

1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0
0 L 0 L 0 L 0 L
3 3 3
t = 0.40 t = 0.60 t = 0.45 t = 0.55 t = 0.50
xt L

2 2 2
( , )/

1 1 1

0 0 0
0 L 0 L 0 L

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✻✲✺✳ ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x, t) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳❣

② ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ só❧♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s E1 , E3 , E5 , ... ❝♦♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ 1/n4 ✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r✱

∞
X impar ∞
96 X 1 96 X 1
PrH (En ) = = = 1.
n=1
π 4 n n4 π 4 s=0 (2s + 1)4

❞✮ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s

∞
X impar ∞
48~2 X 1 48~2 X 1
hHi = En PrH (En ) = =
n=1
2
π ML 2
n
n 2 π M L s=0 (2s + 1)2
2 2

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛ r❡♣r♦❞✉❝✐♠♦s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ②❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛✮✳

6.7✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ❙❊P❆❘❆❇▲❊❙

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝♦♥ N ❣r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ❡s s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡ s✐ ❡s

♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❞❡s❛❝♦♣❧❛r ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛✱ s✉ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ s❡rá s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡ s✐ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

V (r) = Vx (x) + Vy (y) + Vz (z). ✭✻✳✺✺✮

 ✻✳✼✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ❙❊P❆❘❆❇▲❊❙

❈✉á♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s❡ r❡✢❡❥❛ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s



 ~2 ∂ 2

 Ĥx = − + Vx (x)

 2M ∂x2




~2 ∂ 2
Ĥ = Ĥx + Ĥy + Ĥz con Ĥy = − + Vy (y) ✭✻✳✺✻✮

 2M ∂y 2





 2 2
 Ĥz = − ~ ∂ + Vz (z)

2M ∂z 2
❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦s ✏♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s✑
q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞



 Ĥx ϕEx (x) = Ex ϕEx (x)




Si Φ(r) = ϕEx (x) ξ Ey (y) η Ez (z) con Ĥy ξ Ey (y) = Ey ξ Ey (y)





 Ĥ η (z) = E η (z)
z Ez z Ez

entonces Φ(r) es autofunción de Ĥ con autoenergı́a E = Ex + Ey + Ez .

✭✻✳✺✼✮
❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ Ĥx ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ x✱
   
Ĥx Φ(r) = Ĥx ϕEx (x)ξ Ey (y)η Ez (z) = Ĥx ϕEx (x) ξ Ey (y) η Ez (z).

❨ ②❛ q✉❡ ϕEx (x) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ĥx ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ Ex ✱

Ĥx Φ(r) = Ex ϕEx (x) ξ Ey (y) η Ez (z) = Ex Φ(r),

s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛s ♣❛r❛ Ĥy Φ(r) ② Ĥz Φ(r)✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱

ĤΦ(r) = Ĥx Φ(r) + Ĥy Φ(r) + Ĥz Φ(r) = (Ex + Ey + Ez )Φ(r),

t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❛❜í❛♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛❞♦✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡✜♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R)✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✼✳ ❙✐ ♣❛r❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦s ❞❡ Ĥx ✱ Ĥy ② Ĥz s♦♥ ❡♥t❡r❛♠❡♥t❡
♣✉♥t✉❛❧❡s ② ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s✱ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛
tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❡st❛rá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s


 Ex ∈ σ p (Hx )



ΦEx Ey ,Ez (r) = ϕEx (x) ξ Ey (y) η Ez (z) , con Ey ∈ σ p (Hy ) ✭✻✳✺✽✮





Ez ∈ σ p (Hz )
❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s♦♥ ❛q✉í ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ s✉❜s✐st❡♠❛✳ ▲❛
❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡rá✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s tr❡s
❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s✳ ▲❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛❧ ❝❛s♦ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦
❞❡ ❧♦s ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦s t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ♦ ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s
❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ❞♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦s q✉❡✱ ♣❛r❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❝❛❞é♠✐❝♦s✱ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦

❧♦ s♦♥✳ ❉❡s❞❡ ❤❛❝❡ ②❛ ❜❛st❛♥t❡s ❛ñ♦s✱ ② ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ té❝♥✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❝r❡❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♣✐t❛①✐❛❧✱
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❤❡t❡r♦❡str✉❝t✉r❛s ❞❡ t❛♠❛ñ♦ ♥❛♥♦♠étr✐❝♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s
❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ q✉❡❞❛ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡s❝r✐t❛ ♣♦r ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s
s✐♠♣❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r✳ ❊❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝❛s♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡rí❛ ❛ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✭✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✮ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡
❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá
❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ♣❧❛♥❛ ❝♦♥ ❡s♣❡s♦r L ✜♥✐t♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❤✳ P❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝❛❥❛

❊❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❧✐❜r❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❛❧
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, L] ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

 0 si x ∈ (0, L)
V (x) = Vpci (L, x) ≡

∞ si x ∈
/ (0, L)
②❛ q✉❡✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s ❞❡
r❡tr♦❝❡s♦ ❡st❛rá♥ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡♥ x = 0 ② x = L✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❣rá✜❝❛✱ ❡st❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❬❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥❪✳
❈♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♠♦✈✐❡s❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ♣❡r♦
❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❛❥❛ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s Lx × Ly × Lz ✱ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s❡rí❛ s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ♣✉❡st♦
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s
V (r) = Vpci (Lx , x) + Vpci (Ly , y) + Vpci (Lz , z)

❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛✿

 ✻✳✼✳ ❙■❙❚❊▼❆❙ ❙❊P❆❘❆❇▲❊❙

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② s✉s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✐♥❝♦ ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❝♦♥ ♠❡♥♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s✐ Lx =
Ly = Lz ✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡✱ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s tr❡s ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s✳ ❇❛st❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
r❡❝♦r❞❛r ❝ó♠♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦
✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r q✉❡

r   s   r  
2 nx πx 2 ny πy 2 nz πz
Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) = sin sin sin ,
Lx Lx Ly Ly Lz Lz

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s tr❡s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s nx , ny , nz t♦♠❛♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s 1, 2, 3, ... ②✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
Ψnx ,ny ,nz (r) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛❥❛✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡rá ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✿
!
π 2 ~2 2 π 2 ~2 2 π 2 ~2 2 π 2 ~2 n2x n2y n2z
Enx ,ny ,nz = n + n + n = + + .
2M L2x x 2M L2y y 2M L2z z 2M L2x L2y L2z

❜✮ P❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♦r❞❡♥❛r ② ❛❣r✉♣❛r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳
❙✐ Lx = Ly = Lz ≡ L

π 2 ~2


Enx ,ny ,nz = n2 + n2y + n2z ≡ n2x + n2y + n2z ε
2M L2 x
② ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

Nivel Energı́a números cuánticos multiplicidad

1 3ε (1, 1, 1) 1

2 6ε (2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 2) 3

3 9ε (2, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 2) 3

4 11ε (3, 1, 1), (1, 3, 1), (1, 1, 3) 3

5 12ε (2, 2, 2) 1

❆ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ♥♦♠❡♥❝❧❛t✉r❛✱ s✐ ❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ 1 ❡s ❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✱ 2 ❡s ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦✱ 3 ❡s

❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ② ❛sí s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳
❊st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♠✉❡str❛ ❝ó♠♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ✏❞✐s❡ñ❛r✑ ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❝♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡s
❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❣❡♦♠❡trí❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ s✐ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s Li
❧❛s ♥✉❡✈❛s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡s s❡rá♥ ♠✉② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✳ ❊st❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ r❡s✉❧t❛ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ❡♥
❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♥❛♥♦t❡❝♥♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳✐✳ ❊❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♠♦✈❡r ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ♣❡r♦ ❡st❛♥❞♦
❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ z ∈ (−L/2, +L/2)✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s
❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s x ❡ y ❡s ❧✐❜r❡✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛
❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ z ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❧❛s
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✭♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s♦♥

exp(ipx x/~) exp(ipy y/~)  px,y ∈ R
Λpx ,py ,n (r) = Φn (z) con
(2π~)1/2 (2π~)1/2 
n = 1, 2, 3, ..

s✐❡♥❞♦ r    
2 nπ(z + L/2) L L
Φn (z) = sin con z∈ − ,
L L 2 2
❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♥ ♣❛r❡❞❡s ❡♥ ±L/2 ✭♦❜s❡r✈❡
q✉❡ ♥♦s ❤❡♠♦s ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ❛ ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥❛ tr❛s❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦
✻✳❤✮✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡st❛rá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

 
p2x p2y π 2 ~2 2 1 ~2 π 2 2
Epx ,py ,n = + + 2
n = |pk |2 + n ≡ Epk ,n ,
2M 2M 2M L 2M L2

❞♦♥❞❡ pk ≡ px ux + py uy ❡s ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✳

▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❛sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ tr❡s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s {px , py , n} ❞❡
♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❡s

hΛpx ,py ,n |Λp′x ,p′y ,n′ i = δ(px − p′x ) δ(py − p′y ) δ n,n′ = δ(pk − p′k ) δ n,n′

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❝ó♠♦❞❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡
t❡♥❞rí❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❝❛❞❛
♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞♦s✳
▲❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s♦♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡♥ ❞♦s
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ✉♥ tér♠✐♥♦ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛❧ ❝♦♥✜♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❝❡r❝❛♥í❛s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✳
❈❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ n ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ✉♥❛ s✉❜❜❛♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳ ❋í❥❡s❡ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③
q✉❡ s✐
2~2 π 2
Epk ,n < E0,2 =
M L2
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s n = 1✳ ❈♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛sps✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❜❛❥❛s ❧❛p❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥
z ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡rá s✐❡♠♣r❡ Φ1 (z) = 2/L sin(πz/L + π/2) = 2/L cos(πz/L)
② ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡rá ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s ♣rá❝t✐❝♦s ✳
 ✻✳✽✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ▼❊❉■❖❙

6.8✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ▼❊❉■❖❙

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s

♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ≡ A(r, p) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ Â✳
❊♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦✱ t❛❧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛ s✐ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱ q✉❡ s✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✿
Z
hAit = hΨ(t)|ÂΨ(t)i = Ψ∗ (r, t)ÂΨ(r, t) d3 r. ✭✻✳✺✾✮
R3

P❛r❛ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦✱ ❞❡r✐✈❡♠♦s r❡s♣❡❝t♦
❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭✻✳✺✾✮ r❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ t✱
d d ∂Ψ(t) ∂Ψ(t)
hAit = hΨ(t)|ÂΨ(t)i = h |ÂΨ(t)i + hΨ(t)|Â i.
dt dt ∂t ∂t
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ∂Ψ(t)/∂t ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ĥ ② ✉s❛♠♦s q✉❡
ést❡ ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱

d i −i
hAit = h− ĤΨ(t)|ÂΨ(t)i + hΨ(t)| ÂĤΨ(t)i
dt ~ ~
i  
= hĤΨ(t)|ÂΨ(t)i − hΨ(t)|ÂĤΨ(t)i
~
i  
= hΨ(t)|Ĥ ÂΨ(t)i − hΨ(t)|ÂĤΨ(t)i
~
i i  
= hΨ(t)|(Ĥ Â − ÂĤ)Ψ(t)i = hΨ(t)| Ĥ, Â Ψ(t)i,
~ ~
❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r [Ĥ, Â] = Ĥ Â − ÂĤ ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡
➓✹✳✹✳✺✮✳ ❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

 
d i  
hAit = Ĥ, Â ✭✻✳✻✵✮
dt ~ t

q✉❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r (i/~)[Ĥ, Â]✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✻✳✻✵✮ ❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡

❊❤r❡♥❢❡st ✭s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✹✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❜❛❥♦ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F(r) = −∇V (r)✱
s✐❡♥❞♦ V (r) ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ x ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ✭❝❢r✳ ➓✺✳✶✳✹✮
② ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s ✈✐st❛s ❡♥ ➓✹✳✹✳✺✱

i  i  i  i  2 
Ĥ, x̂ = K̂, x̂ + V̂ , x̂ = p̂ , x̂ + 0̂ =
~ ~ ~ 2M ~ x
i 1
= (p̂x [p̂x , x̂] + [p̂x , x̂]p̂x ) = p̂x
2M ~ M
✭❤❡♠♦s t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ x ❝♦♥♠✉t❛ ❝♦♥ V (r), py ② pz ✮✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛

d 1
hxit = hpx it .
dt M
 
P❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ px ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛r i~−1 Ĥ, p̂x ✳ ❈♦♠♦

K̂ ② p̂x ❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥✱

i  i  i  
Ĥ, p̂x = V̂ , p̂x = V̂ p̂x − p̂x V̂
~ ~ ~
② ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s
 
i  ∂Ψ(r) ∂ (V (r)Ψ(r)) ∂V (r)
Ĥ, p̂x Ψ(r) = V (r) − = − Ψ(r) = Fx (r)Ψ(r).
~ ∂x ∂x ∂x

◗✉❡❞❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡

d
hpx it = hFx (r)i.
dt
❊①t❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♣❛r❛ dhxit /dt ② dhpx it /dt ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s y✱ z
r❡❝✉♣❡r❛♠♦s ❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st ✭✻✳✸✸✮ ② ✭✻✳✸✹✮✳

➓ ✸✳ ❈♦♥❢♦r♠❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✻✵✮✱ s✐ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ [Ĥ, Â] = 0̂✱

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ A s♦❜r❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ Ψ(r, t)✱ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱ ♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ ✿
 
A es constante del movimiento ⇔ Ĥ, Â = 0̂ ⇔ hAit = hAi0
✭✻✳✻✶✮
❞♦♥❞❡ hAi0 ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A ❡♥ t = 0✳ ❘❡s✉❧t❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛
♣r♦♣✐❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ H ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ s❛❜í❛♠♦s✳
 ✻✳✽✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊ ❱❆▲❖❘❊❙ ▼❊❉■❖❙

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❤❛❝❡r ♥♦t❛r q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s
♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❞❡❧
♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ B s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛ q✉❡
hBit = constante s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ♥♦ ❞❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✐♥✈❛r✐❛♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡s ❞❡❜✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s
♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ② ♥♦ ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ B✳

➓ ✹✳ ▲❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ tí♣✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

s✐❣✉❡♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ✈á❧✐❞❛s s✐ s❡ tr❛t❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ❝❡r♦✱ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st
✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ hpz it = hpz i0 ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ pz s❡rá ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧
♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ♦tr♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❧í♥❡❛✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✻✳❥✳ ✭✦✮ ❈♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛✳
❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

Pr♦❜❡♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ [Ĥ, L̂z ] = 0̂ ②❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ r❡st♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ▲ ❡❧

♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡s ✐❞é♥t✐❝♦✳ P❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡
1  2 
[K̂, L̂z ] = p̂ + p̂2y + p̂2z , x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x .
2M x
❯s❛♥❞♦ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s ② ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡
✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ♥✉❧♦s✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
1
1

[K̂, L̂z ] = [p̂2x , x̂p̂y ] − [p̂2y , ŷ p̂x ] = [p̂2x , x̂]p̂y − [p̂2y , ŷ]p̂x =
2M 2M
p̂x [p̂x , x̂]p̂y + [p̂x , x̂]p̂x p̂y − p̂y [p̂y , ŷ]p̂x − [p̂y , ŷ]p̂y p̂x
=
2M
−i~

= p̂x p̂y − p̂y p̂x = 0̂.
M
P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ L̂z só❧♦ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ ❡❧
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳❞ ✮✱ ② ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ só❧♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r✱
 
∂Ψ(r) ∂
(V̂ L̂z )Ψ(r) = V (r) −i~ = −i~ [V (r)Ψ(r)] = (L̂z V̂ )Ψ(r),
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ [V̂ , L̂z ] = 0̂✳
❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱ [Ĥ, L̂z ] = [K̂, L̂z ] + [V̂ , L̂z ] = 0̂✱ ❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ L̂z ✭② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡
❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✮ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛ ❝♦♥ Ĥ ✳ ❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ s❡ ❡①t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❢ís✐❝❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ L✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❞❛

❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛✳

❙✐ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♥♦ ❢✉❡s❡ ❝❡♥tr❛❧✱ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s q✉❡

           
Ĥ, L̂z = V̂ , L̂z = V̂ , x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x = x̂ V̂ , p̂y − ŷ V̂ , p̂x = −i~ x̂F̂y − ŷ F̂x ,

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

d i
hLz it = h[Ĥ, L̂z ]it = hx̂F̂y − ŷ F̂x it = hMz (r)it ,
dt ~
s✐❡♥❞♦ Mz (r) ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♣❛r ❞❡ ❢✉❡r③❛s r × F(r)✳
❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ dL/dt = r×F(r) s❡ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡ ❡♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❛❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s✿

d
hLit = hr × F(r)it . ✭✻✳✻✷✮
dt

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ hr × F(r)it 6= hrit × hF(r)it ❧❛s

s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ② ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞✐rá♥✳ ▲❛
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r ❡s ❛sí ❢♦r♠❛❧✱ ♥♦ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛✳

6.9✳ ❈❖❘❘❊❙P❖◆❉❊◆❈■❆ ❈❖◆ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆✭✯✮

✶✶
❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❤❛r❡♠♦s ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡♥❝✐♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ Ȧ ≡ ∂A/∂t✳
➓ ✶✳ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ✭✻✳✻✵✮ s✉❣✐❡r❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❢ís✐❝❛ Ȧ ❝♦♠♦ ❛q✉é❧❧❛ ❝✉②♦ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψ(t)i s❡❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛
❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ hAit ✿
d
hȦit = hAit para todo estado |Ψ(t)i.
dt
❊st♦ q✉❡❞❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛❞♦ ❛✉t♦♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐ s✉ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❡s

ḃ = i Ĥ, Â,
A ✭✻✳✻✸✮
~

✶✶
❘❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❞❡ ❧❡❝t✉r❛ ♦♣t❛t✐✈❛
 ✻✳✾✳ ❈❖❘❘❊❙P❖◆❉❊◆❈■❆ ❈❖◆ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆✭✯✮

❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ Ȧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❞❡❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ ✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡
❊❤r❡♥❢❡st ṗx = Fx ✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ L̇z s❡rá x̂F̂y − ŷ F̂x ✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ♠ás ❞❡ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❡st❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❢♦r♠❛❧

❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛s ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ② ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ P❛r❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s
♠♦♠❡♥tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ x s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ p s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② H =
H(x, p) s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❝✉rs♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛✱
❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ x ② p ❡stá r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ q✉❡✱ ♦♠✐t✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❡♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❧❛s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛s
t❡♠♣♦r❛❧❡s✱ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❝♦♠♦✿

∂H ∂H
ẋ = ; ṗ = − . ✭✻✳✻✹✮
∂p ∂x

▲❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ A = A(x, p) s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛r

❝♦♠♦  
∂A ∂A ∂H ∂A ∂H ∂A
Ȧ = ẋ + ṗ = − − ✭✻✳✻✺✮
∂x ∂p ∂x ∂p ∂p ∂x
❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛❞❡♥❛ ② ✉s❛❞♦ ✭✻✳✻✹✮✳ ❘❡♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦
❧♦s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s✱ ❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❝♦r❝❤❡t❡ ❞❡ P♦✐ss♦♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s B ② A✱
∂B ∂A ∂B ∂A
{B, A}P ≡ − , ✭✻✳✻✻✮
∂x ∂p ∂p ∂x
❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛
Ȧ = −{H, A}P . ✭✻✳✻✼✮

▲❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ✭✻✳✻✼✮ r❡❝✐❜❡ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ▲✐♦✉✈✐❧❧❡✳ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ❡s ❧❛ ✭✻✳✻✸✮✳

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛sí ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡r ✉♥❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ②

❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❡①✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧

1  
(clásica) {A, B}P ←→ Â, B̂ (cuántica) ✭✻✳✻✽✮
i~

➓ ✸✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦r❝❤❡t❡ ❞❡ P♦✐ss♦♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s

s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ {x, p}P = 1✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❞❡ ❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ x ② p s♦♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✳ ❊❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❛ ❡st❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rá✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥

✭✻✳✻✽✮✱ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛ [x̂, p̂] = i~Î✱ ②❛ ❞✐s❝✉t✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥
✺✳✶✱ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✺✳✻✮✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡s❝r✐t♦ ♣♦r N ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s

{x1 , x2 , ..., xN } ② s✉s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝♦s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦s {p1 , p2 , ..., pN }✱ ❡❧ ❝♦r❝❤❡t❡
❞❡ P♦✐ss♦♥ ❡s
N 
X 
∂A ∂B ∂A ∂B
{A, B}P ≡ − ✭✻✳✻✾✮
∂xn ∂pn ∂pn ∂xn
n=1
❊s ❛sí ❢á❝✐❧ ✈❡r ✭✐♥té♥t❡s❡✮ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥
tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ {Lx , Ly }P = Lz ✳ ❊st❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ t❡♥❞rá s✉
r❡✢❡❥♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ②❛ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥
❡❧ ♣ró①✐♠♦ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
 
L̂x , L̂y = i~L̂z ✭✻✳✼✵✮

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛♥ q✉❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s

❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦r❝❤❡t❡s ❞❡ P♦✐ss♦♥ ❝❧ás✐❝♦s ② ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s❡❛♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s
✭s❛❧✈♦ ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r i~✮✳ ❊st♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛ ♣♦r q✉é ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ② ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛s✱
✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥✱ s❡❛♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛s✳

➓ ✹✳ ▲❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ② ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥

❡♥ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡
♠❛s❛ M ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
 
iW (r,t)/~ i Ψ(r, t)
Ψ(r, t) = A0 e con W (r, t) = − ln ∈ C, ✭✻✳✼✶✮
~ A0
❞♦♥❞❡ A0 ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ✭❝♦♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❡❧❡✈❛❞❛ ❛
−3/2✮ q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ♣♦r ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ✭✻✳✼✶✮
❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ② ♦♣❡r❛♠♦s✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛
W (r, t) s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

∂W (r, t) 1 i~ 2
− = ∇W (r, t) · ∇W (r, t) − ∇ W (r, t) + V (r). ✭✻✳✼✷✮
∂t 2M 2M
❉❡s❝♦♠♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ W (r, t) ❡♥ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ s✉s ♣❛rt❡s r❡❛❧ ❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛✱

W (r, t) = S(r, t) + i~B(r, t) ✭✻✳✼✸✮

s✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s S ② B r❡❛❧❡s✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s

  p
Ψ(r, t) = A0 e−B(r,t) eiS(r,t)/~ = ρ(r, t) eiS(r,t)/~ ,
 ✻✳✾✳ ❈❖❘❘❊❙P❖◆❉❊◆❈■❆ ❈❖◆ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆✭✯✮

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ | exp[iS(r, t)/~]|2 = 1 ❛❧ s❡r S r❡❛❧✳ ❆sí✱ B(r,t) ❡stá ❧✐❣❛❞❛
❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ S(r, t) ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛ ❞❡ Ψ(r, t)✳
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ✭✻✳✼✸✮ ❡♥ ✭✻✳✼✷✮✱ ♦♣❡r❛♠♦s ② s❡♣❛r❛♠♦s ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s r❡❛❧ ❡
✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

∂S(r, t) 1 ~2 ~2 2
− = |∇S(r, t)|2 + V (r) − |∇B(r, t)|2 + ∇ B(r, t)
∂t 2M 2M 2M
✭✻✳✼✹✮
∂B(r, t) 1 1
− = ∇S(r, t) · ∇B(r, t) − ∇2 S(r, t).
∂t M 2M
❊st❡ ❡s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s r❡❛❧❡s✱ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳

▲♦ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s q✉❡ ♥♦s ✈❛ ❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡

❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✱ q✉❡ s❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛rí❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ~ → 0✳ ❚❡♥❡♠♦s
❛sí q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✻✳✼✹✮ s❡ r❡❞✉❝✐rí❛ ❛

∂S(r, t) 1
− = |∇S(r, t)|2 + V (r) si ~ → 0, ✭✻✳✼✺✮
∂t 2M
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♥♦ s❡ ✈❡rí❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛❞❛✳

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ s❡❣ú♥ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ ❡s Ψ(r, t) = A0 exp[iW (r, t)/~]✱ ❝♦♥ W (r, t) = S(r, t)✳ ❆❞♠✐t❛♠♦s
q✉❡ ést❛ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❛❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ F(r)✳ ❙✐ ❡❧❡❣✐♠♦s W (r, t) ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
✭✻✳✼✸✮✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

Ψ(r, t) = A0 exp[iW (r, t)/~], con S(r, t) = lı́m W (r, t).

~→0

✶✷
❊st❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❢✉❡ ✉s❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❊r✇✐♥ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❛❧ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛r s✉ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

✶✷
❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❊r✇✐♥ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✭✶✽✽✼✲✶✾✻✶✮ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐ó ❧❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ♦♥❞✉❧❛t♦r✐❛ s✐❡♥❞♦
♣r♦❢❡s♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❩ür✐❝❤✱ ②❛ ❡r❛ ✉♥ ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝♦ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❜í❛ ❡❥❡r❝✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❏❡♥❛✱
❙t✉tt❣❛rt ② ❇r❡s❧❛✉ ✭❤♦② ❲r♦❝❧❛✇✱ P♦❧♦♥✐❛✮✳ ❊♥ ✶✾✷✼ ♦❝✉♣ó ❧❛ ❝át❡❞r❛ ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ t❡ór✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❇❡r❧í♥ ✭✉♥❛
❞❡ ❧❛s ♠ás ❝♦❞✐❝✐❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❤❛❜❧❛ ❣❡r♠❛♥❛✮ s✉❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❛ ▼❛① P❧❛♥❝❦✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❛s❝❡♥s✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ♥❛③✐s♠♦ ❡♥ ✶✾✸✸ ❛❜❛♥❞♦♥ó ❆❧❡♠❛♥✐❛ ✐♥✐❝✐❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♣❡r✐♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❛ñ♦s ✭q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②ó ✉♥❛ ✈✉❡❧t❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
❛ ❆✉str✐❛ ❞❡s❛❢♦rt✉♥❛❞❛✮ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥ó ❡♥ ✶✾✹✵ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐ó ❡♥ ❉✉❜❧í♥✱ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ❛❧❧í ❡❧ r❡st♦
❞❡ s✉ ❝❛rr❡r❛ ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝❛✳ ❚r❛s s✉ ❥✉❜✐❧❛❝✐ó♥ r❡t♦r♥ó ❛ s✉ ❱✐❡♥❛ ♥❛t❛❧✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❢❛❧❧❡❝✐ó ❡♥ ✶✾✻✶✳ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
s❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③ó ♣♦r s✉s ♣♦st✉r❛s ♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ ❧♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❧♦ ✐♥t❡❧❡❝t✉❛❧✱ ② s✉
❢❛♠♦s♦ ❡♥s❛②♦ ➽◗✉é ❡s ❧❛ ✈✐❞❛❄ ✐♥s♣✐ró ❛ ❲❛ts♦♥ ② ❈r✐❝❦ ❡♥ s✉ ❜úsq✉❡❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❝ó❞✐❣♦ ❣❡♥ét✐❝♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

➓ ✺✳ ▲❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡st❛❞♦ ✈✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st♦s

❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ♣♦r ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦
q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♥♦ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♥✱
s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳
P❡r♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✻✸✮ ♦❢r❡❝❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ✐♠❛❣❡♥
❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ s❡
❞❡✜♥❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭❡st❡ ✈❡❝t♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛s
❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧❡s✮ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❊st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❝♦♥
❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥
✭✻✳✻✸✮ t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳
❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ÂH (t) ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡rí❛

d i 
ÂH (t) = Ĥ, ÂH (t) . ✭✻✳✼✻✮
dt ~

❞♦♥❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ H ❡♥❢❛t✐③❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ÂH (t) ❡s ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❛❧ Â
q✉❡ ❤❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦✳ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ A ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t s❡rí❛

hAit = hΨ|ÂH (t)Ψi si kΨk = 1. ✭✻✳✼✼✮

❊♥ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛r ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ✭ ✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ✮✱ s✐

❡s❝♦❣❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❡stá♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛s ♣♦r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧
t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❊st❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❢✉❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛❞♦♣t❛r♦♥ ❲❡r♥❡r ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ▼❛① ❇♦r♥
✶✸
② P❛s❝✉❛❧ ❏♦r❞❛♥ ❡♥ s✉s ❤✐stór✐❝♦s tr❛❜❛❥♦s ❞❡ ✶✾✷✺✳

✶✸
❲❡r♥❡r ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ✭✶✾✵✶✲✶✾✼✻✮ r❡❛❧✐③ó s✉ t❡s✐s ❞♦❝t♦r❛❧ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✈✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❆r♥♦❧❞
❙♦♠♠❡r❢❡❧❞ ✭t❡s✐s q✉❡ ❝❛s✐ ❢✉❡ r❡❝❤❛③❛❞❛ ❛❧ s❡r ✐♥❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s r❡❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❡❧
tr✐❜✉♥❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✮✳ ❆❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦✱ ② ❝♦♥ ✷✸ ❛ñ♦s✱ ❡♠♣✐❡③❛ ❛
tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❝♦♠♦ ❛s✐st❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ▼❛① ❇♦r♥ ❡♥ ●♦tt✐♥❣❡♥✳ ❚r❛s ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ s❡ ✉♥❡
❛❧ ❡q✉✐♣♦ ❞❡ ◆✐❡❧s ❇♦❤r ❡♥ ❈♦♣❡♥❤❛❣✉❡✱ ② ❡s ❛❧❧í ❞♦♥❞❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ s✉ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥ ✶✾✷✼✳
❏✉st♦ ❞❡s♣✉és✱ ② ❝♦♥ t❛♥ só❧♦ ✷✻ ❛ñ♦s✱ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❧❛③❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❢❡s♦r ❡♥ ▲❡✐♣③✐❣✳ ▲✐❞❡ró ❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛
✭❢❛❧❧✐❞♦✮ ❞❡ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜♦♠❜❛ ♥✉❝❧❡❛r ❛❧❡♠❛♥❛ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❙❡❣✉♥❞❛ ●✉❡rr❛ ▼✉♥❞✐❛❧✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❤❛
♠♦t✐✈❛❞♦ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❤✐stór✐❝♦s ② ❡s♣❡❝✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣r♦♠✐s♦ q✉❡ ❛s✉♠✐ó r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ❡♥ ❛q✉❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❤❛ ❡s❝r✐t♦ ♠✉❝❤♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♦❜t✉✈✐❡s❡ ❡♥ s♦❧✐t❛r✐♦
❡❧ ♣r❡♠✐♦ ◆♦❜❡❧ ❞❡ ✶✾✸✷✱ ♦❧✈✐❞❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❆❝❛❞❡♠✐❛ ❙✉❡❝❛ ❧❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛① ❇♦r♥ ✭q✉✐❡♥
❛ ❧❛ ♣♦str❡ ❢✉❡ ❣❛❧❛r❞♦♥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✶✾✺✹✮ ② ❞❡ P❛s❝✉❛❧ ❏♦r❞❛♥✱ q✉✐❡♥ ♥✉♥❝❛ ❧♦ r❡❝✐❜✐ó✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✶✳ ❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❢❛s❡ ② ❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦
❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡✱ q✉❡ t♦♠❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ t = 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s Ψ(x, 0) =
g(x) exp(ik0 x)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ k0 > 0 ② g(x) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧✱ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛✱ ♣❛r [g(x) = g(−x)] ②
♠✉② ❡①t❡♥❞✐❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡❛❧✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r

Ψ(x, t) ≃ g(x − vg t)eik0 x e−iω0 t .

➽❈✉á❧❡s s♦♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ vg ② ❞❡ ω 0 ❄

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✷✳ ■♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

❯♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ❡s ♣❛r ♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛ s✐ Ψ(r) = Ψ(−r)✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣❛r
♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛ s✐ Ψ(r) = −Ψ(−r)✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ✭♣♦s✐t✐✈❛
♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛✮ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) s❡ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ s✐ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ❡①❤✐❜❡ s✐♠❡trí❛ ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ V (r) = V (−r)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✸✳ ❊st❛❞♦s ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ t0 ✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡
s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❡s
exp[−x2 /(2a2 )]
Ψ(x) = exp(ip0 x/~) con a, p0 ∈ R
(πa2 )1/4

❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆H ❡♥ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ② ❞✐s❝✉t❛ s✉ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ a✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✹✳ ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ E

❙✐✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s Ψ̃(p)✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧ (E, E + dE)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✺✳ ✭✦✮ ❆❝♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

❆✉♥q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❡ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈♦✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ r✐❣✉r♦s❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ Efund ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✿

hHi ≥ Efund . ✭✻✳✼✽✮

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

➽❈✉á♥❞♦ s❡ s❛t✉r❛ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❄

◆♦t❛✿ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✺✳✻ ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✻✳ ❱❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛

❉❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② ❡①t❡♥❞✐❞♦✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s✿
Ψ(x) = A [sin(k0 x) cos(k0 x) + 2 sin(3k0 x)] con k0 > 0.

❍❛❧❧❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✿ ❊①♣r❡s❡ Ψ(x) ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✼✳ ❇❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧❡s

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s V (r)✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s✐ ΨE (r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

Ψ∗E (r) t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r
✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❛❧❡s ②✱
❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ L2 (R3 ) ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳
❜✮ ❙✐ ❛❞❡♠ás V (r) = V (−r)✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❝♦♥ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ s❡rá♥ ♣❛r❡s ② ❧❛s r❡st❛♥t❡s
✐♠♣❛r❡s✳
❝✮ ▲♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛
❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
1 1
η k,1 (x) = √ sin(kx) ; η k,2 (x) = √ cos(kx) con k ∈ R+
π π

❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R) ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞

s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❝♦♠♦ hη k,i |η q,j i = δ(k − q) δ i,j ✳ ❊♥ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ➽❝✉á❧❡s s❡rá♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ② ❧❛s
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧❄

❆②✉❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❝✮ ✿ ❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡♥♦ ② ❝♦s❡♥♦ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡

❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s✱ r❡s✉❧t❛♥❞♦ ②❛ s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
❡s❝❛❧❛r hη k,i |η q,j i✳ ❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ k ② q s♦♥ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✽✳ ❊❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛
❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ −∞ < x < 0✳ ❈❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❜♦t❛rí❛ ❡❧ást✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦
x=0 s❡❛ ❝✉❛❧ s❡❛ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s

 +∞ si x≥0
V (x) =

0 si x<0

❧♦ q✉❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✏ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ✑✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

r
2
Ψp (x) = sin(px) con p ∈ R+
π~
s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r E = p2 /(2M )✳
❜✮ ❱❡r✐✜q✉❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦

Z ∞
2
hΨp |Ψq i = sin(px) sin(qx) dx = δ(p − q)
π~ 0

❞♦♥❞❡ δ(p − q) ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✳

❝✮ ➽❈r❡❡ ❱❞✳ q✉❡ ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s✐❣✉❡♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ✈á❧✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦❄

❆②✉❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❜✮ ✿ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ hΨp |Ψq i ❡s ♣❛r✱ ♣✉❡❞❡
❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❛ t♦❞♦ R ❞✐✈✐❞✐é♥❞♦❧❛ ♣♦r ❞♦s✳ ❙✐❣❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ s✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✻✳✼ ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✾✳ ✭✯✮ P❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ■■

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ F = −F ux ❝♦♥F > 0✳ ❙✉s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s♦♥

 xr = E/F , E ∈ R
  

x − xr
ΦE (x) = AAi con  2 1/3
b0 
 ~
 b0 =
2M F

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ A ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✉s✉❛❧ ❞❡

♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ hΦE1 |ΦE2 i = δ(E1 − E2 )✳
❜✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ②
❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
✐♥✐❝✐❛❧❡s x0 ≡ hxit=0 ② p0 ≡ hpx it=0 ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❱❖▲❯❈■Ó◆ ❚❊▼P❖❘❆▲ ❉❊❚❊❘▼■◆■❙❚❆

❝✮ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s

❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡
∂ ∂
ρ (px , t) = −F ρ (px , t)
∂t mom ∂px mom
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ∆px ❡s
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❞✮ ❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t=0 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

  2 1/3
  
 ~
1 (x + b0 ) 2  b0 =
Ψ(x, 0) = Ψ(x, t0 ) = exp − con 2M F
(πa2 )1/4 2a2 


a = ζb0 ; ζ > 0

❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦s ❜✮

② ❝✮ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ s✉
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ② s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✳ ❉✐s❝✉t❛ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ζ∼0 ②
ζ ≫ 1✳
❡✮ P❧❛♥t❡❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ② r❡s✉é❧✈❛❧❛✳ ▼❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❆②✉❞❛s ✿
Z Z
1 3
Ai(u − a)Ai(u − b) du = δ(a − b) Ai(u) = eik /3 eiku dk
2π R
ZR Z
√ 1√
exp(−u2 ) du = π u2 exp(−u2 ) du = π
R R 2

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✻✳✶✵✳ ✭✦✦✮ P❡♥❡tr❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ② ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡sV (x)✳ ❈❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥❛
③♦♥❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ E > V (x)✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ E ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳
✻✲✻✮✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E
♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ ♦ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛ E < V (x)✳

❛✮ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ s♦r♣r❡♥❞❡♥t❡✱ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t❡ ❜❛sá♥❞♦s❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡

✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ② ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ q✉❡ t❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡
✏♣r❡♦❝✉♣❛r♥♦s✑✳ ✭■❞❡❛✿ ❧♦ ♣r❡♦❝✉♣❛♥t❡ s❡rí❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡
❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡❝tás❡♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛ q✉❡
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ t❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✮
❜✮ ❙✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [a, b] ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r V0 ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡
q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✻✲✻✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x)✳ ❙✐ E ❡s
❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ s✉ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❡stá r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ a ≤ x ≤ b✱
❞♦♥❞❡ a ② b s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s ❞❡ r❡tr♦❝❡s♦✳

❞✐❝❤♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❡s

 Ae+ikx + Be−ikx si V0 < E p
2M |E − V0 |
ΨE (x) = con k ≡ ✭✻✳✼✾✮
 ~
Ce+kx + De−kx si V0 > E

❞♦♥❞❡ A✱ B✱ C✱ D s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s✳

 ❚❡♠❛ ✼
❚❊❖❘❮❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ▼❊❉■❉❆✳ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆

❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❍❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ♥♦s ❤❡♠♦s ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s

② ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❤✐♥❝❛♣✐é t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s
♠✉② s♦♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉é s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❝❤❛✳

❚r❛s ✉♥❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❞❡✜♥✐r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧❡s

❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦s ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s s❡rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ tr❛s ❤❛❜❡r ❡❢❡❝t✉❛❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧❧❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧✳
❊st❡ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦❧❛♣s♦✱ s❡rá ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥
❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❤❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ tr❛s ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✱ q✉❡ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❡s
❡st♦❝ást✐❝♦ ♣♦r ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛✳

❆❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✐♥t❡♥t❛♥❞♦

❞❛r r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ➽❝✉á♥❞♦ ❞♦s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♠❡❞✐r
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛❄ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈❛rá ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥
♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ② ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛−t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s ♠✉② s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣♦st✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛

♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ② ✉♥❛s ❜r❡✈❡s ✐❞❡❛s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
❡♥ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ✉♥❛s ✽ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥
❡st❛r r❡♣❛rt✐❞❛s ❛ ♣❛rt❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s t❡ór✐❝♦s ②
s✉s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s r❡s✉❡❧t♦s ② ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s
♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❙❛❜❡r ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ♦ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛r ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦s✳ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r ❞✐❝❤❛ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❛ ❧❛ ❧✉③ ❞❡ ❧❛
r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s✱ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r q✉é ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ② s✉

r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✳

❙❡r ❝♦♥s❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ q✉❡ s✉♣♦♥❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ✏❡stá♥❞❛r✑ ❞❡❧

❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ② s✉ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s
❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳
 ✼✳✶✳ P❘❖❨❊❈❚❖❘❊❙ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❆▲❊❙✳ ❈❖▲❆P❙❖ ❉❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖

7.1✳ P❘❖❨❊❈❚❖❘❊❙ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❆▲❊❙✳ ❈❖▲❆P❙❖ ❉❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖

➓ ✶✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥
s✐st❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡sq✉❡♠❛✿

✶✳ Pr❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✳ ▼❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✱ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✭♦ ❡♥

❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s✉❥❡t♦ ❛ ❡st✉❞✐♦✮ q✉❡❞❛ ❞✐s♣✉❡st❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, 0) ✭♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦
|Ψ(0)i ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❜str❛❝t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✮✳

✷✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛✳ ▲❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ F(r) ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ Ψ(r, t) ❝❛♠❜✐❛
❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ s✐♥ ❛♠❜✐❣ü❡❞❛❞ ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ Ψ(r, 0) ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳

✸✳ ▼❡❞✐❞❛✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t s❡ ❡①♣❧♦r❛♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊❧

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥♦ ❡stá ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t)✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ sí ❧♦ ❡stá♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳

P❧❛♥t❡❛❞❛s ❛sí ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s ♥♦ ❤❛② ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ s❛❧✈♦
❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ s♦r♣r❡s❛ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐r♥♦s ❧♦s ♠✉❝❤♦s ② ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r❡s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s
q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠✐❝r♦♠✉♥❞♦✳ ▲❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s
❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s tr❡s ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ❞❛ ❜✉❡♥❛
❝✉❡♥t❛ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ✐♥✉s✐t❛❞❛✱ s✉♣❡r✐♦r
❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❢ís✐❝❛✳ ❊❧❧♦ ❡s ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❣r❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❛ s✉ r✐❣♦r
❡♣✐st❡♠♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ✭só❧♦ s❡ ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛♥ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡s✱ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛♥❞♦
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣r✐♦ríst✐❝❛✮ ② ❛ ❧❛ r♦❜✉st❡③ ❞❡ s✉ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✳
❊st♦s ❞♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s s❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛♥ ② ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❡❧ ✉♥♦ s✐♥ ❡❧ ♦tr♦✳
P♦r ❡❧❧♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥t❡♥t❛❞♦ s❡r ♠✉② ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦s♦s ❡①♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❝ó♠♦ ✭❧❛s
❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s✮ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣♦rq✉é ✭❡❧ ♠♦t✐✈♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s❛s ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s s♦♥
♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛s✮✳

➓ ✷✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ✉♥❛ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❜ás✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛

❡s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ s✐ ♥♦ s❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛
❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦✳ ❙✐♥ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛r ❡♥ ❞❡♠❛sí❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦
♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦ M ② ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ✐♥✜r✐é♥❞♦s❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r
❞❡ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦ ❞❡ M✳
❊st❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛r ❡①tr❡♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✿ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛ ❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✱ ② ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❝❛rá❝t❡r
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

✐rr❡✈❡rs✐❜❧❡ q✉❡ q✉❡❞❛ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡❧ ❛❧❝❛♥❝❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❛❝t✉❛♥❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▼ás ❛ú♥✱ ✉♥❛
✈❡③ ❝✉❧♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✭❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦ ❞❡ M✮ ❧♦ ♠ás
♥♦r♠❛❧ ❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡❛ ✐♠♣r❡❞❡❝✐❜❧❡✳ P✉❡❞❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ♦❝✉rr✐r
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡❞❡ ✏❞❡str✉✐❞❛✑✱ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❧❧♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❧❛
❤❛ ❛❜s♦r❜✐❞♦ ❞❡❥❛♥❞♦ ❛sí ❞❡ s❡r r❡❛❧✐st❛ ❡❧ tr❛t❛r❧❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧
❞❡s❛❝♦♣❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❡♥t♦r♥♦✳ ❊st♦ ❡s ❧♦ q✉❡ ♦❝✉rr❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡t❡❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❛ r❡s✉❧t❛s ❞❡ s✉ ✐♠♣❛❝t♦ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✳

❯♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❡s ❛q✉❡❧❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡

♠❡❞✐❞❛ M ② ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♠í♥✐♠❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✳ P♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦✱ ♣♦r ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ q✉❡ s❡❛
❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❛❝❡♣t❛r q✉❡✱ ❡♥
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ❧❛
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺✱ ❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡
r❡q✉✐s✐t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✐♦s❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❣ú♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐st❛ ❡①♣✉❡st❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r a ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡
A s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛
❞❡ A✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡s❝r✐t♦
♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψantes ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ② ❤❡♠♦s
♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r a✳ ▲❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ q✉❡ ❛♥t❡s ♥♦ t❡♥í❛♠♦s✱ ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡
Ψdespués ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❞✐❝❤❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳

❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡✱ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱

❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❆ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ P❛r❡❝❡ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛
✶
♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r a✳ P❡r♦✱ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ ♠ás s❡❣ú♥ ❧❛
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✱ ❡st♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s❡ ❤❛ ❤❡❝❤♦
s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ Φa ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a ❞❡
A✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛ ❝♦♥✈❡rt✐❞♦ ✐♥st❛♥tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ Ψantes
❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ Ψdespués = Φa ✳ ❆ ❡st❡ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ✐♥st❛♥tá♥❡♦ s❡ ❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ♦
❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳
❊❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ✿ s✐ ❤❛②
✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ |Ψdespués i ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ t❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ Ψdespués (r) s❡rá✱
s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❨ ❡s♦
❡s ❛sí ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❢✉❡r❛ Ψ(r)✳ ❊❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

✶
❈♦♥ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ s✐ ❤❡♠♦s ♠❡❞✐❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ② ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ✏❆ t♦♠❛ ✉♥
✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ S ❞❡ R✑✱ ✉♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✭✐❞❡❛❧✮ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛ ❞❡ A ❞❡❜❡ ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛
✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❡s❡ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ S✳
 ✼✳✶✳ P❘❖❨❊❈❚❖❘❊❙ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❆▲❊❙✳ ❈❖▲❆P❙❖ ❉❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖

❡stá ❛sí ❡str❡❝❤❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ t♦❞♦ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr♦ ♣r♦❝❡s♦
❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡✳

➓ ✸✳ P❛r❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡r ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♠ás ❝✉❛♥t✐t❛t✐✈❛✱ r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥❛
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ Â ❝✉②♦ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦✱
❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ σ p (A) ② ♦tr❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛
σ c (A)✳
❙✐a ❡s ✉♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ② Wa ❡s ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦
♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r✱ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r P̂a s♦❜r❡ Wa ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r
ga
X
P̂a Ψ(r) = hΦa,n |ΨiΦa,n (r) con a ∈ σ p (A), ✭✼✳✶✮
n=1

❞♦♥❞❡ {Φa,1 (r), ..., Φa,ga (r)} ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ Wa ✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s Wa s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡

hΦa,n |Φa′ ,n′ i = δ a,a′ δ n,n′ .

❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ Wα ❡s ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✭♥♦

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮ ❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r α ∈ σ c (A)✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧
P̂(α) ❝✉②❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s

gα
X
P̂(α)Ψ(r) = hΛα,i |ΨiΛα,i (r) con α ∈ σ c (A), ✭✼✳✷✮
i=1

❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ {Λα,1 (r), ..., Λα,gα (r)} ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ Wα ❝✉②❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥

hΛα,i |Λα′ ,i′ i = δ(α − α′ )δ i,i′ ,

②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φa,n (r)✳ ❊s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❢á❝✐❧
❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡

P̂a1 P̂a2 = δ a1 ,a2 P̂a1 ; P̂(α1 )P̂(α2 ) = δ(α1 − α2 )P̂(α1 ) ; P̂a P̂(α) = 0̂

hΨ|P̂a Ψi = hP̂a Ψ|Ψi = hP̂a Ψ|P̂a Ψi ; hΨ|P̂(α)Ψi = hP̂(α)Ψ|Ψi.

✭✼✳✸✮
❆ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s P̂a ✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s P̂(α) ♥♦ s♦♥ ❣❡♥✉✐♥♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s
♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ✭✼✳✸✮✱ sí ✈❡r✐✜❝❛♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞❡ s✉s
♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦ s❡ ❧❡s ❧❧❛♠❛ ❛ ✈❡❝❡s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞♦s✳

➓ ✹✳ ❊s❝♦❥❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ S ❞❡ R ② ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r

❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧
X Z
P̂S = P̂a + P̂(α)dα. ✭✼✳✹✮
σ p ∩S σ c ∩S

▲❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✼✳✸✮ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛♥ q✉❡ P̂S ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ L2 (R3 )✱ ❝✉②❛
❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r) ❡s

ga
X X Z ga
X
P̂S Ψ(r) = ca,n Φa,n (r) + cα,i Λα,i (r) dα, ✭✼✳✺✮
σ p ∩S n=1 σ c ∩S i=1

❞♦♥❞❡ ca,n = hΦa,n |Ψi

cα,i = hΛα,i |Ψi s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡
②
❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ A✱ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φa,n (r) ② Λα,i (r)✳
❱❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ P̂S ♣r♦②❡❝t❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt WS ❞❡ L (R )
2 3

❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉②❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♣r♦♣✐❛
❞❡ A ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ S. ❋ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ✉♥❛
♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❡rt❡♥❡③❝❛ ❛ WS ❞❛rá ❝♦♥
t♦❞❛ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ S✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❧❧❛♠❛r ❛ WS ❡❧
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ S✳
❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛
❞❡ A ② q✉❡ P̂S ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r✱ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡

ga
XX Z ga
X
kP̂S Ψk2 = hP̂S Ψ|P̂S Ψi = hP̂S Ψ|Ψi = |ca,n |2 + |cα,i |2 dα
σ p ∩S n=1 σ c ∩S i=1

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ s✐ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✺✳✹✳✷✱

 
ga Z ga
1 X X X
Pr(A ⊂ S) = |ca,n |2 + |cα,i |2 dα
kΨk2 σ c ∩S
σ p ∩S n=1 i=1

② ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ S ❡s

kP̂S Ψk2 hP̂S Ψ|Ψi |hP̂S Ψ|Ψi|2

Pr(A ⊂ S) = = = . ✭✼✳✻✮
kΨk2 kΨk2 kΨk2 kP̂S Ψk2
 ✼✳✶✳ P❘❖❨❊❈❚❖❘❊❙ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❆▲❊❙✳ ❈❖▲❆P❙❖ ❉❊▲ ❊❙❚❆❉❖

❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ Pr(A ⊂ S) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❣r❛❞♦ ❞❡ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡ Ψ(r) ② s✉ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥
♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ WS ✳ ▲❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✼✳✻✮ s✐r✈❡
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣❛r❛ ❞❛r ✉♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❛❧ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❜❛s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✳

❋í❥❡s❡ ❛❞❡♠ás q✉❡ P̂S Ψ(r) ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✏✜❧tr❛r✑ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r)✱
❞❡❥á♥❞♦❧❛ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❛ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s q✉❡ s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✿ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ P̂S Ψ(r) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♠ás ♣❛r❡❝✐❞❛ ❛ Ψ(r)
q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✏ A t♦♠❛ ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ S✑✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱
② ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ♣r❡✈✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✷✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ Ψdespués (r)✱ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ A ❝♦♥ ✉♥
✈❛❧♦r ❡♥S✱ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ Ψ(r) s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ WS ✳
❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❢❛♠♦s♦ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥✱ s❡❣ú♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧

❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡st♦❝ást✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦

✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ♦tr♦ ✜♥❛❧ ΨS (r) = P̂S Ψ(r) ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ❡♥ S✳
❙✐♠❜ó❧✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡st♦ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❝♦♠♦✿

|hΨS |Ψi|2
Pr A ⊂ S = Pr |Ψi → |ΨS i = con ΨS (r) = P̂S Ψ(r).
kΨS k2 kΨk2
✭✼✳✼✮

➓ ✺✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ♣r❡❝✐♦

q✉❡ s❡ ♣❛❣❛ ❡s ♠✉② ❡❧❡✈❛❞♦✳ ▲❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ✐♥❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ②
✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳

❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ Ψ(r) ② ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛✱ ❡s ❡♥ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛ ❡st♦❝ást✐❝♦✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s

1 1 1 1
Ψ(r) = √ Φ1 (r) + √ Φ2 (r) ; ϑ(r) = √ Φ1 (r) − √ Φ2 (r),
2 2 2 2
❞♦♥❞❡ Φi (r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r
ai ∈ σ p (A)✳ ❈♦♠♦ Φ1 (r) ② Φ2 (r) s♦♥ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s✱ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r
q✉❡ hΨ|ϑi = 0✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s |Ψi ② |ϑi s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
❞✐st✐♥t♦s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛s Ψdespués (r) ② ϑdespués (r)
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s t❛♥t♦ ❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✏ A = a1 ✑ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧ ✏ A = a2 ✑ s♦♥✱ s❛❧✈♦
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✿ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

A ♣✉❡❞❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛r ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❡♥ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s

❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✱ r♦♠♣✐é♥❞♦s❡ ❛sí ❧❛ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❡❞❛❞ tí♣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛
♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ❆ ❡st❡ r❡s♣❡❝t♦✱ ♥ót❡s❡ ❧❛ ❝❡r❝❛♥í❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st❛
❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❤✐③♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st❛❞♦s s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✱ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s❡♠❡❥❛♥③❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✹✳✹✮✳

❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✱ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ✭✼✳✼✮ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦
❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✿ ❧❛ ❝♦❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱
✉♥❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ② ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛ ✭❧❛ ❞✐❝t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✮ ② ♦tr❛
❡st♦❝ást✐❝❛ ② ♥♦ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛ ✭❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧✮✳ ▲♦ ú♥✐❝♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡♥ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❡s
❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ r❡✢❡❥♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣❡r♠❡❛ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❱♦❧✈❡r❡♠♦s ❛ ❡st❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳

7.2✳ ❈❖▼P❆❚■❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖❇❙❊❘❱❆❇▲❊❙

➓ ✶✳ ❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡s ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ s✐ ❡s ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡✱ ❡st❛♥❞♦

❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s✉❥❡t♦s ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s
❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❞♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s A②B s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s s✐
♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ♠❡❞✐❞♦s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧❧♦ s❡❛
♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❡①✐st✐r ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ M ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛s ❞♦s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s✱ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ A
② ♦tr❛ ❞❡ B✱ s✐♥ q✉❡ ést❛s ✐♥t❡r✜❡r❛♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ▲❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st♦
s❡❛ ❛sí ❡s q✉❡ M r❡❛❧✐❝❡ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ A ②✱ ❥✉st♦ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✱
♦tr❛ ❞❡ B✳ ▲❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s s❡rá♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s s✐ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ B ♥♦ ❤❛ ❝❛♠❜✐❛❞♦
❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ A✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ q✉❡
✉♥❛ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞♦ tr❛s ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
B ❞é ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛✳

❙❡❛ |Ψi ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛♥ ❧❛s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s✳
❙✐ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ❤❛ ❞❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✏ A ⊂ Sa ✑✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Sa ❡s ✉♥
❝✐❡rt♦ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ ❡s

(A)
Ψ1 (r) = P̂Sa Ψ(r),
(A) (A)
❞♦♥❞❡ P̂Sa ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ W Sa ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ A t♦♠❛ ❝♦♥ ❝❡rt❡③❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡
Sa ✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ B ✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ1 (r) s✉❢r❡ ✉♥ s❡❣✉♥❞♦
❝♦❧❛♣s♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠á♥❞♦s❡ ❡♥

(B) (B) (A)

Ψ2 (r) = P̂Sb Ψ1 (r) = P̂Sb P̂Sa Ψ(r).
 ✼✳✷✳ ❈❖▼P❆❚■❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖❇❙❊❘❱❆❇▲❊❙

P♦r ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ Ψ2 (r) ❞❡❜❡ s❡❣✉✐r ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦

(A)
♣r♦♣✐♦ WS ✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱
a

(A) (A) (B) (A) (B) (A)

P̂Sa Ψ2 (r) = Ψ2 (r) ⇒ P̂Sa P̂Sb P̂Sa Ψ(r) = P̂Sb P̂Sa Ψ(r).
❙✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st♦ ✈á❧✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ A ② B s❡rá♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s s✐ ②
só❧♦ s✐
(A) (B) (A) (B) (A)
P̂Sa P̂Sb P̂Sa = P̂Sb P̂Sa .
❈♦♠♦ ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✱ s✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ s❡ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛
❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✳ ❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡

(B) (A) (A) (B)

P̂Sb P̂Sa = P̂Sa P̂Sb ,
② ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

▲❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ② s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❞♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s

s❡❛♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ s✉s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s
❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s s❡❛ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ A ② B ❞❡s❞❡

♦tr♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ M✱ ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ✐❞❡❛❧✱ t✐❡♥❡
✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s δa ② δb q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛✱ s♦♥ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡
❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ |Ψi ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ s❡rá ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t❛♥t♦ ❞❡ Â ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡ B̂ ✭♦ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
s✐ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s✮✳ ▲❛
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡
♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ❞❡ Â ②
❞❡ B̂ ② ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡s ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ A ② ❞❡ B
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝✐❡rt❛✿ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ t❛❧ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t♦❞♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛r
❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ✭♦ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s✮ ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ A ② B
❡stá♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ✭♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ❛ ✈♦❧✉♥t❛❞✮✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s✱ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡ ❤❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❞♦ A ② B ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛✿

❉♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s A ② B s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛

❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R3 ) ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♠✉♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s  ② B̂ ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

➓ ✸✳ ❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r Ψa,b,n (r) ❛ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱

❞♦♥❞❡ a ② b ✐♥❞✐❝❛♥ q✉❡ Ψa,b,n (r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s  ② B̂
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ② n ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ í♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
q✉❡


ÂB̂Ψa,b,n (r) = Â bΨa,b,n (r) = bÂΨa,b,n (r) = baΨa,b,n (r)
②✱ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ B̂ ÂΨa,b,n (r) = abΨa,b,n (r)✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s
❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ÂB̂ ② B̂ Â ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s
2 3
❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L (R ) ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✿ s✐ A ② B s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ÂB̂ = B̂ Â✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥
r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φa,i (r) ❞❡ Â✱ s✐♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛r q✉❡ a ♣❡rt❡♥❡③❝❛ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♦
❛❧ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡
 
ÂB̂ = B̂ Â ⇒ ÂB̂Φa,i (r) = B̂ ÂΦa,i (r) ⇒ Â B̂Φa,i (r) = aB̂Φa,i (r),

❞♦♥❞❡ i = 1, 2, ..., ga ✳ ▲❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ B̂Φa,i (r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ Â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a ♦✱ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s✱ q✉❡ t♦❞♦ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦
❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ❡s ✐♥✈❛r✐❛♥t❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r B̂ ✳ ❚✐❡♥❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r B̂ s♦❜r❡ ❝❛❞❛ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ Â
②✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❜ás✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ t♦❞♦ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ Â ❛❞♠✐t❡
✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ B̂ ✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❤❛②
✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ❞❡ Â ② B̂ ✱ ❧♦
q✉❡ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ A ② B ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✿

A y B son compatibles ⇔ ÂB̂ = B̂ Â ✭✼✳✽✮

➓ ✹✳ ❯♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st♦s tr❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✿

❚❊❖❘❊▼❆ ❉❊ ❈❖▼P❆❚■❇■▲■❉❆❉✿
▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s✿
✭❛✮ A ② B ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♠❡❞✐rs❡ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳
✭❜✮ ❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ A ❝♦♥
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ B ❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦✳
✭❝✮ ❊①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡♦s ❞❡ A ② B✳
✭❞✮ ❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ Â ② B̂ ❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈♦✿ ÂB̂ = B̂ Â✳
 ✼✳✷✳ ❈❖▼P❆❚■❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖❇❙❊❘❱❆❇▲❊❙

➓ ✺✳ ▲❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❛♥ ♠❡❞✐r

s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞♦s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ s✉❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦
♠✐s♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❚✐❡♥❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s
✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s r ② p✳
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❛❧ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡
❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✱ ❧♦s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ s♦♥

i~ i~ i~
[x̂, K̂] = p̂x ; [ŷ, K̂] = p̂y ; [ẑ, K̂] = p̂z , ✭✼✳✾✮
M M M
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ K ② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳

P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜t✉✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳❥✱

     
K̂, L̂x = K̂, L̂y = K̂, L̂z = 0 ✭✼✳✶✵✮

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t♦❞❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ L s❡rá ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✳

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ r✱ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▲❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ r̂ ❡s

r̂Ψ(r) = rΨ(r).

❙✐ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✱ ❝♦♠♦ r

❡s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ❞♦s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s {θ, ϕ}✱ r̂ ✈❛ ❛ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛r ❝♦♥ t♦❞♦

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r q✉❡ ❛❝tú❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

❝♦♠♦ L̂z = −i~∂/∂ϕ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ [r̂, L̂z ] = 0̂✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❧❛
z ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ② ♥♦ ✈❛ ❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛r ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛
❡❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡
r❛❞✐❛❧✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
     
r̂, L̂x = r̂, L̂y = r̂, L̂z = 0̂ ✭✼✳✶✶✮

② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ L ❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ r✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s

❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ t♦❞♦ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ g(r) ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r ❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡
❝♦♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

P❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡❧ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ L

②❛ q✉❡✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ② ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s✱

   
L̂x , L̂y = ŷ p̂z − ẑ p̂y , ẑ p̂x − x̂p̂z =

= [ŷ p̂z , ẑ p̂x ] + [ẑ p̂y , x̂p̂z ] − [ẑ p̂y , ẑ p̂x ] − [ŷ p̂z , x̂p̂z ] =

= [ŷ p̂z , ẑ p̂x ] + [ẑ p̂y , x̂p̂z ] = ŷ[p̂z , ẑ]p̂x + x̂[ẑ, p̂z ]p̂y = i~(−ŷ p̂x + x̂p̂y )

= i~L̂z

② ♣r♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ ♠♦❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ L ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛s

r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

     
L̂x , L̂y = i~L̂z ; L̂y , L̂z = i~L̂x ; L̂z , L̂x = i~L̂y ✭✼✳✶✷✮

q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ L x , Ly ② Lz ✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✼✳❛✳ ■♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ K ②r

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ✳ ➽❙♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ K
② ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❄
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❆ ✮✱

❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❡s
     
~2 2 ~2 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
K̂ = − ∇ =− r + sin θ + .
2M 2M r2 ∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2

❈♦♠♦ r̂ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛ ❝♦♥s✐❣♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ② ❝♦♥ t♦❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r q✉❡ ❛❝tú❡ só❧♦ s♦❜r❡ (θ, ϕ)✱
    
~2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂ 2 ∂ (rΨ(r))
[r̂, K̂]Ψ(r) = − r 2 r − 2 r
2M r ∂r ∂r r ∂r ∂r

② ♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦ ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥❞♦
   
~2 ∂Ψ(r) 1 ~2 1 ∂ i~
[r̂, K̂]Ψ(r) = + Ψ(r) = + Ψ(r) = p̂r Ψ(r),
M ∂r r M r ∂r M

❞♦♥❞❡ p̂r ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✭❝❢r✳
❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳❝✮✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ ❡❧ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧✐s♠♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ✭✼✳✾✮✳ ❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ② ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳
 ✼✳✷✳ ❈❖▼P❆❚■❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖❇❙❊❘❱❆❇▲❊❙

➓ ✻✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s O = {A, B, C, ...} t♦❞❛s

❡❧❧❛s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ✭♠❡❞✐❜❧❡s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ t♦t❛❧ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥✮✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡
O ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ✭❈❈❖❈✮ s✐
♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ {a, b, c, ...} ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧❡s ❡①✐st❡ ❛ ❧♦ s✉♠♦ ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψa,b,c,... (r) ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✮ q✉❡ ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ Â, B̂, Ĉ, ... ❝♦♥ ❡st♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s✳ ❖❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐ ✉♥♦ ✭♦ ✈❛r✐♦s✮
❞❡ ❡st♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❢♦r♠❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❤❛❜❧❛rí❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠✉♥❡s✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s
❡stá ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s {a, b, c...}✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛sí ❧♦s
♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛❧ ❈❈❖❈ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ú♥✐❝❛ s❛❧✈♦ ❝❛♠❜✐♦s tr✐✈✐❛❧❡s ✭♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ♦ r❡♦r❞❡♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✮✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡❧ ❈❈❖❈ {x, y, z} ② ❡❧

❈❈❖❈ {px , py , pz } ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥ ❧❛s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s
q✉❡ ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s✿ δ a (r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✭♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✮ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s x̂, ŷ, ẑ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ θq (r) ❧♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s p̂x , p̂y , p̂z ✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡
♠♦✈✐❡s❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ ❧❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X ✱ {x}
② {px } s❡rí❛♥ s❡♥❞♦s ❈❈❖❈ ❡♥ sí ♠✐s♠♦s✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t♦❞♦ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A ❝♦♥
❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣♦r sí ♠✐s♠♦ ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈✳

❊❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❈❈❖❈ ❡stá ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✳

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡s❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ② q✉❡
❡❢❡❝t✉❛♠♦s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ✉♥
❈❈❖❈ {A, B, C, ...} ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡✳
❙✐ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s {a, b, c, ...} ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛
❧♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦s ♣✉♥t✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❞❡❧ ❈❈❖❈✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ s❡rá ú♥✐❝❛ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳ ❆sí✱ ❛❧ ❡①✐st✐r ✉♥❛
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ② ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥
❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦✳

➓ ✼✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A q✉❡ s❡❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ A ❝♦♥♠✉t❛ ❝♦♥ H✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥
❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❢♦r♠❛❞❛ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ A ② ❞❡ H✳ ❙✐ ♣❛r❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r
❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❞♦s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❡s ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ✭s✐
❤✉❜✐❡s❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❧❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛✮✱ ❡st❛ ❜❛s❡ ❡st❛rá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ΦE,a,j (r)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ E ❞❡s✐❣♥❛ ❧❛

❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ a s❡ñ❛❧❛ ❡❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ A✱ ② j ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ í♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♣♦❞rá ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
XX
Ψ(r, t) = cE,a,j (t) ΦE,a,j (r) con cE,a,j (t) = hΦE,a,j |Ψ(t)i,
E,a j

② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

XX
Ψ(r, t) = e−iEt/~ cE,a,j (0) ΦE,a,j (r),
E,a j

❞♦♥❞❡ cE,a,j (0) s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ Ψ(r, 0)✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
ΦE,a,j (r) s♦♥ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦
s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ a ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r A ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ Ψ(r, t) s❡rá

1 XX 2 1 XX
PrA (a) = |c E,a,j (t)| = |cE,a,j (0)|2 ,
kΨk2 kΨk2
E j E j

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛s s✉♠❛s ❡stá♥ ❡①t❡♥❞✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s
❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s |ΦE,a,j i ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ ❆ ❡s
✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✱ ♥♦ só❧♦ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s s✐♥♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛s

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❆ s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❊♥ t♦❞♦ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ r❡❝❛❧❝❛r q✉❡ s✐ s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s✉❢r❡ s✉ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ②❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛✱
s✐♥♦ ❡st♦❝ást✐❝❛✱ ② ❜✐❡♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r q✉❡ tr❛s t❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛②❛ ❝❛♠❜✐❛❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳

▲❛ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ H ② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡

t♦❞♦ ❈❈❖❈ ❡♥ ❞❡❧ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡stá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❞❡❧
✷
♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ❊st♦ ❝♦♥✜❡r❡ ✉♥ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❈❈❖❈✬s✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✼✳❜✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛

t❛❧ q✉❡ {H, Lz } ❡s ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈✳ ❉❡s✐❣♥❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ΦE,m (r) ❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ Ĥ ② L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s E ② m~✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0✱

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

1 i 1
Ψ(r, 0) = Φε,0 (r)− Φ2ε,0 (r) + √ Φ2ε,+1 (r)
2 2 2

✷
❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❛❢♦rt✉♥❛❞❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❈❈❖❈ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❧❛ ❛❜r❡✈✐❛t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦
❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥✳
 ✼✳✷✳ ❈❖▼P❆❚■❇■▲■❉❆❉ ❊◆❚❘❊ ❖❇❙❊❘❱❆❇▲❊❙

s✐❡♥❞♦ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ Ψ(r, 0) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ H✳

❜✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r Lz ✱ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡
② ❝♦♥ q✉é ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄

❝✮ ❊♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ♠❡❞✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ♦❜t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r 2ε✳ ❙✐ t❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s ✐❞❡❛❧✱ ➽❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛

❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛❄ ➽❈ó♠♦ ❤❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛❞♦ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛

❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ Lz ❄

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ❉❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛✱
2 2 2
1 −i 1 7
hHi = ε+ 2ε + √ 2ε = ε
2 2 2 4

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡
2 2 2
1 −i 1 13 2
hH 2 i = ε2 + (2ε)2 + √ (2ε)2 = ε .
2 2 2 4
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s
s  2 √
p 13 2 7 3
∆H = hH 2 i − hHi2 = ε − ε = ε.
4 4 4

❜✮ P♦r ✐♥s♣❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r Lz só❧♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s 0 ② +~ ▲❛s ✳

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s s♦♥

2 2 2
1 −i 1 1 1
PrLz (0) = + = ; PrLz (~) = √ =
2 2 2 2 2

❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❞❡❧ ✺✵ ✪ ✳

❝✮ ❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

✱

e−iωt ie−2iωt e−2iωt

Ψ(r, t) = Φε,0 (r) − Φ2ε,0 (r) + √ Φ2ε,+1 (r),
2 2 2

❞♦♥❞❡ ω ≡ ε/~ ❙✐ ❡♥ ❡s❡ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ♠❡❞✐♠♦s H ♦❜t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ 2ε ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦

✳ ✱

❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r

♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛
ie−2iωt e−2iωt
Ψdespués (r, t) = − Φ2ε,0 (r) + √ Φ2ε,+1 (r),
2 2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

❈♦♠♦
2 2
ie−2iωt e−2iωt 1 1 3
kΨdespués k2 = − + √ = + =
2 2 4 2 4
t❡♥❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ Lz s❡rí❛♥

2
1 −ie−2iωt 1
PrLz (0) = =
kΨdespués k2 2 3
2
1 e−2iωt 2
PrLz (~) = √ =
kΨdespués k2 2 3

q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛♥ ✈✐st♦ ❛sí ❛❢❡❝t❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

7.3✳ ❘❊▲❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ●❊◆❊❘❆▲■❩❆❉❆

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❞♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡sA ② B q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳ ❊❧

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Ĉ ≡ i[Â, B̂] ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ② ♣♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦
♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ C ✳ ❙❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✿

❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s  ② B̂ ✱ ♣❛r❛

❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ |Ψi s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

1  
(∆A)|Ψi (∆B)|Ψi ≥ hĈi|Ψi con Ĉ = i Â, B̂ , ✭✼✳✶✸✮
2
② ❡st❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ r❡❝✐❜❡ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ✳

❊st❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦s ✐♥❢♦r♠❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛s ❛ ❧❛s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s  ② B̂ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦✳
❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s✐ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s ❧❛ ❞❡❧
♦tr♦ ❡stá ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡✳

▲❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ té❝♥✐❝❛ ♣❡r♦ ♣♦r s✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ♠❡r❡❝❡ ❧❛ ♣❡♥❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡r❧❛

❡♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡✳ ❋✐❥❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r)✱ q✉❡ s✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧♦s
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s

Â′ ≡ Â − hAiÎ ; B̂ ′ ≡ B̂ − hBiÎ.

 ✼✳✸✳ ❘❊▲❆❈■Ó◆ ❉❊ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ●❊◆❊❘❆▲■❩❆❉❆

❯t✐❧✐③á♥❞♦❧♦s✱ ❧❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ A ② B ❡s

(∆A)|Ψi = hÂ′ Ψ|Â′ Ψi1/2 ; (∆B)|Ψi = hB̂ ′ Ψ|B̂ ′ Ψi1/2 . ✭✼✳✶✹✮

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ t♦❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝♦♥♠✉t❛ ❝♦♥ λÎ✱ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ✈❡r q✉❡ [Â, B̂] = [Â′ , B̂ ′ ]
′ ′
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ Â ② B̂ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ② ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ hΨ|Φi = hΦ|Ψi∗ ✱

hΨ|[Â, B̂]Ψi = hΨ|[Â′ , B̂ ′ ]Ψi = hΨ|Â′ B̂ ′ Ψi − hΨ|B̂ ′ Â′ Ψi =

 
= hÂ′ Ψ|B̂ ′ Ψi − hB̂ ′ Ψ|Â′ Ψi = 2 Im hÂ′ Ψ|B̂ ′ Ψi .

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ z s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ |z| ≥ |Im(z)| ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱

|hΨ|[Â, B̂]Ψi| ≤ 2|hÂ′ Ψ|B̂ ′ Ψi| ≤ 2hÂ′ Ψ|Â′ Ψi1/2 hB̂ ′ Ψ|B̂ ′ Ψi1/2 ,

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ✭✼✳✶✹✮ ② q✉❡ |i| = 1 q✉❡❞❛
q✉❡
1  
|hΨ|i Â, B̂ Ψi| ≤ (∆A)|Ψi (∆B)|Ψi ,
2
q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ✐❧✉str❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✼✳❝✳ ❱❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦s ❞❡ L ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s✐
hLz i 6= 0 ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st❛r ♥✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ Lx ♥✐ ❡♥ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ Ly ✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❙❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ [L̂x , L̂y ] = i~L̂z ✭❝❢r✳ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✶✷✮✳ ▲❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡
1
(∆Lx )(∆Ly ) ≥ ~|hL̂z i|
2

P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s |hL̂z i| > 0✱ ❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ (∆Lx )(∆Ly ) > 0 ② ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s
♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❝❡r♦✱ q✉❡❞❛♥❞♦ ❛sí ♣r♦❜❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆ ❧❛ ❧✉③ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ✭✼✳✶✸✮ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦

❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ q✉❡❞❛ r❡✢❡❥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s q✉❡ ②❛ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✶✱ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✺✳✻✮✿



 (∆x)(∆px ) ≥ ~/2


      
x̂, p̂x = ŷ, p̂y = ẑ, p̂z = i~Î ⇒ (∆y)(∆py ) ≥ ~/2 ✭✼✳✶✺✮





(∆z)(∆pz ) ≥ ~/2

❊st❛s r❡❣❧❛s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ♥♦ só❧♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥ ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛

② ❧❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳

❊♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛①✐♦♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♥♦ s❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧

♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ s✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s✱ ②❛ q✉❡
❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ést❛s ✭✉s❛♥❞♦ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛✮ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛❝✐ó♥
❜ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡ ②❛ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✺✳✶✳

• ▲❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♥ ❛❞❡♠ás ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡

❧♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r
❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s ②✱ ♣♦r ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡s r❛③♦♥❡s ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛✱ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ t♦❞♦ R✳
❊❢❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ Φa (r) ❞❡ x̂
❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r a✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s q✉❡
 
i~ = hΦa | x̂, p̂x Φa i = hΦa |x̂p̂x Φa i − hΦa |p̂x x̂Φa i =

= hx̂Φa |p̂x Φa i − hΦa |p̂x x̂Φa i = ahΦa |p̂x Φa i − ahΦa |p̂x Φa i = 0

❧♦ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ✢❛❣r❛♥t❡✿ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①✐st✐r t❛❧ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

Φa (r)✳ ❉❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ s❡ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ ŷ, ẑ ② ❧♦s tr❡s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥
t❡♥❡r ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳

7.4✳ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆✲❚■❊▼P❖

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❝✉②❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r

❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ ✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s s✉ t✐❡♠♣♦
♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψ(t)i ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞✱

(∆A)t
τA = ✭✼✳✶✻✮
d
hAit
dt
 ✼✳✹✳ ■◆❈❊❘❚■❉❯▼❇❘❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆✲❚■❊▼P❖

q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦ |Ψ(t)i✳

P❛r❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ τ A✱ ❡s❝r✐❜❛♠♦s ❡♥ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡

dhÂit
hÂit+τ A ≃ hÂit + τ A
dt
② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭✼✳✶✻✮

|hÂit+τ A − hÂit | ∼ (∆A)t .

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ τA ❡s ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ q✉❡ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ q✉❡ tr❛♥s❝✉rr❛ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψ(t)i ❝❛♠❜✐❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ s✉
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳ ❊♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ♠ás ❣rá✜❝♦s✱ τ A ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦s
❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ s✉❢r❡ ✉♥❛
✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ s✉ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛✳

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✻✵✮ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s✱

(∆A)t
τA = ~ D  E
i Ĥ, Â
t

② ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦

❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ |Ψ(t)i ② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A

~
τA ≥ ✭✼✳✶✼✮
2(∆H

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡①❝❧✉✐❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ H ❡s ✉♥❛

❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳

❊♥ ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ✭✼✳✶✼✮ r❡❝✐❜❡ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✲t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ñ❛❧❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦t❛ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r
❡str✐❝t❛ ❛❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
✸
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r

❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ τ A ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ♠✉② s❡♥s✐❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡

✸
◆♦ ❡s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛②❛ ❞❡ s❡r ♦❜❡❞❡❝✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s
❢ís✐❝❛s✿ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♠❡❞✐r ✏❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✑✱
❛✉♥q✉❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛ ❞❡ ✏r❡❧♦❥❡s✑ sí ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡r ✉♥ ♣❛tró♥ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
✭❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ t♦❞♦✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡st❡♠♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ ♣❡r♦✱ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝❛s♦✱ ❡s ❧❡❣ít✐♠♦

❞❡✜♥✐r ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦
  1/2 

 hΨ(t)|Â2 |Ψ(t)i − hΨ(t)|Â|Ψ(t)i2 

τ |Ψi = ı́nf {τ A } = ı́nf ~   ✭✼✳✶✽✮

 ihΨ(t)| Ĥ, Â |Ψ(t) 


❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s s✉♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ② q✉❡
❡❧ í♥✜♠♦ s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✲t✐❡♠♣♦
t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

~
τ |Ψi × (∆H) ≥ ✭✼✳✶✾✮
2

②✱ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ✜❣✉r❛❞❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠❛②♦r s❡❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡

❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ♠ás rá♣✐❞♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ést❡ (τ |Ψi ❡s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦✮ ②
✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s✐ ∆H = 0 t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ τ |Ψi = ∞ ② ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✳ ▲❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✲t✐❡♠♣♦ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛ ❝♦♥ ♠ás
♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ✭②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ♣♦r ♥♦s♦tr♦s✮ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠❡♥♦r s❡❛ ❧❛
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠ás ❝❡r❝❛♥♦ ❡stá ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ s❡r ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✳
✹
❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✼✳✶✾✮ ❡stá ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧✉❣❛r✳

7.5✳ ▲❖❙ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ❧♦s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ②❛ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ♠✉② s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s✉ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛①✐♦♠át✐❝❛✳ ❊st♦s ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦s
s♦♥ ♠✉② ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ♣❡r♦ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦s s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ t♦❞❛
❧❛ t❡♦rí❛✳ ❈ó♠♦ s❡ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❡♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ♠✉❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦r❡s ② ❞❡❧ ♣❡s♦ s❡ q✉✐❡r❛
❝♦♥❝❡❞❡r ❛ ❧♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ♠ás ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ♣❡r♦✱ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ s✐❣✉❡♥ ✉♥ ❡sq✉❡♠❛
♣❛r❡❝✐❞♦ ❛❧ q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛✳

P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ■✿ Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✭❡st❛❞♦s✮✿

▲♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ♣♦r ✈❡❝t♦r❡s

✹
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ τ |Ψi ❡s ❡❧

t✐❡♠♣♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ♠❛②♦r s❡❛ ∆H
♠❡♥♦s t✐❡♠♣♦ r❡q✉❡r✐rá ❝✉❧♠✐♥❛r t❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ ❊st♦ ❡s ❛❜s✉r❞♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ♥❛❞❛ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ✈❡r ❧♦ ✉♥♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦

♦tr♦✳
 ✼✳✺✳ ▲❖❙ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ |Ψ(t)i✱ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦

❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt E ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳ ❉♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳

P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ■■✿ Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✭♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s✮

❚♦❞❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ ✉ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r
✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ Â ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s E✳

P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ■■■✿ Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛

P❛r❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛r ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥ s✉s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s✱ ❧❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡stá♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛s ♣♦r ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s✿
     
x̂i , x̂j = p̂i , p̂j = 0 ; x̂i , p̂j = i~δ i,j .

P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ■❱✿ Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

❙✐ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❤❛② ✈❛r✐❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
✺
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r❧❛s ✭♦ ❡t✐q✉❡t❛r❧❛s✮✳

P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❱✿ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛

▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡stá r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ Ĥ ✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
d
i~ |Ψ(t)i = Ĥ|Ψ(t)i.
dt
P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❱■✿ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛
▲❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡
A s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψ(t)i ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡❧
s✐st❡♠❛✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s
❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ❡s

1
hAit = hΨ(t)|ÂΨ(t)i , con |ÂΨ(t)i ≡ Â|Ψ(t)i
hΨ(t)|Ψ(t)i
② ❞♦♥❞❡ h· · · | · · · i s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✳

▲♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦s ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡♥ ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s

❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ② s✉s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s✱ ❞❡ ❛❤í ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t❡r❝❡r♦ ❛✉♥ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡

✺
❊st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❡stá r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡ P❛✉❧✐ ② s✉ ❡st✉❞✐♦ s❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛rá

❡♥ ❧❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■■ ✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

s✉ ❡str❡❝❤❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳ ❊❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❱ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛

❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✿ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ② ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛ ✭♣r❡s❡r✈❛ ❧❛ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❡♥tr❡
❡st❛❞♦s✮✳ ❊❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❱■✱ ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ ◆♦ ❤❛② ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
✭❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦✮ ❡s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳

❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣♦r s✉ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ② ♣♦r
❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦✳ ❊❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ✐s♦♠♦r❢♦ ❛ L2 (RN )
✭♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ N 2 N
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✮✱ L (R ) ⊗ L2 (RN ) ✭❞♦s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡♥ ❡♥ N ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✮✱ ❡t❝✳ ❆✉♥ ❛sí✱ ❤❛② ❣r❛♥
✢❡①✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✿ ❡s❝♦❣✐❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛✱ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s q✉❡
❤❡♠♦s ❝✐t❛❞♦ s♦♥ ✐s♦♠♦r❢♦s ❛ C∞ ✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦
❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦s s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐rá♥ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ r❡s♣❡t❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ■■■✳

➓ ✷✳ ❊st♦s s❡✐s ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦s s✐r✈❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ q✉❡ s✐❣❛ ❡❧
❡sq✉❡♠❛ ✏♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ✰ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ✰ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✑✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛ s✐❞♦
✐❞❡❛❧ ② ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ s✉❜②❛❝❡♥t❡ ❡s t❛♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡
♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t✐♣♦ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❡❧
♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ✭s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✶✮ ❞❡❜❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✐♥❝❧✉✐rs❡ ✏❛ ♠❛♥♦✑ ❛✉♥q✉❡
❣✉✐❛❞♦s ♣♦r ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✿ ❞♦s ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ✐❞❡❛❧❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❞❡❜❡♥ ❞❛r ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳ ❊❧ ✏❡❞✐✜❝✐♦ ✑ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡❜❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛rs❡
❛sí ❝♦♥ ❡❧

P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖ ❱■■✿ ❘❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

❙✐ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝✉②♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s |Ψantes i s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❛❞♦ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✏❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ A
❡stá ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ r❡❛❧ S✑✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ tr❛s ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s

|Ψdespués i = P̂S |Ψantes i

❞♦♥❞❡ P̂S ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ WS ❢♦r♠❛❞♦

♣♦r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛
❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ S✳
✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❡♥ ✶✾✸✷ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❣r❛♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❏♦❤♥ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥ ❡♥ s✉ ♦❜r❛ ▲♦s
✻
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

✻
❊❧ tít✉❧♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❛❧❡♠á♥ ❡s ✏▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐s❝❤❡ ●r✉♥❞❧❛❣❡♥ ❞❡r ◗✉❛♥t❡♥♠❡❝❤❛♥✐❦✑✳ ❈✉r✐♦s❛♠❡♥t❡✱
❡st❛ ♦❜r❛ ❝❧❛✈❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ t❡ór✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ❳❳ s❡ tr❛❞✉❥♦ ❛❧ ❝❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦ ❛♥t❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝✐❡s❡ s✉
♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✐♥❣❧és ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❜✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛✮✳
 ✼✳✻✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ▼❊❉■❉❆

❊❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❜❛s❛ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ M ✐♥❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛

tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ |Ψantes i → |Ψdespués i q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❞✐❝❤♦✱ ❡s ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡
❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❜❛s❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ❊♥
❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ♥✐ ❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ♥✐ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛✳ ▲❛ ❝♦❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ❞♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❡s ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡
♣❛rt✐❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r❡♠♦s ♠✉② ❜r❡✈❡♠❡♥t❡
❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

7.6✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ▼❊❉■❉❆

➓ ✶✳ P❛r❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛r ❛rt✐✜❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❞❡s❡❛♠♦s

❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦
❝✉②♦ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s EP t✐❡♥❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞♦s ✭❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s
✏♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✑ ❛ t❛❧ s✐st❡♠❛✮✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❜str❛❝t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡
♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ EP |ψ + i ② |ψ − i ❡♥ ❧♦s
❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉❛❧❡s A t♦♠❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦sa+ ② a− ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ▲❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ A
❧❛ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ M ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ✏❛❣✉❥❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦r❛✑ ❝♦♥
tr❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✿ ♥❡✉tr❛ ✭❡st❛❞♦ |Φ0 i✱ ♥♦ s❡ ❤❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ M ②
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✮✱ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛ ✭❡st❛❞♦ |Φ+ i✱ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s A = +a✮ ②
♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛ ✭❡st❛❞♦ |Φ− i✱ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛ ❞❛❞♦ A = −a✮✳ ❙✐ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s ❛❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ M✱ s✉ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛rá
❞❡s❝r✐t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❦❡t ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt EM ② ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛
✏♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❣✉❥❛✑ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡❧
❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ M✱ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ s❡rá ♠✉② ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ✭♣✐❡♥s❡✱
♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✐❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧♦s ♠ú❧t✐♣❧❡s ❣r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ✐♥t❡r♥♦s ❞❡ M✮ ♣❡r♦✱ ❝♦♠♦
✈❡r❡♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ✈❛ ❛ s❡r r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥ ✈❛r✐♦s s✉❜s✐st❡♠❛s✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ②
❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ M s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ EP ⊗ EM ✳
❊❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s❡ ✐♥✐❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡st❛❞♦ |Φ0 i
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡✉tr❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❣✉❥❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦r❛✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❢✉❡s❡ |ψ + i ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❛ ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ A = a+ ✱
s✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✿

ES
|ψ + i ⊗ |Φ0 i −→ |ψ + i ⊗ |Φ+ i.
❆q✉í ❊❙ ♥♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ② |Φ+ i ❡s ✉♥
❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ |ψ + i ⊗ |Φ0 i ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❧❛ ❛❣✉❥❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ +✳ P♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ s✐ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❡s

|Φ0 i ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s |ψ − i✱ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ s❡rá

ES
|ψ − i ⊗ |Φ0 i −→ |ψ − i ⊗ |Φ− i

❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ |Φ− i ❡s ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ M ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❣✉❥❛ ♠❛r❝❛ −✳ P❡r♦ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡
❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s♦♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s✱ s✐ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡s ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ |ψi = α|ψ + i + β|ψ − i✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

ES
|ψi ⊗ |Φ0 i −→ α|ψ + i ⊗ |Φ+ i + β|ψ − i ⊗ |Φ− i ✭✼✳✷✵✮

② ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✳ ❊s ❛sí ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡s ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ t♦❞❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡s❝r✐t❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s
✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❧♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ✭✼✳✷✵✮ ♥♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♥✐ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ A ♥✐ ❧❛ ❛❣✉❥❛ ♠❛r❝❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ❙✐♥
❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛✜r♠❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❞♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✿


 |ψ + i ⊗ |Φ+ i con probabilidad |α|2
red
|ψi ⊗ |Φ0 i −→

|ψ − i ⊗ |Φ− i con probabilidad |β|2

❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❝ó♠♦ ② ❝✉á♥❞♦ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❧❛ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧

❡st❛❞♦ ✭✼✳✷✵✮✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱


 |ψ + i ⊗ |Φ+ i con probabilidad |α|2
red
α|ψ + i ⊗ |Φ+ i + β|ψ − i ⊗ |Φ− i −→

|ψ − i ⊗ |Φ− i con probabilidad |β|2
✭✼✳✷✶✮
♦✱ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ♠ás té❝♥✐❝♦s✱ ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ q✉❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ α|ψ + i⊗|Φ+ i+β|ψ − i⊗|Φ− i ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡
❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s |ψ + i ⊗ |Φ+ i ② |ψ − i ⊗ |Φ− i ❝♦♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s |α|2 ②
2 ✼
|β| ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

➓ ✷✳ ❙❡ ❤❛♥ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ♥✉♠❡r♦s❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ ❙✐♥

á♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ s❡r ❡①❤❛✉st✐✈♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞✐✈✐❞✐r❧❛s ❡♥ ❝✐♥❝♦ ❣r❛♥❞❡s ❣r✉♣♦s✱ q✉❡ ❛❜❛r❝❛♥
❞❡s❞❡ ♣♦st✉r❛s q✉❡ ♥✐❡❣❛♥ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❤❛st❛ ♦tr❛s✱ ♠ás
❝♦♥t❡♠♣♦rá♥❡❛s✱ q✉❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❡❧ ❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦

✼
❙✐ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡stá ❞❡s❝r✐t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡❧

s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❝✉á❧ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s✳

 ✼✳✻✳ ❊▲ P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ▼❊❉■❉❆

❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ♣❡r♦ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛

❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ✏❡stá♥❞❛r✑✳

❛✮ ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ② s✐st❡♠❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛rs❡ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦

❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❇❛❥♦ ❡st❡ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡

❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥♦ ❡s t❛❧✱ s✐♥♦ ❧❛ ♣❧❛s♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✳ ▲❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛

♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s❡ ❧✐♠✐t❛♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛ ♣r❡❞❡❝✐r ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛
②✱ ❡♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♠♦❞♦✱ ❧❛ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ s✉❜❥❡t✐✈♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛
♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦r ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❞q✉✐s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❞❛
♣♦r ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ ❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♣✉❡s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ②❛ q✉❡
❡s ✉♥ ✏❝♦♥str✉❝t♦✑ ♠❡♥t❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥✜❡r❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ♠❛❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦s
❝❧ás✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ❞❡ ♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ ❊st❛ ❡r❛ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ q✉❡ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥ ❞❡❢❡♥❞✐ó ❛❧ ♣r♦♣♦♥❡r s✉ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦✳ ▲♦s ❛✈❛♥❝❡s t❛♥t♦
❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ t❡ór✐❝♦s ✭❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦s s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✶✾✽✵✮ s✉❣✐❡r❡♥
q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡rró♥❡❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ♠♦❞❡❧♦s ❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s
❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ s❡ ❛❥✉st❛♥ ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧♦s
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❜ás✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛

❜✮ ▲❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♣❛r❛ s✐st❡♠❛s s✐♠♣❧❡s ❛✐s❧❛❞♦s✳

❊st❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡❢❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❛♥t❛ñ♦ ♣♦r ♠✉❝❤♦s ❛✉t♦r❡s ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❊✉❣❡♥❡

❲✐❣♥❡r✱ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣❛r❛ s✐st❡♠❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ❞❡❜❡
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛rs❡ s✐ ♥✉❡str♦ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❣r❛♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞✱
✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ ❛ t❛❧ ✜♥ tér♠✐♥♦s q✉❡ r♦♠♣❡♥ ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦
❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st❛ ❛tr❛❝t✐✈❛✱ ❧♦s ❤❡❝❤♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ♠✉❡str❛♥
q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s ✉♥ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞✐❢í❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ r❡❢✉t❛❜❧❡✳

❝✮ ▲❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✳ ❨❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ✉♥❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❡rs♣❡❝t✐✈❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ❇❛❥♦ ❧❛s
❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛s t❛❧ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❧❡t✐t✉❞ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛
❞✐st✐♥t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✿ s✉s ♣r❡❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦rr❡❝t❛s
♣❡r♦ ❤❛② ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♥❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛r✳
▲❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡st❡
❝❛rá❝t❡r ❡st❛❞íst✐❝♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐st❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ② t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ t✐♣♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱
❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❛♣♦②❛♥ ✜r♠❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ú❧t✐♠♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❞✮ ▲❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ✐♠♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦tr♦s

❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❡①t❡r♥♦s✳ ❙❡❣ú♥ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❛✉t♦r❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❊✈❡r❡tt✱ ❞❡ ❲✐tt✱ ❲❤❡❡❧❡r ②

▲♦❝❦✇♦♦❞ t♦❞♦ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ♠✐❝r♦s❝ó♣✐❝♦ ❡stá ❝♦rr❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s

r❡❛❧✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ✏✉♥✐✈❡rs♦✑ ✭t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✉❝❤♦s ♠✉♥❞♦s✮ ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦r ✭t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠✉❝❤❛s ❝♦♥s❝✐❡♥❝✐❛s✮✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❊✈❡r❡tt✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❡③
q✉❡ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡❧ ✉♥✐✈❡rs♦ s❡ ❞❡s❞♦❜❧❛ ❡♥ t❛♥t♦s ✉♥✐✈❡rs♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s
❝♦♠♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♣✉❡❞❛ ❞❛r ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♦✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ t❛♥t♦s ✉♥✐✈❡rs♦s
❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦ ❞❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✼✳✷✵✮✳ ❆sí ♥♦ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❡♥
r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ✉♥ ❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❡①✐st✐❡♥❞♦
♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ✏♠✉♥❞♦s ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦s✑ q✉❡ ♥♦ ✐♥t❡r❛❝tú❛♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛
❞❡ ❧❛s ♠✉❝❤❛s ❝♦♥s❝✐❡♥❝✐❛s✱ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ✏♠✉❧t✐✈❡rs♦✑ ❞❡ ❊✈❡r❡tt s❡
❧❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛ ✉♥ ❝❛rá❝t❡r s✉❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❞♦r✳ ❊st❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❤❛♥
r❡❝✐❜✐❞♦ ♠✉❝❤❛ ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ s✉ ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✳

❡✮ ❊❧ ❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ♥♦

❡stá♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛✐s❧❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❡♥t♦r♥♦✳ ❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♣♦st✉r❛ q✉❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡

❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♠ás ♣❧❛✉s✐❜❧❡✳ ▲❛ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥

✭✼✳✷✶✮ ❡stá ✐♥❞✉❝✐❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡♥t♦r♥♦ q✉❡ r♦❞❡❛ ❛❧ s✐st❡♠❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✰❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
♥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛ r❛③ó♥ q✉❡ ❡①♣❧✐q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣❡rt✉r❜❛❝✐♦♥❡s
♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❥✉❡❣❛♥ ✉♥ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ❊❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥
❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❛ ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦
♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛rs❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ r❡❝♦❣✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s s❡✐s ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
❯♥❛ ❡①♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ s✐q✉✐❡r❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❛❧✱ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ t❡♦rí❛s r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❝ó♠♦
s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡③❝❧❛s ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡s ②✱ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s✱ ❧♦s r✉❞✐♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛
t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✶✳ ▲❛ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧
❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A ❝✉②♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❡s Â✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡
X Z
Î = P̂a + P̂(α)dα ✭✼✳✷✷✮
a∈σ p σc

X Z
 = aP̂a + αP̂(α)dα ✭✼✳✷✸✮
a∈σ p σc

s✐❡♥❞♦ P̂a ② P̂(α) ❧♦s ♣r♦②❡❝t♦r❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s Wa ② Wα ❝♦♥ a ∈ σ p (A)
② α ∈ σ c (A)✳ ❆ ❡st❛s ❞♦s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛
✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞ ② ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✷✳ ❖tr❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡

[x̂n , p̂x ] = in~x̂n−1 ; [p̂nx , x̂] = −in~p̂n−1

x

❞♦♥❞❡ n ❡s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ✉♥♦✳

❜✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ g(u) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛ ② f (u) s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✱ ♣r✉❡❜❡
q✉❡
[g(x̂), p̂x ] = i~f (x̂).
➽❈✉á❧ s❡rá ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r [g(p̂x ), x̂]✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✸✳ ❈♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❝✉②♦ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s L✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡ Lz ②

z ✳ Pr✉❡❜❡ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③ q✉❡ Lz ② pz s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳
❜✮ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ Lz ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s {x, y, px , py }✳
●❡♥❡r❛❧✐❝❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❛ ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ❞♦s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ L✳
❝✮ Pr✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ pr ❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳
❞✮ ❙✐ rc = (x2 + y 2 )1/2 ✱ ✈❡r✐✜q✉❡ q✉❡ rc ② Lz s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✼✲✶✳ ❉✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❝♦❧✐♠❛❞♦r ♣❛r❛ s❡❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❛r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦
✭♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✼✳✺✮

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✹✳ ❯♥ ❈❈❖❈ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s {rc , Lz , z}✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ rc ≡ (x2 + y 2 )1/2 ✱ ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ✳
❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛✿ tr❛❜❛❥❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✺✳ ❯♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ p

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ p s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ❡s ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛rs❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡
♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♠❡❞✐r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s
❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✼✲✶✳ ❯♥ ❢♦❝♦ ❋ ❧❡❥❛♥♦ ❡♠✐t❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡ ♠❛s❛
M ② ❝❛r❣❛ q > 0 ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❛❧❡❛t♦r✐♦s ♣❡r♦ ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❊st❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✐♠♣❛❝t❛♥ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ P1 ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛❞♦ ✉♥
♦r✐✜❝✐♦ ❖✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❋ ❡stá ♠✉② ❛❧❡❥❛❞♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛❞♠✐t✐r q✉❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s q✉❡ ❤❛②❛♥ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛❞♦
❖ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ OX ✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳
❊♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x > 0 ❤❛② ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ B = −Buz q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡s❝r✐❜❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✐r❝✉♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝✉②♦ r❛❞✐♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ s✐t✉❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ P2 ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ❉
s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ P1 ② P2 ✱ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛rá♥ t❛❧
❛❜❡rt✉r❛ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❤❛②❛♥ ❞❡s❝r✐t♦ ✉♥❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ r✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✱ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❛ ❧❛ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡ D t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ pD = (qBr cos ϕ)ux + (qBr sin ϕ)uy ✳

❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ pD ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝❛♠❜✐❛rs❡ ❛ ✈♦❧✉♥t❛❞ ✈❛r✐❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦

② ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ϕ✱ ♣❡r♦ pD ♥♦ ❡stá ❧✐❜r❡ ❞❡ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❙✐ δr ❡s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛
❞❡ ❧♦s ♦r✐✜❝✐♦s ❖ ② ❉ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ r❛❞✐♦ r ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛②❡❝t♦r✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t❡♥❞rá ✉♥❛
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❡s❡ ♠✐s♠♦ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ pD ✳ ❆sí✱
❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ pD s❡rá ❡♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ δr/r✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❜✮ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❡str❛t❡❣✐❛ ❝♦rr❡❝t❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥s❡❣✉✐r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ pD ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✱

❞✐s♠✐♥✉✐r δr ♦ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ r s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❣r❛♥❞❡❄
❝✮ P❛r❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ r ✜❥♦✱ ❡st✐♠❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ δr ó♣t✐♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
❝♦❧✐♠❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❥♦r r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✻✳ ✭✦✦✮ ✭✯✮ ▼❡❞✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦s

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ❞♦s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐❜❧❡s ❝✉②❛s ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥
r1 ② r2 ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ② s✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r Ψm (ri ) ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ i✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r m~✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛
t♦t❛❧
1  
Φnen (r1 , r2 ) = Ψ+1 (r1 ) + Ψ−1 (r1 ) Ψ+1 (r2 ) + Ψ−1 (r2 )
2

1  
Φent (r1 , r2 ) = √ Ψ+1 (r1 )Ψ−1 (r2 ) + Ψ−1 (r1 )Ψ+1 (r2 )
2
❞♦♥❞❡ ♥❡♥ ② ❡♥t s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥ ♥♦ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦ ② ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❛✮ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Φnen (r1 , r2 ) ♥♦ ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡

z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r t♦t❛❧

∂ ∂
L̂(tot)
z = L̂(1) (2)
z + L̂z = −i~ − i~
∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ2

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ Φent (r1 , r2 ) sí ❧♦ ❡s✳ ➽❈♦♥ q✉é ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❝❛s♦❄
❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ♣❛r❛ ❛♠❜♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡
Lz ✭❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✷✮✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ s♦♥
(2)

❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s✳
❝✮ ❊st❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ Φnen (r1 , r2 ) s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ L(2)
z
❝♦♥ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ +~✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ Φdespués (r1 , r2 ) ② ❧❛s
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦st❡r✐♦r ❞❡ L(2) z ✳
➽❍❛♥ ❝❛♠❜✐❛❞♦ ést❛s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣r❡✈✐♦s ❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧
❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❜✮❄
❞✮ ❘❡s✉❡❧✈❛ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❝✮ ♣❡r♦ s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡st❛❜❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
❡st❛❞♦ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦ Φent (r1 , r2 )✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ ❝ó♠♦ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ 1
❛❢❡❝t❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✷✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s✉❝❡❞í❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧
s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ Φnen (r1 , r2 )✳
(1)
❆②✉❞❛✿ ❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂z só❧♦ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ r1 ②❛ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥❛

♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✶✳ P♦r ✐❣✉❛❧ ♠♦t✐✈♦✱

(2)
L̂z só❧♦ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ r2 ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❊❉■❉❆ ❨ P❖❙❚❯▲❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✼✲✷✳ ❊①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ✭ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ✼✳✼✮

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✼✳✼✳ ✭✦✦✮ ✭✯✯✮ ❈❛rá❝t❡r ♥♦ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■

❊♥ ❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✼✲✷ ❡❧ ❢♦❝♦ ❋ ❡♠✐t❡ ♣❛r❡s ❡❧❡❝tró♥✴♣♦s✐tró♥ ❛ ✉♥ r✐t♠♦ ♠✉②
❧❡♥t♦ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❛♥✐q✉✐❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛r❡s ❞❡ ❢♦t♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ Eγ =
me c2 + K ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ♦♣✉❡st♦s✳ ❆sí✱ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r s❛❧❡ ❡♠✐t✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s
♦♣✉❡st❛s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ K s✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳ ▲❛s
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ s❛❧❡♥ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❧❛ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ s♦♥ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛s ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣
s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ D ❞❡❧ ❢♦❝♦✱ ♦❜s❡r✈á♥❞♦s❡ tr❛s ❧❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠✉❝❤♦s ♣❛r❡s e+ /e−
❧♦s tí♣✐❝♦s ♣❛tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ Pder ✳
❘❡♣✐t❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t♦ ♣❡r♦ s✐t✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ Pizq q✉❡ r❡❝♦❣❡ ❧♦s
✐♠♣❛❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❡♠✐t✐❞❛s ❤❛❝✐❛ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ Pizq ② ❡❧
❢♦❝♦ ❋ ❡s ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ D ❧❛s ❢r❛♥❥❛s ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ Pder ②❛ ♥♦ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛♥✳
➽❈ó♠♦ ❡s ❡st♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡❄
❆②✉❞❛✿ ❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛r e+ /e− ❡stá ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦ ➽P♦r q✉é❄
 ❚❡♠❛ ✽
▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦ ❝✐♥ét✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s
❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✳ ❊st❡ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ♥♦ ❡s só❧♦ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ♣♦r ❧❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ✐♥trí♥s❡❝❛ ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ s✐♥♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ✐❧✉str❛rá ♠✉❝❤♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❊♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧✉❣❛r ❡①♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s

❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❤✐♥❝❛♣✐é ❡♥ s✉
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✳ ❊❧❧♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ②
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s❝❡♥❛r✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❜✉❡♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧❛
t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧ s❡ ♣❧❛s♠❛rá ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❝❧❛r✐❞❛❞✳ ❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✈❡r❡♠♦s
❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧✱ ✐❧✉str❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♠ét♦❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ✶✺ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧✱ r❡♣❛rt✐❞❛s ❛ ♣❛rt❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧

❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ② ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ② ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳ ❊s
❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ s❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✐③❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

❋❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❡①♣r❡s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ② s❛❜❡r

❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

P❧❛♥t❡❛r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❜❛❥♦ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

❝❡♥tr❛❧ ② ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ s✉s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

8.1✳ ▲❖❙ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❈♦♠♦

②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✭❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✮ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦
❝✐♥ét✐❝♦ L = r × p s♦♥
 
∂ ∂
L̂x = ŷ p̂z − ẑ p̂y = −i~ y −z
∂z ∂y
 
∂ ∂
L̂y = ẑ p̂x − x̂p̂z = −i~ z −x ✭✽✳✶✮
∂x ∂z
 
∂ ∂
L̂z = x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x = −i~ x −y .
∂y ∂x

❊♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛

❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s {r, θ, ϕ}✱ ❝✉②❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s ❡s✿

r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 = |r| x = r sin θ cos ϕ

z
θ = arc cos y = r sin θ sin ϕ
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 ✭✽✳✷✮

x x
ϕ = arctan = arc cos 2 z = r cos θ.
y (x + y 2 )1/2
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s {x, y, z} → {r, θ, ϕ} t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ✭✽✳✶✮ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❝♦♠♦✿

 
∂ ∂
L̂x = i~ sin ϕ + cot θ cos ϕ
∂θ ∂ϕ
 
∂ ∂
L̂y = i~ − cos ϕ + cot θ sin ϕ ✭✽✳✸✮
∂θ ∂ϕ

∂
L̂z = −i~ .
∂ϕ

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s

❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s {θ, ϕ}✳
 ✽✳✶✳ ▲❖❙ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s ♦❜t✉✈✐♠♦s q✉❡✿

     
L̂x , L̂y = i~L̂z ; L̂y , L̂z = i~L̂x ; L̂z , L̂x = i~L̂y . ✭✽✳✹✮

L̂2 = L̂2x + L̂2y + L̂2z ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ♠ó❞✉❧♦

❙❡❛ ❛❤♦r❛
❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ L2 ≡ |L|2 ✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✽✳✹✮
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

       
L̂x , L̂2 = L̂x , L̂2x + L̂x , L̂2y + L̂x , L̂2z
= 0̂ + [L̂x , L̂y ]L̂y + L̂y [L̂x , L̂y ] + [L̂x , L̂z ]L̂z + L̂z [L̂x , L̂z ]
= i~L̂z L̂y + i~L̂y L̂z − i~L̂y L̂z − i~L̂z L̂y
=0

②✱ tr❛s ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ í♥❞✐❝❡s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r q✉❡

     
L̂x , L̂2 = L̂y , L̂2 = L̂z , L̂2 = 0. ✭✽✳✺✮

P♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦✱ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ L ② L2 sí s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦

q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♠❡❞✐r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ② ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡s❡❛❞❛✱ L2 ② ✉♥❛
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

➓ ✸✳ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✭✽✳✸✮✱ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L2 ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s

❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❡s

 
2 ~2 ∂ ∂Ψ(r) ~2 ∂ 2 Ψ(r)
L̂ Ψ(r) = − sin θ − . ✭✽✳✻✮
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✺✳❝✮ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r p̂r
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p✱ ❡s
 
1 ∂
p̂r = −i~ + . ✭✽✳✼✮
r ∂r
❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡
    
1 ∂ Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂ 2 ∂Ψ(r)
p̂2r Ψ(r) = −~ 2
+ + = −~ 2 2
r . ✭✽✳✽✮
r ∂r r ∂r r ∂r ∂r
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥❛ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s

❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❆✮✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛

~2 2
K̂ = − ∇
2M
r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱

     
~2 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
K̂ = − r + sin θ + ✭✽✳✾✮
2M r2 ∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✽✳✻✮ ② ✭✽✳✽✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

1 2 1
K̂ = p̂r + L̂2 ✭✽✳✶✵✮
2M 2M r2
❡♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡♥tr❡ K ✱ pr ② L2 ✳

8.2✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆ ❊◆ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❊❙❋➱❘■❈❆❙

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥

❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s {θ, ϕ}✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥
✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛



 r ∈ [0, ∞)

Φ(r) = R(r)ϑ(θ, ϕ) , con θ ∈ [0, π] ✭✽✳✶✶✮



ϕ ∈ [0, 2π],

❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s r❡❧❛t✐✈❛s ❛❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✈❛♥ ❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡r ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ϑ(θ, ϕ)✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r só❧♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡ R(r)✳
❊st♦ s✉❣✐❡r❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❡❧ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✱ L2ang ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s {θ, ϕ} ✭♦ ❡♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✱ ❛ ❧❛
q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ S1 ✮✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥tr❡
❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ϑ(θ, ϕ) ② φ(θ, ϕ) ❡s
Z Z π Z 2π
∗
hϑ|φi = ϑ (θ, ϕ) φ(θ, ϕ) dΩ = sin θ ϑ∗ (θ, ϕ) φ(θ, ϕ) dϕ dθ ✭✽✳✶✷✮
S1 0 0
 ✽✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆ ❊◆ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❊❙❋➱❘■❈❆❙

② ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L2ang s♦♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❝✉②❛ ♥♦r♠❛ kϑk = hϑ|ϑi1/2 ❡s ✜♥✐t❛✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡

♦♥❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧❡s✱ L2rad ✱ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s R(r) q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ r ② q✉❡ s❡❛♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦✿
Z ∞
R(r) ∈ L2rad ⇔ r2 |R(r)|2 dr es finito. ✭✽✳✶✸✮
0

❊♥ L2rad ✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s R(r) ② Q(r) s❡rá

Z ∞
hR|Qi = r2 R∗ (r) Q(r) dr. ✭✽✳✶✹✮
0

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡

♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ L2rad ② L2ang ✿

L2 (R3 ) = L2rad ⊗ L2ang . ✭✽✳✶✺✮

❆sí✱ s✐ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ✭✽✳✶✶✮ ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡

r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ❢❛❝t♦r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ R(r) ✭❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2rad ✮ ② ϑ(θ, ϕ)
2
✭❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Lang ✮ ❡sté♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡
Z ∞
r2 |R(r)|2 dr = 1
0
Z π Z 2π
sin θ |ϑ(θ, ϕ)|2 dϕ dθ = 1. ✭✽✳✶✻✮
0 0

➓ ✷✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ Ψ(r) ♥♦

♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❢❛❝t♦r✐③❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧ ② ♦tr❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳
▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧
r ♦ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧ s❡rá
Z π Z 2π
2
ρrad (r) = r sin θ |Ψ(r)|2 dϕ dθ, ✭✽✳✶✼✮
0 0

❞♦♥❞❡ ρrad (r)dr ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛

♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (r, r + dr)✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
ρrad (r) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦
Z ∞
ρrad (r) dr = 1 ✭✽✳✶✽✮
0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ g(r) ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r s❡rá

Z ∞
hgi = g(r)ρrad (r)dr. ✭✽✳✶✾✮
0

❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✽✳❛✳ ❱❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡s

Ψ(r) = Ar exp[−r/(2a0 )] sin θ cos ϕ,

❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ② a0 ≃ 0,529 ➴ ❡s ❡❧ r❛❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r✳

❛✮ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ Ψ(r) ❝♦♠♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s R(r) ② ϑ(θ, ϕ)✳
2
❜✮ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L ✳

❝✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ Lz ✳

❞✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧ ρrad (r) ② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r✳
❡✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✳

Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
4
❆②✉❞❛s✿ un e−u du = n! ; sin3 θdθ = ; cos2 ϕdϕ = π
0 0 3 0

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ■♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ hΨ|Ψi = 1✱
Z Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
2 3 2
1= |Ψ(r)| d r = r sin θ |Ψ(r)|2 dϕdθdr,
R3 0 0 0

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✳ ❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦✱ ❛❣r✉♣❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s ②

❡❢❡❝t✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
4π
1 = |A|2 r4 e−r/a0 dr sin3 θdθ cos2 ϕdϕ = 24a50 |A|2 .
3
|0 {z } |0 {z0 }
24a50 4π/3

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s s✐♥ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ A ❡s r❡❛❧ ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

" # "r #
r −r/(2a0 )
1 3
Ψ(r) = p e sin θ cos ϕ ≡ R(r)ϑ(θ, ϕ).
24a30 a0 4π

❚❛♥t♦ R(r) ❝♦♠♦ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❡stá♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s L2rad ② L2ang ✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳
 ✽✳✷✳ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊ ❖◆❉❆ ❊◆ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❊❙❋➱❘■❈❆❙

❜✮ ❊✈❛❧✉❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂2 s♦❜r❡ Ψ(r)✿

 
2 ~2 ∂ ∂Ψ(r) ~2 ∂ 2 Ψ(r)
L̂ Ψ(r) = − sin θ − =
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
   
~2 ∂ ∂ϑ(θ, ϕ) ~2 ∂ 2 ϑ(θ, ϕ)
= R(r) − sin θ − ,
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ L̂2 ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧ R(r)✳ ❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦
ϑ(θ, ϕ) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✱ ♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦ ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥❞♦✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

L̂2 Ψ(r) = R(r)2~2 ϑ(θ, ϕ) = 2~2 Ψ(r),

❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ Ψ(r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r 2~2 ✳

❝✮P❛r❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ Lz ✱ ❜❛st❛ ❝♦♥ t❡♥❡r ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳
❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♣❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡
Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
hLz i = hΨ|Lz Ψi = r2 sin θ Ψ∗ (r)[L̂z Ψ(r)] dϕ dθdr.
0 0 0

❨❛ q✉❡ L̂z ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ϑ(θ, ϕ)✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡
1
zZ }| {Z Z
∞ π 2π
hLz i = 2
r |R(r)| dr 2
sin θ ϑ∗ (θ, ϕ)[L̂z ϑ(θ, ϕ)] dϕ dθ
0 0 0
Z π Z 2π
= sin θ ϑ∗ (θ, ϕ)[L̂z ϑ(θ, ϕ)] dϕ dθ = hϑ|L̂z ϑi
0 0

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r hϑ|L̂z ϑi ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2ang ✳

❈♦♠♦ r
∂ 3
L̂z ϑ(θ, ϕ) = −i~ ϑ(θ, ϕ) = i~ sin θ sin ϕ
∂ϕ 4π
q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡
Z π Z 2π
3i~ 3 3i~ 4
hLz i = sin θdθ sin ϕ cos ϕdϕ = × × 0 = 0.
4π 0 0 4π 3

❞✮ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦
Z π Z 2π
1 4 −r/a0
ρrad (r) = r2 sin θ |Ψ(r)|2 dϕdθ = r2 |R(r)|2 = r e .
0 0 24a50

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 a0
hri = rρrad (r)dr = r5 e−r/a0 dr = u5 e−u du = 5a0 ,
0 24a50 0 24 0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r → u = r/a0 ② ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛✳

❡✮ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✽✳✻✮ ② ✭✽✳✾✮✱

 
~2 ∂ 2 ∂Ψ(r) 1
K̂Ψ(r) = − 2
r + L̂2 Ψ(r)
2mr ∂r ∂r 2mr2

② ❝♦♠♦ L̂2 Ψ(r) = 2~2 Ψ(r),

 
~2 ∂ 2 ∂Ψ(r) ~2
K̂Ψ(r) = − r + Ψ(r)
2mr2 ∂r ∂r mr2
   
~2 1 d dR(r) 2
= − 2 r2 + 2 R(r) ϑ (θ, ϕ) .
2m r dr dr r

❆sí✱ ❝♦♠♦ R(r) ❡s r❡❛❧ ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱

Z Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
hKi = Ψ∗ (r)K̂Ψ(r)d3 r = r2 sin θ [Ψ∗ (r)K̂Ψ(r)] dϕ dθ dr
R3 0 0 0

2 Z ∞    
~ 2 1 d 2 dR(r) 2
= r R(r) − 2 r + 2 R(r) dr
2m 0 r dr dr r

② ❡❢❡❝t✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s✱ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

Z∞ "  2 #
~2 2 dR(r) 2
hKi = r + 2R (r) dr.
2m dr
0

❨❛ só❧♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s s✉st✐t✉✐r R(r) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✳ ❍❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r → u = r/a0 ,

!2 
Z ∞
~2 d ue−u/2
hKi =  u2 + 2u2 e−u  du =
48ma20 0 du
Z ∞
~2

= u4 − 4u3 + 12u2 e−u du
192ma20 0

② ❡❢❡❝t✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✱

~2 1
hKi = 2 = Ha
8ma0 8

✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❍❛ ❡s ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s ✮✳

 ✽✳✸✳ ❆❯❚❖❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊▲ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

8.3✳ ❆❯❚❖❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊▲ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

➓ ✶✳ ❊❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s {Lx , Ly , Lz } ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♥♦ s❡❛♥

❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐t❛ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
{L̂x , L̂y , L̂z }✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✏❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✑ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ✱
sí r❡s✉❧t❛rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♠✉♥❡s ❞❡ L̂z ② L̂2 ②❛ q✉❡ ❡st♦s ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ▼ás ❛ú♥✱ s✐
♥♦s r❡str✐♥❣✐♠♦s ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2ang ✱ ✈❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ {L̂2 , L̂z } ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳ ❊❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦
❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2ang
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❈❈❖❈ {L̂2 , L̂z } ②✱ ❛❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦✱ ❞✐s❝✉t✐r s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳ ❆
❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❛✉♥q✉❡✱
❝♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r✱ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛r q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ L̂z ② L̂2 ✳

➓ ✷✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❞❡ L2ang ❝♦♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❛❝♦t❛❞❛
② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱

ϑ(θ, ϕ) debe ser finita para todo θ ∈ [0, π] y ϕ ∈ [0, 2π]

ϑ(θ, 0) = ϑ(θ, 2πn) continuidad en 2πn ✭✽✳✷✵✮

ϑ(0, ϕ) y ϑ(π, ϕ) no dependen de ϕ

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s t♦♠❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ✜♥✐t♦s✱ ❧❛ ❛❝♦t❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❛✉t♦♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ s❡❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
L2ang ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ t❡♥❞rá♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ②❛ q✉❡ s✉s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r
♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳

❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✺✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ Lz ❡s

σ(Lz ) = σ p (Lz ) = {m~ , con m ∈ Z} . ✭✽✳✷✶✮

P♦r s✐♠❡trí❛✱ ❧♦s ❡s♣❡❝tr♦s ❞❡ Lx ② Ly s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ σ P (Lz )✳ ❈✐ñé♥❞♦♥♦s ❛ ❧❛s

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ L2ang ✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r m~ s♦♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
❢♦r♠❛
exp(imϕ)
Θ(θ) √ con m ∈ Z, ✭✽✳✷✷✮
2π
❞♦♥❞❡ Θ(θ) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r θ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

➓ ✸✳ P♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✐♥tr♦❞✉③❝❛♠♦s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ℓ t❛❧

q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧❡s ❞❡ L2
ℓ (ℓ + 1) ~2 ✭❡❧ ♠♦t✐✈♦ ❞❡ t❛❧ ❡❧❡❝❝✐ó♥
s❡❛♥
s❡rá ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❝♦✮✳ ❉❡s✐❣♥❡♠♦s ♣♦r Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
2 2
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❞❡ L̂ ② L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s ℓ (ℓ + 1) ~ ② m~✳ ❊st❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s✱ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ♣✉❡s ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s

L̂2 Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) = ℓ (ℓ + 1) ~2 Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ✭✽✳✷✸✮

L̂z Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) = m~Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ✭✽✳✷✹✮

② s✉ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ L2ang ❡s

Z π Z 2π
hYℓ,m |Yℓ,m i = sin θ |Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)|2 dϕ dθ = 1. ✭✽✳✷✺✮
0 0

❨❛ q✉❡ Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r m~✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛
❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✭✽✳✷✷✮ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

exp(imϕ)
Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) = Θℓ,m (θ) √ ✭✽✳✷✻✮
2π
②✱ ❝♦♠♦ Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱
Z π
sin θ|Θℓ,m (θ)|2 dθ = 1. ✭✽✳✷✼✮
0

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡

   
2 ~2 ∂ ∂ ~2 ∂ 2 ~2 ∂ ∂ 1
L̂ = − sin θ − = − sin θ + L̂2 ,
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ z
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ✭✽✳✷✸✮ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
ℓ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Θℓ,m (θ) ❝♦♠♦
  
1 ∂ ∂ m2 
− sin θ + Θℓ,m (θ) = ℓ(ℓ + 1)Θℓ,m (θ). ✭✽✳✷✽✮
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ
▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ℓ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✷✽✮ t✐❡♥❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❝♦t❛❞❛s ♥♦s
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛rá♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ L̂2 ✱ ❝✉②♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s s❡rá♥ ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ✳
P❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❡st❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ θ → γ ≡ cos θ✳ ❆sí✱ s✐ ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s

Θℓ,m (θ) ≡ Pℓ,m (cos θ) = Pℓ,m (γ) , con γ ∈ [−1, 1], ✭✽✳✷✾✮
 ✽✳✸✳ ❆❯❚❖❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊▲ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✭✽✳✷✽✮ s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛ ❡♥

 

d2 Pℓ,m (γ)
2 dPℓ,m (γ) m2
1−γ − 2γ + ℓ (ℓ + 1) − Pℓ,m (γ) = 0 ✭✽✳✸✵✮
dγ 2 dγ 1 − γ2

✭❡st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡ ✮✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛

❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✷✼✮ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❝♦♠♦

Z +1
|Pℓ,m (γ)|2 dγ = 1. ✭✽✳✸✶✮
−1

P♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛

❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭✽✳✸✵✮ ❡s

|m|/2

Pℓ,m (γ) = 1 − γ 2 × α0 + α1 γ + α2 γ 2 + α3 γ 3 + . . . , ✭✽✳✸✷✮

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s αi s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✿

(i + |m|) (i + |m| + 1) − ℓ (ℓ + 1)
αi+2 = αi , con i = 0, 1, 2, . . . ✭✽✳✸✸✮
(i + 1) (i + 2)

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Pℓ,m (γ) ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❛❝♦t❛❞❛✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦
❢❛❝t♦r ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ ❡♥ ✭✽✳✸✷✮ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦
nc ✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ αn = 0 s✐ n > nc ✳ ❊❧❧♦ ❡s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s
s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✿

✶✳ ℓ = nc + |m| con nc ∈ N
✷✳ α0 = 0 s✐ nc ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✱ α1 = 0 s✐ nc ❡s ♣❛r✳

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ |m| ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s 0, 1, 2, ...✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ L̂2 ❡s

 
2 2 2
σ(L̂ ) = σ p (L̂ ) = ℓ(ℓ + 1)~ , con ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✽✳✸✹✮

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ✜❥❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ m✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦

❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ℓ s♦♥
ℓ = |m|, |m| + 1, |m| + 2, ...
♦ ❜✐❡♥✱ ✜❥❛❞♦ ℓ✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s ❞❡ m s♦♥ ❧♦s 2ℓ + 1 ❡♥t❡r♦s q✉❡ ✈❛♥ ❞❡s❞❡
−ℓ ❤❛st❛ +ℓ✿
m = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, ..., 0, ..., ℓ − 1, ℓ ✭✽✳✸✺✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ só❧♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Pℓ,m (γ)
♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛r❡❥❛ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s (ℓ, m)✳ Pℓ,m (γ)
❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

|m|/2
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡✱ q✉❡ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ 1− γ2 ♣♦r ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ℓ − |m|✱ ❜✐❡♥ ♣❛r ♦ ❜✐❡♥
✐♠♣❛r✱ ❝✉②♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✸✸✮✳
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭✽✳✸✵✮ só❧♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ m2 ✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ Pℓ,m (γ) ∝ Pℓ,−m (γ)✳
P✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rs❡ q✉❡ s✐ m ≥ 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡ ②❛
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭✽✳✸✶✮✱ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r
s
(−1)m 2ℓ + 1 (ℓ − m)!
m/2 dℓ+m
ℓ
Pℓ,m (γ) = 1 − γ2 γ2 − 1 , ✭✽✳✸✻✮
ℓ!2ℓ 2 (ℓ + m)! dγ ℓ+m

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ m<0 s❡ ❛❞♦♣t❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦

Pℓ,m (γ) = (−1)−m P∗ℓ,−m (γ) , con m = 0, −1, −2, ..., −ℓ. ✭✽✳✸✼✮

1
ℓ=0 Y0,0 (θ, ϕ) = √
r 4π
3
ℓ=1 Y1,0 (θ, ϕ) = cos θ
4π
r
3
Y1,±1 (θ, ϕ) = ∓ sin θ e±iϕ
r 8π
5  
ℓ=2 Y2,0 (θ, ϕ) = 3 cos2 θ − 1
16π
r
15
Y2,±1 (θ, ϕ) = ∓ sin θ cos θ e±iϕ
8π
r
15
Y2,±2 (θ, ϕ) = ± sin2 θ e±2iϕ
32π
❚❆❇▲❆ ✽✲✶ ❆r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ ♠ás ❜❛❥♦

❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ L2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ② ❞❡

Lz ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r m~ ❡s

(
1 ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ...
Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) = √ Pℓ,m (cos θ) eimϕ , con ✭✽✳✸✽✮
2π m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., ℓ.
 ✽✳✸✳ ❆❯❚❖❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊▲ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❊♥ ❧❛ ❚❆❇▲❆ ✽✲✶ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧♦s

♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ℓ = 0, ℓ = 1 ② ℓ = 2✳

➓ ✹✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡♦ ❞❡ L2

② Lz ✳ ❊♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧✉❣❛r✱ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Φ(r) ❤❛ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛

1
Φ(r) = R(r) Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) = √ R(r) Pℓ,m (cos θ) eimϕ .
2π

❙✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ Φ(r) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s

1
ρ(r) = |Φ(r)|2 = |R(r)|2 |Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)|2 = |R(r)|2 P2ℓ,m (cos θ),
2π
q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ϕ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ρ(r) t✐❡♥❡ s✐♠❡trí❛ ❞❡ r♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r
❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φ(r) t✐❡♥❡ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❧❛
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r → −r ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❡s

(r, θ, ϕ) → (r, π − θ, ϕ + π)

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
Φ(−r) = R(r)Yℓ,m (π − θ, π + ϕ).
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s✱

Yℓ,m (π − θ, π + ϕ) = Pℓ,m [cos(π − θ)]eim(ϕ+π) = Pℓ,m (− cos θ)eimϕ eimπ .

❈♦♠♦ Pℓ,m (γ) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r (1−γ 2 )|m|/2 ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦
❝✉②❛ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡ ℓ − |m|✱

Pℓ,m (− cos θ) = (−1)ℓ−|m| Pℓ,m (cos θ)

② ♣✉❡st♦ exp(imπ) = (−1)|m| ✱ q✉❡❞❛ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ q✉❡

Φ(−r) = (−1)ℓ Φ(r) si Φ(r) = R(r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ). ✭✽✳✸✾✮

▲❛ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 ② Lz q✉❡❞❛ ❛sí ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦

❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ℓ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(r) ❡①❤✐❜❡ ❧❛ s✐♠❡trí❛
❞❡ ✐♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ρ(r) = ρ(−r)✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ℓ✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❘❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ s✐♠❡trí❛✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡

L2 ② Lz ✿
✲ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝❡r♦✿ hri = 0✳
✲ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s ❝❡r♦✿✶ hpi = 0✳
✲ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ x2 ❡ y2 s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

✲ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ p2x ② p2y s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

➓ ✺✳ ❈❡♥tré♠♦♥♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧

♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ② Lz ✳ ❈♦♠♦

   
L̂x , L̂z = −i~L̂y y L̂y , L̂z = i~L̂x ,

❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ✈✐st❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r

~ ~
(∆Lx )(∆Lz ) ≥ |hLy i| ; (∆Ly )(∆Lz ) ≥ |hLx i|.
2 2
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ Lz ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆Lz ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✱
❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ Lx ② Ly ❡♥ t❛❧ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦
s♦♥ ♥✉❧♦s✿
si L̂z Φ(r) = m~ Φ(r) ⇒ hLx i = hLy i = 0. ✭✽✳✹✵✮

❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ② Lz s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

 
hL2x i + hL2y i = hL2 i − hL2z i = ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m2 ~2

② ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s✐♠❡trí❛ ❞❡ r♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ hL2x i = hL2y i✱ s❡
t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

hLx i = hLy i = 0r; hLz i = m~

ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m2 ✭✽✳✹✶✮
∆Lx = ∆Ly = ~; ∆Lz = 0.
2

✶
❊❧❧♦ ❡s ❛sí ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ p̂x , p̂y , p̂z ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥ ❧❛ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
✭tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r ❡♥ ♦tr❛ ✐♠♣❛r ② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✮✳ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ px , py , pz s❡rá♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r ② ♦tr❛ ✐♠♣❛r✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧♦s✳
 ✽✳✸✳ ❆❯❚❖❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊▲ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✽✲✶✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣✐❝tór✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r L ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r
√ ❝♦♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ℓ = 3 ② m = 2✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❡st❛❞♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ (L2 − L2z )1/2 =
2 2~ ≃ 2,83~✱ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r Ly ✭♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ L ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ✮✱ s❡ ♣♦❞rá♥
♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s 0✱ ±~ ② ±2~✱ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❣rá✜❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❞❡r❡❝❤❛✳

ℓ = 0 ✭❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡

P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ s✐
❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧r✮ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧♦ ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ hLi = 0 ② ∆Lx = ∆Ly =
∆Lz = 0✮✳
❙❛❧✈♦ ♣❛r❛ ℓ = 0✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ② Lz ❧❛s ♦tr❛s ❞♦s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♥♦ ❡stá♥ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✿ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r Lx ✭ó Ly ✮ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❛✉♥q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ s✐❡♠♣r❡
s❡rá♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❡♥t❡r♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ ~✳ ◆♦ ❞❡❜❡ ♦❧✈✐❞❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r s♦♥ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♥♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥
♠❡❞✐r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ ♠❡❞✐♠♦s Lz ② L2 ♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞

2
❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s m~ ② ℓ(ℓ + 1)~ ✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳
✽✲✶✮ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ② Lz ❡stá
✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ② s✉ ✐♥❝❧✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ❡stá♥
♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✳ ▲♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ Lx ✭♦ ❞❡ Ly ✮
t✐❡♥❡♥ q✉❡ s❡r ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛q✉é❧❧♦s ♥♦ ♣♦❞rá♥
s❡r✱ ❡♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦✱ ♠❛②♦r❡s q✉❡ [ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m2 ]1/2 ~✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✽✳❜✳ ✭✯✮ ▲♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛

❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧♦s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛ L+ ② L− ❝♦♠♦
L̂+ = L̂x + iL̂y , L̂− = L̂x − iL̂y . ✭✽✳✹✷✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❊st♦s ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦s
✉♥♦ ❞❡❧ ♦tr♦✿ L̂†+ = L̂− ✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥

   
L̂2 , L̂± = 0 ; L̂z , L̂± = ±~L̂± ✭✽✳✹✸✮

② ❡✈❛❧ú❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s L̂+ L̂− ② L̂− L̂+ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ L̂2 ② L̂z ✳
❜✮ ❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ |Yℓ,m i ❛❧ ❦❡t ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦
❞❡ L̂2 ② L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ② m~✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❡st❛❞♦s L̂+ |Yℓ,m i ② L̂− |Yℓ,m i✳
❝✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✹✸✮✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✿
✐✮ L̂+ |Yℓ,m i ② L̂− |Yℓ,m i s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ L̂2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ❀
✐✐✮ L̂+ |Yℓ,m i ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r (m + 1)~ ② L̂− |Yℓ,m i ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦
❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r (m − 1)~✳
❞✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛L̂± s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Yℓ,m i✳
❡✮ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s L̂x ② L̂y ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛✳ ❈♦♠♦
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡✈❛❧ú❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ Lx ✱ Ly ✱ L2 2
x ② Ly ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Yℓ,m i✳
❈♦♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❙✐ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r
       
L̂2 , L̂+ = L̂2 , L̂x + iL̂y = L̂2 , L̂x + i L̂2 , L̂y = 0
       
L̂z , L̂+ = L̂z , L̂x + iL̂y = L̂z , L̂x + i L̂z , L̂y = i~L̂y + ~L̂x = ~L̂+

❞❡♠♦strá♥❞♦s❡ ❞❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ [L̂2 , L̂− ] = 0 ② q✉❡ [L̂z , L̂− ] = −~L̂− ✳
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱
L̂+ L̂− = (L̂x + iL̂y )(L̂x − iL̂y ) = L̂2x + L̂2y − iL̂x L̂y + iL̂y L̂x = L̂2x + L̂2y − i[L̂x , L̂y ].

❈♦♠♦ [L̂x , L̂y ] = i~L̂z ② L̂2x + L̂2y = L̂2 − L̂2z ✱ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛

L̂+ L̂− = L̂2 − L̂2z + ~L̂z . ✭✽✳✹✹✮

❉❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛ s❡ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛ q✉❡

L̂− L̂+ = L̂2 − L̂2z − ~L̂z ✭✽✳✹✺✮

❜✮ ▲❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂+ |Yℓ,m i ≡ |L̂+ Yℓ,m i ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

hL̂+ Yℓ,m |L̂+ Yℓ,m i✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ q✉❡ L̂†+ = L̂− ② ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥
✭✽✳✹✺✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
kL̂+ |Yℓ,m ik2 = hL̂+ Yℓ,m |L̂+ Yℓ,m i = hYℓ,m |L̂− L̂+ Yℓ,m i
 ✽✳✸✳ ❆❯❚❖❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❉❊▲ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

② ❝♦♠♦
 

L̂− L̂+ |Yℓ,m i = L̂2 − L̂2z − ~L̂z |Yℓ,m i = ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m2 − m ~2 |Yℓ,m i

q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡ p
kL̂+ |Yℓ,m ik = ~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m + 1). ✭✽✳✹✻✮

❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛ q✉❡

p
kL̂− |Yℓ,m ik = ~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m − 1). ✭✽✳✹✼✮

 
❝✮ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ L̂2 , L̂± = 0 ✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

L̂2 L̂± |Yℓ,m i = L̂± L̂2 |Yℓ,m i

② ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❝t✉❛r L̂2 s♦❜r❡ |Yℓ,m i ❡♠ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r

❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡    
L̂2 L̂± |Yℓ,m i = ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 L̂± |Yℓ,m i ,

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ L̂+ |Yℓ,m i ② L̂− |Yℓ,m i s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ L̂2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ✳
P❛rt❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❞❡ [L̂z , L̂± ] = ±~L̂± ✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ L̂z L̂± = L̂± (L̂z ± ~) ✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s
   
L̂z L̂± |Yℓ,m i = L̂± (L̂z ± ~)|Yℓ,m i = (m ± 1)~ L̂± |Yℓ,m i

② L̂+ |Yℓ,m i ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r (m + 1)~✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ L̂− |Yℓ,m i ❡s
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r (m − 1)~✳
❞✮ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✱ só❧♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❛
L̂2 ② L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❛❞♦s ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✮✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦
❝♦♥ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❝✮
L̂+ |Yℓ,m i = α|Yℓ,m+1 i ; L̂− |Yℓ,m i = β|Yℓ,m−1 i.

❞♦♥❞❡ α ② β s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❦❡ts ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦s |Yℓ,m i

❡stá♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝♦❣❡r ést❛
❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ α ② β s❡❛♥ r❡❛❧❡s ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s α s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ L̂+ |Yℓ,m i
② β ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ L̂− |Yℓ,m i✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛r❛❞♦ ❜✮ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡ ❧❛
❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛ ❡s✿
p
L̂+ |Yℓ,m i = ~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m + 1) |Yℓ,m+1 i con L̂+ = L̂x + iL̂y
✭✽✳✹✽✮
p
L̂− |Yℓ,m i = ~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m − 1) |Yℓ,m−1 i con L̂− = L̂x − iL̂y

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ L̂+ |Yℓ,ℓ i = 0 ② q✉❡ L̂− |Yℓ,−ℓ i = 0 ✮✳ ▲❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s
q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✸ ❡s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✽✳✹✽✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❡✮ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛s✱ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ✈❡r q✉❡

1  1
L̂x = L̂+ + L̂− ; L̂y = (L̂+ − L̂− )
2 2i
②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
1 1
L̂x |Yℓ,m i = L̂+ |Yℓ,m i + L̂− |Yℓ,m i
2 2
1 1
L̂y |Yℓ,m i = L̂+ |Yℓ,m i − L̂− |Yℓ,m i.
2i 2i
❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✹✽✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
p p
~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m + 1) ~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m − 1)
L̂x |Yℓ,m i = |Yℓ,m+1 i + |Yℓ,m−1 i
2 2
p p
~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m + 1) ~ ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m − 1)
L̂y |Yℓ,m i = |Yℓ,m+1 i − |Yℓ,m−1 i.
2i 2i
✭✽✳✹✾✮
▲♦s ❦❡ts |Yℓ,m i ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❞♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s ❝♦♥
❞✐st✐♥t♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ✭L̂2 ✱ L̂z ♦ ❧♦s
❞♦s ✮ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✿

hYℓ,m |Yℓ′ ,m′ i = δ ℓ,ℓ′ δ m,m′ . ✭✽✳✺✵✮

❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ L̂x |Yℓ,m i ② L̂y |Yℓ,m i s♦♥ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s |Yℓ,m+1 i ②
|Yℓ,m−1 i ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ |Yℓ,m i✳ ❊st♦ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛
✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂2 ② L̂z
hL̂x i = hL̂y i = 0.
P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ L̂2x ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ L̂x |Yℓ,m i✿
hL̂2x i = hYℓ,m |L̂2x Yℓ,m i = hL̂†x Yℓ,m |L̂x Yℓ,m i = hL̂x Yℓ,m |L̂x Yℓ,m i = kL̂x Yℓ,m k2 .

P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✽✳✹✾✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡

~2 [ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m + 1)] ~2 [ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m (m − 1)]
hL̂2x i = +
4 4
q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ hL̂2y i✳ ❇❛st❛ ❛sí ♦♣❡r❛r ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ q✉❡
ℓ(ℓ + 1) − m2 2
hL̂2x i = hL̂2y i = ~ .
2
◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡st♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✺ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣r❡s❡♥t❡ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡✳
 ✽✳✹✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

8.4✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖

❆◆●❯▲❆❘

➓ ✶✳ ▲♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2ang ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛❧ ❈❈❖❈ {L̂2 , L̂z }✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ t♦❞❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❞❡ L2ang ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)✱

∞ X
X +ℓ
ϑ(θ, ϕ) = zℓ,m Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ), ✭✽✳✺✶✮
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s zℓ,m ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♥ L2ang

Z π Z 2π
∗
zℓ,m = hYℓ,m |ϑi = sin θ Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)ϑ(θ, ϕ) dθ dϕ. ✭✽✳✺✷✮
0 0

❙✐ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s zℓ,m ✐♥❢♦r♠❛♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡

❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ L̂2 ② ❞❡ L̂z ✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱

pℓ,m ≡ |zℓ,m | ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ L̂2 ② L̂z ❞é
2
2
❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ℓ(ℓ+1)~ ② m~✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ L̂2 ❡s

  +ℓ
X +ℓ
X
2
PrL2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~ = pℓ,m = |zℓ,m |2 ✭✽✳✺✸✮
m=−ℓ m=−ℓ

② ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ L̂z ✱

+∞
X +∞
X
PrLz (m~) = pℓ,m = |zℓ,m |2 . ✭✽✳✺✹✮
ℓ=|m| ℓ=|m|

❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❧♦s ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s ❞❡ L2 ② Lz s♦♥

✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✺✶✮ ❡♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s✳

➓ ✷✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r)✱ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❢❛❝t♦r✐③❛❞❛

❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ② ♦tr❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳ ❙✐ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✱
Ψ(r, θ, ϕ)✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ r ∈ [0, ∞) t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2ang ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

∞ X
X +ℓ
Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = cℓ,m (r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ
✭✽✳✺✺✮
Z π Z 2π
con cℓ,m (r) = sin θ ∗ (θ, ϕ)Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) dθ dϕ.
Yℓ,m
0 0

❙✐ Ψ(r) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ r2 |cℓ,m (r)|2 dr ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r ✱ L2 ② Lz s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛♥✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (r, r + dr)✱ ❡❧
2
✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~ ② ❡❧
✈❛❧♦rm~✳✷ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧ s❡rá
+∞ X
X +ℓ
ρrad (r) = r2 |cℓ,m (r)|2 ✭✽✳✺✻✮
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ

② ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ pℓ,m ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ② m~ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡

L̂2 ② L̂z ❡st❛rá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

Z ∞
pℓ,m = r2 |cℓ,m (r)|2 dr. ✭✽✳✺✼✮
0

❆sí✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ L̂2 ② ❞❡ L̂z

s♦♥
  +ℓ
X +∞
X
PrL2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 = pℓ,m ; PrLz (m~) = pℓ,m ✭✽✳✺✽✮
m=−ℓ ℓ=|m|

❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ♣❛r ❞❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s✿

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✽✳❝✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ■

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳❛✱
r
r −r/(2a0 )
1 3
Ψ(r) = p e sin θ cos ϕ ≡ R(r) ϑ(θ, ϕ)
3 a
24a0 0 4π

❞♦♥❞❡ a0 ❡s ❡❧ r❛❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r✳

❛✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r Lz ✱ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄ ❈♦♠♦

❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❤❛❧❧❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ Lz ✳

✷
❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ r, L2 ② Lz s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ▼ás ❛ú♥✱ ❡st❛s tr❡s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s

s♦♥ ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (R3 )✳

 ✽✳✹✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❜✮ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s✳

❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ Lx ✳

❞✮ ❙✐ s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡ Lz ♦❜t❡♥✐é♥❞♦s❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r +~ ➽❝✉á❧ s❡rá ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ Ψout (r)❄

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s r❡❧❛t✐✈❛s ❛❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❧✈✐❞❛r♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ R(r) ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ②
tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛
r
3
ϑ(θ, ϕ) = sin θ cos ϕ
4π
♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ L2ang ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✳
❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ cos θ = (eiϕ +e−iϕ )/2✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦
r r  
3
3 1 1
ϑ(θ, ϕ) = sin θ eiϕ + e−iϕ = sin θ √ eiϕ + √ e−iϕ .
16π 8π 2 2

❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❡s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s
+~ ② −~✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ t❛❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡
1
PrLz (+~) = PrLz (−~) =
2
② ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r Lz s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ±~ ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✳ ❊♥
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
hLz i = ~ Pr|Ψi (Lz = +~) + (−~) Pr|Ψi (Lz = −~) = 0

hL2z i = (~)2 Pr|Ψi (Lz = +~) + (−~)2 Pr|Ψi (Lz = −~) = ~2

❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ p
∆Lz = hL2z i − hLz i2 = ~.

❜✮ ❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✽✳❛✱ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r 2~2 ✳ ❆ ❧❛
✈✐st❛ ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ϑ(θ, ϕ) s❡rá ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s
❡s❢ér✐❝♦s Y1,+1 ❡ Y1,−1 ❝♦♥ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥ ♠ó❞✉❧♦✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦
❞❡ s✐❣♥♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❚❆❇▲❆ ✽✲✶✱
❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡
−1 1
ϑ(θ, ϕ) = √ Y1,+1 (θ, ϕ) + √ Y1,−1 (θ, ϕ)
2 2
♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱
1 1
|ϑi = − √ | Y1,+1 i + √ | Y1,−1 i.
2 2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❝✮ P❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r hLx i ② ∆Lx , ❡✈❛❧✉❡♠♦s ♣r❡✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂x s♦❜r❡
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ϑ ✭♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❦❡t|ϑi✮✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ✉s❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛ L̂± ❞❛❞♦s
❡♥ ✭✽✳✹✽✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡s❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

√
L̂+ |Y1,+1 i = 0 L̂− |Y1,+1 i = 2~|Y1,0 i
√
L̂+ |Y1,−1 i = 2~|Y1,0 i L̂− |Y1,−1 i = 0

t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

L̂+ |ϑi = ~ |Y1,0 i ; L̂− |ϑi = −~ |Y1,0 i

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
1  1 1
L̂x |ϑi = L̂+ + L̂− |ϑi = L̂+ |ϑi + L̂− |ϑi = 0.
2 2 2
❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ |ϑi ❡s ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❝♦♥

❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ♥✉❧♦✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✿

hLx i = 0. ; ∆Lx = 0.

❞✮ ▲❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ Lz s❡ ❡❢❡❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

−1 1
Ψ(r) = √ R(r) Y1,+1 (θ, ϕ) + √ R(r) Y1,−1 (θ, ϕ).
2 2
❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥✱ s✐ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛

❤❛ s✐❞♦ +~ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ s❡rá

−1
Ψout (r) = √ R(r) Y1,+1 (θ, ϕ)
2

q✉❡ ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r +~✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✽✳❞✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ■■

❉❡s✐❣♥❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ Φℓ,m (r) ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡
❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s L̂ ② L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ② m~✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡
2
❞❡
t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
 
1
Ψ(r) = 3Φ0,0 (r) + 2Φ1,0 (r) − iΦ1,−1 (r) + Φ2,1 (r) − Φ2,0 (r) .
4

❘❡s♣♦♥❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s✿

❛✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r L2 s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s❄
❜✮ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ Lz ❄ ➽❨ s✉ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡❄
 ✽✳✹✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ P❘❖❇❆❇■▲❮❙❚■❈❆ ❨ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❝✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ✐❞❡❛❧ M q✉❡ ♠✐❞❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ Lz ✳ ❙✐ ❡❧

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ Lz = 0✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛✳ ➽❍❛

✐♥❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛

❞❡ L2 ❄ ➽❈♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❡ ❧❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❛ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ L2 ② Lz

s❡❛♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s❄

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φℓ,m (r)✱ ést❛s
❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦
2 2 2 2 2
3 2 −i 1 −1
kΨk2 = + + + + =1
4 4 4 4 4

r❡s✉❧t❛♥❞♦ ❡st❛r ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳

P♦r ✐♥s♣❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r L2 s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛
❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ℓ = 0, 1, 2✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ {0, 2~2 , 6~2 }✳ ▲❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ψ(r)✿
2 2 2
3 9 2 −i 5
PrL2 (0) = = ; PrL2 (2~2 ) = + =
4 16 4 4 16
2 2
1 −1 2
PrL2 (6~2 ) = + =
4 4 16

❜✮ ❊❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❡s✱ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦✱ ❞✐r❡❝t♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ Ψ(r)✿

2 2 2 2 2
3 2 −i 1 −1
hLz i = ×0+ ×0+ × (−~) + × (+~) + ×0=0
4 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 2
3 2 −i 1 −1 ~2
hL2z i = × 02 + × 02 + × (−~)2 + × (+~)2 + × 02 =
4 4 4 4 4 8
②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
1
hLz i = 0 ; ∆Lz = √ ~
2 2

❝✮ ❚r❛s ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ ❡s

 
1
Ψdespués (r) = 3Φ0,0 (r) + 2Φ1,0 (r) − Φ2,0 (r)
4

❝✉②❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❡s

2 2 2
3 2 −1 7
kΨdespués k2 = + + = .
4 4 4 8
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ L2 ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

Ψdespués s♦♥
2 2 2
8 3 9 8 2 4 8 1 1
PrL2 (0) = × = ; PrL2 (2~2 ) = × = ; PrL2 (6~2 ) = × = ,
7 4 14 7 4 14 7 4 14

q✉❡ s♦♥ ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ Ψ(r)✳ ❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦
❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ést❡ ❛✜r♠❛ q✉❡ L2 ② Lz ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♠❡❞✐rs❡
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡st♦ s❡❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡
Lz s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ✱ ❞❡❜❡ r❡s✉❧t❛r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞♦ q✉❡ s✐❣❛ s✐❡♥❞♦
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ♥♦ ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♥♦ ❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡✳

8.5✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❊◆ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❈❊◆❚❘❆▲❊❙

➓ ✶✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛

❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧✿
F(r) = F (r)ur .
❉✐❝❤❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ ② ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡

d
F (r) = − V (r).
dr
❆sí✱ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡s
~2 2
Ĥ = K̂ + V̂ = − ∇ + V (r).
2M
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ K̂ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ p̂2r ② L̂2
✭❝❢r✳ ➓✽✳✶✳✸✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
~2 1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1
Ĥ = − r + L̂2 + V (r). ✭✽✳✺✾✮
2M r2 ∂r ∂r 2M r2

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s L̂2 ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s✱ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✺✾✮ ♠✉❡str❛ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ Ĥ ② L̂2 s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s
✭❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✮ s✐ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ❝❡♥tr❛❧✳
2
❖❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡✱ L̂z t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛ ❝♦♥ Ĥ ② L̂ ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡st♦s tr❡s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s♦♥
2
✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛r q✉❡ {Ĥ, L̂ , L̂z } ❡s✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦✳
 ✽✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❊◆ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❈❊◆❚❘❆▲❊❙

❊st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧✱ ❡①✐st❡
✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ❞❡ {Ĥ, L̂2 , L̂z }
q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛s ✉♥í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✳

➓ ✷✳ ❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ΦE,ℓ,m (r) ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡✱ ♣♦r

t❛♥t♦✱ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s

ĤΦE,ℓ,m (r) = EΦE,ℓ,m (r) ✭✽✳✻✵❛✮

L̂2 ΦE,ℓ,m (r) = ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ΦE,ℓ,m (r) ✭✽✳✻✵❜✮

L̂z ΦE,ℓ,m (r) = m~ΦE,ℓ,m (r) ✭✽✳✻✵❝✮

❞♦♥❞❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ... ② m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ✳ ❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡
❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ♥♦ ✈❛ ❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡r ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ m ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❧❡❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ✉♥
s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❝♦♥ s✐♠❡trí❛ r❛❞✐❛❧✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ ΦE,ℓ,m (r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ s✉ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r

ΦE,ℓ,m (r) = RE,ℓ (r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ). ✭✽✳✻✶✮

❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭✽✳✻✵❛✮ ②

✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✺✾✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧ RE,ℓ (r) s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛
s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s✿

   
~2 1 d 2 d ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
− r + + V (r) RE,ℓ (r) = E RE,ℓ (r). ✭✽✳✻✷✮
2M r2 dr dr 2M r2

P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ℓ✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ E ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
✭✽✳✻✷✮ ❛❞♠✐t❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦

Z ∞
r2 |RE,ℓ (r)|2 dr = 1
0

❢♦r♠❛rá♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ Ĥ ✳ ▼ás ❡♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ s❡rá♥ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ q✉❡✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ s❡❛
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ+1)~2 ✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ E ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ✭✽✳✻✷✮ ❛❞♠✐t❛ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❝♦t❛❞❛s✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s
♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ r ∈ [0, ∞)✱ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉✐rá♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ✳

➓ ✸✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r✱ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❬❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ✭✽✳✻✷✮❪✱ ✉♥♦ ♣♦r ❝❛❞❛

✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ℓ✳
❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ✭✽✳✻✷✮ ❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ✉♥❛
❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

uE,ℓ (r) = r RE,ℓ (r) , con r ≥ 0 ✭✽✳✻✸✮

q✉❡✱ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ uE,ℓ (0) = 0 ②❛ q✉❡ RE,ℓ (r)

❡s ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ✭s✐ uE,ℓ (0) 6= 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ΦE,ℓ,m (r) ❞✐✈❡r❣✐rí❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r →
0✮✳ ❙✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s RE,ℓ (r) ♣♦r uE,ℓ (r)/r ❡♥ ✭✽✳✻✷✮✱ tr❛s ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡
❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r s❡ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛
 
~2 d 2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
− + + V (r) uE,ℓ (r) = EuE,ℓ (r) ✭✽✳✻✹✮
2M dr2 2M r2

❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ uE,ℓ (r) ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ r ∈ [0, ∞) ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛
❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛
ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
Vℓ (r) = V (r) + , con ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ... ✭✽✳✻✺✮
2M r2
✭❛❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ℓ s❡ ❧❡ s✉❡❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r tér♠✐♥♦ ❝❡♥trí❢✉❣♦✮✳

❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦ uE,ℓ (0) = 0✱ ✜❥❛❞♦ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ E

❡①✐st❡ ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✮ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ uE,ℓ (r) ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭✽✳✻✹✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ②❛ s❡ñ❛❧❛♠♦s✱ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
R∞ E ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ uE,ℓ (r) ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ 0 |uE,ℓ (r)|2 dr = 1✱ ❢♦r♠❛rá♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦
♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ Ĥ ✳ ▲❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ s❡❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ♣❡r♦
s❡ ♠❛♥t❡♥❣❛ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛✱ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡rá♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ✳

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡✿

• P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

❝❡♥tr❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r)✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ {H, L2 , Lz }
❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳
❊①✐st✐rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s ❞❡ {H, L2 , Lz } ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s {E, ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 , m~}✳
 ✽✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❊◆ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❈❊◆❚❘❆▲❊❙

❈❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s t❡♥❞rá ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛

1
ΦE,ℓ,m (r) = RE,ℓ (r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) = uE,ℓ (r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)
r
❞♦♥❞❡ Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ❡s ✉♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦ ② uE,ℓ (r) ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✭ú♥✐❝❛✱
s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧
r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛
 
~2 d 2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
− + + V (r) uE,ℓ (r) = E uE,ℓ (r) , con uE,ℓ (0) = 0.
2M dr2 2M r2

• ❋♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s

∞
[
σ(Ĥ) = σ (ℓ) (Ĥ),
ℓ=0

❞♦♥❞❡ σ (ℓ) (Ĥ) ❡s ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ℓ✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ℓ ② ♣❛r❛
❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ∈ σ (ℓ) (Ĥ) ❤❛② 2ℓ + 1 ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✿ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ m q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s s✐ ✜❥❛♠♦s ℓ✳

➓ ✹✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ℓ✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s

σ ℓ (Ĥ) ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❡s ❡♥t❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ✭❧❛
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s s✐ ❤✉❜✐❡s❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ②
s❡ ❞❡❥❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦✮✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡t✐q✉❡t❛r ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✭✽✳✻✹✮
❝♦♥ ❞♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✿ ❡❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ℓ ✭❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❧❡ s✉❡❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r ♥ú♠❡r♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✮ ② ✉♥ í♥❞✐❝❡ n = 1, 2, ... ❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
r❛❞✐❛❧ ✭❛ m s❡ ❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✮✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✱
En,ℓ ❡s ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛
ℓ ✭E1,ℓ < E2,ℓ < E3,ℓ < . . . ✮✳
▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s❡ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛rá♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♥ ❡st♦s tr❡s
♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✿


 ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ...

Φn,ℓ,m (r) = Rn,ℓ (r) Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) , con n = 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✽✳✻✻✮



m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ,

❞♦♥❞❡ un,ℓ (r) = r Rn,ℓ (r) ❡s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ✭✽✳✻✹✮ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r En,ℓ ✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ L2 (R3 )✱ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞

hΦn,ℓ,m (r)|Φn′ ,ℓ′ ,m′ (r)i = δ n,n′ δ ℓ,ℓ′ δ m,m′ ✭✽✳✻✼✮

② t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♣♦❞rá ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦

X ∞ X
∞ X +ℓ
Ψ(r, t) = cn,ℓ,m (t) Φn,ℓ,m (r)
✭✽✳✻✽✮
ℓ=0 n=1 m=−ℓ

con cn,ℓ,m (t) = e−iEn,ℓ t/~ cn,ℓ,m (0) = e−iEn,ℓ t/~ hΦn,ℓ,m |Ψ(0)i.

❘❡♦r❞❡♥❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s ② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ Φn,ℓ,m (r) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✻✶✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s

q✉❡

"∞
∞ X +ℓ
#
X X
Ψ(r, t) = e−iEn,ℓ t/~ Rn,ℓ (r) cn,ℓ,m (0) Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) . ✭✽✳✻✾✮
ℓ=0 n=1 m=−ℓ

❈❛❞❛ tér♠✐♥♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❝♦r❝❤❡t❡s ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ Ψ(r, t) ❡♥ ♦♥❞❛ s✱ ♣✱ ❞✱ ❢✱ ❣✱ ❤✱✳✳✳ s❡❣ú♥ s❡❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
❞❡ ℓ ✭ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✮✳

➓ ✺✳ ❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡ ❡t✐q✉❡t❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧♦s

♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s n ② ℓ✳ ▲❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ En,ℓ s❡rá2ℓ + 1
✭r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s✿ ❡s❡ ❡s ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ m✱
✜❥❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❞❡ ℓ✮✳
▲❛ ♦r❞❡♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ♣❡r♦✱ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ❝❛s♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛s ✭✽✳✻✺✮
❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ q✉❡

V (r) = Vℓ=0 (r) < Vℓ (r) para todo r si ℓ = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...

❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ s❡rá ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ℓ=0 ② n=1 ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛

♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✽✳✺✮✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛♥ ❞♦s ✭♦ ♠ás✮ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s
En,ℓ ② En′ ,ℓ′ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❆ ❡st❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ s❡ ❧❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥
❛❝❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧✳

➓ ✻✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♠♦✈❡r ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡

♣❡r♦ r❡str✐♥❣✐❞❛ ❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ a✳ ❆ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❧♦
 ✽✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❊◆ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❈❊◆❚❘❆▲❊❙

❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r❡♠♦s ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✳ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡rá


 0 si r ∈ [0, a]
V (r) = ✭✽✳✼✵✮

∞ si r > a.
P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ r > a✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ést❛ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❛♥✉❧❛rs❡ s✐ r = a✳
❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡
❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛s
❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ❞❡ L̂2 ② ❞❡ L̂z ✱ ❝✉②❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❡s


 ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ...
1 
Φn,ℓ,m (r) = un,ℓ (r) Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) , con n = 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✽✳✼✶✮
r 


m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ.
un,ℓ (r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ② ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ❡♥ r = 0 ② ❡♥ r ≥ a✱
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ Yℓ,m (r) ❡s ✉♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, a]✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r) ❡s ❝❡r♦✱ un,ℓ (r) ❡s s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛

 
~2 d 2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
− + un,ℓ (r) = En,ℓ un,ℓ (r) ✭✽✳✼✷✮
2M dr2 2M r2

❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦

un,ℓ (0) = un,ℓ (a) = 0

② ❧❛ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ Z a
|un,ℓ (r)|2 dr = 1. ✭✽✳✼✸✮
0

P❛r❛ ℓ = 0 ✭❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ♦♥❞❛ s ✮✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✭✽✳✼✷✮ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦
✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦♥ ♣❛r❡❞❡s ❡♥ r=0 ② r = a✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s
❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✻✳❞

π 2 ~2 2
En,0 = n , con n = 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✽✳✼✹✮
2ma2
r  nπ 
2
un,0 (r) = sin r ✭✽✳✼✺✮
a a
②✱ ❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ E1,0 = π 2 ~2 /(2M a2 ) s❡rá ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

❱❡❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❝✉á❧❡s s♦♥ ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✭✽✳✼✷✮ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦
❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ℓ > 0✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞❡s ② ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛s✿
r
√ 2M a2
ρ = r/a ũn,ℓ (ρ) = a un,ℓ (aρ) κn,ℓ = En,ℓ . ✭✽✳✼✻✮
~2
▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ✭✽✳✼✷✮ ② ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥
✭✽✳✼✸✮ s♦♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱
 
d2 ℓ(ℓ + 1) 2
− + − κ n,ℓ ũn,ℓ (ρ) = 0 , con ũn,ℓ (0) = ũn,ℓ (1) = 0 ✭✽✳✼✼✮
dρ2 ρ2
Z 1
|ũn,ℓ (ρ)|2 dρ = 1. ✭✽✳✼✽✮
0
❙✐♥ ✐♠♣♦♥❡r q✉❡ ũn,ℓ (1) = 0 ❬♣❡r♦ sí q✉❡ ũn,ℓ (0) = 0❪✱ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
✭✽✳✼✼✮ ❡s
√
ũn,ℓ (ρ) = An,ℓ ρ Jℓ+1/2 (κn,ℓ ρ), ✭✽✳✼✾✮

❞♦♥❞❡ Js (κ) ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ s ② An,ℓ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✽✳✼✽✮✿

Z 1 −1/2
An,ℓ = ρ|Jℓ+1/2 (κn,ℓ ρ)|2 dρ . ✭✽✳✽✵✮
0

❈♦♠♦ ũn,ℓ (1) = An,ℓ Jℓ+1/2 (κn,ℓ ) = 0✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s En,ℓ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rá♥ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r
❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ κn,ℓ q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❣❛♥ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

Jℓ+1/2 (κn,ℓ ) = 0.

❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ κn,ℓ ❡s ❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ κ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ q✉❡

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧ Jℓ+1/2 (κ) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛✳
❊♥ s✉♠❛✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥
♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ a s♦♥

~2 2
En,ℓ = κ , con Jℓ+1/2 (κn,ℓ ) = 0 [n = 1, 2, 3, ...] ✭✽✳✽✶❛✮
2M a n,ℓ

1 κ r
n,ℓ
Φn,ℓ,m (r) = An,ℓ × √ Jℓ+1/2 Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ✭✽✳✽✶❜✮
a r a

❜✐❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞♦ q✉❡ Φn,ℓ,m (r) = 0 s✐ r ≥ a✳

 ✽✳✺✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❊◆ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❈❊◆❚❘❆▲❊❙

r
πκ
ℓ J (κ) ❈❡r♦s (κ1,ℓ , κ2,ℓ , ...)
2 ℓ+1/2

3,141 6,283
✵ sin κ
9,425 12,566 ...

sin κ − κ cos κ 4,493 7,725

✶
κ 10,904 14,066 ...

(3 − κ 2 ) sin κ − 3κ cos κ 5,763 9,095

✷
κ2 12,323 15,515 ...

(15 − 6κ 2 ) sin κ − (15x − κ 3 ) cos κ 6,988 10,417

✸
κ3 13,698 16,924 ...

(105 − 45κ 2 + κ 4 ) sin κ − (105κ + 10κ 3 ) cos κ 8,183 11,705

✹
κ4 15,040 18,301 ...

❚❆❇▲❆ ✽✲✷ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧ Js (κ) ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ s❡♠✐❡♥t❡r♦ ♠ás ❜❛❥♦

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✽✶❛✮ ② ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞❛t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❚❆❇▲❆
✽✲✷✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❢á❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s En,ℓ ② ❧❛s ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s gn,ℓ ❞❡ ❧♦s
♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ gn,ℓ = 2ℓ + 1✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s
q✉❡
◆✐✈❡❧❡s (n, ℓ) (2M a2 )/~2 En,ℓ gn,ℓ
1s (1, 0) ✾✳✽✼✵ ✶
1p (1, 1) ✷✵✳✶✾✶ ✸
1d (1, 2) ✸✸✳✷✶✽ ✺
✭✽✳✽✷✮
2s (2, 0) ✸✾✳✹✼✽ ✶
1f (1, 3) ✹✽✳✽✸✶ ✼
2p (2, 1) ✺✾✳✻✽✾ ✸
··· ··· ···

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❡s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❝ó♠♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s r❛❞✐❛❧❡s r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛s

ρrad (r) ❡♥ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s Φn,ℓ,m (r)✱ q✉❡ ❡st❛rá♥ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r

A2n,ℓ r κ 
n,ℓ r
ρrad (r) = r2 |Rn,ℓ (r)|2 = |un,ℓ (r)|2 = J2ℓ+1/2 . ✭✽✳✽✸✮
a2 a
❊♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✽✲✷ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s r❛❞✐❛❧❡s r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s s❡✐s
♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛rs❡✱ ρrad (r) t✐❡♥❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

3
nr = 1 ; = 0
3
nr = 1 ; = 1
3
nr = 1 ; = 2
( )

( )

( )
r

r
2 2 2
rad

rad

rad
a

a
1 1 1

0 0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

r/a r/a r/a

3
nr = 2 ; = 0
3
nr = 1 ; = 3
3
nr = 2 ; = 1
( )

( )

( )
r

r
2 2 2
rad

rad

rad
a

a
1 1 1

0 0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

r/a r/a r/a

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✽✲✷✳ ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛
❧♦s s❡✐s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✳
❘❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ ρrad (r)dr ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (r, r + dr)

n−1 ❝❡r♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ 0<r<a ②✱ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛ ℓ✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞

❞❡ ❞❡t❡❝t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ (r ∼ 0) ✈❛
❞✐s♠✐♥✉②❡♥❞♦✳ ❊❧❧♦ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥✢✉❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦
❝❡♥trí❢✉❣♦ ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 /(2M r 2 ) ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ un,ℓ (r) q✉❡ ❡s
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛✳

▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ρrad (r) ❡s✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❢❛❝t♦r r2 ✱ ❡❧ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(r) s♦❜r❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s á♥❣✉❧♦s
{θ, ϕ} ❬❝❢r✳ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✽✳✶✼✮❪✳ ❙✐ ❡①❝❡♣t✉❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥
♦♥❞❛ s✱ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ s✐♠❡trí❛ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❛♥✐sótr♦♣❛✳
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φn,ℓ,m (r) t❛❧ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♥♦
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ϕ✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉ ❢♦r♠❛ sí ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ m✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ Φn,ℓ,m (r)

A2n,ℓ κ 
2 n,ℓ r
ρ(r) = |Rn,ℓ (r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)| = J2ℓ+1/2 P2ℓ,m (cos θ), ✭✽✳✽✹✮
2πa2 r a
❞♦♥❞❡ Pℓ,m (γ) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡ q✉❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❥✐♠♦s ❡♥ ➓✽✳✸✳✸✳ ❙✐
✜❥❛♠♦s ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ r✱ ρ(r) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛rá ♣❛r❛ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❡♥ ✉♥
á♥❣✉❧♦ θ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ t❛❧❡s q✉❡ Pℓ,m (cos θ) = 0✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✶✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ■■■

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

xy + yz + zx
Ψ(x, y, z) = A g(r) , con g(r) = exp(−r/a),
r2
❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ② a>0 ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡

❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✳

❛✮ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ L̂2 ❞❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r 0❄ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛

2
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❞é ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r 6~ ❄

❜✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r Lz ✱ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s❄

❝✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s tr❡s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r L✳

❞✮ ❙❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ Lz ✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❢✉❡s❡ |Lz | = ~✱
➽❝✉á❧ s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝♦❧❛♣s❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❥✉st♦ ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛❞❛

❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛❄

❡✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ρrad (r) ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❆②✉❞❛✿ ❊①♣r❡s❡ Ψ(r) ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ❡s❝r✐❜❛ s✉ ♣❛rt❡ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❝♦♠♦

❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ✉t✐❧✐❝❡ ❧❛ ❚❆❇▲❆ ✽✲✶✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✷✳ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ A ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r L ❡s

❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ L2 ✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ s✐ Â ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✱

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

[Â, L̂2 ] = 0
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ ϑ(θ, ϕ) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s q✉❡ ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Âϑ(θ, ϕ) t❛♠❜✐é♥

❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r
2
s❡rá ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂ ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r✳ ❊♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s✱ s✐ Wℓ ❡s ❡❧
2
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r
2
ℓ(ℓ + 1)~ ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Wℓ ❡s ✐♥✈❛r✐❛♥t❡ ❜❛ ❥♦ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r
❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ♣❡r♦ r❡str✐♥❣✐❞❛ ❛❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ Wℓ ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛

❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛ ❞❡ Wℓ ❡s 2ℓ+1✱ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s

(2ℓ + 1) × (2ℓ + 1)✳ ❙✐ tr❛❜❛ ❥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ)✿

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ♠❛tr✐❝❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛ L̂+ ② L̂− ❡♥ ❧♦s

s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s W0 , W1 ② W2 ✳
❜✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s L̂x ② L̂y
❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦s s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ▼❖▼❊◆❚❖ ❆◆●❯▲❆❘

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✸✳ ❆✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ Lx

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ W1 ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s q✉❡ s♦♥
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r 2~2 ✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ {Y1,1 , Y1,0 , Y1,−1 } ❞❡ t❛❧
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂x ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡
x ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❡s  
0 1 0
~
Lx = √  1 0 1 
2 0 1 0
t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡❜✐ó ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ L̂x ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ W1 ✱ ❡①♣r❡sá♥❞♦❧❛s

❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s Y1,m (θ, ϕ)✳
❜✮ ❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

Ψ(r) = g(r) sin θ cos ϕ

❞♦♥❞❡ g(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧✳ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r Lx s♦❜r❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s
♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✹✳ P❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♠♦✈✐é♥❞♦s❡ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ a✳
❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ s✉ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r r = a ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ✭♥♦
♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st❛r❧♦ ❞❡❧ t♦❞♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ r t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦s✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s θ ② ϕ✳

❛✮ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ② s✉ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✺✳ ◆✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❝❡♥tr❛❧

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x)✳ ❙❡❛ E0 ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❢✉❡s❡ V (x) + W (x)✱
❝♦♥ W (x) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧
E0′ ❡s ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ E0 ✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ ♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ s❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ℓ = 0 ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦
❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✻✳ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛
❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ a✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ s✉ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛
❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ② s✉ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
Z 1
1

❆②✉❞❛✿ κ sin2 (πκ)dκ = 2
2π 2 − 3
0 12π

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✼✳ ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦ ❞❡
r❛❞✐♦ a✳ ❙❡ s❛❜❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s 0 ② +~ ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✳ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡
❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❍❛❧❧❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r L✳
❉❛t♦✿ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❡s hri ≃ 0,520 a✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✽✳✽✳ ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s
❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ✭H = K ✮✱ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s {H, L2 , Lz } ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈ ❞❡❧
s✐st❡♠❛✳ ▲❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E q✉❡✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱
❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L2 ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ② ❞❡ Lz ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r m~✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛✱ s❛❧✈♦
❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✮✳ ➽❈ó♠♦ s❡ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛ t❛❧
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r ≫ 0❄
 ❚❊❘❈❊❘❆ P❆❘❚❊
❆♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s s✐♠♣❧❡s
 ❚❡♠❛ ✾
❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❯♥❛ ✈❡③ ❛♣r❡♥❞✐❞♦s ❧♦s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❧❛ ❤♦r❛ ❞❡ s✉

❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝♦s✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻ ②❛ ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❞❡
❡st♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s✿ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✱ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱
② ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳

❚r❛s ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❝ó♠♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s✳ ❇❛❥♦ ❡st❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛✱ s✐ ❜✐❡♥ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s s❡ t❡♥❞rá♥ q✉❡
♦❜t❡♥❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡s✳ ❊❧❧♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛r ❝♦♥
❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

▲♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s♦♥ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡t♦❞♦❧ó❣✐❝♦s✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱

❧❛s s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✾✳✷ ② ✾✳✸ s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞♦♥❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r ❡♥tr❡
t❡♦rí❛ ② ♣rá❝t✐❝❛✳ ❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❞❡❞✐q✉❡ ✶✺ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥
❡♠♣❧❡❛rs❡ ♣r✐♠♦r❞✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ✏r❡♣r♦❞✉❝✐r✑ ❧♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❝❛s♦s tr❛t❛❞♦s ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦
❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ② ❛ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛

❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳

❉♦♠✐♥❛r ❧❛ té❝♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r

✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛
tr♦③♦s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

9.1✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❉❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

➓ ✶✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M✱ q✉❡ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥

✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ ❝✉②❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡sV (x)✱ s✉ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❡stá r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r
 
∂ ~2 ∂ 2
i~ Ψ(x, t) = − + V (x) Ψ(x, t) ≡ ĤΨ(x, t), ✭✾✳✶✮
∂t 2M ∂x2
❝✉②❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s

ΦE (x, t) = ΦE (x)e−iEt/~ con ĤΦE (x) = EΦE (x). ✭✾✳✷✮

❆sí✱ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡rá r❡s♦❧✈❡r

❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱
 
~2 d 2
ĤΦE (x) = − + V (x) ΦE (x) = EΦE (x), ✭✾✳✸✮
2M dx2
q✉❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ t❛♥t♦
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ✭❛✉♥q✉❡ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛s✮✳ ❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥
♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s q✉❡ s❡rá♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢✉t✉r♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❆❞♠✐t✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐❞❛❞❡s✱ t♦❞❛

❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ s✉ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✳
▲❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ❡❧ r❡q✉✐s✐t♦ ✐♥❞✐s♣❡♥s❛❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ΦE (x)
t❡♥❣❛ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✿ s✐ ❢✉❡s❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛
❞✐✈❡r❣✐rí❛✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡s ❛❞❡♠ás ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
ΦE (x) ♣✉❡❞❛ s❡r ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧
t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ♥♦ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛r s♦❜r❡ ❡❧❧❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r d2 /dx2 ✳
▲❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❡①❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❡st❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡rá ❡♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❡♥
❧♦s q✉❡ V (x) s❡❛ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡st❛s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐❞❛❞❡s s♦♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s ❡st♦s ❝❛s♦s ❛
♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ✈❛②❛♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝✐❡♥❞♦✳

• ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❡s r❡❛❧✱ s✐ΦE (x) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

∗
❞❡ Ĥ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s ΦE (x)✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s
s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ΦE (x)
∗
② ΦE (x) s❡❛♥ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s✳ P❛r❛ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳
 ✾✳✶✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❉❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

ΦE (x) ② Φ∗E (x) s♦♥ ❞♦s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ s✐
∗ ∗
❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE (x) + ΦE (x) ② i[ΦE (x) − ΦE (x)]✱ r❡❛❧❡s ② ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ s♦♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♥✐✈❡❧✳ ❊st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
q✉❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦✱ s✐❡♠♣r❡ s❡rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛
❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s ✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛
♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✻✳✼✮✳

• ❖tr❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿ s✐ ❞❡r✐✈❛♠♦s |ΦE (x, t)|2 r❡s♣❡❝t♦

❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ② ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s✱ ❛❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❤✐❝✐♠♦s ❡♥
❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✹✱ ❛ q✉❡
 !
∂|ΦE (x, t)|2 ∂ i~ ∂Φ∗E (x, t) ∂Φ E (x, t)
=− ΦE (x, t) − Φ∗E (x, t) .
∂t ∂x 2M ∂x ∂x
❈♦♠♦ ΦE (x, t) = ΦE (x) exp(−iEt/~)✱ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡s ♥✉❧❛ ② ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦
❡♥tr❡ ♣❛ré♥t❡s✐s ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✿
 
i~ dΦ∗ (x) dΦE (x)
ΦE (x) E − Φ∗E (x) = constante. ✭✾✳✹✮
2M dx dx
◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦
✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
J(x)✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ s✐ ΦE (x) ♥♦ ❢✉❡s❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❡s❡ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐rí❛
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ E ✳

• ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧

❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡
s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ s✉ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳
❆✉♥q✉❡ ♥♦ ❤❛rí❛ ❢❛❧t❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛r❧♦ ❡♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡✱ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ♣❡♥s❛r ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ ΦE (x)✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ s♦♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r
❧♦s ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦s ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x0 s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✭❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s
❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ (δx)3 ② s✉♣❡r✐♦r❡s✮
1
ΦE (x0 + δx) ≃ ΦE (x0 ) + δx Φ′E (x0 ) + (δx)2 Φ′′E (x0 )
2
1
ΦE (x0 − δx) ≃ ΦE (x0 ) − δx Φ′E (x0 ) + (δx)2 Φ′′E (x0 ),
2
′′ 2 2
❝♦♥ ΦE (x0 ) = d ΦE (x)/dx |x=x0 ✳ ❙✉♠❛♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ② r❡♦r❞❡♥❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s✱

ΦE (x0 + δx) ≃ −ΦE (x0 − δx) + 2ΦE (x0 ) + (δx)2 Φ′′E (x0 ).
▲❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❛❤♦r❛ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s
Φ′′E (x0 ) ❝♦♥❢♦r♠❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✭✾✳✸✮✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡
 
2M
ΦE (x0 + δx) ≃ −ΦE (x0 − δx) + 2 + (δx)2 2 [V (x) − E] ΦE (x0 ), ✭✾✳✺✮
~
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡①❛❝t❛ ❛ ♦r❞❡♥ O(δx)3 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s

♣✉♥t♦s x0 ② x0 − δx✱ ② ✉t✐❧✐③❛♠♦s r❡❝✉rr❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ✭✾✳✺✮✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡❛❧✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ ✭✾✳✺✮ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧
♠ét♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ✜♥✐t❛s q✉❡ ②❛ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✻✳✸✳✸ ❛❧ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡ ❤❛ ❤❡❝❤♦ ✉♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳
❍❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛❞♦ ❝ó♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧
❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ ♣♦r ♠✉② ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ q✉❡ s❡❛✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ΦE (x) ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡✳
❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❣❡♥ér✐❝♦ x ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ x0 ② x0 − δx✳
✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r s✉
❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱
❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳
➓ ✸✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) ❞❛❞❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ✉♥
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣r❡✈✐♦✿ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱
V (x) = V0 ✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥

 
~2 d 2
− + V0 ΦE (x) = EΦE (x)
2M dx2

❝✉②❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦ ♣♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✮

 p

 Ae+ikx + Be−ikx si E > V0

 2M |E − V0 |
 con k =
~
ΦE (x) = Ae+kx + Be−kx si E < V0 ✭✾✳✻✮





A + Bx si E = V0

s✐❡♥❞♦ A ② B ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✳

❆❞♠✐t❛♠♦s ❛❞❡♠ás q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ❞❡ ❝♦rt♦

❛❧❝❛♥❝❡✱ ❛♥✉❧á♥❞♦s❡ s✐ |x| ≫ 0✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧
❞❡r✐✈❛ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

V (x) = V− si x ≪ 0

V (x) = V+ si x ≫ 0

② s✉♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s s✐♥ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ V+ ≥ V− ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✾✲✶✮✳ ▲♦s

❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡ ΦE (x) ✈❛♥ ❛ ❡st❛r ❞❛❞♦s ♣♦r ✭✾✳✻✮✱ ♣❡r♦ ❛❧ ♥♦ s❡r
 ✾✳✶✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❉❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦

❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ♥✉❡str♦ s✐st❡♠❛✳ P❛r❛ ✈❡r❧♦ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r tr❡s ❝❛s♦s✿

• E > V+ . ❋✐❥❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✾✳✻✮✱

p
ΦE (x) = Ae+ik− x + Be−ik− x si x ≪ 0 con k− = 2M (E − V− )/~
p
ΦE (x) = Ce+ik+ x + De−ik+ x si x ≫ 0 con k+ = 2M (E − V+ )/~
✭✾✳✼✮
② ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ❡♥tr❡ ΦE (x ≪ 0) ② ΦE (x ≫ 0) s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ✭A ② B✮ ② ✭C ② D✮✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ♣✉❡s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r q✉❡

! ! !
A t11 t12 C
= , ✭✾✳✽✮
B t21 t22 D

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s tij ❞❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛tr✐③ 2×2 ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ✳ ❈♦♠♦
❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❞♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✱
❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦
❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ✷✳ ◆♦ ❤❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❧✐♠✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✾✳✽✮
❝♦♥❝❧✉✐♠♦s q✉❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s E > V+ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ H✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❞♦s✳

• V− < E < V+ . P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ r❛♥❣♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

p
ΦE (x) = Ae+ik− x + Be−ik− x si x ≪ 0 con k− = 2M (E − V− )/~
p
ΦE (x) = Ce+κ+ x + De−κ+ x si x ≫ 0 con κ+ = 2M (V+ − E)/~
✭✾✳✾✮
❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s A✱ B✱ C ② D ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛
❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✭✾✳✽✮✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡
❝r❡❝❡r ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ x→∞ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥♦ t❡♥❞rí❛ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳
P♦r t❛♥t♦ C A ② B r❡s✉❧t❛♥ s❡r
❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❡♥ ✭✾✳✾✮ ② ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ D✳ ❈❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡❞❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♣♦r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ D q✉❡✱ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s✱ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✳
▲❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (V− , V+ ) ❢♦r♠❛♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ✭♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥♦✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✶✳ ❊str✉❝t✉r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❜❛ ❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ V (x)✳ ❊❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡

❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ s❡ñ❛❧á♥❞♦s❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ②

♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳

• E < V− . ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

p
ΦE (x) = Ae+κ− x + Be−κ− x si x ≪ 0 con κ− = 2M (V− − E)/~
p
ΦE (x) = Ce+κ+ x + De−κ+ x si x ≫ 0 con κ+ = 2M (V+ − E)/~
✭✾✳✶✵✮
♣❡r♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ B = C = 0 ✭❡♥ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❢✉❡r❛ ❛sí✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦
❡st❛rí❛ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| → ∞✮✳ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✭✾✳✽✮ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡
! ! ! 
A t11 t12 0  A = t12 D
= ⇒ ✭✾✳✶✶✮
0 t21 t22 D 
t = 0. 22

❍❛♥ ❞❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rs❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ P❡r♦ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♠✉②
❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛s s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rá q✉❡ t22 = 0 ♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦✱ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ΦE (x ≫ 0) ♥♦ ❞✐✈❡r❥❛✳ ❊♥ ❡s❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❤❛❜rá
ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✮ q✉❡
s❡rá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ② t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| → ∞✳ ❙✐ ❧❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱
Z Z
~2 d 2Φ
E (x)
E = hHi = − Φ∗E (x) dx + Φ∗E (x)V (x)ΦE (x)dx.
2M R dx2 R
 ✾✳✶✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❉❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♠♦s ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r tér♠✐♥♦ ② ✉s❛♠♦s q✉❡ V (x) ≥ Vmı́n
❡♥ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ Vmı́n ❡❧ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱
Z 2 Z Z 2
~2 dΦE (x) ~2 dΦE (x)
E≥ dx+ Φ∗E (x)Vmı́n ΦE (x)dx = dx+Vmı́n .
2M R dx R 2M R dx
❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡s ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛✱ E > Vmı́n ✳ ❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✿ ❞❡
❡①✐st✐r✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ H ❡s ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ② ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥
❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (Vmı́n , V− )✳
• ❉❡❜❡♠♦s r❡❝❛❧❝❛r ❛q✉í q✉❡ ❡st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❧❡s s✐ V± s♦♥ ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s
❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ x → ±∞✱ ♣❡r♦ só❧♦ s✐ V (x) ❞❡❝❛❡ ❛ ❡st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❧♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ rá♣✐❞♦✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❡st❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♥♦ s❡rí❛♥
❝♦rr❡❝t♦s✳

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥ q✉❡✿

PROPIEDADES DEL ESPECTRO DE ENERGÍAS (1 dim)

Si lı́m = V± con V+ ≥ V− y Vmı́n = mı́n V (x), entonces :

x→±∞


 E > V+ : autoenergı́a con multiplicidad 2
• σ c (H) ⊆ (V− , ∞) y

E ∈ (V− , V+ ) : autoenergı́a con multiplicidad 1

• σ p (H) = {E1 , E2 , ...} ⊂ (Vmı́n , V− ] : el espectro puntual es no degenerado

Nota : si V+ ≤ V− , deberemos intercambiar V+ por V− .

▲❛ ✉❜✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ V+ ② V− ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛

❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭✈é❛s❡ s✉ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✶✮✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ t♦❞❛s
❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ✭♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✮
t✐❡♥❡♥ ♣♦r q✉é ❡st❛r ♣r❡s❡♥t❡s✱ ②❛ q✉❡ t♦❞♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦r❞❡♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s {Vmı́n , V− , V+ }✳ ❍❛❜rá ❝❛s♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ s❡❛ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ✭❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❧✐❜r❡✮✱ ♦tr♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡❛
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ✭❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✮ ②
♦tr♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡❛ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ✭♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛
✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ r❡❝✉♣❡r❛❞♦r❛ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛✮✳

➓ ✹✳ ❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❞✐❥✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻✱ ❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❝♦♥

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ s❡ ❧❡s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳ ❊❧❧♦ ❡s ❛sí ♣♦rq✉❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ❞❡❧

❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ s✉ ❞❡❝❛✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| ≫ 0✳
• ❯♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s
❧✐❣❛❞♦s✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t✉r♠✱ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐ ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s ♥♦❞♦
❛ ✉♥ ❝❡r♦ ❛✐s❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ✭❡❧
❞❡ ♠❡♥♦r ❡♥❡r❣í❛✮ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♥♦❞♦s✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦
t✐❡♥❡ n ♥♦❞♦s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡s ❧ó❣✐❝♦✱ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ♥♦❞♦s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈♦s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜❡
❛❧❝❛♥③❛r ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ ♦ ✉♥ ♠í♥✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦✳

• ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦

✭✾✳✸✮✱ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♥♦❞♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱
t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✐♥✢❡①✐ó♥✳

❚❛♠❜✐é♥ s♦♥ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ✐♥✢❡①✐ó♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ V (x) = E ✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❧♦s
q✉❡ s❡♣❛r❛♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡ ❬E > V (x)❪ ❞❡ ♦tr❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛ ❬E < V (x)❪✳
• ❈♦♠♦ ②❛ ✈✐♦ ❡♥ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♣❡r♠✐t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡❛ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛ ❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡♥
❡❧ q✉❡ E < V (x)✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ② ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ s♦♥
♠❡❞✐❜❧❡s ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③ ❝♦♥ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ②✱ ❡♥ r✐❣♦r✱ t❛❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❡
♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❧❡② ❢ís✐❝❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ x ②
E ♥♦ s❡rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥❛
✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ E ② ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✳

❊♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✱ ❧♦s s✐❣♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ s✉

s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✱ ② ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❝♦♥✈❡①❛ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X✳
P❡r♦ s✐ ♥♦s ❝❡ñ✐♠♦s ❛ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✱ ❝✉②❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s✱
② ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛

Φ′′E

= 2M/~2 [V (x) − E] , ✭✾✳✶✷✮
ΦE

❡s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡✱ E > V (x)✱ ❧♦s s✐❣♥♦s ❞❡
❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ s✉ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ♦♣✉❡st♦s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❝ó♥❝❛✈❛ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ X✳ ❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧✐❣❛❞♦
♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛r ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✳
 ✾✳✶✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❉❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

• ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ V (x) ❡s ♣❛r [V (x) = V (−x)] ② Φ(x) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥

❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s Φ(x) = AΦ(−x)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ✭♣❛r❛ ✈❡r❧♦ ❜❛st❛ ❤❛❝❡r ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ x → −x
❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ s♦♥ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛s✱ ❡st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡
❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♣❛r s♦♥ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ♣❛r❡s
♦ ❜✐❡♥ ✐♠♣❛r❡s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ s✐ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t✉r♠ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❡s ♣❛r✱ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✱
❧❛ ❞❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ❡s ♣❛r ② ❛sí s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳
P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♣❛r ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
✭s✐ ❡s❡ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❡①✐st❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦✮ ❞❡❜❡♥ s❡r ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s✳
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ ❞❡❧
✶
❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s✱ ✉♥❛ ♣❛r ② ♦tr❛ ✐♠♣❛r✳

➓ ✺✳ ❘❛r❛ ✈❡③ s❡rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳
❯♥❛ ❡①❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ♥♦t❛❜❧❡ ❡s ❛q✉❡❧❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
❛ tr♦③♦s✳ ❊♥ ❝❛❞❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ V (x) = constante ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛
❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✾✳✻✮✳ ▲♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈♦s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛
③♦♥❛ s❡ ♣♦❞rá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛r ❡♥tr❡ sí ✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ② ❧❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ V (x) t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞✳
❊❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛ ❡❧ ♠ét♦❞♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✾✳❛✳ ✭✦✮ ❊♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s

❙♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❛❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧


 0 si x < 0

V (x) = −V0 si x ∈ (0, a) con V0 , W0 > 0


+W0 si x > a

❊st❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✐❞❡❛❧ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ ✉♥❛

❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ③♦♥❛s ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ δℓ ♠✉②

♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛s ❡♥ x=0 ② x = a✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ δℓ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ▲❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ ❡♥ x=0 ❡stá ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦

OX + ② ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ ❡♥ x=a t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✳

❛✮ ■♥❞✐q✉❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE (x) s✐ E > W0 ✳

✶
❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r ❡s ❛✉t♦♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❛r✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ E ∈ [0, W0 ]

❞✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s
② ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✳
❙✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❞♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞✐❜✉❥❡
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ s✉s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ❆♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣á❣✳ ✷✾✾✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦

❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ (W0 , +∞)✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ♦❝✉♣❛ ❡❧
r❛♥❣♦ [0, W0 ] ② ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s E1 , E2 , ... ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡stá♥ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦
(−V0 , 0)✳
❜✮ ❉✐✈✐❞❛♠♦s ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡❛❧ ❡♥ tr❡s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✾✲✷✮✱ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❝✉❛❧❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E > W0 ✱ ❧❛s tr❡s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s s♦♥
❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡s ②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
 √
 Aeikx + Be−ikx si x ≤ 0 con k = p2M E/~
ΦE (x) = FeiKx + Ge−iKx si x ∈ [0, a] con K =p 2M (E + V0 )/~

Ce+iqx + De−iqx si x ≥ a con q = 2M (E − W0 )/~.

❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡✐s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s✱ q✉❡ ❡st❛rá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❝✉❛tr♦
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛
❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s x = 0 ② x = a✳ ❈♦♥❝r❡t❛♠❡♥t❡✿
❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ❡♥ x = 0✿

ΦE (0− ) = ΦE (0+ ) ⇒ A + B = F + G.

❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ Φ′E (x) ❡♥ x = 0✿

Φ′E (0− ) = Φ′E (0+ ) ⇒ ikA − ikB = iKF − iKG.

❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ❡♥ x = a✿

ΦE (a− ) = ΦE (a+ ) ⇒ e+iKa F + e−iKa G = e+iqa C + e−iqa D.

❈♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ Φ′E (x) ❡♥ x = a✿

Φ′E (a− ) = Φ′E (a+ ) ⇒ iKe+iKa F − iKe−iKa G = iqeiqa C − iqe−iqa D.

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❝♦♥ s❡✐s
✐♥❝ó❣♥✐t❛s✱ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡s♦❧✈❡rs❡ s✐ ✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❞♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s q✉❡
❛❝tú❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✳ ◗✉❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❧✐❜r❡s
s❡❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❞♦s r❡✢❡❥❛ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❡s ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ r❛♥❣♦
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✳
 ✾✳✶✳ ❊❙P❊❈❚❘❖ ❉❊ ❊◆❊❘●❮❆❙ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✷✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛

❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✾✳❛✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ ❝✉á♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❡s s✉ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡❧
❡s♣❡❝tr♦ q✉❡ ❡st❡♠♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦

❝✮P❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, W0 ] ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x > a ❡s ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛ ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦

q✉❡
 √
 Aeikx + Be−ikx si x ≤ 0 con k = p2M E/~
ΦE (x) = FeiKx + Ge−iKx si x ∈ [0, a] con K =p 2M (E + V0 )/~

Ce+ηx + De−ηx si x ≥ a con η = 2M (W0 − E)/~.

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ΦE (x) ❤❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛r ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ x ≫ 0✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ C = 0✳

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛
❡♥ x = 0 ② x = a t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝✐♥❝♦ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s r❡st❛♥t❡s ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
ΦE (0− ) = ΦE (0+ ) : A+B=F+G
Φ′E (0− ) = Φ′E (0+ ) : ikA − ikB = iKF − iKG
ΦE (a− ) = ΦE (a+ ) : e +iKa
F + e−iKa G = e−ηa D
Φ′E (a− ) = Φ′E (a+ ) : iKe+iKa F − iKe−iKa G = −ηe−ηa D.

❊st❡ ❡s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❝✐♥❝♦ ✐♥❝ó❣♥✐t❛s✱ r❡s♦❧✉❜❧❡ s✐

✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ D✱ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♠♦ ú♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❡①✐st✐rá ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ s✐ ❡s❝♦❣❡♠♦s ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r r❡❛❧ ♣❛r❛ D✱
♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r q✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ F = G∗ ② q✉❡ A = B∗ ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡rá r❡❛❧✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❞✮❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ E ∈ (−V0 , 0) ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s x ≤ 0 ② x ≥ a s♦♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛s✳

■♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❝r❡③❝❛ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| ≫ 0 t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
 √
 Ae+κx + 0 e−κx si x ≤ 0 con κ = p−2M E/~
ΦE (x) = Fe+iKx + Ge−iKx si x ∈ [0, a] con K =p 2M (E + V0 )/~

0 e+ηx + De−ηx si x ≥ a con η = 2M (W0 − E)/~
② ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ x = 0 ② x = a ❝♦♥❞✉❝❡♥ ❛ q✉❡
ΦE (0− ) = ΦE (0+ ) : A=F+G
Φ′E (0− ) = Φ′E (0+ ) : κA = iKF − iKG
ΦE (a− ) = ΦE (a+ ) : e +iKa
F+e −iKa
G = e−ηa D
Φ′E (a− ) = Φ′E (a+ ) : iKe+iKa F − iKe−iKa G = −ηe−ηa D.

❊st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✐♥❝ó❣♥✐t❛s ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡
♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦
    
1 −1 −1 0 A 0
 κ −iK iK 0  F   0 
    
    
 0 e+iKa e−iKa −e−ηa  G  =  0 .
    
0 iKe+iKa −iKe−iKa ηe−ηa D 0

❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s✱ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r

t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ú♥✐❝❛ B = F = G = D = 0 ✭❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
♥✉❧❛✮ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ s✐ ❡❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ 4 × 4 ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛s
s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❡st❛rá♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡s

 1√
1 −1 −1 0 
 κ= −2M E

 ~
κ −iK iK 0 

1p
+iKa −iKa =0 con K= 2M (E + V0 )
0 e e −e−ηa 
 ~


iKe+iKa −iKe−iKa ηe−ηa  p
0  η = 1 2M (W0 − E).

~
❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❝❡r♦s ❛✐s❧❛❞♦s✱
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ ❝❡r♦ ② ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❡♥✉♠❡r❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧
❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✹ ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛
❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✾✲✸✳
❙✐ s❡ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✱ s❡ ✈❡ q✉❡ t♦♠❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡ ❝✉②❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛✳ ■♥❝❧✉s♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡
❝❛s♦ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡①tr❛❡r ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s✳
 ✾✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❩❖ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖ ❋■◆■❚❖

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✸✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ✭❡♥
✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✮ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✾✳❛ ✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❝❡r♦s✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❝❡r♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡

9.2✳ ❊▲ P❖❩❖ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖ ❋■◆■❚❖

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s

(
V0 si |x| > a/2
V (x) = con V0 > 0 ✭✾✳✶✸✮
0 si |x| < a/2

❞♦♥❞❡✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❤❡♠♦s s✐t✉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ x = 0✳ ❊st❛

❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✾✲✹ ②✱ ♣♦r ♠♦t✐✈♦s ❜❛st❛♥t❡
❝❧❛r♦s✱ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ V (x) ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❬❡♥❡r❣í❛❪ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡
✏♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞✑ V0 ② ✏❛♥❝❤✉r❛✑ a ✳✷
◆✉❡str♦ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ q✉❡ ❡stá ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (0, V0 )✳ ▲❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
❝♦♥ E > V0 ❝♦♥st✐t✉✐rá♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❝✉②❛s
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ s♦❧✐❝✐t❛rá♥ ❝♦♠♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳

❯♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ 0 < E < V0 ❞❡❜❡ ❞❡❝❛❡r ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡

❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| ≫ 0✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r

 p
 +ηx  2M (V0 − E)
si x ≤ −a/2 
 Ae
 
 η=
~
ΦE (x) = Fe+ikx + Ge−ikx si x ∈ [−a/2, a/2] con √

 
 2M E
De−ηx si x ≥ a/2 
 k=
~

✷
▼✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s✱ ♣♦r ❛❜✉s♦ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡✱ s❡ ✉s❛ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s✐♥ó♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡✱ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞✐✈✐❞✐❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✭❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✹✳ P♦③♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 ✳ ❙❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ❡❧ ❡sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s

❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧

② ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧

♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✾✳❛✳

❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ② s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧♦s

♣✉♥t♦s x = ±a/2 ❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❛ q✉❡

continuidad de ΦE en − a/2 : Ae−ηa/2 = e−ika/2 F + e+ika/2 G

continuidad de Φ′E en − a/2 : ηe−ηa/2 A = ike−ika/2 F − ike+ika/2 G
continuidad de ΦE en + a/2 : e−ηa/2 D = e+ika/2 F + e−ika/2 G
continuidad de Φ′E en + a/2 : −ηe−ηa/2 D = ike+ika/2 F − ike−ika/2 G

P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❤♦♠♦❣é♥❡♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✐♥❝ó❣♥✐t❛s t❡♥❣❛
s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❡❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝❡r♦✿

e−ηa/2 −e−ika/2 −e+ika/2 0

ηe−ηa/2 −ike−ika/2 ike+ika/2 0
= 0.
0 e+ika/2 e−ika/2 −e−ηa/2
0 ike+ika/2 −ike−ika/2 ηe−ηa/2

❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t❡✱ ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r

❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ (0, V0 ) ❡s

 p

 2M (V0 − E)

 η=
2kη ~
tan(ka) = , con √ ✭✾✳✶✹✮
k2 − η2 
 2M E

 k=
~
 ✾✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❩❖ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖ ❋■◆■❚❖

❯♥❛ ✈❡③ r❡s✉❡❧t❛ ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥✱❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E

♣❛r❛
❡✈❛❧✉❛rí❛♠♦s k ② η✳ A = 1✱ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s F
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦
′
② G ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ② ΦE (x) ❡♥ x = −a/2 ②✱
❛❝t♦ s❡❣✉✐❞♦✱ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ D ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ❡♥ x = +a/2✳ ▲❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛sí ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛ ♥♦ ❡st❛rá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛rí❛♠♦s
♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛✳

➓ ✷✳ ▲❛ ✈❡♥t❛❥❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝♦

②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r ❢á❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛
❞❡ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ s✐♠❜ó❧✐❝♦✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛s ✭q✉❡ ♥♦ ❤❡♠♦s
✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦✮ s♦♥ t❡❞✐♦s❛s ②✱ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦✱ ❡❧ ♠ét♦❞♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♥❛❞❛ ✐❧✉str❛t✐✈♦✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱
s✐ s♦♠♦s ❛st✉t♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ②✱
s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦✱ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠ás tr❛♥s♣❛r❡♥t❡✳

P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✿
✐✮ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ❡s r❡❛❧❀
✐✐✮ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♣❛r ♦ ✐♠♣❛r ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) ❡s ♣❛r❀
✐✐✐✮ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✳
❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s exp(+ikx) ② exp(−ikx)
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s cos(kx) ② sin(kx)✱
s✐ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❛ s✉s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ En ② Φn (x) ❝♦♥
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s



 Ae+ηx si x ≤ −a/2

Φn (x) = C × cos(kx) si x ∈ [−a/2, a/2] si n es par



Ae−ηx si x ≥ a/2
 ✭✾✳✶✺✮

 −Ae+ηx si x ≤ −a/2

Φn (x) = C × sin(kx) si x ∈ [−a/2, a/2] si n es impar



Ae−ηx si x ≥ a/2

●r❛❝✐❛s ❛ ❡st♦✱ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❢❛❧t❛ ✐♠♣♦♥❡r ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

② ❧❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = +a/2 ②❛ q✉❡✱ ❛✉t♦♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rá♥ ❞✐❝❤❛s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ x = −a/2✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

)
cos(ka/2) = Ae−ηa/2
si n es par
−k sin(ka/2) = −ηAe−ηa/2
)
sin(ka/2) = Ae−ηa/2
si n es impar.
k cos(ka/2) = −ηAe−ηa/2

❉✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛r❡❥❛ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡

s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ En ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s✿

  p
ka 
k tan =η si n es par 
 2M (V0 − En )
2  η=
~
  con √ ✭✾✳✶✻✮


ka  k = 2M En
k cot = −η si n es impar
2 ~

✸
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ✭✾✳✶✹✮✳ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s E0 , E2 , ...
② E1 , E3 , ... s♦♥ ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (0, V0 )✳
P❛r❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛r ❡❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧
β = M a2 V0 /(2~2 )✱ q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞❛t♦s ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✳ ❆sí✱
tr❛s s✉st✐t✉✐r η ② k ♣♦r s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s✱ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✾✳✶✻✮ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
❝♦♠♣❛❝t❛ ❝♦♠♦


√ √ √   En
εn tan βεn =
1 − εn si n es par  
 εn = V
0
√ √ √ con ✭✾✳✶✼✮
εn cot βεn = − 1 − εn si n es impar  

 M a 2 V0
β=
2~2
❯♥❛ ✈❡③ ❤❛❧❧❛❞❛s ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞❛s✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s k, η, A s❡rá♥


 ka

 e+ηa/2 cos (n par)
2p 2p 2
k= βεn ; η= β(1 − εn ) ; A = ✭✾✳✶✽✮
a a  +ηa/2
 ka
 e sin (n impar)
2

✸
❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞♦❜❧❡ ② tr❛s ✉♥❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛s✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡
q✉❡ t♦❞❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✾✳✶✹✮ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✭✾✳✶✻✮
 ✾✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❩❖ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖ ❋■◆■❚❖

1.0

0.8

1/2
0.6
(1- )

g(
0.4

h(
0.2

)
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✺✳ ❘❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦
✭β = 25✮

② ♣♦r s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✭✾✳✶✺✮ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡

♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ C s❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛rí❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✳

➓ ✸✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❝♦♥ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✾✳✶✼✮✳ ▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛✱ ♣❛r❛
n ♣❛r ② q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✱ s✐❡♠♣r❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s
✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r❧❛ ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❧❛s
√ √
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s (1 − ε)1/2 ② g(ε) ≡ ε tan βε ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ε ∈ (0, 1) ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s
❛❜s❝✐s❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❝♦rt❡ ♥♦s ❞❛rá♥ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t❛❧ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛
❋■●✳ ✾✲✺✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ (1 − ε)1/2 r❡❝♦rr❡ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❞❡s❞❡ ✶ ❤❛st❛ ❝❡r♦ ② g(ε) ❡♠♣✐❡③❛ ❛ t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝r❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❝❡r♦✱ ❧❛s
❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
❣rá✜❝❛s s❡ ❝♦rt❛rá♥ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥❛ ✈❡③✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛
❛❞♠✐t❡ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧✐❣❛❞♦✳
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♥♦ ❤❛② ❣❛r❛♥tí❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❤❛②❛ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦
√ √
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ n ✐♠♣❛r ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ h(ε) ≡ − ε cot βε ❡♠♣✐❡③❛ s✉ r❡❝♦rr✐❞♦ ❡♥
−∞ ② ♣✉❡❞❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❝♦rt❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ (1 − ε)
1/2 ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ε ∈ (0, 1)✳

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥

√ n ♣❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✾✳✶✼✮ ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r
✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❝❡r♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ tan βε ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, 1)✳ ❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱
❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥
√ n ✐♠♣❛r ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞✐rá ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❝❡r♦s ❞❡ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ cot βε ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛
♣❛r❛ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦s ❡♥t❡r♦s ❞❡ π ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝❡r♦ s✐ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡
t♦♠❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s π/2✱ 3π/2✱ 5π/2✱ ❡t❝✳ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

n=3

n=2

n=1

n=0

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✻✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s

❝✉❛tr♦ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❝♦♥ β = 25✳ ▲❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛r s✉ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥

❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 s❡rá

 √  r !
2 β 2M a2 V0
N = Int + 1 = Int +1 ✭✾✳✶✾✮
π π 2 ~2

❞♦♥❞❡ Int(u) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✏♣❛rt❡ ❡♥t❡r❛✑ q✉❡ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ s✐ u ∈ (0, 1]✱ ❛ 1 s✐
u ∈ (1, 2]✱ ❛ 2 s✐ u ∈ (2, 3]✱ ❡t❝✳
❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ β = 25✳ P❛r❛ ❤❛❝❡r♥♦s ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
ór❞❡♥❡s ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✱ s✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ (me c2 ≃ 511 KeV✮ ② a = 1 nm✱
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s V0 ≃ 3,8 eV✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s s❡rá
√ !
2 25
N = Int + 1 = Int(4,18 . . . ) = 4
π

② ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ ✭✾✳✶✼✮ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛rá ❝✉❛tr♦ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ✭❋✐❣✳ ✾✲✺✮✿

ε0 ≃ 0,07 ; ε1 ≃ 0,27 ; ε2 ≃ 0,59 ; ε3 ≃ 0,96.

❊♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✾✲✻ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρn (x) = |Φn (x)|2 ✳

❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡stá ♠ás ❝❡r❝❛♥❛ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❝rít✐❝♦ V0 ❧❛
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛
❛✉♠❡♥t❛✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ s♦♥ ♣❛r❡s ② ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦
❞❡ ♥♦❞♦s ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ n✳
 ✾✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❩❖ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖ ❋■◆■❚❖

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✾✳❜✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ✜♥✐t♦

❯♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ♣♦③♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ②
♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 = 4 ❡❱✳ ❙❡ s❛❜❡ q✉❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧✐❣❛❞♦ ❝✉②❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s E0 = 2 ❡❱✳

❛✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦✳

❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ Φ0 (x) ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✳
❝✮ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
❧♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✳
❞✮ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s Φ̃0 (p)✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❈❡♥tr❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡rá


 Ae+kx si x ≤ −a/2




 1√
Φ0 (x) = Φn (x) = C × cos(kx) si x ∈ [−a/2, a/2] con k = me V0

 ~




 Ae−kx si x ≥ a/2

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ E0 = V0 /2✳ P♦r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ Φ0 (x) ② ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥

x = a/2✱

cos (ka/2) = A exp(−ka/2) ; −k sin (ka/2) = −kA exp(−ka/2).

❉✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦

 
ka ka π π
tan =1 ⇒ = ⇒ k=
2 2 4 2a

✭♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦

♠ás ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✮✳ ❨❛ só❧♦ ❢❛❧t❛ ❞❡s♣❡❥❛r ② ♦♣❡r❛r✿

~2 k 2 V0 π 2 ~2 π~
E0 = ⇒ = ⇒ a= √ ≃ 0,46 Å
2me 2 8me a2 2 meV0

❜✮ ❈♦♠♦ k = π/(2a)✱ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡

eπ/4
A = exp(ka/2) cos(ka/2) = √
2
P❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ C ✐♠♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ Φ0 (x) ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✿
Z
1 = kΦ0 k2 ⇒ 1 = |C|2 |Φ0 (x)|2 dx
R
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

② ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ |Φ0 (x)|2 ❡s ♣❛r

Z (Z Z )
∞ a/2 ∞
2 2 2 2 eπ/2 −2kx
1 = 2|C| |Φ0 (x)| dx = 2|C| cos (kx)dx + e dx =
0 0 2 a/2

(Z Z )
a/2 ∞
2 πx
2 eπ/2 π+4
= 2|C| cos ( )dx + exp(−πx/a)dx = a|C|2 .
0 2a 2 a/2 2π
❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱
 π/4  
√ 
 e π|x|
2π  √ exp − si |x| ≥ a/2
2 2a
Φ0 (x) = √ ×  
a(π + 4)1/2 
 cos πx

si |x| ≤ a/2.
2a

❝✮ P❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❡❞✐❞❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛r |Φ0 (x)|2 s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✱ |x| ≥ a/2✳ ❈♦♠♦ |Φ0 (x)|2 ❡s ♣❛r✱
Z ∞ Z ∞

2 2πeπ/2 2
Pr |x| ≥ a/2 = 2 |Φ0 (x)| dx = e−πx/a dx =
a/2 (π + 4)a a/2 π+4
❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✷✽ ✪ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✳
❞✮ ▲❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡s
Z
1
Φ̃0 (p) = √ e−ipx/~ Φ0 (x) dx.
2π~ R

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛r ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❛♣r♦✈❡❝❤❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ Φ0 (x) ❡s ♣❛r✿

Z 0 Z ∞ 
1 −ipx/~ −ipx/~
Φ̃0 (p) = √ e Φ0 (−x) dx + e Φ0 (x) dx
2π~ −∞ 0

② ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ x → −x ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ q✉❡❞❛✱ q✉❡

r Z ∞  px 
2
Φ̃0 (p) = cos Φ0 (x) dx.
π~ 0 ~
P❛r❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❤❛❣❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ u = x/a ② ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ κ = ap/~✱
②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
r "Z Z #
1/2 ∞
2a2 eπ/4 −πu/2
Φ̃0 (p) = C× cos(κu) cos (πu/2) du + √ cos(κu)e du
π~ 0 2 1/2

② ♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦
√
4 2aπ 2 2κ sin(κ/2) − π cos(κ/2) ap
Φ̃0 (p) = p , con κ=
(π + 4)~ 16κ4 − π 4 ~
q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ κ ∈ (−5, 5)✳
 ✾✳✸✳ ❖❚❘❖❙ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

9.3✳ ❖❚❘❖❙ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

➓ ✶✳ ❙✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ V0 ≫ 0 ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡

❛ ❤❛❝❡r η = ∞ ❡♥ ✭✾✳✶✹✮✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s r❡❝✉♣❡r❛r ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
✐♥✜♥✐t♦ q✉❡ ②❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻✳ ▲❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✱ ❡s q✉❡ ❛q✉í ❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❡stá ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ② q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❛❞♦♣t❛❞♦
❡❧ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ ❞❡ ✏❝♦♥t❛r✑ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ n ❞❡s❞❡ n = 0✳ ❍❡❝❤❛ ❡st❛ s❛❧✈❡❞❛❞✱
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ s❡rá♥

  

 (n + 1)πx
r 
 cos si n es par
2  a
Φn (x) = ×   x ∈ [−a/2, +a/2] ✭✾✳✷✵✮
a   (n + 1)πx


 sin si n es impar
a

s✐❡♥❞♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦✱ ② s✉s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s♦♥

π 2 ~2
En = (n + 1)2 con n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ✭✾✳✷✶✮
2M a2
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❜✐❡♥ Φn (x) s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x = ±a/2 s✉ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛
②❛ ♥♦ ❧♦ ❡s✳ ❊st♦ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❡st♦s ♣✉♥t♦s✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ➓✽✳✶✳✷✳

➓ ✷✳ ❖tr♦ ❧í♠✐t❡ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❡s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞

V0 s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ②✱ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡
❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ aV0 ≡ γ ♣❡r♠❛♥❡❝❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ t♦♠❛r ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥
❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ x = ±∞ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧
r❛♥❣♦ E < 0 ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ✭❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✮ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r
t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s E > 0✳ ❙✐ r❡❝♦r❞❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s✿

V (x) = −a V0 δ(x) = −γ δ(x). ✭✾✳✷✷✮

❍❛② ❞♦s ❢♦r♠❛s ❞❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡st❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✳ ▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛✱ q✉❡ s❡rá ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛q✉í
s❡❣✉✐r❡♠♦s✱ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ V0 → ∞✱ a = γ/V0 ❞❡❧
♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦✳ ▲❛ ♦tr❛✱ ♠ás ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ♣r❡❝✐s❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛r ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇✱ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❇✳✺✮✳

❙✐ E ❡s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧✐❣❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡

❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ❧❛ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✾✳✶✹✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ ♥✉❡str♦ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡s ❞✐st✐♥t♦✱ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ k ② η

❡st❛rá♥ ❞❛❞♦s ♣♦r

1p 1√
k= 2M (E + V0 ) ; η= −2M E ✭✾✳✷✸✮
~ ~
②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❢♦♥❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❡stá ❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ −V0 ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ❝❡r♦✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❡s ♠✉② ❡str❡❝❤♦ ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ cos(kx) ♣♦r 1 − k 2 x2 /2 ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ sin(kx) ♣♦r kx✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛
♠❛♥❡r❛ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✾✳✶✹✮ s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡♥



 Ae+ηx si x ≤ −a/2


Φn (x) = C × k2 2
 1 − x si x ∈ [−a/2, a/2] si n es par

 2
 Ae−ηx si x ≥ a/2
✭✾✳✷✹✮

 +ηx
 −Ae si x ≤ −a/2
Φn (x) = C × kx si x ∈ [−a/2, a/2] si n es impar

 Ae−ηx si x ≥ a/2

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ Φn (x) ② s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = a/2 t❡♥❡♠♦s

q✉❡

k 2 a2 k2 a
1− = Ae−ηa/2 − = −Aηe−ηa/2 si n es par
8 2
ka
= Ae−ηa/2 k = −Aηe−ηa/2 si n es impar.
2
❉✐✈✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦

4k 2 a
= +η si n es par ✭✾✳✷✺✮
8 − k 2 a2
2
= −η si n es impar.
a
❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ a→0 ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ n ✐♠♣❛r ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ ❧♦ q✉❡
♥♦s ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡✿ s✐ ❤❛② ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✱ só❧♦
❤❛② ✉♥♦✱ ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ n = 0✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ s✐ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E0 ❡s ✜♥✐t❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛r E0 ❢r❡♥t❡ ❛ V0
❡♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✾✳✷✸✮ ♣❛r❛ k✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✾✳✷✺✮✱

1p 4M V0 a 1p
k≃ 2M V0 ⇒ = −2M E0 .
~ 4~2 − M V0 a 2 ~
 ✾✳✸✳ ❖❚❘❖❙ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ aV0 = γ ❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ V0 a2 = γa t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳ ◗✉❡❞❛ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ q✉❡

Mγ p M γ2
= −2M E0 ⇒ E0 = − ✭✾✳✷✻✮
~ 2~2
q✉❡ t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ✜♥✐t♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❛❜í❛♠♦s s✉♣✉❡st♦✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ②❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
❧í♠✐t❡ a → 0✱ s❡rá

1p
Φ0 (x) = A exp(−η|x|), −2M E0 = M γ/~2 ,
con η = ✭✾✳✷✼✮
~
√
❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ η ✭➼❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦✦✮✳ ◆ót❡s❡
q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x = 0✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧
❝❛rá❝t❡r s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ♣✉♥t♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✾✳❝✳ ❊❧ ♣♦③♦ s❡♠✐✲✐♥✜♥✐t♦

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s

 ∞ si x < 0

V (x) = 0 si x ∈ (0, a) con V0 > 0, ✭✾✳✷✽✮


V0 si x > a

② s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ♣♦③♦ s❡♠✐✲✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡

❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 ✳

❛✮ ■♥❞✐q✉❡ ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳
❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ M, a, V0 ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦✳
❞✮ ❙✐ V0 = 1 ❡❱ ② M a2 V0 /(2~2 ) = 12,5✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳
❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿
❛✮ ❉❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (0, V0 )✳ ❊❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡s σ c = [V0 , ∞), s✐❡♥❞♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♥♦

❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛s✳

❜✮ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧❛s s✐ x ≤ 0✳ ❙✐ E ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦

♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ΦE (x) ❡s r❡❛❧ ② q✉❡ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ❡♥ x = 0✱


 1√
 sin(kx) si x ∈ [0, a] ; k= 2M E
ΦE (x) = A × ~ ✭✾✳✷✾✮

 D exp(−ηx) 1p
si x ≥ a ; η= 2M (V0 − E)
~
❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❝✮ ▲❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x = 0 ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✐❞❛❞

❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ x = a t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r❧♦✳ ❊st♦
❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡ )
sin(ka) = D exp(−ηa) k
⇒ tan(ka) = − .
k cos(ka) = −ηD exp(−ηa) η
▲❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡
r ! r
2M a2 E
tan E =− con E ∈ (0, V0 ).
~2 V0 − E

■♥tr♦❞✉③❝❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ β = M a2 V0 /(2~2 ) ② ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ε = E/V0 ✳ ▲❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
r
p ε E
tan 4βε = − con ε = ∈ (0, 1). ✭✾✳✸✵✮
1−ε V0

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ r❡❝♦rr❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (0, −∞)✱ √

❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s
N s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ❞❡ r❛♠❛s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛s q✉❡ t♦♠❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ tan 4βε ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ 0 < ε < 1✳
❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ tan u ❡s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ u ∈ (π/2, π)✱ u ∈ (3π/2, 2π)✱ u ∈ (5π/2, 3π)√ ✱
❡t❝✳ ② ❡❧ ♠á①✐♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r q✉❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✭✾✳✸✵✮ ❡s 2 β ✱
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ r !
 √ 
2 β 1 2M a2 V0 1
N = Int + = Int + ✭✾✳✸✶✮
π 2 π 2 ~2 2
✭❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♣♦③♦ s✐♠étr✐❝♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✾✳✶✾✮✳
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ só❧♦ ❡①✐st✐rá♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s s✐
r
2M a2 V0 1 π 2 ~2
2 2
+ >1 ⇒ V0 a 2 > .
π ~ 2 8M
❆ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♣✉❡s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦✱ q✉❡ s✐❡♠♣r❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❧✐❣❛❞♦✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r q✉❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ s❡♠✐✲✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦ ❡str❡❝❤♦ ✭✜❥❛❞♦ V0 ✮ ♦
✐♥s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞♦ ✭✜❥❛❞♦ a✮ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♥✜♥❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

❞✮ ❈♦♠♦ β = 12,5✱ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❡s

r
√ ε √ √ √
tan 50ε = − ⇒ g(ε) ≡ 1 − ε tan 50ε = − ε.
1−ε
❯s❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♠ét♦❞♦ ❣rá✜❝♦ ♠♦str❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✾✲✼✳ ❱❡♠♦s q✉❡
❤❛② ❞♦s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s E0 = 0,15 eV ② E1 = 0,59 ❡❱✳ P❛r❛
❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛rí❛♠♦s k✱ η ② D = sin(ka) exp(ηa)✳ ▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡stá♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
❋■●✳ ✾✲✼✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

0.00 1.5

( ) (unid. arb.)
1.0

-0.25
g( )
0.5
n=0
-0.50 0.0

1/2 -0.5
n=1

x
-0.75

n
-1.0

-1.00 -1.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

x /a

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✾✲✼✳ ❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

√ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡√❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ s❡♠✐✲✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ✭♣❛♥❡❧
✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦✱ g(ε) = 1 − ε tan 50ε✮ ② ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Φ0 (x) ② Φ1 (x) ❡♥ ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s ✭♣❛♥❡❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦✮

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✶✳ ❊str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ ❝✉②❛

❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s

V0 a 2
V (x) = − con V0 = 10 eV , a = 0,5 nm
x2 + a2
❘❡s♣♦♥❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s✿

❛✮ ➽❊♥ q✉é r❛♥❣♦ ❡stá♥ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s❄

❜✮ P❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧✐❣❛❞♦✱ ➽❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧❄

➽❨ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥❄

❝✮ P❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ② ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ és❡ ❡s ✉♥❛

❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ➽♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛s❡❣✉r❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r

❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦❄

❞✮ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❢✉❡s❡

 2
 − V0 a

si x ≤ 0
V (x) = x2 + a 2

 2
−V0 × (1 − (x/a) ) si x ≥ 0

➽❝✉á❧ s❡rí❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦

❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥❄
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✷✳ Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦

❯♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ♥♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ ❝✉②❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ lı́m|x|→∞ V (x) = 0✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s

A
Ψ (x, t) = exp (−iEt/~)
cosh (x/a0 )
❞♦♥❞❡ a0 ≃ 0,52 Å ❡s ❡❧ r❛❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r ② A ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳

❛✮ ❊❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡stá ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✱ ➽♣♦r q✉é❄

❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❛♥❛❧✐❝❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| ≫ 0✳
❝✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ➽❉❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦❄
Z +∞ Z +∞
1 u2 π2
❆②✉❞❛s✿ du = 2 ; du = ✳
−∞ cosh2 u −∞ cosh2 u 6

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✸✳ ❊♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ♣♦③♦s ✜♥✐t♦s ❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 ✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ s✐ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛♠♦s s✉s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞❡ ✉♥
♣♦③♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a s♦❜r❡❡st✐♠❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✹✳ ❊♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦

❈♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✶✱ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡
s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ Fx (x) = −M ω 2 x2
✭♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✮ s♦♥ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s ② ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
1


En = n + 2 ~ω con n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

❉❡♥♦t❡♠♦s ♣♦r φn (x) ❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s✳

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
X∞
ζn
Ψζ (x) = A √ φn (x) con ζ ∈ C
n=0 n!

s✐❡♥❞♦ A ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❍❛❧❧❡✱ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ζ

② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ✐❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r E < 2~ω ✳

X∞ X∞ X∞
an nan n2 a n
❆②✉❞❛s ✿ = ea ; = aea ; = a(1 + a)ea
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
n!
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✺✳ ❊♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ♣✉♥t♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s

■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧✐❜r❡♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥✜♥❛❞❛ ❞❡♥tr♦
❞❡ ✉♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❡♣í♣❡❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s bx × by × bz ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ bx = by ≡ b = 1 nm✳
❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ bz ❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❡s ♥♦
❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✳
❜✮ ❙❡ñ❛❧❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ bz ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ❡s✿ ✐✮ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦❀ ✐✐✮
t✐❡♥❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞♦s ✭❞♦❜❧❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✮❀ ✐✐✐✮ t✐❡♥❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ tr❡s ✭tr✐♣❧❡
❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✮✳
❝✮ ❉❡s❡❛♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥ ♥❛♥♦❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❝♦♥ ❡st❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❞✐❡③
♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡❛♥ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s✳ ➽P❛r❛ q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ bz s❡rá
❡st♦ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡❄
√
❞✮ ❙✐ bz = 2b ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s
❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✻✳ ❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣❛r✐❞❛❞

❊♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥
❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ Π̂ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥
Π̂Ψ(x) = Ψ(−x),

❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Π̂ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❡❧ s✐❣♥♦ ❞❡ s✉ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ Π̂ ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝♦ ✭❝♦♠♦ s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡s t♦❞♦ L2 (R)✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✮✳
❜✮ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ s✉ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❡s ♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ σ p = (−1, +1)✳ ➽❈✉á❧❡s
s❡rí❛♥ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s❄
❝✮ ❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♣❛r✱ V (x) = V (−x)✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ② ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ Ĥ
t✉✈✐❡s❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ♥♦ ✈❛❝í♦ ♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ {Ĥ, Π̂} ❡s ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈
❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✼✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ♣♦③♦
❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❝❡♥tr❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✳ ❊♥ ❡❧
✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
1 1
Ψ(x, 0) = √ Φ0 (x) + √ Φ1 (x),
2 2
❞♦♥❞❡ Φn (x) ❡s ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❙❡ ♣✐❞❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r✿

❛✮ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ Ψ(x, t) ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❜✮ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ hxit ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ x ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ hpx it ✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✳
❝✮ ▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x, t) ② ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
Jx (x, t)✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞✳

❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛s✿ ❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡✈✐t❛r ❤❛❝❡r ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s
✐♥♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛s✳
Z +1/2 Z +1/2
8 2
❆②✉❞❛s✿ u cos(πu) sin(2πu) du = ✱ cos(πu) cos(2πu) du =
−1/2 9π 2 −1/2 3π
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✽✳ ❊①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ sú❜✐t❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦
❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦
✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ L✳ ❙ú❜✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛ ❧❛ ♣❛r❡❞ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦✱ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡
s✉ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ s❡ ❞♦❜❧❛✳ ❙✐ En ❡s ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♥✉❡✈♦ ♣♦③♦ ✭ n = 0, 1, 2, ...✮✱
♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❧❛
❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛✿
✐✮ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ E0 ❀
✐✐✮ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E1 ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✾✳ ❊st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❛s✐♠étr✐❝♦

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧


 V si x < 0
 0
V (x) = 0 si 0 < x < a con V0 > 0


 2V0 si x > a

❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦✳

❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡✱ ❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ s✐♠étr✐❝♦✱ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛
❝rít✐❝❛ acrit t❛❧ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❤❛② ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s s✐ a < acrit ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✶✵✳ ✭✯✮ ❯♥ ♣♦③♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ② ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧t❛

❯♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

 ∞ si |x| > a/2
V (x) = con γ > 0
 γδ(x) si |x| < a/2

❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐♣♦ ❞❡❧t❛
s✐t✉❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❝♦♥ n = 1, 2, 3, ... ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞❛s
♣♦r
π 2 ~2
En = (n + 1)2 ,
2me a2
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ n = 0, 2, 4, ... s♦♥ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡
kn a 1 1p
kn cot = − γ2 con kn = 2me En .
2 2 ~
❆♥❛❧✐❝❡ q✉é ♦❝✉rr❡ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s γ → 0 ② γ → ∞✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✾✳✶✶✳ ✭✦✮ ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ❝❛♠♣♦s ❝❡♥tr❛❧❡s

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ q✉❡
❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (r)✳ ❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✽✳✺✱ {Ĥ, L̂2 , L̂z } ❡s
✉♥ ❈❈❖❈ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
(
ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ...
ΦE,ℓ,m (r) = RE,ℓ (r)Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) , con
m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ

q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡❧ ❈❈❖❈ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈♦s E ✱ ℓ(ℓ +
1)~2 ② m~✳ ❙✐ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛

uE,ℓ (r) = rRE,ℓ (r) , con r ∈ [0, ∞)

ést❛ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛

 
~2 d2
− + Vℓ (r) uE,ℓ (r) = EuE,ℓ (r)
2M dr2
❞♦♥❞❡ 
 ∞ si r < 0
Vℓ (r) = 2
 V (r) + ℓ(ℓ + 1)~ si r ≥ 0.
2M r2
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ V (r) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ V∞ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r ≫ 0 ② q✉❡ Vmı́n
❡s ❡❧ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ V (r)✳

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✱ ❞❡ ❡①✐st✐r✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ Ĥ ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦

[Vmı́n , V∞ ]✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡s [V∞ , +∞)✳ ■♥❞✐q✉❡ s♦♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡
❝ó♠♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡✱ s❛❧✈♦
❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❝❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧ ✭✈❡❛ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ➓✽✳✺✳✺✮✱ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s
❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❡s 2ℓ + 1✳ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s
❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦❄
❜✮ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ lı́mr→0 [r2 V (r)] = 0✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ RE,ℓ (r) ∝ rℓ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r ∼ 0✳
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥
♦♥❞❛ s ✭ℓ = 0✮ s♦♥ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❡♥ r = 0✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ▲■●❆❉❖❙ ❊◆ P❖❩❖❙ ❈❯❆❉❘❆❉❖❙

❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦ ✭ r ≫ 0✮ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s RE,ℓ (r)✱

❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❝❛s♦s E ∈ σ p (H) ② E ∈ σ c (H)✳
❞✮ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s
(
−V0 si r ∈ [0, a]
V (r) = con V0 > 0
0 si r > a

❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ♣❛r❛ q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ℓ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♥♦
❡①✐st❡♥ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s✳
 ❚❡♠❛ ✶✵
❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s

❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s s✐♠♣❧❡s✳ ❚r❛s ✉♥❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛
s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s s✉ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛✱ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛r❡♠♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥✐❞❛❞ ❝r❡❝✐❡♥t❡✱ ♣r❡st❛♥❞♦ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦
❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ② ❛❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ✉♥❛s ✶✺ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧✱ q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ❞❡❞✐❝❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❜✉❡♥❛

♣❛rt❡ ❛ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❝❛s♦s ❡①♣✉❡st♦s ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ t❡♠❛ ② ❛ ❧❛
❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳

❊❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✏r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s✑✱ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❡s ✉♥

❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✳ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❛❧✉♠♥♦ ❧♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛✱ ❞❡❜❡ ❝❡♥tr❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❧♦s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s
❢ís✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✱ ♣r❡st❛♥❞♦ ♠✉❝❤❛ ♠❡♥♦s ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧♦s ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s
✭❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❛❧❧í ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥✱ ❛✉♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛s✱ s♦♥ ♠✉② t❡❞✐♦s❛s ② só❧♦
s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❤❛❝❡r ❡♥ ✉♥ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣r✉❞❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛s ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦r ❞❡
❝á❧❝✉❧♦ s✐♠❜ó❧✐❝♦✮✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❙❛❜❡r ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ❡❧ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ② s❛❜❡r

♦❜t❡♥❡r❧♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s
❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥✳

❉♦♠✐♥❛r ❧❛ té❝♥✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧

❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s s✐♠♣❧❡s✳

❋❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ② s✉s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✱

❡st✐♠❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇✳

❈♦♥♦❝❡r q✉é ❡s ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ② s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

10.1✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♠♦ ②❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ❧❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

❡s ✉♥ r❡q✉✐s✐t♦ ♣r❡✈✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛s s❡ ♣r❡✜❡r❡ ❛ ✈❡❝❡s ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡st❡
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✳ ❆✉♥ ❛sí✱
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ t❡♥❞rá♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥
❢ís✐❝❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ♣❡r s❡✳
❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❜❛❥♦ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F (x) ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s s✐t✉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡
❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ V (x) = 0 s✐ x ≪ 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①✐st✐r ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ (−V0 , 0]✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥✉❡str♦ ✐♥t❡rés ❡♥
❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s♦♥ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥✱ ❝✉②❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡st❛rá♥ ❡♥
❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (0, V+ ) ✭❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✮ ② ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ (V+ , ∞) ✭❡s♣❡❝tr♦
❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✮✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ ✉❜✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ 0 ② V+ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
❞❡♣❡♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛rá ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s q✉❡
✈❛♠♦s ❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r✳ ❊st✉❞✐❡♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦✳

➓ ✷✳ E ∈ (0, V+ )✳ ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✳

❙✐ ΦE (x) ❡s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ∈ (0, V+ )✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❛♥t❡r✐♦r q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s r❡❛❧ ② ú♥✐❝❛ ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛
✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✮✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛✱

 √

 ikx ∗ −ikx 2M E
 Ae + A e
 si x ≪ 0 con k =
~
ΦE (x) = p ✭✶✵✳✶✮



 De−qx 2M (V+ − E)
si x ≫ 0 con q =
~

s✐❡♥❞♦ D ✉♥ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ r❡❛❧✳ ❊①♣r❡s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ A ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣♦❧❛r✱ A =

|A| exp(iδ)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ |A| ❡s ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡ A ② δ s✉ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✱ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s
❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ✭✶✵✳✶✮ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

 2|A| cos(kx + δ) si x ≪ 0
ΦE (x) = ✭✶✵✳✷✮

De−qx si x ≫ 0.
❊♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x ≪ 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ΦE (x, t) t♦♠❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✱ 2|A| cos(kx + δ) exp(−iωt)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ω = E/~ ❡s s✉ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❈♦♠♦
 ✶✵✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✶✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡

ΦE (x) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥
✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧

♠♦str❛♠♦s ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✱ ❡st❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛

❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s✱ A exp[i(kx − ωt)] ② A∗ exp[i(−kx − ωt)]✱ q✉❡
s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛♥ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦s ♦♣✉❡st♦s✳

❊♥x ≫ 0✱ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ΦE (x, t) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♠♦rt✐❣✉❛❞❛ ♦

❡✈❛♥❡s❝❡♥t❡ D exp(−qx) exp(−iωt)✳

❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻✱ ΦE (x, t) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ✐❞❡❛❧

❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐rr❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✿ ❛q✉é❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❛❝tú❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
F (x) E
❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ♠✉②
♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✱ ∆H → 0✳ ❆sí✱ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ΦE (x, t)
♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ Ψ(x, t) ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞✉r❛♥t❡
✉♥ ❧❛♣s♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ✭q✉❡ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ q✉❡ t ∼ 0✮
❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s✉❢r❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F (x)✳ ▼ás
❝♦♥❝r❡t❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ❧♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛
❝♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s Ψ(x, t) s❡❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❧❛
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ F (x) ❡s ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ♠✉② ❛♠♣❧✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = 0 s❡rá ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡

Ψcol (x, t) ≃ ΦE (x)e−iEt/~ para t∼0 ✭✶✵✳✸✮

❬❝♦♥ ❡❧ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ ✏❝♦❧✑ ✐♥❞✐❝❛♠♦s q✉❡ ♥♦s ❡st❛♠♦s r❡✜r✐❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧

✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐♦♥❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ q✉❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
F (x)❪✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❙✐ ❛t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ Φcol (x, t)✱ ✈❡♠♦s ❡♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧✉❣❛r q✉❡
❞❡❜❡ t❡♥❞❡r ❛ ❝❡r♦ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ x ❛✉♠❡♥t❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣✉❡ ❤❛❝✐❛ x = +∞✳ Φcol (x, t) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧
❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡ x = −∞ ❛ ❝❛✉s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F (x)✳
❊♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✶✮✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❛s✐♥tót✐❝❛ ✭♣❛r❛ x ≪ 0✮ A exp[i(kx−ωt)]
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡ −∞ ❤❛❝✐❛
❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡①✐st❡
∗
❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ A exp[i(−kx − ωt)] ❡stá ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛
❛ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ tr❛s s❡r r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛✳

◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛

❞❡ ❡st❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡❜❡ ❤❛❝❡rs❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛s Ψ(x, t) r❡❣✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❙✐♥
❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s s♦♠❡r♦ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡✿

• s✐ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ∈ (0, V√

+ ) ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡
x = −∞ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ px = ~k = 2M E ✱ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(x, t)
✭❛♥t❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❡♠♣✐❡❝❡ ❛ ❛❝t✉❛r s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✮ s❡rá ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛
A exp[i(kx − ωt)] ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
x ≪ 0✿
Ψin (x, t) ≃ Aeikx e−iEt/~ en x ≪ 0 para t ≪ 0. ✭✶✵✳✹✮

• ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❤❛ ❛❝t✉❛❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ést❛ r❡t♦r♥❛rá ❤❛❝✐❛ x =
−∞ ❞❡s♣❧❛③á♥❞♦s❡ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ px = −~k ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
s❡rá ♦tr❛ ♦♥❞❛ ♣❧❛♥❛ ♠♦❞✉❧❛❞❛ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ −k ✿

Ψfin (x, t) ≃ A∗ e−ikx e−iEt/~ en x ≪ 0 para t ≫ 0 ✭✶✵✳✺✮

②✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s

❡s ❝✉❛❧✐t❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳

❘❡❝❛❧q✉❡♠♦s ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ só❧♦ s✐ ∆H ❡s

s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✳

➓ ✸✳ E > V+ ✳ ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✳

▲♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s♦♥ ❛❤♦r❛


 1√

 Ae+ikx + Be−ikx con k = 2M E si x ≪ 0
~
ΦE (x) = ✭✶✵✳✻✮
 Ce+iqx + De−iqx con q = 1 p2M (E − V ) si x ≫ 0

 +
~
 ✶✵✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s (A, B) ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s (C, D) ❛ tr❛✈és
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③✿ ! ! !
A t11 t12 C
= .
B t21 t22 D
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ s✐ ΦE (x) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s s✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛
❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛
 ∗ +ikx
 B e + A∗ e−ikx si x ≪ 0
Φ∗E (x) =

D∗ e+iqx + C∗ e−iqx si x ≫ 0
② ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s (B∗ , A∗ ) s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♠❛tr✐③ T ❛ ❧❛ ❞✉♣❧❛
(D∗ , C∗ )✳ ❊st♦ ❡s
! ! ! ! ! !
B∗ t11 t12 D∗ A t∗22 t∗21 C
= ⇒ = ,
A∗ t21 t22 C∗ B t∗12 t∗11 D

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❧❧❡❣❛❞♦ ❛❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ tr❛s t♦♠❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦s ②

r❡♦r❞❡♥❛r tér♠✐♥♦s✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ q✉❡

t11 = t∗22 ≡ aE ; t21 = t∗12 ≡ rE .

P♦r ú❧t✐♠♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✭❝❢r✳ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✾✳✶✳✷✮
 
i~ dΦ∗E (x) ∗ dΦE (x)
ΦE (x) − ΦE (x) = constante ✭✶✵✳✼✮
2M dx dx
② ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x)✱ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s A✱B✱C ② D
❞❡❜❡♥ ♦❜❡❞❡❝❡r ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥



|A|2 − |B|2 k = |C|2 − |D|2 q. ✭✶✵✳✽✮

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s (A, B) ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ (C, D) t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

|aE C + r∗E D|2 − |rE C + a∗E D| 2
k = |C|2 − |D| 2
q ⇒



q
⇒ |aE |2 − |rE |2 |C|2 − |D|2 = |C|2 − |D|2 ⇒ |aE |2 − |rE |2 = q/k.
k
❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s q✉❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E > V+ ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛
s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧✿

! ! !
A aE r∗E C q
= con |aE |2 − |rE |2 = . ✭✶✵✳✾✮
B rE a∗E D k
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✷✳ ❉✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥✴tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E tr❛s ✐♥❝✐❞✐r ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F (x)✳ ❙❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥
❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s

❙✐ E > V+ ✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r

E t✐❡♥❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞♦s✳ ❆sí✱ ❞❡ ❡♥tr❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE (x)
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r❡♠♦s t❛♥ só❧♦ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❝❛s♦s D = 0 ② A = 0✱
❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛r❡♠♦s r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ΦE,→ (x) ② ΦE, (x)✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
♥♦ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s✱ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rá ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s✳ ❊❧ ♠♦t✐✈♦
♣♦r ❡❧ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡rá ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳

• P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE,→ (x) t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✭✶✵✳✾✮ s❡ r❡❞✉❝❡ ❛

! ! !
A aE r∗E C 1 rE
= ⇒ C= A ; B= A
B rE a∗E 0 aE aE

② ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦s ✭✶✵✳✻✮ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s♦♥

 rE −ikx

 e+ikx + e si x ≪ 0

 aE
ΦE,→ (x) = A × ✭✶✵✳✶✵✮

 1 +iqx

 e si x ≫ 0.
aE

❊❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ A ❡s ❛q✉í ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s

aE ② rE ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E✳
 ✶✵✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆✳ ■◆❚❊❘P❘❊❚❆❈■Ó◆ ❋❮❙■❈❆

❙✐ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛♠♦s ❡st❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s ✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡

❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ΦE,→ (x, t) ❡st❛rá ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡ x ≪ 0 ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ~k ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳
✶✵✲✷✮✳ P❛r❛ t ≪ 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(x, t) ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦
❝✉♠♣❧✐rá q✉❡

Ψin (x, t) ≃ Aeikx e−iωt en x ≪ 0 para t ≪ 0 ✭✶✵✳✶✶✮

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡✱ tr❛s s✉❢r✐r ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F (x)✱

 r
 E −i(kx+ωt)

 e en x ≪ 0
 aE
Ψfin (x, t) ≃ A × para t ≫ 0 ✭✶✵✳✶✷✮

 1 +i(qx−ωt)

 e en x ≫ 0
aE

❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ ❤❛ ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞♦✱ ❞✐✈✐❞✐é♥❞♦s❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛

♦♥❞❛ r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛ ② ❡♥ ♦tr❛ tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞❛✱ ❝✉②❛s ♣❛rt❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥

rE −ikx
Φrefl (x) = Ae en x ≪ 0
aE
✭✶✵✳✶✸✮
1
Φtran (x) = Ae+iqx en x ≫ 0.
aE
❊①✐st❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛✱ rE /aE ✱ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❣r❡s❡ ❛
x ≪ 0 ➼❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❡♥tr❡+∞ ② −∞✦
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✻✳✷✻✮✮✱ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ Φin (x)✱ ❡s

 
i~ dΦ∗in (x) ∗ dΦin (x) ~k 2
Jin (x) ≃ Φin (x) − Φin (x) = |A| en x ≪ 0 ✭✶✵✳✶✹✮
2M dx dx M
②✱ ❞❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛ ② tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞❛ s♦♥

2 2
~k rE ~q 1
Jrefl = − A ; Jtran = + A . ✭✶✵✳✶✺✮
M aE M aE

❙✐ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ~k ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡
x ≪ 0✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Jin s❡rá ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ t❛❧ ❤❛③ ✭♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s q✉❡ ❛tr❛✈✐❡s❛♥ ✉♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✮✳ Jrefl ② Jtran t❡♥❞rí❛♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ♣❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❤❛❝❡s r❡✢❡❥❛❞♦ ② tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❊st❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ s❡ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧♦s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡
r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥

Jrefl Jtran
R(E) = ; T (E) = . ✭✶✵✳✶✻✮
Jin Jin

P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE,→ (x)✱

Jrefl |rE |2
R(E) = =
Jin |aE |2
✭✶✵✳✶✼✮
Jtran q 1 |rE |2
T (E) = = = 1 −
Jin k |aE |2 |aE |2

✭❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ |aE |2 − |rE |2 = q/k ✮ ②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

R(E) + T (E) = 1. ✭✶✵✳✶✽✮

❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ❧ó❣✐❝♦✿ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❤❛③ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛
❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❤❛❝❡s r❡✢❡❥❛❞♦ ② tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞♦ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦
s❡ ❡st❛rí❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❛❜s♦r❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡
❛❝tú❛ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F (x)✱ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡st❛♠♦s ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦✳ ▲❛
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ✭✶✵✳✼✮✱ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛
  
d i~ dΦ∗E (x) ∗ dΦE (x)
ΦE (x) − ΦE (x) = 0,
dx 2M dx dx
♣✉❡❞❡ ❛sí ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❡♥ ✉♥
ré❣✐♠❡♥ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✳

• ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE,← (x)✱ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ A=0 ❡♥ ✭✶✵✳✾✮✱ ❡stá ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r✿


 q 1 −ikx

 e si x ≪ 0
 k aE
ΦE,← (x) = D× ✭✶✵✳✶✾✮

 r∗

 − E e+iqx + e−iqx si x ≫ 0
aE

❙✉ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡s ♠✉② s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ΦE,→ (x)✱ só❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ −q~ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡s❞❡ x ≫ 0✳
 ✶✵✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲ ❊❙❈❆▲Ó◆

▲❛s ♣❛rt❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s ② ❧❛s ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✱ r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛ ② tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞❛ ❡st❛rá♥ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r

~q
Φin (x) = De−iqx Jin = − |D|2 en x ≫ 0
M
2
−r∗E +iqx ~q rE
Φrefl (x) = De Jrefl = |D|2 en x ≫ 0 ✭✶✵✳✷✵✮
aE M aE

1 q −ikx ~k  q 2 1 2
Φtran (x) = De Jtran = − |D|2 en x ≪ 0
aE k M k aE
❊s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥
❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❝♦♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ♦❜t✉✈✐❡r♦♥ ❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ✭✶✵✳✶✼✮ ♣❛r❛
❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE,→ (x)✳ ❊st❛ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✭✜❥❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❞❡ R ② T ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❞ó♥❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✮ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛rá ❡♥♦r♠❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧
❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ♠✉❝❤♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s✳

➓ ✹✳ ▲❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡

❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
ΦE (x) ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦✳ ❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥
❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✷✱ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ② r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛
s♦♥
Φin (x) = Ae+ikx
en x ≪ 0
Φrefl (x) = A∗ e−ikx
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛s s♦♥

~k 2 ~k ∗ 2 ~k
Jin = |A| ; Jrefl = − |A | = − |A|2 .
M M M
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ |Jin | = |Jrefl | ② ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✏tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞❛✑ ♥♦ ❡s t❛❧ s✐♥♦ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♠♦rt✐❣✉❛❞❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

Φtran (x) = De−ηx en x ≫ 0

② ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧❛✿ Jtran = 0✳ ❊❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡

tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳

10.2✳ ❊▲ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲ ❊❙❈❆▲Ó◆

➓ ✶✳ ❉❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♣r✐♠❡r❛

❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✱ s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❛❝tú❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ F = −F ux ✱ ♣❡r♦ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡

❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ③♦♥❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ δa ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
♦r✐❣❡♥✳ ❙✐ δa ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥

 V+ si x ≥ 0
V (x) = con V+ = F δa

0 si x < 0

✭❡❧ ♣♦rq✉é ❞❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❡s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡✮✳

❊❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝❛r❡❝❡ ❞❡ ♣❛rt❡ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✳ ▲❛ ♣❛rt❡

❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ (0, V+ ] ② ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ❡s (V+ , ∞)✳
❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦ ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❊st✉❞✐❡♠♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ 0 < E ≤ V+ ✳

P❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ 0 < E ≤ V+ t❡♥❡♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱
♥♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ x ≤ 0 s✉ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s
√
ikx −ikx 2M E
ΦE (x) = Ae + Be con k = si x ≤ 0
~
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ x ≥ 0✱ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✱
p
2M (V+ − E)
ΦE (x) = De−ηx con η = si x ≥ 0.
~
▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ② s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛s ❡♥ x = 0✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛

ΦE (0− ) = ΦE (0+ ) ⇒ A + B = D

Φ′E (0− ) = Φ′E (0+ ) ⇒ ik(A − B) = −ηD

♦❜t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❛sí ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r A ② B ❡♥

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ D✿    
1 iη 1 iη
A= 1+ D ; B= 1− D.
2 k 2 k
◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ B = A∗ s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s q✉❡ D s❡❛ r❡❛❧✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛s
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛✿
    

 1 iη +ikx 1 iη
 1+ e + 1− e−ikx si x ≤ 0
2 k 2 k
ΦE (x) = D ×


 −ηx
e si x ≥ 0.
 ✶✵✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲ ❊❙❈❆▲Ó◆

❙✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ r❡❡s❝r✐❜❛♠♦s ΦE (x)

✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣♦❧❛r ❞❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ A✱

A = |A|eiδ ,

❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡

r r r
D η2 D V+ η V+ − E
|A| = 1+ 2 = , δ = arctan = arctan
2 k 2 E k E

② ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡



 cos (kx + δ) si x ≤ 0

ΦE (x, t) ∝ e−iωt × r

 E
 exp (−ηx) si x ≥ 0
V+
√ p r
E 2M E 2M (V+ − E) V+ − E
con ω = , k= , η= , δ = arctan .
~ ~ ~ E
✭✶✵✳✷✶✮
❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
x ≤ 0 q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ Φin (x, t) =
A exp[i(kx − ωt)] ② ♦tr❛ r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛ Φrefl (x, t) = A∗ exp[i(−kx − ωt)]✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛
x ≥ 0 t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♦♥❞❛ ❡✈❛♥❡s❝❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❞❡❝❛❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
q✉❡ ♥♦s ❛❞❡♥tr❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✳ ❙✐ ΦE (x, t) s❡ ✉s❛s❡
♣❛r❛ ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❝♦♥tr❛ ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x) s❡rí❛ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧
❛ |ΦE (x)|2 ✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ ❧❛ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ✉♥ t❛♥t♦ ♠❡t❛❢ór✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡✱ ♣♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦
♠✉② ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✮✳ ❊st❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✸✳

❊♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ V+ → ∞ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛ ❡♥ x > 0✱ ❧♦

❝✉❛❧ ❡s ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❛❧ ❤❛❝❡r q✉❡ V (x) = ∞ ❡♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ x>0 ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❜♦t❛
❡❧ást✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ x = 0 ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧ s❡❛ s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧
á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❞❡s❢❛s❡ δ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ π/2 ② ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ sin(kx)
s✐ x ≤ 0✱ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ②❛ ❛♣❛r❡❝✐ó ❛❧ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✻✳✾✳
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❧í♠✐t❡✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ x = 0✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ s✉
❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✳ ❚❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✾✳✶ ❡st♦ ❡s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥
❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ V (x)✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ x = 0✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

V ( x)
1.0

E
+
V(x) / V

(x) (unid. arb.)

0.5
V
+

0.0
-10 -5 0 5
kx

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✸✳ ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x) ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ♣❛r❛
✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥✳

➓ ✸✳ ❚♦❝❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E > V+ ✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E > V+ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ❡s

 √

 ikx −ikx 2M E
 Ae + Be
 con k =
~
si x ≤ 0
ΦE (x) = p ✭✶✵✳✷✷✮



 Ceiqx + De−iqx 2M (E − V+ )
con q = si x ≥ 0
~

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ② s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = 0 t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
A+B=C+D   A+B=C+D

⇒
ik(A − B) = iq(C − D)
  A − B = q (C − D)

k

❊st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ (A, B) ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❧♦s ❞❡ (C, D)✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❜❛st❛ s✉♠❛r ② r❡st❛r ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❛ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦✱ ♦❜t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦
q✉❡

k+q k−q
A= C+ D
2k 2k
k−q k+q
B= C+ D.
2k 2k
 ✶✵✳✷✳ ❊▲ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲ ❊❙❈❆▲Ó◆

1.0

TE ( )

0.5

RE ( )

0.0

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

E/V +

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✹✳ ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥✳ ❊❧
❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ s✐ E < V+

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

! ! ! ! !
A 1 k+q k−q C aE r∗E C
= = ✭✶✵✳✷✸✮
B 2k k−q k+q D rE a∗E D

• P❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ t♦♠❡♠♦s ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ΦE,→ (x)✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❤❛❝❡r D = 0✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱

 2k 
k+q  A 
C=
A= C 
 
2k k+q 
⇒
k−q 
 k−q  
B= C  B= A 
2k k+q

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

 k − q −ikx
 ikx
 e + k + qe
 si x ≤ 0
ΦE,→ (x) = A × ✭✶✵✳✷✹✮

 2k iqx
 e si x ≥ 0
k+q

② ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

  √ √ !2
Jrefl k|B|2 k−q 2 E − E − V+
R(E) = = = = √ √
Jin k|A|2 k+q E + E − V+
  √ √ ✭✶✵✳✷✺✮
Jtran q|C|2 q 2k 2 4 E E − V+
T (E) = = = = √ √ 2
Jin k|A|2 k k+q
E + E − V+

❝✉♠♣❧✐é♥❞♦s❡ q✉❡ R(E) + T (E) = 1✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r✳ ❊st♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❡stá♥
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✹✳

• P❛r❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE,← (x)✱ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ A=0 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

 2q

 e−ikx si x ≤ 0

 q+k
ΦE,← (x) = D × ✭✶✵✳✷✻✮

 −iqx + q − k e+iqx
 e

k+q
si x ≥ 0,

s❡ ♦❜t❡♥❞rí❛♥ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥

❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✵✳✶✳

10.3✳ ▲❆ ❇❆❘❘❊❘❆ ❉❊ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲

➓ ✶✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞♦✱ ❡❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s

 0 si |x| > a/2
V (x) = ✭✶✵✳✷✼✮

V0 si |x| < a/2,

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✺✳ P♦r ♠♦t✐✈♦s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❝❧❛r♦s ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ V (x) ❡s
✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ❬❡♥❡r❣í❛❪ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ✏❛❧t✉r❛✑ V0 ② ✏❛♥❝❤✉r❛✑ a✳

❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ V (x)✱ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡❛❧❡s E>0 ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ❡❧

❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ✭❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ② ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✮ ❞❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ q✉❡
❡s ❡❧ ú♥✐❝♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s s♦♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡❛ ♠❛②♦r ♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡
V0 ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦ ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦✳
 ✶✵✳✸✳ ▲❆ ❇❆❘❘❊❘❆ ❉❊ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✺✳ ❉✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛

❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ❙❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❡sq✉❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s✐
E > V0 ② s✐ E < V0

➓ ✷✳ ❊♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s E > V0 ✳

❈♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✺✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ❡s

 a

 A exp (+ikx) + B exp (−ikx) si x ≤ −

 2



 a a
ΦE (x) = F exp (+iqx) + G exp (−iqx) si − ≤x≤+ ✭✶✵✳✷✽✮

 2 2



 a

 C exp (+ikx) + D exp(−ikx) si x ≥ + .
2
√ p
❝♦♥ k= 2M E/~ ② q= 2M (E − V0 )/~✳
▲❛ ✐♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x =
±a/2 ❞❛ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá ❤❛❧❧❛r ❝✉❛tr♦
❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦tr♦s ❞♦s ✭q✉❡ ❛❝t✉❛rá♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✮✱
❡♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥
❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❢♦r♠❛ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞♦s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ② ♣❛r❛ ❡✈✐t❛r
❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ❡♥ ❡①❝❡s♦ t❡❞✐♦s♦s ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ s❡r s✐st❡♠át✐❝♦s✳

• ❊♥ x = a/2 t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

continuidad de ΦE (x) : Fe+iqa/2 + Ge−iqa/2 = Ce+ika/2 + De−ika/2

continuidad de Φ′E (x) : iqFe+iqa/2 − iqGe−iqa/2 = ikCe+ika/2 − ikDe−ika/2

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❊st❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♦✿

! ! ! !
e+iqa/2 e−iqa/2 F e+ika/2 e−ika/2 C
= .
qe+iqa/2 −qe−iqa/2 G ke+ika/2 −ke−ika/2 D

✶
❈✉✐❞❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ❝♦♠♦ s✐❣✉❡✿

! !−1 ! !
F e+iqa/2 e−iqa/2 e+ika/2 e−ika/2 C
=
G qe+iqa/2 −qe−iqa/2 ke+ika/2 −ke−ika/2 D
! ! !
1 qe−iqa/2 e−iqa/2 e+ika/2 e−ika/2 C
=
2q qe+iqa/2 −e+iqa/2 ke+ika/2 −ke−ika/2 D
! !
1 (q + k)e−i(q−k)a/2 (q − k)e−i(q+k)a/2 C
= . ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮
2q (q − k)e+i(q+k)a/2 (q + k)e+i(q−k)a/2 D

• ❊♥ x = −a/2 s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡✿

continuidad de ΦE (x) : Ae−ika/2 + Be+ika/2 = Fe−iqa/2 + Ge+iqa/2

continuidad de Φ′E (x) : ikAe−ika/2 − ikBe+ika/2 = iqFe−iqa/2 − iqGe+iqa/2 .

Pr♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❢♦r♠❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐ó ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

! ! !
A 1 (k + q)e−i(q−k)a/2 (k − q)e+i(q+k)a/2 F
= .
B 2k (k − q)e−i(q+k)a/2 (k + q)e+i(q−k)a/2 G

❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❡s♣❡r❛❜❧❡✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❧❛ ❞❡ ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮ tr❛s

✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛r q ② k ♣♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ ② +a/2 ② −a/2 ♣♦r ♦tr♦✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s
❧❛ ❞✉♣❧❛ (F, G) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮ ② ❡❢❡❝t✉❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s✱

✶
❊s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ út✐❧ r❡❝♦r❞❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ 2×2 ❡s
 −1  
a b 1 d −b
=
c d ad − bc −c a
 ✶✵✳✸✳ ▲❆ ❇❆❘❘❊❘❆ ❉❊ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲

❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

  ! 
A aE r∗E C
=
B rE a∗E D
  

 k2 + q2 ✭✶✵✳✸✵✮

 a = cos(qa) + sin(qa) eika
 E 2ikq
con



 k2 − q2
 rE = sin(qa)
2ikq

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s F, G s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡♥ ❞❡ ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮✳

▲❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE,→ (x) s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ D = 0✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s

❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ s❡rá♥

k |B|2 |rE |2 k |C|2 1

R(E) = = ; T (E) = 2 = |a |2 .
k |A|2 |aE |2 k |A| E

❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ② ♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ♣❛r❛ E > V0

sin2 (qa) 4ε (ε − 1)
R(E) = ; T (E) =
4ε (ε − 1) + sin2 (qa) 4ε (ε − 1) + sin2 (qa)
✭✶✵✳✸✶✮
r
E 2M a2
con ε = > 1 ; qa = (E − V0 ).
V0 ~2

❈♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✻✱ ♣❛r❛ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛♥

2M a2
qa = nπ ⇒ (E − V0 ) = n2 π 2 n = 1, 2, 3, ...
~2
❡❧ s❡♥♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ R②T s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ R = 0 ② T = 1 ♣❛r❛ ❡s♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s✳ P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❡s ✏✐♥✈✐s✐❜❧❡✑✳
❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❘❛♠s❛✉❡r ✱ q✉❡ ❡s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡✳
◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ (−a/2, a/2)
❡s 2π/q ✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉③❝❛ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❘❛♠s❛✉❡r ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ a ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✉♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s❡♠✐❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✳
❊♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛ ❡♥tr❡
❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s x = −a/2 ② x = +a/2 q✉❡ ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛
r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛ B exp (−ikx) s❡❛ ♥✉❧❛✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

1.0

TE ( )

0.5

RE ( )
0.0

0 1 2 3 4

E/V 0

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✻✳ ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❛❧t✉r❛ V0
② ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a✳ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ 2M a2 V0 /~2 = 25

➓ ✸✳ ❆❜♦r❞❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ E < V0 ✳

▲❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) s❡rá

 a

 A exp (+ikx) + B exp (−ikx) si x ≤ −

 2

 a a
ΦE (x) = F exp (+ηx) + G exp (−ηx) si − ≤x≤+ ✭✶✵✳✸✷✮

 2 2



 C exp (+ikx) + D exp(−ikx) a
si x ≥ +
2

√ p
❝♦♥ k = 2M E/~ ② η = 2M (V0 − E)/~✳ ❊st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧
❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✷✽✮ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r iq s❡
s✉st✐t✉②❡ ♣♦r η✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣r♦✈❡❝❤❛r ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♣❛r❛ E > V0
s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ q → −iη ✳ ▲❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮ ② ✭✶✵✳✸✵✮
s♦♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

 
  
F (η + ik)e−(η−ik)a/2 (η − ik)e−(η+ik)a/2 C
 = 1    ✭✶✵✳✸✸✮
2η +(η+ik)a/2 +(η−ik)a/2
G (η − ik)e (η + ik)e D
 ✶✵✳✸✳ ▲❆ ❇❆❘❘❊❘❆ ❉❊ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲

! ! !
A aE r∗E C
=
B rE a∗E D
  

 k2 − η2 ✭✶✵✳✸✹✮

 a = cosh(ηa) + sinh(ηa) eika
 E 2ikη
con



 k2 + η2
 rE = sinh(ηa),
2ikη
❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s cos(iα) = cosh α ② sin(iα) = i sinh α✳
❊♥ ❡st❡ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s E < V0 ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ② tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥
s❡rá♥

sinh2 (ηa) 4ε (1 − ε)
R(E) = ; T (E) =
4ε (1 − ε) + sinh2 (ηa) 4ε (1 − ε) + sinh2 (ηa)
r
E 2M a2
con ε = ∈ (0, 1] ; ηa = (V0 − E).
V0 ~2
✭✶✵✳✸✺✮
P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ∈ (0, V0 ) ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ ♥✉❧❛
❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ A exp (ikx − iEt/~) ❛tr❛✈✐❡s❡
❧❛ ③♦♥❛ (−a/2, +a/2)✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ s❡rí❛ ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛
❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ❊st❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧✱ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥tís✐♠❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ②
t❡❝♥♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s✱ ② q✉❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❞❡ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣ró①✐♠❛s s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s✳

➓ ✹✳ E < V0 ✱ ② ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛✱ ❡♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡s ❝❛s♦s ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡

P❛r❛
tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ T (E) ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❞❡❜❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rs❡ q✉❡
ηa ≫ 0✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ❧❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ exp(−ηa) ≃ 0✱ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
q✉❡

! ! !
F eηa/2 0 0 C
≃ ⇒ F ≃ 0,
G 2η (η − ik)e+ika/2 (η + ik)e−ika/2 D

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❝r❡❝✐❡♥t❡✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❡s❡ ❧í♠✐t❡ sinh(ηa) ≃ exp(ηa)/2 t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
16E E
R(E) ≃ 1 ; T (E) ≃ 1− exp(−2ηa).
V0 V0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✼✳ ❇❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛s✐♠étr✐❝❛ ✭ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✵✳❛✮

❊❧ ♣r❡❢❛❝t♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ T (E) t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥tr❡ ✵ ② ✹✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ✉♥❛

s✐♠♣❧❡ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ tú♥❡❧ ❡s

T (E) ∼ 2 exp(−2ηa) si T (E) ≪ 1. ✭✶✵✳✸✻✮

❊st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ s❡rá ✈á❧✐❞❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ② ❝✉❛♥❞♦ E ♥♦ ❡sté ♠✉② ♣ró①✐♠❛ ❛ 0 ♦ ❛ V0

✭②❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡s♦s ❝❛s♦s ❡❧ ♣r❡❢❛❝t♦r s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛✮✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✵✳❛✳ ❇❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛s✐♠étr✐❝❛

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳✶✵✲✼✿


 0 si x < 0
V (x) = 2V0 si x ∈ (0, b) con V0 = 2 eV


−3V0 si x > b

❉❡s❞❡ x ≪ 0 ♣r♦❝❡❞❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ E = V0 ✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

❞❡ b ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ② ❝♦♠♣❛r❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛ ✭✶✵✳✸✻✮
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡s

 √

 Aeikx + Be−ikx con k = 2me E/~ si x ≤ 0
 p
ΦE,→ (x) = Feηx + Ge−ηx con η = 2me (2V0 − E)/~ si 0 ≤ x ≤ b

 p

Ceiqx + 0e−iqx con q = 2me (E + 3V0 )/~ si x ≥ b.

❈♦♠♦ E = V0 ✱
 ✶✵✳✸✳ ▲❆ ❇❆❘❘❊❘❆ ❉❊ P❖❚❊◆❈■❆▲

0
10

-1
10

-2
10
T (b)

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10

-6
10
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

b (nm)
❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✽✳ ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ b ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❛s✐♠étr✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✵✳❛✳ ▲♦s ❝ír❝✉❧♦s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞❛
♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✸✻✮


 Aeikx + Be−ikx si x ≤ 0

ΦE,→ (x) = Fekx + Ge−kx si 0 ≤ x ≤ b con k = η ≃ 7,234 nm−1


Ce2ikx + 0e−2ikx si x ≥ b.

■♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❧❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x=b ② x=0

t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

  ! !
ekb e−kb F e2ikb C
x=b: =
kekb −ke−kb G 2ike2ikb C
! ! ! !
1 1 A 1 1 F
x=0: = .
ik −ik B k −k G

P♦r t❛♥t♦

! !−1 ! !−1  
A 1 1 1 1 ekb e−kb e2ikb C
=
B ik −ik k −k kekb −ke−kb 2ike2ikb C.

■♥✈✐rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♠❛tr✐❝❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

! ! ! ! !
A 1 k −i 1 1 ke−kb e−kb e2ikb C
= 2
B 4k k i k −k ke+kb −e+kb 2ike2ikb C
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

② ❡❢❡❝t✉❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛

 
3 cosh(kb) − i sinh(kb) +2ikb
A= e C
2
 
cosh(kb) + 3i sinh(kb) +2ibk
B= − e C.
2

❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡s✱ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ b✱

q |C|2 2 8
T (b) = = =   ,
k |A|2 9 1 b
cosh2 (kb) + sinh2 (kb) 10 cosh2 −1
4 4 0,138 nm

❤❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ ✉s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ cosh2 α − sinh2 α = 1 ② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦ ❞❡ k✳

▲❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✸✻✮ s❡rí❛ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡
 
2b
T (b) ∼ 2 exp(−2ηb) = 2 exp −
0,138 nm

② ❛♠❜♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✽✳ ❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ✭✶✵✳✸✻✮
♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❝♦rr❡❝t♦s ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ s✐ T . 0,1 ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱
❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ♥♦ ❡s s✐♠étr✐❝❛✳

10.4✳ ▲❆ ❋Ó❘▼❯▲❆ ❉❊ ●❆▼❖❲

➓ ✶✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ r❡q✉✐❡r❡

❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ♦ ✉♥ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡✳
P❡r♦ s✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ T (E) ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡
♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✸✻✮ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳

❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ T (E) ≪ 1 ② s✐ E t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡

✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❛❧t✉r❛ V0 ✱
" √ #
2 2M a p
T (E) ∼ 2 exp − V0 − E . ✭✶✵✳✸✼✮
~

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣❡r✜❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ② ❞✐✈✐❞á♠♦s❧❛ ❡♥ ❜❛rr❡r❛s

r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ❡s♣❡s♦r dx ② ❛❧t✉r❛ V (xi ) ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✾✮✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛
✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✱ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ (V0 − E)1/2 t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r [V (xi ) − E]1/2 ✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❧❛
 ✶✵✳✹✳ ▲❆ ❋Ó❘▼❯▲❆ ❉❊ ●❆▼❖❲

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✾✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛
❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛

❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❛rí❛ s✉❛✈❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s

② s✉st✐t✉✐r❧♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✵✳✸✼✮✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❡❣ít✐♠♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❞❛
❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡r❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛
t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❡s a = x1 − x0 ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ x0,1 s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡ r❡tr♦❝❡s♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦s
❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ V (x) = E ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ dx ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧ t❛❧ ♣r♦♠❡❞✐♦
s❡rá
Dp E 1 Z x1 p
V (x) − E = V (x) − Edx.
a x0
❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✵✳✸✼✮ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇
√ Z !
2 2M x1 p
T (E) ∼ 2 exp − V (x) − Edx si 0 < T (E) ≪ 1, ✭✶✵✳✸✽✮
~ x0

q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② ✜❛❜❧❡ ❡♥ ❜❛rr❡r❛s ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛♥❝❤❛s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❛
✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ V (x) ❡s s✉❛✈❡✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s s✉ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✵✳❜✳ ❇❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✵✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛
❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇ ❡st✐♠❡ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛
E < V0 ✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

▲❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❛tr❛✈✐❡s❛ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣✉♥t♦s

   
E b E b
x0 = − 1 − ; x1 = + 1 − ,
V0 2 V0 2
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡❣ú♥ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇
√ Z !
2 2M x1 p
T (E) ∼ 2 exp − V (x) − Edx
~ x0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✶✵✳ ❇❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✭❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✵✳❜ ✮

P❛r❛ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❜❛st❛ t❡♥❡r ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡

 
2x b
V (x) = 1− V0 si 0 ≤ x ≤
b 2

② q✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❡s ♣❛r✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱

Z Z s  √  3/2
x1 p x1
2x 2b V0 E
V (x) − E dx = 2 1− V0 − E dx = 1−
x0 0 b 3 V0

②✱ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱ "
√  3/2 #
4b 2M V0 E
T (E) ∼ 2 exp − 1− .
3~ V0

10.5✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

➓ ✶✳ ▲❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✉❝t♦r ♣✉❡❞❡

❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛rs❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♠✐❝r♦s❝♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ✭s❝❛♥♥✐♥❣ t✉♥♥❡❧✐♥❣
♠✐❝r♦s❝♦♣❡ ✭❙❚▼✮✱ ❘♦❤r❡r ② ❇✐♥♥✐❣✱ ✶✾✽✶✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♠♦str❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✶✱
❡❧ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭❞❞♣✮ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ s❡ q✉✐❡r❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ② ✉♥❛ ♣✉♥t❛ ✭❞❡ ✇♦❧❢r❛♠✐♦
♦ ♣❧❛t✐♥♦✱ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✮ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ t❡r♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ q✉❡ s❡ s✐tú❛ ❛ ✉♥❛
❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥♦s ♣♦❝♦s ❛♥❣str♦♠ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛✳ ❉❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡❧
s✐❣♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❞♣ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♣❛s❛♥ ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ ❛❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♦
✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛ ♣❡r♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✵✳❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❛sí ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞❛✱
q✉❡ ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥✱ ❡s ♠✉② s❡♥s✐❜❧❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡♥
 ✶✵✳✺✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✶✶✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠✐❝r♦s❝♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧

❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ ② ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ ♠♦✈❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ s♦❜r❡

❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ✭s✐♥ t♦❝❛r❧❛✱ ❝❧❛r♦ ❡stá✮ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ✈❛ ❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛r ❛ ❡st❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡r ❛ ❧❛
✐♥✈❡rs❛✿ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥tr♦❧❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❛❧t❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ s✉❜✐é♥❞♦❧❛ ♦
❜❛❥á♥❞♦❧❛ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧ ♣❡r♠❛♥❡③❝❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱
s✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ ❡❧ q✉❡ s✐r✈❡ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡❞✉❝✐r
❧❛ t♦♣♦❣r❛❢í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ❞❡❧
♠♦♥t❛❥❡ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧✱ ❡❧ ♠✐❝r♦s❝♦♣✐♦ só❧♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✉s❛r ❡♥ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♠✉②
❝♦♥tr♦❧❛❞❛s✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❞❡ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡✱ ❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❝✉②❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛r

♦❝✉♣❛ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x < 0✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ ❞❡❧ ❙❚▼ ❡stá ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ b
❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ ▲♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
−(W0 + EF ) ≤ E ≤ −W0 ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ W0 ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ② EF ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❋❡r♠✐✱ ❝✉②♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s s♦♥ ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ✉♥♦s ♣♦❝♦s ❡❱✳
❙✐ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡sq✉❡♠❛ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✶ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ s❡rá

T (b, E) ∼ 2 exp[−(−8me b2 E)1/2 /~] con − (EF + W0 ) < E < −W0 .

√
▲❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ T (b, E) ❡♥ −E ❤❛❝❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧ ❡sté
❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♠❡♥♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱
♣♦r ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ E ∼ −W0 ✳ ◗✉❡❞❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡

~
T (b) ≃ T (b, −W0 ) ∼ 2e−b/b0 , con b0 = √ , ✭✶✵✳✸✾✮
8me W0
❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡♥❢❛t✐③❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ T ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ b✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

➓ ✸✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝r✐♣❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s ♠✉② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡s

❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❝ó♠♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ ❆ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡st✐♠❛r ❡♥
♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧✳

P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♣❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ ✈❛♥
❛ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉✐r ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧ ❡s n0 ✳ ❊s❡ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡rá ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s
❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ♣❡r♦✱ tí♣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ n0 ∼ 10
29 m−3 ✳ ❊st❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♥♦s

✜❥❛ ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❋❡r♠✐✱ EF ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✱ ② s❡ s❛❜❡ ✭♣♦r ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦s

❜ás✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ só❧✐❞♦✮ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ∼ −W0 t✐❡♥❡♥
✉♥❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❋❡r♠✐ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ hvi ∼
p
2EF /me ✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ s✐ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡
❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ S ✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❧❧❡❣❛♥ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r
❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧ ❛ ❞✐❝❤❛ ③♦♥❛ ✭♣♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✮ ❡s

r
dNin 2EF
∼ n0 hvi S = n0 S ✭✶✵✳✹✵✮
dt me
▲❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧ ❡s Itun (b) ≃ e × (dNtran /dt)✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ −e ❡s
❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ② dNtran /dt ❡s ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞♦s ♣♦r
✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ P♦r ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥✱ dNtran /dt =
T (b) × (dNin /dt)✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✶✵✳✸✾✮ ② ✭✶✵✳✹✵✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

r
2EF
Itun (b) ∼ 2en0 S exp(−b/b0 ). ✭✶✵✳✹✶✮
me
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡s❝♦❣❡♠♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s tí♣✐❝♦s W0 ∼ EF ∼ 2 eV✱ n0 ∼ 1029 ♠
−3 ② S ∼ 10
2
➴ ✭❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛ ❡stá t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❛tó♠✐❝❛✮✱

r
~ 2EF
b0 ≃ √ ≃ 0,07 nm ; 2en0 S ≃ 2,7 × 10−3 A ∼ 3 mA
8me W0 me
② q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧ ❡s

Itun (b) ∼ 3 exp(−15b) mA (b en nm). ✭✶✵✳✹✷✮

P❛r❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ b ∼ 1 nm ❡st❛ ✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s nA✳ ▲❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧
❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡t❡❝t❛❜❧❡ ②✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❞✐❝❤♦✱ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ♠✉②
s❡♥s✐❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ b ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ② ❧❛ ♣✉♥t❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ I0 ❡s ❧❛
✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ b0 ❞❡ ✶ ♥♠✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥
✭✶✵✳✹✷✮
I(b)  
∼ exp −15(b − b0 ) (b en nm)
I0
 ✶✵✳✺✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✶✷✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

② ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ −1 Å ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ b ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ I(b)/I0 ∼ 5✿ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡

tú♥❡❧ s❡ q✉✐♥t✉♣❧✐❝❛rí❛ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❛tó♠✐❝❛✳ ❊st❛
s❡♥s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ tú♥❡❧ ❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❛❧
♠✉② ♣r❡❝✐s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛tó♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧✳

❆P➱◆❉■❈❊✿ ❘❊❙❖◆❆◆❈■❆❙

◆♦t❛✿ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s s❡ñ❛❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡❜❡ ♣r❡st❛r ♠ás ❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❛ ❧♦s ❞❡t❛❧❧❡s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s✳

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✷✱ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ❞❡

♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❛❧t✉r❛ V0 ✱ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ❝✉②♦s ❝❡♥tr♦s ❡stá♥ s❡♣❛r❛❞♦s ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ b = L+a✱
❞♦♥❞❡ L ❡s ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✳ P❛r❛ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦
❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡s σ c = R+ ② ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✱ ② ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧



 Ae+ikx + Be−ikx si x ≤ −(b + a)/2





 Abar e+iqx + Bbar e−iqx si − (b + a)/2 ≤ x ≤ −(b − a)/2

ΦE (x) = Fe+ikx + Ge−ikx si − (b − a)/2 ≤ x ≤ +(b − a)/2 ✭✶✵✳✹✸✮





 Fbar e+iqx + Gbar e−iqx si + (b − a)/2 ≤ x ≤ +(b + a)/2



Ce+ikx + De−ikx si x ≥ +(b + a)/2

√ p
❝♦♥ k = 2M E/~ ② q = 2M (E − V0 )/~ ✭❢í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ s✐ E < V0 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q = iη ❝♦♥
η = |q| = [2M (V0 − E)]1/2 /~✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ t❛♥t♦ s✐ E > V0
❝♦♠♦ s✐ E ∈ (0, V0 ]✮✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡r ✐♥❛❜♦r❞❛❜❧❡ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s

❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈❛rí❛ ❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✽
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ✶✵ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐ s❡❣✉✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦
q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✵✳✸✱ t❛❧❡s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ♣♦❞rá♥ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦
❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧❡s ❡♥❝❛❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá♥ ❡①♣r❡s❛r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s
❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ C ② D✳
❆sí✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ΦE (x) ② ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = (b + a)/2 ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ q✉❡
  ! 
Fbar (q + k)e−i(q−k)(b+a)/2 (q − k)e−i(q+k)(b+a)/2 C
 = 1  
2q (q − k)e+i(q+k)(b+a)/2 (q + k)e+i(q−k)(b+a)/2
Gbar D

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ést❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✷✾✮ ♣❡r♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ a/2 ♣♦r (b + a)/2✮✳
■♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♠❛tr✐③ q ② k ② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ a ♣♦r −a✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ x = (b − a)/2 s♦♥
! ! 
F (k + q)e−i(k−q)(b−a)/2 (k − q)e−i(k+q)(b−a)/2 Fbar
1  .
=
G 2k (k − q)e+i(k+q)(b−a)/2 (k + q)e+i(k−q)(b−a)/2 Gbar

Pr♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ x =

−(b − a)/2 ② x = −(b + a)/2 s♦♥✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱
  ! !
Abar (q + k)e+i(q−k)(b−a)/2 (q − k)e+i(q+k)(b−a)/2 F
 = 1
2q (q − k)e−i(q+k)(b−a)/2 (q + k)e−i(q−k)(b−a)/2 G
Bbar

! ! A 
A 1 (k + q)e−i(k−q)(b+a)/2 (k − q)e+i(k+q)(b+a)/2 bar
=  .
B 2k (k − q)e−i(k+q)(b+a)/2 (k + q)e−i(k−q)(b+a)/2 Bbar

◆✉❡str♦ ✐♥t❡rés ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ✈❛ ❛ s❡r ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s

r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❡①t❡r✐♦r❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✳ ❙✐ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ❞♦s ❛
❞♦s✱ ② tr❛s ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝♦s t❡❞✐♦s♦s✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡
! ! !
F C αE e+ika iβ E e−ikb
= TII con TII = ✭✶✵✳✹✹✮
G D −iβ E e+ikb α∗E e−ika

! ! !
A F αE e+ika iβ E e+ikb
= TI con TI = ✭✶✵✳✹✺✮
B G −iβ E e−ikb α∗E e−ika
 ✶✵✳✺✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞♦ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s

 2  √

 k + |q|2 
 2M E

 2k|q| sinh(|q|a) si E ≤ V 0 
 k=
~
βE = con p
 k2 − q2
 
 2M (E − V0 )

 sin(qa) si E ≥ V0 
 q=
2kq ~
 ✭✶✵✳✹✻✮

 k 2 − |q|2
q 
 cosh(|q|a) − i sinh(|q|a) si E ≤ V0
2 iγ α
2k|q|
αE = 1 + β E e =

 k2 + q2

 cos(qa) − i sin(qa) si E ≥ V0
2kq

❊♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛✱ ❧❛s ♠❛tr✐❝❡s T r❡❝✐❜❡♥ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❞❡

tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥✱ ② s✉s ❝✉❛tr♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s t♦♠❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ② ❛❧t✉r❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ TI ② TII ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛s ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛s ❡♥
−b ② +b✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❧❛s ❞✉♣❧❛s (A, B) ② (C, D) ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s
❡♥tr❡ sí ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞
! ! ! !
A F C C
= TI = TI TII ≡ Ttot ✭✶✵✳✹✼✮
B G D D

s✐❡♥❞♦ Ttot ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ T ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ② ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

!  2
aE r∗E  aE = α2E e2ika + β E e2ikb
Ttot = con
✭✶✵✳✹✽✮
rE a∗E 
rE = −iβ E αE e−ik(b−a) + α∗E eik(b−a) .

❊❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ Ttot ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡

tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ T (E) = 1/|aE |2 ✭❧♦s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ② tr❛♥s♠✐t✐❞❛ s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✮✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✶✵✳✹✽✮ ② ✭✶✵✳✹✻✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s tr❛s ♦♣❡r❛r
q✉❡
1
T (E) = con γ a = arg(αE ) ✭✶✵✳✹✾✮
1+ 4β 2E (1 + β 2E ) cos2 (kL − γα)

✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ L = b − a ❡s ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✮✳

➓ ✷✳ Pr♦❝❡❞❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❛❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✭♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✮ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE,→ (x) ② ΦE, (x)✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ést❛s ✉♥❛ ❡❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
s✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✱ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ q✉❡
❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡♥ ♥✉❡str♦ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ♣❛r
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

② ❝❛❞❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s ❞♦❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ ❞♦s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s✱ ΦE,g (x)
② ΦE,u (x)✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r ❡ ✐♠♣❛r ②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ✷

❙✐ ♣❛rt✐♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✹✸✮✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧ ②

♣❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s


 Ae+ikx + A∗ e−ikx si x ≤ −(b + a)/2





 Abar eiqx + Bbar e−iqx si − (b + a)/2 ≤ x ≤ −(b − a)/2

ΦE,g (x) = Fe+ikx + Fe−ikx si − (b − a)/2 ≤ x ≤ +(b − a)/2 ✭✶✵✳✺✵✮





 Bbar e+iqx + Abar e−iqx si + (b − a)/2 ≤ x ≤ +(b + a)/2

 ∗ +ikx

A e + Ae−ikx si x ≥ +(b + a)/2
❞♦♥❞❡ F ΦE,g (x) ❡s r❡❛❧✱ s✐ E > V0
❡s r❡❛❧ ②✱ s✐♥ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✳ ❈♦♠♦
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q ❡s r❡❛❧ ② A∗bar = Bbar ✱ 0 < E < V0 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q ❡s ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐♦
♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ s✐
♣✉r♦ ②Abar ② Bbar ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r r❡❛❧❡s✳ ❊♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❝❛s♦s✱ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ TI r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛
❧❛s ❞✉♣❧❛s (F, F) ② (A, A∗ ) ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡
! ! ! !
A F αE eika iβ E e+ikb F
= TI = ,
A∗ F −iβ E e−ikb α∗E e−ika F

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ Abar ② Bbar s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ F ✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡

❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ② ❞❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = (b − a)/2✳ ❙✐ δg ❡s ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ A✱ ❧❛
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡♥tr❡ A ② F ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦


A = |A|eiδg = αE e+ika + iβ E e+ikb F
② ❝♦♠♦ F = |F|✱
F 1

Fg ≡ = +ika
; δ g = arg αE e+ika + iβ E e+ikb ✭✶✵✳✺✶✮
|A| |αE e + iβ E e+ikb |
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ r❡❛❣r✉♣❛♥❞♦ ❢❛❝t♦r❡s✱ ΦE,g (x) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛
 b+a

 cos(kx + δ g ) si x ≤ −

 2





 b+a b−a

 Abar eiqx + Bbar e−iqx si − ≤x≤−

 2 2


b−a b−a
ΦE,g (x) = S × Fg cos(kx) si − ≤x≤+ ✭✶✵✳✺✷✮

 2 2



 b−a b+a

 Bbar e+iqx + Abar e−iqx si + ≤x≤+

 2 2





 cos(kx − δ ) b+a
g si x ≥ +
2

✷
▲♦s s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡s g ② u ♣r♦❝❡❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s ❛❧❡♠❛♥❛s ❣❡r❛❞❡ ② ✉♥❣❡r❛❞❡ ✭♣❛r ❡ ✐♠♣❛r✮
 ✶✵✳✺✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

❞♦♥❞❡ S = 2|A| ❥✉❡❣❛ ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥✱ Abar = Abar /S ②

Bbar = Bbar /S✳ Pr♦❝❡❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❛r ΦE,u (x) ❡stá ❞❛❞❛
♣♦r

 b+a

 sin(kx + δ u ) si x ≤ −

 2





 b+a b−a

 Abar e+iqx + Bbar e−iqx si − ≤x≤−

 2 2


b−a b−a
ΦE,u (x) = S × Fu sin(kx) si − ≤x≤+ ✭✶✵✳✺✸✮

 2 2



 b−a b+a

 +iqx
− Abar e−iqx
 −Bbar e

si +
2
≤x≤+
2





 sin(kx − δ ) b+a
u si x ≥ +
2
❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛

1

Fu = ; δ u = arg αE e+ika − iβ E e+ikb ✭✶✵✳✺✹✮
|αE e+ika − iβ E e+ikb |
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ s✐

 1/4
M
S=
2π ~2 E
2

❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞

hΦE1 ,g |ΦE2 ,g i = hΦE1 ,u |ΦE2 ,u i = δ(E1 − E2 ).

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛s Fg ② Fu ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s

q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳ P❛r❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛r ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❝♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r❧❛s ✉s❛♥❞♦
✭✶✵✳✹✻✮✱ ② s❡ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛

1
|Fg (E)|2 = Fg2 (E) =
1+ 2β 2E − 2β E (1 + β 2E )1/2 sin(kL − γ α )
✭✶✵✳✺✺✮
1
|Fu (E)|2 = Fu2 (E) = ,
1 + 2β E + 2β E (1 + β 2E )1/2 sin(kL − γ α )
2

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s s❡ñ❛❧❛❞♦ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ Fg2 ② Fu2 ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ✳ ❆

2 2
❧❛ ✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✵✳✺✷✮ ② ✭✶✵✳✺✸✮✱ |Fg (E)| ② |Fu (E)| s♦♥ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
2 2
✏❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❝✐ó♥✑ ❞❡ |ΦE,g (x)| ② |ΦE,u (x)| ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✳
❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✶✵✳✹✾✮ ② ❞❡ ✭✶✵✳✺✺✮✱ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ T (E) ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s

|Fg (E)|2 + |Fu (E)|2

T (E) = = |Fg (E)|2 |Fu (E)|2 ✭✶✵✳✺✻✮
2 + 4β 2E
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ T (E) ≤ 1✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ |Fg (E)|2 ❡s ♠✉② ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
2
|Fu (E)| ❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
Eres ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s |Fg (E)|2 ó |Fu (E)|2 t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ✉♥♦✳
2
❙✐✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ |Fg (Eres )| ≫ 1 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ΦEres ,g (x) ✏♣❛r❡❝❡✑ ❡st❛r
❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ s✉ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦
♦s❝✐❧❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ |x| > (b + a)/2 t❛❧ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s
❡❧ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❛s✐♥tót✐❝♦ cos(kx ± δ g ) ❞❡ ΦEres ,g (x) ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r ❞❡ ❝♦rt♦
❛❧❝❛♥❝❡ ξ(x) ② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛ N✱ ♦❜t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r
(
ΦEres ,g (x) si |x| ≤ (b + a)/2
Ψres (x) = N ×
ξ(x) si |x| ≥ (b + a)/2

❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ξ(x) ✈❛♥ ❛ s❡r ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ t♦♠❛
Ψres (x) ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ Ψres (x) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
♦♥❞❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉②❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱ ❡s ♠✉② s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ΦEres ,g (x)✳ P♦r
t❛♥t♦✱ Ψres (x) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛
Eres ✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ q✉❡ ♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦ t♦♠❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ t = 0✳ ❖tr❛
❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❧♦ ❡s ♣❡r❝❛t❛rs❡ ❞❡ q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ Ψres (x) s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ Eres ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
|x| < (b + a)/2✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ t♦♠❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ t❛❧ r❡❣✐ó♥ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
Ψres (x) ❡s ✏❝❛s✐✑ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳
❆ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✱ ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ❡stá
❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ♠✉② ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✱ s❡ ❧❡s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s✳ ❊♥
❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ✜❣✉r❛❞♦✱ ✉♥❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❡s ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ② ✏❝✉❛s✐❧✐❣❛❞♦✑✳ ❆ s✉
✈❡③✱ s✐ ∆H ❡s ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ Ψres (x)✱ s✉ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
τ res ≃ ~/(2∆H) ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐r ❤❛st❛ q✉❡
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡
❝❛s♦✱ t❛❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❝♦♥s✐st✐rá ❡♥ q✉❡ Ψres (x, τ res ) ❞❡❥❡ ❞❡ ❡st❛r ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ τ res ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ q✉❡ ❤❛ ❞❡ tr❛♥s❝✉rr✐r
❤❛st❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♠♣✐❡❝❡ ❛ ❡s❝❛♣❛r ❤❛❝✐❛ ±∞✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ τ res ❡s ❧❛ ✈✐❞❛
♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✳
❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s {ΦE,g (x), ΦE,u (x)} s♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L2 (R)✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψres (x) ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✭❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧✮ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE,g (x)
s✐ Ψres (x) ❡s ♣❛r ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ΦE,u (x) s✐ Ψres (x) ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ Ψres (x)
❡s ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❡♥tr❛♥ ❡♥ t❛❧
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡stá ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ❛ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ♠✉② ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ Eres ✳ P♦r
♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧♦s ♠ó❞✉❧♦s ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s♦♥
|hΦE,g |Ψres i|2 ó |hΦE,u |Ψres i|2 q✉❡✱ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✱ s♦♥ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❛ |Fg (E)|2 ♦ ❛
|Fu (E)|2 ②❛ q✉❡ Ψres (x) ❡stá ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ③♦♥❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦✱ Ψres (x)
s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✉②❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡sté♥
❝❡r❝❛♥❛s ❛ Eres ② ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ |Fg (E)|2 ≫ 1 ó |Fu (E)|2 ≫ 1✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ t♦❞♦
 ✶✵✳✺✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

15 15
20000 400

15000

10000 200

10 10
2

2
5000
F (E)|

F (E)|
0 0
0.1912 0.1914 0.1916 0.1918 0.69 0.70 0.71 0.72
g

u
5 5
|

|
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

E/V 0
E/V 0

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✶✸✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s |Fg (E)|2 ② |Fg (E)|2 ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ s♦♠❡t✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦s
❜❛rr❡r❛s ✭V0 = 1 ❡❱✱ a = 1 ♥♠ ② b = 2 ♥♠✮✳ ▲♦s ♣✐❝♦s ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s s❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❝♦♥ ♠ás
❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❣rá✜❝❛

❡st♦✱ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ Eres s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛♣❛r✐❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s |Fg (E)|2 ó |Fu (E)|2 ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣✐❝♦ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ② ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥
Eres ✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ✏♣✐❝♦ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✑ ✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ s✐ Γres ❡s ❧❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ♣✐❝♦ ❞❡
r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ∆H ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ s❡rá ❞❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ Γres /2
②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✉ ✈✐❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ s❡rá τ res ≃ ~/Γres ✳
❊♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥❞♦✱ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❞❡
❡♥t❡♥❞❡r s✐ Eres ∈ (0, V0 )✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♣❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ t = 0 ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φn (x) ✭n = 0, 1, ...✮ ❞❡ ✉♥
♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ L = b − a ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✳
◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ Φn (x) ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡str✐❝t❛ ❞❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝♦♥
❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ②❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡♥
❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❡①t❡r✐♦r ❛ ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s✱ |x| > (a+b)/2✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ s✐ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡s♦r a ❞❡ ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s
❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Φn (x) s❡rá ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡r♦ s✐ |x| > (a+b)/2 ②✱ ♣♦r
t❛♥t♦✱ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡rá ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Eres = En ✳ ▲❛s r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s
❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s (0, V0 ) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥ ❛sí ❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡❧
♣♦③♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✱ q✉❡ ❞❡❥❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ♣♦rq✉❡
❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛tr❛✈❡s❛r ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧✳ ❊♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①✐st✐r
r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Eres > V0 ✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉s ✈✐❞❛s ♠❡❞✐❛s s❡rá♥ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❞❛s
❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ✜♥✐t♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❛s r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s✱ ❧❛s
✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s ❞✐❢r❛❝t❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❡✈✐t❛♥ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭❧❛ ✈✐❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ τ res ✮ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
s❡ ♣r♦♣❛❣✉❡ ❤❛st❛ ±∞✳

➓ ✹✳ ❈♦♠♦ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✸ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s |Fg (E)|2 ②

|Fu (E)| ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ 0 < E < 2V0 ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ s♦♠❡t✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❞♦❜❧❡ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ V0 = 1 eV✱ a = 1 nm ② b = 2 nm✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s

♦❜s❡r✈❛r q✉❡ s✐ 0 < E < V0 ✱ ❡st❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡r♦ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ❡♥ ♣✐❝♦s
❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛❝✐❛ ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s ② ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞♦s ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s E0 ≃ 0,19 eV ②
E1 ≃ 0,71 eV✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊st❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s s♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛❞♦✱ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s
❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ L = b − a = 1 nm ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 = 1 eV✳ ▲❛s ❛♥❝❤✉r❛s ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❞♦s ♣✐❝♦s ❞❡
r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ s♦♥ Γ0 ≃ 3×10−5 eV ② Γ1 ≃ 2,5×10−3 eV ✭❤❡♠♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦ q✉❡ s✉ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛
❡s ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❛❧t✉r❛✮✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ✈✐❞❛s ♠❡❞✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s s♦♥
τ 0 ≃ 2,2 × 10−11 s ② τ 1 ≃ 2,6 × 10−13 s✳ P❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s E ≥ V0 ✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ |Fg (E)|2 t✐❡♥❡
✉♥ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♣✐❝♦ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❞✐❢✉s♦✱ ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ E ≃ 1,2 ❡❱ ② ❝♦♥
✉♥❛ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ Γ ≃ 0,1 ❡❱ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ✈✐❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ 6,6 × 10−15 s✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s |Fg (E)|2 ② |Fu (E)|2 t✐❡♥❡♥ ♠á①✐♠♦s ❧♦❝❛❧❡s ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❡♥ E ≃ 1,7 ❡❱ ②
E ≃ 1,4 ❡❱✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ♠✉② ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✳
❊❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✹✾✮ ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦ ❡stá r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
❋■●✳ ✶✵✲✶✹✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✱ T (E) ❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡r♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥
0 < E < V0 ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ♠✉② ❧♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛
E0 ≃ 0,19 eV ② E1 ≃ 0,71 eV✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ T (E) = 1✳ ❊st❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ s♦r♣r❡♥❞❡♥t❡ ✭❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡
❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❡♥♦r❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❧t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❜❛rr❡r❛s ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✮ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡✱ ② t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛
❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❡♥ ♥❛♥♦❡❧❡❝tró♥✐❝❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s E > V0 ✱ T (E) ♦s❝✐❧❛ ♠✉② ❛♣r❡❝✐❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ② ❡s
✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s E ≃ 1,22 eV✱ E ≃ 1,38 ❡❱✱ E ≃ 1,70 eV q✉❡✱ ✐❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
s♦♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡♥ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s ✭❛✉♥q✉❡ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣árr❛❢♦
❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❧❛s r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❞♦s ú❧t✐♠❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❛♣❡♥❛s ❡stá♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✮✳ P♦r ❡❧
❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a ② ❛❧t✉r❛
V0 ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐st✐♥t♦✱ ❝r❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ ♠♦♥ót♦♥❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛st❛ q✉❡ E ≃ 1,38 eV✱ ❞♦♥❞❡
t♦♠❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✶ ♣♦r ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❘❛♠s❛✉❡r✳
❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❘❛♠s❛✉❡r ❡s ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s
♦♥❞❛s r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❧ ♥♦ ❡①✐st✐r ♦♥❞❛
r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛ ♥❡t❛ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❝❛s♦ ✭❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✮
t❡♥❡♠♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛
E > V0 ❤❛② ❝✉❛tr♦ ♦♥❞❛s r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛s✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ s✐ E < V0 ❤❛② ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞♦s✱ ✉♥❛ ♣♦r
❝❛❞❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛✳ ❊♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝❛s♦✱ ❧❛s ♦♥❞❛s r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ✐♥t❡r❢❡r✐r ❞❡str✉❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s s❡ñ❛❧❛❞♦✱ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡
r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✳ ◗✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❛❧❝❛♥❝❡ s✉ ♠á①✐♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r✱ T (E) = 1✱ ♣❛r❛
❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✺✻✮
❡♥tr❡ T (E) ② ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s |Fg (E)|2 ② |Fu (E)|2 ✳
➓ ✺✳ ❉❡t❛❧❧❡♠♦s ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás ❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ E < V0 ✳ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ➓✶✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡s❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s


 k2 + η2

 β E = sinh(ηa)
1 2kη
T (E) = , con
1 + 4β 2E (1 + β 2E ) cos2 (kL − γ α ) 

 η2 − k2
 tan γ a = tanh(ηa)
2kη
 ✶✵✳✺✳ ❊▲ ▼■❈❘❖❙❈❖P■❖ ❉❊ ❊❋❊❈❚❖ ❚Ú◆❊▲

1.0

T (E )
0.5

Dos barreras

Una barrera

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

E/V 0

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✵✲✶✹✳ ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ q✉❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞♦❜❧❡
✭❧í♥❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✮ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ✭❧í♥❡❛ ❛ tr❛③♦s✮✳ ▲♦s
♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s s♦♥ V0 = 1 ❡❱✱ a = 1 ♥♠ ② b = 2 ♥♠✳ ▲❛s ✢❡❝❤❛s s❡ñ❛❧❛♥ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡
T (E) = 1

p √
s✐❡♥❞♦ η = |q| = 2M (V0 − E)/~ ② k = 2M E/~✳ ❈♦♠♦ β E > 0 ❡s ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡
♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❝❡r♦✱ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ s❡rí❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥♦ s✐ cos(kL − γ α ) = 0 ♦✱
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ s✐
tan(kL) tan γ α = −1
✭❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝♦s❡♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡st❛ ② r❡♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s✮✳ ❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦
tan γ α ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡ ❡s

2kη 1
T (E) = 1 ⇔ tan(kL) = si 0 < E < V0 . ✭✶✵✳✺✼✮
k 2 − η 2 tanh(ηa)

P❛r❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❛♥❝❤❛s ✭ηa ≫ 1✮ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ tanh(ηa) ❡♥ ✭✶✵✳✺✼✮ ❡s

♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❧í♠✐t❡
2kη
T (E) = 1 ⇔ tan(kL) = si 0 < E < V0 y ηa ≫ 1. ✭✶✵✳✺✽✮
k2 − η2

➱st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡

❛♥❝❤✉r❛ L ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞ V0 ✭❝❢r✳ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✾✳✷✮✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ q✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♥✜r♠❛❞♦ q✉❡
❧❛ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ❛♥❝❤❛s s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡
✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s ✳ ❆
s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ β E ✈❛ ❛ s❡r s✐❡♠♣r❡ ♠✉② ❣r❛♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ E ∈ (0, V0 ✮✳ ❊st♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛
♣♦r q✉é ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡s ❝❡r♦ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♠✉② ❝❡r❝❛♥❛s ❛ ❧❛
❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ② ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❡♥tr❡ T (E) ② ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

|Fg (E)|2 ② |Fu (E)|2 ✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ T (E) ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❡s
❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ▲♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❝❤✉r❛ Γres ✿
1
T (E) ≃ si E ∼ Eres y Eres < V0 . ✭✶✵✳✺✾✮
1 + 4(E − Eres )2 /Γ2res

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ ❛ ❧❛s r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ✭②✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱
❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s✮ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①tr❛❡r
❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✶✳ ❘❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ♣❛r❝✐❛❧ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡ x = −∞ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥
❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ 
 V+ si x ≥ 0
V (x) = con V+ = 1 eV

0 si x < 0
❙❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ✺✵ ✪ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ r❡❜♦t❡ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ❞❡
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ② ✈✉❡❧✈❛ ❛ −∞✳

❛✮ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛❄

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρE,→ (x) ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ s✉
✐♥t❡r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✷✳ ❊st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣♦③♦ ✜♥✐t♦

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐♣♦ ✏♣♦③♦ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦✑
(
−V0 si |x| < a/2
V (x) = con V0 > 0.
0 si |x| > a/2
❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡ x ≪ 0 ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ E > 0✱ ➽❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡ tr❛♥s♠✐t❛ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x ≫ 0❄ ➽❊①✐st❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤❛
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥♦❄

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✸✳ ❊s❝❛❧ó♥ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ✏❞♦❜❧❡
❡s❝❛❧ó♥✑ 
 0 si x < 0

V (x) = V0 /2 si 0 < x < a con V0 > 0.


V0 si x > a
❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣r♦❝❡❞❛ ❞❡s❞❡ x≪0 ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ E > V0 ✱ ❤❛❧❧❡
② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ E ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡ ❧♦s ❝❛s♦s a → 0 ②
a ≫ 0✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✹✳ ❇❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐♣♦ ❞❡❧t❛

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ x = 0✱ ❞❡ ❛❧t✉r❛ V0 ②
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ a s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛
E < V0 ✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ a→0 ② V0 = γ/a ❝♦♥ γ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛
❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ γ δ(x)✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

❛✮ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✶✵✳✸✹✮✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ T ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡s

 r r 
E0 E0
 1+i E
i
E  M γ2
 
T= r r  , con E0 = .
 E0 E0  2~2
−i 1−i
E E
❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❢r❡♥t❡ ❛ E ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛
❝✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ΦE,→ (x)✳ ➽❈ó♠♦ ❡s s✉ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ x = 0❄
❞✮ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ♣❛r✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ΦE (x) ♣✉❡❞❡
❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s r❡❛❧❡s ΦE,g (x) ② ΦE,u (x) ✭❣✿
♣❛r✱ ✉✿ ✐♠♣❛r✮✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② r❡♣r❡sé♥t❡❧❛s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ E = E0 ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✺✳ ✭✯✮ ❘❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

 0 si x < 0
V (x) = ~ 2 con V0 , k > 0
 x si x > 0
2M a3
❊st♦ ❡s✱ s✉ ♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧✐❜r❡ s✐ x < 0 ♣❡r♦ ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡
♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ OX − s✐ x > 0✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ② r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
E = ~2 /(2M a2 )✳ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡s❢❛s❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♦♥❞❛ ✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡s❞❡ x ≪ 0 ② ❧❛ r❡✢❡❥❛❞❛
❤❛❝✐❛ x ≪ 0❄ ❉❛t♦s✿ Ai(−1) ≃ 0,536 ; Ai′ (−1) ≃ 0,010✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✻✳ ✭✦✦✮ ▲❛ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦

P❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ♠❡tá❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♦❝✉♣❛ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x < 0✳ ❙✐ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❛❝tú❛
✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❢♦r♠❡ E in (r, t) = −E0 ux ✱ ❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡
q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ q✉❡ ❛♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛ ❛
❞✐❝❤♦ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x < 0✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧
❡stá♥ s✉❥❡t♦s ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
(
−(W0 + EF ) si x < 0
V (x) = con W0 , EF > 0,
−2eE0 x si x > 0

❞♦♥❞❡ −❡ ❡s ❧❛ ❝❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥✱ W0 ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✱ EF ❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡

❋❡r♠✐ ② ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r ✷ ❡♥ V (x > 0✮ ❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦
✐♥❞✉❝✐❞♦ ♣♦r E in (r, t)✳ ❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦
(−W0 − EF , −W0 )✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛❧ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡s❝❛♣❛rá♥ ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥
♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦✱ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s t❡❝♥♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s✳

❛✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇✱ ❡st✐♠❡ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ W0 ② E0 ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡

❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ♠❡♥♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♠❡t❛❧✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❜✮ ❙✐ E0 = 108 V/m✱ ❤❛❣❛ ✉♥❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥❡s ❡♠✐t✐❞♦s ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥❛
♠✉❡str❛ ♠❡tá❧✐❝❛ ❝✉②❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ S ❡s ❞❡ 1 ❝♠2 ✳ ❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❡❧ r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦
q✉❡ ♥♦s ❧❧❡✈ó ❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✹✵✮ ② ❧♦s ór❞❡♥❡s ❞❡ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❛❧❧í s✉❣❡r✐❞♦s✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✼✳ ✭✯✮ ❘❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❡s


 +∞ si x < 0


 0 si 0 < x < a 2me a2 V0
V (x) = con V0 = 1 eV ; = 50

 V 0 si a < x < 3a/2 ~2



0 si x > 3a/2

❊❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦ ❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ R+ ②✱ s❛❧✈♦

❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡❣✉❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ΦE (x) ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ q✉❡
( √
A sin(kx) si 0 ≤ x ≤ a 2me E
ΦE (x) = con k = ✭✶✵✳✻✵✮
cos(kx + δ) si x ≥ 3a/2 ~

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞ A ② ❡❧ ❞❡s❢❛s❡ δ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ E ✳

❛✮ ❏✉st✐✜q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✵✳✻✵✮✳

❜✮ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ |A|2 ❢r❡♥t❡ ❛ E ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ E ∈ (0, V0 )✳
❝✮ P❛r❛ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ E ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ |A|2 ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡s✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❡ s✉s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦s ❡♥
❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✾✳❝✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✵✳✽✳ ✭✯✯✮ ❱✐❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛

❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❛❞♦✱ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ L s✐t✉❛❞❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❜❛rr❡r❛s ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❡s♣❡s♦r a ② ❛❧t✉r❛ V0 ✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s
q✉❡ ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s s♦♥ ♠✉② ❛♥❝❤❛s (a ≫ 0)✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡ ❝♦♥
❡♥❡r❣í❛ Eres < V0 ✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ s✉ ✈✐❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡st✐♠❛rs❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥
s p
1 M L2 2M (V0 − Eres )
τ res ∼ exp(2η res a) con η res = .
2 2Eres ~

■♥t❡r♣r❡t❡ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳ ❏✉③❣✉❡ s✉ ✈❛❧✐❞❡③ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ tr❛t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣é♥❞✐❝❡
s♦❜r❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛s✳
❆②✉❞❛✿ ❙✐ a ≫ 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ β E ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✵✳✺ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡
V02 exp(2η res a) 1
β 2E ≃ ∼ exp(2η res a) ≫ 1 si E ∼ Eres ✭✶✵✳✻✶✮
16Eres (V0 − Eres ) 2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❉❊ ❈❖▲■❙■Ó◆ ❊◆ ❯◆❆ ❉■▼❊◆❙■Ó◆

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❡s cos(kL − γ α ) = 0✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥

❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
2
cos2 (kL − γ α ) ≃ (kL − γ α − [kres L − γ res ]) si E ∼ Eres
√
❞♦♥❞❡ kres ② γ res s♦♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ k = 2M E/~ ② ❞❡ γ α s✐ E = Eres ✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ kL
✈❛rí❛ ❝♦♥ ❊ ♠ás rá♣✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ γ α ✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
2M L2 √ p
cos2 (kL − γ α ) ∼ (k − kres )2 L2 = 2
( E − Eres )2
~
√ √
② ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ E− Eres ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ Eres s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

M L2
cos2 (kL − γ α ) ∼ (E − Eres )2 si E ∼ Eres . ✭✶✵✳✻✷✮
2~2 Eres
▲❛s ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭✶✵✳✻✶✮ ② ✭✶✵✳✻✷✮ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá♥ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡
tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ▲♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛✳
 ❚❡♠❛ ✶✶
❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❯♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❡s ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✳ ❊❧❧♦ ❡s

❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ ♠✉❝❤♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❢ís✐❝♦s s♦♥ ❞❡ ❢❛❝t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ❛ ✉♥
♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✭♦ ❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r❡s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s✮✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r
tér♠✐♥♦ ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡
s✉ ♠í♥✐♠♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✳

❊♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧✉❣❛r ❤❛❧❧❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛

q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛✳ ❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥
❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳ ❈♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❧❛
t❡♦rí❛ ❜ás✐❝❛✱ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱
❞❡ ❣r❛♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ❛✈❛♥③❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛✱ ② ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s
❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✳

❋✐♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❡①t❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦s ❛ ✈❛r✐❛s

❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✳

❖r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦

❙✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ✉♥❛s ✷✵ ❤♦r❛s ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧✳ ❯♥ t❡r❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❤❛ ❞❡

❞❡❞✐❝❛rs❡ ❛❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ② ❡❧ r❡st♦ ❛❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s r❡s✉❡❧t♦s ② ❛
❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦s✳

❖❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

❈♦♥♦❝❡r ♣❡r❢❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥

♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳

❙❛❜❡r r❡s♦❧✈❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦✳

▼❛♥❡❥❛r ❝♦♥ s♦❧t✉r❛ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥✳

❋❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡s ② s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳

❙❛❜❡r ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r

❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡♥ ✈❛r✐❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧❡s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

11.1✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘

➓ ✶✳ ■♠❛❣✐♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡

✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ r❡❝✉♣❡r❛❞♦r❛ Fx = −Ke x✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ Ke ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡❧ást✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛
❢✉❡r③❛✳ ❈❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♦s❝✐❧❛ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
p
❞❡ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐♦ x=0 ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♦ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω= Ke /M ❀ ❞❡ ❛❤í
❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❧❡ ❞❛ ❛ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛
❢ís✐❝♦✳

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❡s

1 1
V (x) = Ke x2 = M ω 2 x2 , ✭✶✶✳✶✮
2 2
❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡s

1 2 1
Ĥ = K̂ + V̂ = p̂ + M ω 2 x̂2 . ✭✶✶✳✷✮
2M x 2
❊♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛

~2 d 2 1
Ĥ = − 2
+ M ω 2 x2 . ✭✶✶✳✸✮
2M dx 2

❈♦♥✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r

r
~
α≡ ✭✶✶✳✹✮
Mω
❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ✭✶✶✳✸✮ ❝♦♠♦ ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦ ♣♦r
s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✮

 
1 d2 1 2 x
Ĥ = ~ω − + u , con u ≡ . ✭✶✶✳✺✮
2 du2 2 α
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ~ω ❡s ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ◆✉❡str♦ ♣r✐♠❡r ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❧❛s

❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱
❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ❞✐s❝r❡t♦ ② ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛s
❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s❡rá♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ② r❡❛❧❡s ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛
✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✮✳ ❙✐ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛♠♦s ♣♦r Φn (x) ❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ En
 ✶✶✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘

✭n = 0, 1, 2, ...✮✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) ❡s ♣❛r t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ n ♣❛r s♦♥ ♣❛r❡s ② ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ n ✐♠♣❛r✱
✐♠♣❛r❡s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t✉r♠ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✾✳✶✳✹✮✱
❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φn (x) t❡♥❞rá n ♥♦❞♦s✳

▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

❣❡♥ér✐❝❛ ❡s
 
~2 d 2 1 2 2
ĤΦn (x) = En Φn (x) ⇒ − + M ω x Φn (x) = En Φn (x) ✭✶✶✳✻✮
2M dx2 2
② s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ x → u = x/α✱ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱

   φn (u) = Φn (αu)
1 d2 1
− + u2 φn (u) = εn φn (u) con ✭✶✶✳✼✮
2 du2 2  ε n = 1 En
~ω
❊♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦✱ ✭✶✶✳✼✮ t✐❡♥❡ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ εn ✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦
ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s♦♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛s ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❝♦t❛❞❛s ✭❛q✉❡❧❧❛s q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ q✉❡
φn (u) → 0 s✐ |u| → ∞✮ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡rá♥ ❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳ ❊st♦
ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡rá ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣❛r❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞✐s❝r❡t♦s ❞❡ εn ✳
❖❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s ❛♣r❡♥❞✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✾ ♣❛r❛
r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❡st❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥s❛②❛r ❞✐st✐♥t❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❜❛s❛❞❛s
❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ✉♥❛
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ✏❢❛❝t✐❜❧❡✑ ❡s
2
φn (u) = hn (u)e−ζu ✭✶✶✳✽✮

❞♦♥❞❡ ζ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛ ② hn (u) ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n ② ❝♦♥ ❧❛

♠✐s♠❛ ♣❛r✐❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ n✳ ❙✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✽✮ ❡♥
✭✶✶✳✼✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
 
2ζ − 2εn + (1 − 4ζ 2 )u2 hn (u) + 4ζuh′n (u) − h′′n (u) = 0.

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ (1 − 4ζ 2 )u2 hn (u) ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n + 2✱ ❝✉②♦

❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♣❛r❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❣r❛♥❞❡s ❞❡ u ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❡♥s❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♦tr♦s
tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✭②❛ q✉❡ ❡s♦s s✉♠❛♥❞♦s t✐❡♥❡♥
❣r❛❞♦s ♠❡♥♦r❡s q✉❡ n + 2✮✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ✭✶✶✳✽✮ s❡❛ ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rs❡ ❞♦s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s✿ q✉❡ ζ = 1/2 ②
q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❣❛ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

(1 − 2εn )hn (u) + 2uh′n (u) − h′′n (u) = 0. ✭✶✶✳✾✮

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✳✶ ▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ♣♦r ❧♦

q✉❡ ❜❛st❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✳
P❛r❛ ✜❥❛r ✉♥ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ♠á①✐♠♦
❣r❛❞♦ ❡♥ hn (u) ❡s 2n ✳
❙✐ n = 0✱ ❡❧ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ h0 (u) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡✳ ❊❧✐❣✐❡♥❞♦ ❡s❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧
❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✾✮✱ 1 − 2ε0 = 0 ② ε0 = 1/2✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱
Φ0 (x) ∝ 2 2
exp[−x /(2α )] ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✱ ❝✉②❛
❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s E0 = ~ω/2✳
P❛r❛ n = 1✱ h1 (u) ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✐♠♣❛r ② ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ✉♥♦✱ ② ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥
♥✉❡str♦ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦✱ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡ h1 (u) = 2u✳ ❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✾✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s
q✉❡ ε1 = 3/2✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ❡s
Φ1 (x) ∝ 2(x/α) exp[−x2 /(2α2 )] ② s✉ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s E1 = 3~ω/2✳
n = 2✱ h2 (u) ❡s ♣❛r ② ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ❞♦s✿ h2 (u) = 4u2 +β 0 ✳ ❉❡s❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s t❛♥t♦
P❛r❛
β 0 ❝♦♠♦ ε2 ✱ ♣❡r♦ s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡ ②
♦♣❡r❛♥❞♦ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

(−2β 0 ε2 − 8 + β 0 ) + (5 − 2ε2 )4u2 = 0.

❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝✐❡rt❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ u✱
❞❡❜❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rs❡ q✉❡
  ε2 = 5/2 ② q✉❡ β 0 = −2✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♣✉❡s Φ2 (x) ∝
4(x/α) − 2 exp[−x2 /(2α2 )]✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ E2 = 5~ω/2✳
2

P❛r❛ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ n ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡s s✐♠✐❧❛r✳ ❊①♣r❡s❛♠♦s

♣r✐♠❡r♦ hn (u) ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n ② s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✾✮✳ ❚r❛s
r❡♦r❞❡♥❛r ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s✱ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ♥♦s ❞❛rá ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n ❝✉②♦s
❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ❝❡r♦✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❡♥❝❛❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉②❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s s❡rá♥ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛ εn ② ❧♦s
❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡s❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ❞❡ hn (u)✳
❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡❧ ♠♦♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ n ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
✭✶✶✳✾✮ s❡rá

(1 − 2εn + 2n)2n un

② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝❡r♦

1
1 − 2εn + 2n = 0 ⇒ εn = n + . ✭✶✶✳✶✵✮
2

✶
P♦r ❡s❡ ♠♦t✐✈♦✱ ❧♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s hn (u) r❡❝✐❜❡♥ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✳
 ✶✶✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘

❊st♦ ♥♦s ✜❥❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱

 
1
En = n+ ~ω con n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ✭✶✶✳✶✶✮
2

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s hn (u) s♦♥

h0 (u) = 1 h1 (u) = 2u
2
h2 (u) = −2 + 4u h3 (u) = −12u + 8u3
h4 (u) = 12 − 48u2 + 16u4 h5 (u) = 120u − 160u3 + 32u5
h6 (u) = −120 + 720u2 − 480u4 + 64u6 ✭✶✶✳✶✷✮

q✉❡ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❞✐❝❤♦ s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✱ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥
✹✳✸✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❡s

x   r
x2 ~
Φn (x) = Cn hn exp − 2 con α = ✭✶✶✳✶✷✮
α 2α Mω

s✐❡♥❞♦ Cn ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳ P✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ kΦn k = 1 s✐

1
Cn = √ . ✭✶✶✳✶✸✮
(2n n! πα)1/2

▲❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❡stá♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛s

❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✶✲✶✳

❈♦♠♦ Φn (x) s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥

❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s En ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧
❞❡ L2 (R)✳ ➱st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✱ q✉❡ ②❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❥✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥
✹✳✸✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛rs❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s

dn exp(−u2 )
hn (u) = (−1)n exp(u2 )
dun
hn (u) = 2uhn−1 (u) − 2 (n − 1) hn−2 (u) si n ≥ 2 ✭✶✶✳✶✹✮

h′n (u) = 2nhn−1 (u) si n ≥ 1.

❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ hn (u) ❡♥

tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦s n−1 ② n − 2✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

V (x )

n = 3

n = 2

n = 1

n = 0

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x/

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✶✲✶✳ P❡r✜❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❝✉❛tr♦ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✳
▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛❞❛s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛r s✉ ✈✐s✐ó♥

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❛✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω ② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ α✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ x̂ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✲és✐♠❛ ✜❧❛ ② ❡♥ ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ A

❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❣❡♥ér✐❝♦ Â ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ {|Φn i} ❡s ✷

As,n = hΦs |Â Φn i ≡ hΦs |Â|Φn i.

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r x̂ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦

❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ |Φn i✱ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s

x̂Φn (x) = xΦn (x).

P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♣❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✭✶✶✳✶✹✮✳ ❙✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s u ♣♦r x/α ② t❡♥❡♠♦s
❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡
x    
1 x2 √
1/2 x2
hn = Φn (x) exp = 2n n! πα Φn (x) exp
α Cn 2α2 2α2

❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡
√ p x p
2n n! Φn (x) = 2 2n−1 (n − 1)! Φn−1 (x) − 2 (n − 1) 2n−2 (n − 2)! Φn−2 (x).
α

✷
❊♥ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ s❡ ✉s❛ ❝♦♥ ♠ás ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ hΦs |Â|Φn i✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ♠ás ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡

As,n ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❜r❛ hΦs | s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦ Â|Φn i✳
 ✶✶✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘

❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ② r❡♦r❞❡♥❛♥❞♦✱

α √ √

xΦn−1 (x) = √ n Φn (x) + n − 1 Φn−2 (x) .
2
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ s✉♠❛♠♦s ✉♥♦ ❛❧ í♥❞✐❝❡ n ② ✈♦❧✈❡♠♦s ❛ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝

α √ √ 
x̂|Φn i = √ n + 1 |Φn+1 i + n| Φn−1 i ✭✶✶✳✶✺✮
2
②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

α √ √ 
Xs,n = hΦs |x̂Φn i = √ n + 1 hΦs |Φn+1 i + n hΦs |Φn−1 i .
2

❈♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s |Φn i s♦♥ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s✱ q✉❡❞❛ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ q✉❡


  0 si |s − n| 6= 1
α √ √
Xs,n =√ n + 1 δ s,n+1 + n δ s,n−1 = α p ✭✶✶✳✶✻✮
2  √ máx(s, n) si |s − n| = 1
2

❞♦♥❞❡ máx(s, n) ❡s ❡❧ ♠á①✐♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ♣❛r ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s (s, n✮✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡
❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r x̂ ✏❝♦♥❡❝t❛✑ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❝♦♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦s
❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈♦s✳
❯♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛♥ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ x̂ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✱ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡s✿

 √ 
√0 1 √0 0 ···
 1 0 2 
α  √ √0 · · · 
 0 2 √0 3 ··· 
X= √  . ✭✶✶✳✶✼✮
2
 0 0 3 0 ··· 

✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

➓ ✸✳ ❯♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ♠✉② ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡s q✉❡ s✉ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦

❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s ❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ ❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s x̂ ② p̂x ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
♠♦♠❡♥t♦s s♦♥
∂
p̂x → px ; x̂ → +i~
∂px
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❡s

 
M ω 2 ~2 ∂ 2 1 2 1 d2 1 2
Ĥ = V̂ + K̂ = − + p = ~ω − + κ ✭✶✶✳✶✽✮
2 ∂p2x 2M x 2 dκ2 2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ κ ❡s ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞♦

α
κ= px ✭✶✶✳✶✾✮
~
❉❡ ❡st❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φ̃n (px ) s❡rá♥✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱
✐❞é♥t✐❝❛s ❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φn (x)✱ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ x ♣♦r px ② α ♣♦r ~/α✳ ❊st♦ ❡s✱

 αp    r
x α 2 p2 ~
Φ̃n (px ) = Cn hn exp − 2x con α = ✭✶✶✳✷✵✮
~ 2~ Mω

❡st❛♥❞♦ ❞❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ Cn ♣♦r

 1/2
α
Cn = (−i)n √ . ✭✶✶✳✷✶✮
2n n! π~
❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ❢❛❝t♦r (−i)n s❡ ❤❛ ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛r q✉❡ Φ̃n (px ) s❡❛ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡
❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❡ Φn (x)✿✸
Z +∞
1
Φ̃n (px ) = √ Φn (x)e−ipx x/~ dx. ✭✶✶✳✷✷✮
2π~ −∞

❚r❛❜❛❥❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ ② s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦

♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ ❛❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡s r❡❧❛t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
❢á❝✐❧ ✈❡r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡s
 √ 
√0 − 1 √0 0 ···
 1 √0 − 2 0 ··· 
i~  0 2 0 −
√
3 ···


Px = √  √ . ✭✶✶✳✷✸✮
2α 
 0 0 3 0 ··· 

✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳
✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

❊st❛ ♠❛tr✐③✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡s ❤❡r♠ít✐❝❛✳

➓ ✹✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ s✉ n✲és✐♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦

❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ |Φn i✳
• ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ s✉ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s
Z +∞
hxi|Φn i = x|Φn (x)|2 dx = 0 ✭✶✶✳✷✹✮
−∞

✸
❊st❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✳
 ✶✶✳✶✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❊❙❚❆❈■❖◆❆❘■❖❙ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘

♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ |Φn (x)|2 = Φ2n (x) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r✳

❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ s✉ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡rá

hpx i|Φn i = 0, ✭✶✶✳✷✺✮

❝♦♠♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❧✐❣❛❞♦✳ ❊st♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s s♦♥

❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧❡s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s ❞❡
✭✶✶✳✶✼✮ ② ✭✶✶✳✷✸✮✳

• ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧ ✿

1
hKi|Φn i = hV i|Φn i = En ✭✶✶✳✷✻✮
2

❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡

❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ② ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥✳ ❍❛② ♠✉❝❤❛s ♠❛♥❡r❛s ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛r ❡st❡

t❡♦r❡♠❛✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛♠♦s ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r

♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

Z +∞ Z +∞ x
M ω2 M ω2 1 2 /α2
hV i|Φn i = x2 |Φn (x)|2 dx = √ x2 h2n e−x dx.
2 −∞ 2 2n n! πα −∞ α

❙✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ x → u = x/α✱

Z +∞ Z +∞
M ω 2 α2 2 ~ω 2
hV i|Φn i = n+1 √ u2 h2n (u) e−u du = n+1 √ u2 h2n (u) e−u du.
2 n! π −∞ 2 n! π −∞

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ s✐ ❡✈❛❧✉❛♠♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❧❛

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱

Z +∞ Z +∞  αp 
1 1 α x 2 p2 /~2
hKi|Φn i = p2x |Φ̃n (px )|2 dpx = n
√ p2x h2n e−α x dpx
2M −∞ 2M 2 n! π~ −∞ ~

② ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ px → κ = αpx /~✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s tr❛s ♦♣❡r❛r q✉❡

Z +∞
~ω 2
hKi|Φn i = √ κ2 h2n (κ) e−κ dκ.
2n+1 n! π −∞

❊st❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❧

✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V✱ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❡s ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥t❡✳
❖tr❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❞✐r ❛
❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡s ♣❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

✭✶✶✳✶✹✮✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ② ❡❧❡❣❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦
❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❜✳ ✭✯✮ ❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
❝♦♥s❡r✈❛t✐✈❛ Fx (x) q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x)✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛
❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ |Φi ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧

1
hK̂i|Φi = − hx̂F̂x i|Φi ✭✶✶✳✷✼✮
2

❞♦♥❞❡ K ❡s ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ P❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✐❝❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r

❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✳
❆②✉❞❛✿ P❛rt❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ hΦ(t)|x̂p̂x |Φ(t)i ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❙❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r  ✭♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✮

d i
hΦ(t)|Â|Φ(t)i = − hΦ(t)|[Â, Ĥ]|Φ(t)i.
dt ~
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ |Φ(t)i = exp(−iEt/~)|Φi s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

i i
− hΦ(t)|[Â, Ĥ]|Φ(t)i = − hΦ|[Â, Ĥ]|Φi = 0
~ ~
② s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s
i
 = x̂p̂x =⇒ − hΦ|[x̂p̂x , Ĥ]|Φi = 0.
~
❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r
i i i
− [x̂p̂x , Ĥ] = − x̂[p̂x , Ĥ] − [x̂, Ĥ]p̂x
~ ~ ~
② s❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡
i i 1
− [p̂x , Ĥ] = F̂x ; − [x̂, Ĥ] = p̂x ,
~ ~ M
t❡♥❡♠♦s
i   1
− hΦ| x̂p̂x , Ĥ |Φi = 0 ⇒ hΦ|x̂F̂x |Φi + hΦ|p̂2x |Φi = 0.
~ M
❈♦♠♦ K̂ = p̂2x /(2M )✱ s✐ |Φi ❡stá ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧
✈✐r✐❛❧ ✭✶✶✳✷✼✮✳
P❛r❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ F̂x = −M ω 2 x̂✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧ r❡③❛

M ω2 2
hK̂i|Φi = x̂ |Φi
= hV̂ i|Φi ,
2
q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✭✶✶✳✷✻✮✳
 ✶✶✳✷✳ ❉■◆➪▼■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

11.2✳ ❉■◆➪▼■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

➓ ✶✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r

❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ② ❞✐s❝✉t✐❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞❡ s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✱ ❡s ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❧❛
❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ Fx = −M ω 2 x✳
• ❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✻✱ s✐ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t=0 ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡s Ψ(x)✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

∞
X
Ψ(x, t) = cn e−iEn t/~ Φn (x), con cn = hΦn |Ψi. ✭✶✶✳✷✽✮
n=0

❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❝♦♥ só❧♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s {cn } ❞❡ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡♥ t=0 ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

• P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ s✐ ❞❡s✐❣♥❛♠♦s ♣♦r hAit ❛❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A
❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ |Ψ(t)i✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡

d i
hAit = − h[Â, Ĥ]it ✭✶✶✳✷✾✮
dt ~
②✱ ❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧♦s
t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st

d 1 d
hxit = hpx it hpx it = −M ω 2 hxit ✭✶✶✳✸✵✮
dt M dt
❞♦♥❞❡ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦ q✉❡ Fx = −M ω 2 x✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛♠♦s r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧
t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ② s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s dhpx it /dt ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛✱
❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

d2
hxit = −ω 2 hxit . ✭✶✶✳✸✶✮
dt2

❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳ ❙✉ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥

❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡s
hpx i0
hxit = hxi0 cos(ωt) + sin(ωt), ✭✶✶✳✸✷✮
Mω
s✐❡♥❞♦ hxi0 ② hpx i0 t = 0 ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦
❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡♥
❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡❧
✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ s✐❣✉❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥
♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

P♦r ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st ❡st❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧

♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A(x, px ) s❡ t✐❡♥❡
❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
hA(x, p̂x )it 6= A(hxit , hpx it ),
❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♥♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❛ ♣r✐♦r✐ ❛ ♦tr❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s
❢ís✐❝❛s✳ ❊❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛ ❡st❡ ♣✉♥t♦✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❝✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ■

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t=0 ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡
❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω ❡s

1 1
Ψ(x, 0) = √ Φ0 (x) + √ Φ1 (x),
2 2
❞♦♥❞❡
1 2 2 1 2x −x2 /(2α2 )
Φ0 (x) = √ 1/2
e−x /(2α ) ; Φ1 (x) = √ 1/2
e
( πα) (2 πα) α
p
s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ② α = ~/(M ω) ❡s ❧❛
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r✳

❛✮ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ Ψ(x, t)✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❛♥❛❧✐❝❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❡♥
❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x, t) ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳
❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s
❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❝❧ás✐❝♦✳
❝✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ❉❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛

1 1
Ψ(x, t) = √ Φ0 (x)e−iE0 t/~ + √ Φ1 (x)e−iE1 t/~
2 2
② ❝♦♠♦ En = (n + 1/2)~ω

1   e−iωt/2

Ψ(x, t) = √ e−iωt/2 Φ0 (x) + Φ1 (x)e−3iωt/2 = √ Φ0 (x) + Φ1 (x)e−iωt
2 2
✭❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣❡r♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s✱ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛rá ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s

❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ✮✳

▲❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s

1 2
ρ(x, t) = |Ψ(x, t)|2 = Φ0 (x) + Φ1 (x)e−iωt
2
 ✶✶✳✷✳ ❉■◆➪▼■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆ ❉❊ ❯◆ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0.8 0.8 0.8
t=0 t = T/8 t = T/4
0.6
t=T 0.6
t = 7T/8 0.6
t = 3T/4
( , )
xt

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

x/ x/ x/
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

0.8 0.8

t = 3T/8 t = T/2
0.6
t = 5T/8 0.6
( , )
xt

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

x/ x/

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✶✶✲✷✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x, t) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✶✳✸

❞✉r❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥✳ ▲❛s ❧í♥❡❛s ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧❡s s❡ñ❛❧❛♥ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ x

② ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φn (x) s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s

1 2

ρ(x, t) = Φ0 (x) + Φ21 (x) + Φ0 (x)Φ1 (x)e−iωt + Φ0 (x)Φ1 (x)e+iωt =
2
2 2
" √ #
1 2 2

e−x /α 2x2 2x
= Φ (x) + Φ1 (x) + 2Φ0 (x)Φ1 (x) cos(ωt) = √ 1+ 2 +2 cos(ωt)
2 0 2 πα α α

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ cos(ωt) = [exp(iωt) + exp(−iωt)] /2✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ρ(x, t) ♦s❝✐❧❛

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ T = 2π/ω ✭✈❡❛ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ✶✶✲✷✮✳

❜✮ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s

Z +∞
hxit = hΨ(t)|x̂|Ψ(t)i = Ψ∗ (x, t) x Ψ(x, t) dx
−∞

② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ Ψ(x, t) ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

1

hxit = hΦ0 |x̂|Φ0 i + hΦ1 |x̂|Φ1 i + hΦ0 |x̂|Φ1 ie−iωt + hΦ1 |x̂|Φ0 ie+iωt .
2
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡❧

♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r✳ P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ x ② Φn (x) s♦♥ r❡❛❧❡s✱ hΦ0 |x̂|Φ1 i = hΦ1 |x̂|Φ0 i✱ ② q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡

hxit = hΦ0 |x̂|Φ1 i cos(ωt).

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❨❛ só❧♦ ❜❛st❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③✱ ❜✐❡♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛

r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ x̂ ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✶✼✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♠❡r❛ ✐❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞❛♠♦s ❛❧
❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞✐r❡❝t♦✳ ❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ Φ0 (x) ② Φ1 (x)✱
√ Z +∞ √ Z +∞
2 2 2 2α 2 α
hΦ0 |x̂|Φ1 i = √ 2 x2 e−x /α dx = √ u2 e−u du = √
πα −∞ π −∞ 2
②✱ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱
α
hxit = √ cos(ωt),
2
q✉❡√❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ♦s❝✐❧❛t♦r✐♦ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ s✐♠♣❧❡ ❞❡ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω ② ❛♠♣❧✐t✉❞
α/ 2✳ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s
Z +∞
∂Ψ(x, t)
hpx it = hΨ(t)|p̂x |Ψ(t)i = −i~ Ψ∗ (x, t) dx.
−∞ ∂x
❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ ② t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❞❡ p̂x ❡s ❝❡r♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✱
1

hpx it = hΦ0 |p̂x |Φ1 ie−iωt + hΦ1 |p̂x |Φ0 ie+iωt .
2
❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ p̂x ❞❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✷✸✮ ✭♦ ❡✈❛❧✉á♥❞♦❧♦s ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡✮
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
Z +∞
dΦ1 (x) i~
hΦ0 |p̂x |Φ1 i = hΦ1 |p̂x |Φ0 i∗ = −i~ Φ0 (x) dx = − √
−∞ dx 2α
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
i~
~
hpx it = − √ e−iωt − e+iωt = − √ sin(ωt).
2 2α 2α
❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❡r ✉s❛❞♦ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✱
dhxit M αω ~
hpx it = M = − √ sin(ωt) = − √ sin(ωt),
dt 2 2α
❧❧❡❣❛♥❞♦✱ ♥❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❛❧ ♠✐s♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳
❝✮ ❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s
1 
hV it = hΦ0 |V̂ |Φ0 i + hΦ1 |V̂ |Φ1 i + hΦ0 |V̂ |Φ1 ie−iωt + hΦ1 |V̂ |Φ0 ie+iωt
2
▲♦s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❧♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧ hΦn |V̂ |Φn i = En /2✳ ▲♦s ❞♦s ú❧t✐♠♦s s♦♥ ❝❡r♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡❣r❛♥❞♦ ❡♥
❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡s ✐♠♣❛r✱
Z +∞
1
hΦ0 |V̂ |Φ1 i = hΦ1 |V̂ |Φ0 i∗ = M ω2 Φ0 (x)x2 Φ1 (x)dx = 0.
2 −∞
 ✶✶✳✸✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

◗✉❡❞❛ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ q✉❡  

1 E0 E1 1
hV it = + = ~ω,
2 2 2 2
q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✳

11.3✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛

p ω ②
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ α = ~/(M ω)✳ ❉❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ †
✱ â ✱ ②
❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ â✱ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❝♦♠♦
 
1 1 α
↠≡√ x̂ − i p̂x
2 α ~
  ✭✶✶✳✸✸✮
1 1 α
â ≡ √ x̂ + i p̂x
2 α ~

❊st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛

❛❧❣✉♥❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s❡ñ❛❧❛ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦✱ s♦♥
❛❞❥✉♥t♦s ❡❧ ✉♥♦ ❞❡❧ ♦tr♦✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❡st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥ tr❛t❛♠✐❡♥t♦
♠✉② ❡❧❡❣❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r q✉❡✱ ❝♦♥ ♣♦❝❛s ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱
s❡ ✉s❛ ❡♥ ♦tr❛s ♠✉❝❤❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ❛✈❛♥③❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

❊♥ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧✉❣❛r✱ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✶✶✳✺✼✮✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❝♦♠♦

α   i~  † 
x̂ = √ ↠+ â ; p̂x = √ â − â . ✭✶✶✳✸✹✮
2 2α
✹
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛

α2  † 2  ~  † 2 
x̂2 = (â ) + â2 + ↠â + â↠= (â ) + â2 + ↠â + ââ†
2 2M ω
~ 2   ~M ω  
p̂2x = −(â † 2
) − â 2
+ â †
â + ââ †
= −(â † 2
) − â 2
+ â †
â + ââ †
2α2 2

✹
❚❡♥❣❛ ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦✱ â ② ↠♥♦

❝♦♥♠✉t❛♥✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

② ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s

1 2 1 ~ω  † 
Ĥ = p̂x + M ω 2 x̂2 = â â + â↠. ✭✶✶✳✸✺✮
2M 2 2
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ② ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s
" #
 †
 1 1 α 1 α
â, â = x̂ + i p̂x , x̂ − i p̂x
2 α ~ α ~

② ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧á♥❞♦❧♦ ② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
â, ↠= â↠− ↠â = Î ✭✶✶✳✸✻✮

❞♦♥❞❡ Î ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ q✉❡ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ✏✶✑✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛

❢♦r♠❛
↠â + â↠= 1 + 2↠â
② ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ Ĥ ❡s

   
1 † 1
Ĥ = ~ω â â + ≡ ~ω n̂ + ✭✶✶✳✸✼✮
2 2

s✐❡♥❞♦ n̂ = ↠â ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♥ú♠❡r♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❈♦♥ ❧❛ ❛②✉❞❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ↠② â ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡

❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ② ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s
❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✶✶✳✶✳

P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r [Ĥ, â]✳ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✭✶✶✳✻✶✮ ②

♦❜✈✐❛♥❞♦ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ s♦♥ tr✐✈✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥✉❧♦s✱

[Ĥ, â] = ~ω[↠â, â] = ~ω[↠, â]â = −~ω[â, ↠]â.

❉❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✻✵✮✱ ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛ q✉❡

[Ĥ, â] = −~ωâ. ✭✶✶✳✸✽✮

❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st❛❞♦ |Ψi s❡ t❡♥❞rá q✉❡

     
Ĥâ − âĤ |Ψi = −~ωâ|Ψi ⇒ Ĥ (â|Ψi) = âĤ − ~ωâ |Ψi = â Ĥ − ~ω |Ψi.
 ✶✶✳✸✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ s✐ |Φn i ❡s ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r En ✭n =

0, 1, 2, 3, ...✮✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

      
Ĥ â|Φn i = â En − ~ω |Φn i = (En − ~ω) â|Φn i .

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ â|Φn i ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r En −~ω ✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥❛❞❛ ❣❛r❛♥t✐③❛
q✉❡ â|Φn i ❡sté ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ |Φ0 i ❡s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ s❡
❞❡❜❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r q✉❡

â|Φ0 i = 0, ✭✶✶✳✸✾✮

②❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ♥✐♥❣ú♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ E0

✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ✉s❛♠♦s ✵ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡❧ ❦❡t ♥✉❧♦ |nuli ♣❛r❛ ♥♦ ❝❛r❣❛r ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✮✳

❉❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛♥❡r❛ s❡ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡

[Ĥ, ↠] = ~ω↠✭✶✶✳✹✵✮

② q✉❡ ↠|Φn i ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r En + ~ω ✳

❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❛❝t✉❛r Ĥ |Φ0 i✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✶✶✳✻✶✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s
s♦❜r❡ q✉❡

 
† 1 ~ω
Ĥ|Φ0 i = ~ω â â + |Φ0 i = ~ω↠â|Φ0 i + |Φ0 i
2 2

♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ â|Φ0 i = 0

~ω ~ω
Ĥ|Φ0 i = |Φ0 i ⇒ E0 = .
2 2
❍❡♠♦s✱ ♣✉❡s✱ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❡r♦ s✐♥ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❛❝t✉❛r â†
|Φ0 i t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥
s♦❜r❡
†
❡♥❡r❣í❛ 3~ω/2✳ ❯♥❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ â ❞❛rí❛ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
5~ω/2 ②✱ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ (↠)n s♦❜r❡ |Φ0 i r❡s✉❧t❛rá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦
❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ (n+1/2)~ω ✳ ❊st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❛sí ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱
s♦♥ ❧♦s ú♥✐❝♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s s✉❝❡s✐✈❛s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥
â s♦❜r❡ ✉♥ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝♦ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉②❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♥♦ s❡❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ (n + 1/2)~ω ✱ ❝♦♥
n ∈ N✱ t❡r♠✐♥❛rí❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐é♥❞♦♥♦s ❛ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ~ω/2✱
✺
❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡✳

✺
▲❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡✈✐t❛r❧♦ s❡rí❛ q✉❡ ❡①✐st✐❡s❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ |ϑi 6= |Ψ0 i t❛❧ q✉❡ â|ϑi = 0✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧❧♦
❡s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ú♥✐❝♦ ❡st❛❞♦ q✉❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ â|ϑi = 0 ❡s ❡❧ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦♥
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ~ω/2✱ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ú♥✐❝♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡s ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❊♥ s✉♠❛✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡s

 
1
En = n+ ~ω con n = 0, 1, 2, ... ✭✶✶✳✹✶✮
2
② ❡❧ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ En ❡s

|Φn i ∝ (↠)n |Φ0 i.

▲❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❡s❡ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡s

↠|Φn i ∝ |Φn+1 i ; â|Φn i ∝ |Φn−1 i.

❨❛ só❧♦ ❢❛❧t❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧❛s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s

❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✳ ❊❧❧♦ ❡s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ s✐ ♣❛rt✐♠♦s ❞❡
 
1 1
↠â|Φn i = Ĥ − |Φn i = n|Φn i, ✭✶✶✳✹✷✮
~ω 2
② ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✻✵✮✱

â↠|Φn i = (n + 1) |Φn i. ✭✶✶✳✹✸✮

❈♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❡stá♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦s✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

1
|Φn−1 i = â|Φn i ⇒ â|Φn i = kâ|Φn ik |Φn−1 i
kâ|Φn ik
② ❜❛st❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r kâ|Φn ik ✭➼❝✉✐❞❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦s✦✮✿

p q p √
kâ|Φn ik = hâΦn |âΦn i = hΦn |↠âΦn i = nhΦn |Φn i = n

❞♦♥❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❡♥ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣❛s♦ s❡ ❤❛ ❤❡❝❤♦ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✹✷✮✳ ▲❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛sí

❛❧ ♣r✐♠❡r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❜✉s❝❛❞♦✿

√
â|Φn i = n|Φn−1 i. ✭✶✶✳✹✹✮

❉❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛♥❡r❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

1
|Φn+1 i = ↠|Φn i ⇒ ↠|Φn i = k↠|Φn ik |Φn+1 i
k↠|Φ n ik

❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛
q q √
k↠|Φn ik = h↠Φn |↠Φn i = hΦn |â↠Φn i = n + 1,
 ✶✶✳✸✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

❤❛❜✐é♥❞♦s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ✭✶✶✳✹✸✮✳ P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱

√
↠|Φn i = n + 1|Φn+1 i. ✭✶✶✳✹✺✮

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡

√ √
(↠)n |Φ0 i = 1(↠)n−1 |Φ1 i = 1 × 2(↠)n−2 |Φ2 i
√ √
= 1 × 2 × 3(↠)n−3 |Φ3 i = ... = 1 × 2 × 3 × ... × n |Φn i

t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡stá ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

1
|Φn i = √ (↠)n |Φ0 i. ✭✶✶✳✹✻✮
n!

❊♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥✿

❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

• ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✿
   
1 1 α 1 1 α
↠≡ √ x̂ − i p̂x ; â ≡ √ x̂ + i p̂x
2 α ~ 2 α ~

• ❘❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥✿

[â, ↠] = â↠− ↠â = Î ; [Ĥ, â] = −~ωâ ; [Ĥ, ↠] = ~ωâ†

• ❆❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦s ❞❡ Ĥ

√ √
â|Φn i = n|Φn−1 i ; ↠|Φn i = n + 1|Φn+1 i

• ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ â ② ↠✿

 
α   i~  †  1
x̂ = √ ↠+ â ; p̂x = √ â − â ; Ĥ = ~ω ↠â +
2 2α 2
p
❞♦♥❞❡ α = ~/(M ω) ❡s ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❞✳ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ â

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥ â ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ♦❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳
❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ Φ0 (x) ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞
â|Φ0 i = 0✳
❝✮ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❝❡rr❛❞❛
q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❛ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Φn+1 (x) ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡
Φn (x)✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ❊s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ♦❜t❡♥❡r q✉❡ ✱

   
1 1 α 1 1 d
â = √ x̂ + i p̂x =√ x+α .
2 α ~ 2 α dx

❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ â ❡s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛

❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡s ♠❡♥♦s ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✱

 
† 1 1 d
â = √ x−α .
2 α dx

❜✮ ❊♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ â|Φ0 i = 0 s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❝♦♠♦

 
1 1 d d x
√ x+α Φ0 (x) = 0 =⇒ Φ0 (x) = − 2 Φ0 (x).
2 α dx dx α

▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛

 
x2
Φ0 (x) = C0 exp − 2 ,
2α

❞♦♥❞❡ C0 ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✱ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ✐♠♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦

❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Φ0 (x)✳
√
❝✮ P❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ↠|Φn i = n + 1|Φn+1 i t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
 
1 † 1 x dΦn (x)
Φn+1 (x) = √ â Φn (x) = √ √ Φn (x) − α , ✭✶✶✳✹✼✮
n+1 2 n+1 α dx

q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Φn+1 (x) ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ Φn (x)✳

➓ ✸✳ ▲❛ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s â ② ↠♥♦ s❡ ❧✐♠✐t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛

❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ② ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s✐♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✳ ❚♦❞❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞
❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ x̂ ② p̂x ②✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❞❡ â ② ↠✳
 ✶✶✳✸✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s

❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ x̂ s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡s

α   α √ √ 
x̂|Φn i = √ ↠+ â |Φn i = √ n + 1|Φn+1 i + n|Φn−1 i ✭✶✶✳✹✽✮
2 2
q✉❡✱ ♦❜✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✶✺✮ q✉❡ ♦❜t✉✈✐♠♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ r❡❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡
❍❡r♠✐t❡✳

■❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

i~  †  i~ √ √

p̂x |Φn i = √ â − â |Φn i = √ n + 1|Φn+1 i − n|Φn−1 i , ✭✶✶✳✹✾✮
2α 2α
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ Px ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✷✸✮✳

❈♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s x̂2 ② p̂2 ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞♦s ♣♦r

α2  † 2 α 2  
x̂2 = â + â = (↠)2 + â2 + ↠â + ââ†
2 2
✭✶✶✳✺✵✮

−~2  2 ~2  
p̂2x = ↠− â = −(↠)2 − â2 + ↠â + ââ†
2α2 2α2
❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ Ĥ = ~ω(↠â + â↠)/2 ② q✉❡ α2 = ~/(M ω)✱ ❧♦s
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ② ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ s♦♥

1 2 1 ~ω  † 2 
K̂ = p̂ = Ĥ − (â ) + â2
2M x 2 4
✭✶✶✳✺✶✮

1 1 ~ω  † 2 
V̂ = M ω 2 x̂2 = Ĥ + (â ) + â2 .
2 2 4
❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ K̂ ② V̂ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❡s

En ~ω p p 
K̂|Φn i = |Φn i − (n + 1)(n + 2) |Φn+2 i + n(n − 1) |Φn−2 i
2 4
✭✶✶✳✺✷✮

En ~ω p p 
V̂ |Φn i = |Φn i + (n + 1)(n + 2) |Φn+2 i + n(n − 1) |Φn−2 i ,
2 4
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❢á❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ hΦs |K̂|Φn i ②
hΦs |V̂ |Φn i✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡st♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ s♦♥ ♥✉❧♦s ❡①❝❡♣t♦ s✐ s = n
ó |s − n| = 2 ②✱ ❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱

En En
hK̂i|Φn i = hΦn |K̂|Φn i = ; hV̂ i|Φn i = hΦn |V̂ |Φn i =
2 2
q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❡✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ■■

❊❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ q✉❡ ❡♥
✉♥❛ ❤✐♣♦tét✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ 1/3 ❞❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ~ω/2
② ✉♥❛ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ 2/3 ❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ 5~ω/2✳ ❊s❝r✐❜❛ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ②
❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0✱ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ |Ψi ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s

❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ |Φ0 i ② |Φ2 i ❝♦♥ ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s c0 ② c2 t❛❧❡s q✉❡ |c0 |2 = 1/3 ② |c2 |2 = 2/3✳
❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡√ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
❡s❝♦❣❡r c0 = 1/ 3✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❞❛t♦s q✉❡ s❡ ♥♦s s✉♠✐♥✐str❛♥ ♥♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧
❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ δ ❞❡ c2 ✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛✱
r
1 2
|Ψi = √ |Φ0 i + eiδ |Φ2 i
3 3
② ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱
r r
1 2 e−iωt/2 2
|Ψ(t)i = √ |Φ0 (t)i + eiδ |Φ2 (t)i = √ |Φ0 i + eiδ e−5iωt/2 |Φ2 i
3 3 3 3

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ q✉❡ En = (n + 1/2)~ω ✳

❊❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ A ❡s hAit = hΨ(t)|Â|Ψ(t)i✳
❉❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦
1 2
hAit = hΦ0 |Â|Φ0 i + hΦ2 |Â|Φ2 i
3√ 3 √
2 i(2ωt−δ) 2 −i(2ωt−δ)
+ e hΦ2 |Â|Φ0 i + e hΦ0 |Â|Φ2 i. ✭✶✶✳✺✸✮
3 3
P❛r❛ ❤❛❧❧❛r (∆x)t ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ✈❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ x ② x2 ✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱
❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r x̂ só❧♦ ❝♦♥❡❝t❛ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ Ĥ ❝♦♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈♦s
hΦ0 |x̂|Φ0 i = hΦ2 |x̂|Φ2 i = hΦ2 |x̂|Φ0 i = hΦ0 |x̂|Φ2 i = 0

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ hxit = 0✳

 ✶✶✳✸✳ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘❊❙ ❉❊ ❈❘❊❆❈■Ó◆ ❨ ❉❊❙❚❘❯❈❈■Ó◆

❊♥ ❧❛ ♦❜t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ hx2 it ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ♣r❡✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③

hΦ0 |x̂2 |Φ0 i✱ hΦ2 |x̂2 |Φ2 i ② hΦ2 |x̂2 |Φ0 i = hΦ0 |x̂2 |Φ2 i∗ ✳ ▲♦s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s s♦♥ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦s
✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧✿
 
2 2 En 1
hΦn |x̂2 |Φn i = hΦn |V̂ |Φn i = = n+ α2 .
M ω2 M ω2 2 2
P❛r❛ ❡❧ t❡r❝❡r♦✱ s✐ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♠♦s x̂2 ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ â ② ↠✱
α2 D E
hΦ2 |x̂2 |Φ0 i = Φ2 (↠)2 + â2 + ↠â + â↠Φ0
2
♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ só❧♦ (↠)2 |Φ0 i ❞❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ |Φ2 i✱
α2 α2 α2 α2
hΦ2 |x̂2 |Φ0 i = hΦ2 |(↠)2 |Φ0 i = hΦ2 |↠|Φ1 i = √ hΦ2 |Φ2 i = √ .
2 2 2 2
❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✭✶✶✳✺✸✮✱

11 2 1 i(2ωt−δ) 2 1 −i(2ωt−δ) 2 α2  
hx2 it = α + e α + e α = 11 + 2 cos (4ωt − δ)
6 3 3 6
②✱ ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱
q p α p
(∆x)t = hx2 it − hxi2t = hx2 it = √ 11 + 4 cos (2ωt − δ).
6

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❢✳ ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥

❊❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ↠❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ② ♠❛s❛
M ♥♦ ❡s ❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛r ♥❛❞❛ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛
❞❡ s✉ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦✳ P❧❛♥t❡❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s
↠|ϑi = z|ϑi✱ ❝♦♥ z ∈ C✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ σ(↠) = {∅}
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

▲❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s
 
1 1 d
√ x−α ϑ(x) = zϑ(x)
2 α dx
♦✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱
d 1  √ 
ϑ(x) = 2 x − 2αz ϑ(x).
dx α
▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s
 2 
1  √
ϑ(x) = A exp + 2 x − 2αz
2α
s✐❡♥❞♦ A ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳ ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ z ✱ ❡st❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ϑ(x) ✈❛ ❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣✐r ❝✉❛♥❞♦ |x| → ±∞✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥✐ ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ♥✐ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛✳
❙❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

■♥❣❡♥✉❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ♣♦❞rí❛ ♣❡♥s❛r q✉❡ ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥ â✳
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡

â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ♥✉❧♦✳ ❉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣ró①✐♠❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦

♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡ â ➼❡s t♦❞♦ C✦

11.4✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❈❖❍❊❘❊◆❚❊❙

➓ ✶✳ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✉♥ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ♥♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥

♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω q✉❡ ❡①❤✐❜❡♥ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s
♠✉② ♥♦t❛❜❧❡s✳

❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦

❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ s✐ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψz (x) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥
â ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r z✳ P❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r Ψz (x)✱ ♣❧❛♥t❡❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s

âΨz (x) = zΨz (x) , con z ∈ C.

❙✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ â ♣♦r s✉ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✱

 
1 1 d
√ x+α Ψz (x) = zΨz (x),
2 α dx

s✐❡♥❞♦ α ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r✳ ❘❡❡s❝r✐❜✐❡♥❞♦ t❛❧ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦

d 1  √ 
Ψz (x) = − 2 x − 2αz Ψz (x)
dx α
❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ s✉ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡s

 2 
1  √
Ψz (x) = A exp − 2 x − 2αz ,
2α

❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛✳

▲❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ z ∈ C✱ ❧♦ q✉❡

✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ σ p (â) = C✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ αz ❝♦♠♦
√
2αz = x0 + iα2 k0 ✭✶✶✳✺✹✮

t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 
k02 α2 /2 −ik0 x0 (x − x0 )2
Ψz (x) = Ae e exp − exp(+ik0 x)
2α2
 ✶✶✳✹✳ ❊❙❚❆❉❖❙ ❈❖❍❊❘❊◆❚❊❙

√
q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ✉♥♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦ ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥
√ x 0 = 2α Re(z) ② ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧
✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡s p0 = ~k0 = 2~ Im(z)/α✳ ❙✐ ❛❤♦r❛ ❡s❝♦❣❡♠♦s
❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ A ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦ q✉❡ Ψz (x) ❡sté ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r
z ∈ C ❤❛② ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❝✉②❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❡s
 √
  
 x0 = 2αRe(z)
e+ik0 (x−x0 ) (x − x0 ) 2
√
Ψz (x) = √ exp − con . ✭✶✶✳✺✺✮
( πα)1/2 2α2  k0 = 2 Im(z)

α

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✭✶✶✳✺✺✮✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ρ(x) ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛

❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ x0 ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

 
1 (x − x0 )2 √
ρ(x) = √ exp − , con x0 = 2α Re(z). ✭✶✶✳✺✻✮
πα α2

➓ ✷✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ Ψz (x) ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦

❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Φn (x)✳
P❛rt❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

∞ ∞
!−1/2
X X
Ψz (x) = B cn Φn (x) , con |B| = |cn |2 . ✭✶✶✳✺✼✮
n=0 n=0

❈♦♠♦

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
√ √
âΨz (x) = B cn âΦn (x) = B cn n Φn−1 (x) = B cn+1 n + 1 Φn (x)
n=0 n=1 n=0

❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ âΨz (x) = zΨz (x) s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r❡❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛

♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s cn ✿
√ z z
zcn = cn+1 n + 1 ⇒ cn+1 = √ cn ⇒ cn = √ cn−1 .
n+1 n

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s s✐♥ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡

√ c0 = 1✱ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡
❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡ cn = zn/ n!✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ B
❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡

∞
!−1/2 ∞
!−1/2
X X |z|2n 2 /2
|B| = |cn |2 = = e−|z| .
n!
n=0 n=0
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✉s❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ❊♥ s✉♠❛✱

s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❡s

X∞
2 /2 zn
Ψz (x) = e−|z| √ Φn (x) , con z ∈ C. ✭✶✶✳✺✽✮
n=0 n!

➓ ✸✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡

t=0 ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r z0 ✿
X∞
−|z0 |2 /2 zn
Ψ(x, 0) = Ψz0 (x) = e √0 Φn (x).
n=0
n!

P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ Ψ(x, 0) ❡stá ❡①♣r❡s❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡

❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(x, t) ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❡s✿

X∞
2 /2 zn En ω
Ψ(x, t) = e−|z0 | √0 e−iωn t Φn (x), con ω n = = + nω. ✭✶✶✳✺✾✮
n! ~ 2
n=0

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱

n
e−iωn t = e−iωt/2 e−inωt = e−iωt/2 e−iωt
② s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✺✾✮ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ q✉❡

∞
n
X z0 e−iωt
|2 /2
Ψ(x, t) = e−iωt/2 e−|z0 √ Φn (x).
n=0
n!

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ z(t) = z0 e−iωt ✱ ❝✉②♦ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ |z(t)| ❡s
|z0 | ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ t✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

Ψ(x, t) = e−iωt/2 Ψz(t) (x) , con z(t) = z0 e−iωt . ✭✶✶✳✻✵✮

❊❧ ❢❛❝t♦rexp(−iωt/2) ❡s ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r

q✉❡ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0 ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡
❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r z0 ✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣♦st❡r✐♦r t s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦
❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r z(t) = z0 exp(−iωt)✳
❆ ❧❛ ✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ✭✶✶✳✻✵✮✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ s♦♥
√
√
2~

hxit = 2α Re z(t) ; hpx it = Im z(t)
α
 ✶✶✳✺✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖ ❊◆ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆❊❙

p
② ✉s❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ exp(−iωt) = cos(ωt) − i sin(ωt) ② q✉❡ α= ~/(M ω)✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

 √
hpx i0 
 hxi0 = 2α Rez0
hxit = hxi0 cos(ωt) + sin(ωt) √
Mω con
hpx it = hpx i0 cos(ωt) − M ωhxi0 sin(ωt)  hpx i0 = 2~ Imz0

α
✭✶✶✳✻✶✮
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s

 
1 (x − hxit )2
ρ(x, t) = √ exp − . ✭✶✶✳✻✷✮
πα α2

❊♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ρ(x, t) ♦s❝✐❧❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ t♦❞♦✱ s✐♥ ❞❡❢♦r♠❛rs❡✱ ② s✉ ❝❡♥tr♦ hxit s✐❣✉❡
❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω
② ♠❛s❛ M ✳ ❊s ♣♦r ❡❧❧♦ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡s s❡ ❧❡s ❧❧❛♠❛ ❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦
t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡st❛❞♦s s❡♠✐❝❧ás✐❝♦s✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ Ψ(x, t) ❡s ✉♥ ♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❣❛✉ss✐❛♥♦
✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✺✺✮✮✱ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

1 ~
(∆x)t = √ α ; (∆px )t = √ ✭✶✶✳✻✸✮
2 2α

t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜t✉✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳❡✳

11.5✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖ ❊◆ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆❊❙

➓ ✶✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦

❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛

F(r) = −Kx xux − Ky yuy − Kz zuz , con Ki > 0 (i = x, y, z), ✭✶✶✳✻✹✮

q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

1 1 1 1

V (r) = Kx x2 + Ky y 2 + Kz z 2 = M ω 2x x2 + ω 2y y 2 + ω 2z z 2 ✭✶✶✳✻✺✮
2 2 2 2
p
❞♦♥❞❡ ωi = Ki /M ❡s ❧❛ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡
i✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ F(r)✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣r❡❝✐❛r q✉❡ F(r) ❡s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ tr❡s
❢✉❡r③❛s r❡❝✉♣❡r❛❞♦r❛s✱ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ②
❞❡s❛❝♦♣❧❛❞❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

② ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ s❡rá✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱

~2 2
Ĥ = K̂ + V̂ = − ∇ + V (r) = Ĥx + Ĥy + Ĥz
2m

 ~2 ∂ 2 1


 Ĥ x = − 2
+ M ω 2x x2

 2M ∂x 2 ✭✶✶✳✻✻✮

 2 2
~ ∂ 1
con Ĥy = − + M ω 2y y 2

 2M ∂y 2 2



 2 2

 Ĥ = − ~ ∂ + 1 M ω 2 z 2
z z
2M ∂z 2 2

❙✐ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s

❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✻✳✼✱ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡
♥✉❡str♦ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡st❛rá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛

(ω )
Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) = Φn(ωxx ) (x) Φnyy (y) Φ(ω z)
nz (z) con ni = 0, 1, 2, . . . ✭✶✶✳✻✼✮

(ω)
❞♦♥❞❡ Φn ❡s ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥
♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω ✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s
❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✿

     
1 1 1
Enx ,ny ,nz = nx + ~ω x + ny + ~ω y + nz + ~ω z . ✭✶✶✳✻✽✮
2 2 2

❊st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛s ♣♦r tr❡s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s✱

{nx , ny , nz }✱ q✉❡ ❡stá♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) ❡s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s

♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s Ĥx , Ĥy , Ĥz q✉❡✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈✿ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡
❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ❧❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ❡st❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜❧❡s ✭❡♥ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛r❧♦✱ r❡♣❛s❡ ❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥
❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✼✳✷✮✳

❊❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ N ✭♣♦r ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐♦✱ N = nx + ny + nz = 0, 1, 2, . . . ✮ ❡st❛rá

❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞❛s ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ Enx ,ny ,nz =
EN ✱ ② t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❡s❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱
❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ t❡♥❞rá ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s s✐ ❤❛② ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s
 ✶✶✳✺✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖ ❊◆ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆❊❙

❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s q✉❡ ❞❡♥ ❡♥ ✭✶✶✳✻✽✮ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳ ❊❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

✐❧✉str❛ ❡st❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❣✳ ❉❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡s

1

V (r) = M ω 2x x2 + ω 2y y 2 + ω 2z z 2 ,
2
s✐❡♥❞♦ ω x = ω y = ω ② ω z = 2ω ✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s tr❡s ♣✉❧s❛❝✐♦♥❡s ω i ♥♦ s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡
q✉❡ ést❡ ❡s ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❛♥✐sótr♦♣♦ ✳

❛✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

❜✮ ❍❛❧❧❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✐♥❝♦ ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❛✮ ❙✐ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ✭✶✶✳✻✽✮✱ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞❛s ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r

     
1 1 1
Enx ,ny ,nz = nx + ~ω + ny + ~ω + nz + 2~ω
2 2 2
② r❡♦r❞❡♥❛♥❞♦ tér♠✐♥♦s

Enx ,ny ,nz = (nx + ny + 2nz + 2) ~ω con ni = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

❜✮ ❆s✐❣♥❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❛ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s {nx , ny , nz }✱ ❧♦s ❝✐♥❝♦
♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s s♦♥

N EN {nx , ny , nz } gN
0 2~ω {0, 0, 0} 1
1 3~ω {1, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 0} 2
2 4~ω {2, 0, 0}, {0, 2, 0}, {1, 1, 0}, {0, 0, 1} 4
3 5~ω {3, 0, 0}, {0, 3, 0}, {2, 1, 0}, {1, 2, 0}, {1, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 1} 6
{4, 0, 0}, {0, 4, 0}, {3, 1, 0}, {1, 3, 0}, {2, 2, 0},
4 6~ω 9
{2, 0, 1}, {0, 2, 1}, {1, 1, 1}, {0, 0, 2}
❞♦♥❞❡ gN ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❡s E0 = 2~ω ✭❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❡r♦✮ ② q✉❡ ❡s ♥♦ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦✳

➓ ✷✳ ❯♥ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s ❛q✉é❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ωx = ωy = ωz = ω

✭♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✐sótr♦♣♦ tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✮✳ ▲❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s

1 1
V (r) = M ω 2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = M ω 2 r2 ✭✶✶✳✻✾✮
2 2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ r❡❝✉♣❡r❛❞♦r❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧

F(r) = −M ω 2 (xux + yuy + zuz ) = −M ω 2 r ✭✶✶✳✼✵✮

❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ s❡♣❛r❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ tr❡s s✉❜s✐st❡♠❛s ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧❡s✱

✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❡stá ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s

Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) = Φnx (x) Φny (y) Φnz (z), ✭✶✶✳✼✶✮

s✐❡♥❞♦ Φn ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦

✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω ② ♠❛s❛ M✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ✭✶✶✳✶✷✮✱ ✭✶✶✳✶✸✮
② q✉❡ r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ✱
 
hn (x/α) hny (y/α) hnz (z/α) r2
Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) =  x 1/2 exp − , ✭✶✶✳✼✷✮
n +n +n 3 3/2 2α2
2 x y z nx !ny !nz !α π
p
❝♦♥ α = ~/(M ω)✳ ▲❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ s❡rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
 
3
Enx ,ny ,nz = nx + ny + nz + ~ω. ✭✶✶✳✼✸✮
2
❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ EN ② ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ gN ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦ ❞❡❧
s✐st❡♠❛ ❡s ✭N = nx + ny + nz ✮
 
3 (N + 1) (N + 2)
EN = N+ ~ω ; gN = con N = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2 2
✭✶✶✳✼✹✮
②❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② gN = (N + 1)(N + 2)/2 ♠❛♥❡r❛s ❞❡ s✉♠❛r tr❡s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s
✭✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❡r♦✮ ❞❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ N ✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s
{nx , ny , nz } ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N = 3 ✭❝♦♥ E3 = 9~ω/2 ② g3 = 10✮ s♦♥✿
{3, 0, 0}✱ {0, 3, 0}✱ {0, 0, 3}✱ {2, 1, 0}✱ {2, 0, 1}✱ {0, 2, 1}✱ {1, 2, 0}✱ {1, 0, 2}✱ {0, 1, 2}✱
{1, 1, 1}✳

➓ ✸✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✐sótr♦♣♦ ❡s ❝❡♥tr❛❧✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥

♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♠♦s ❡♥
❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✽✳✺✳ ❈♦♠♦ {H, L2 , Lz } ❡s ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡st♦s tr❡s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s
❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦ ② s❡❛


 n = 1, 2, ...
unr ,ℓ (r)  r
Φnr ,ℓ,m (r) = Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) , con ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ... ✭✶✶✳✼✺✮
r 


m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ
 ✶✶✳✺✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖ ❊◆ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆❊❙

✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ {H, L2 , Lz }✳ ❆q✉í✱ Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ❡s ✉♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦

❡s❢ér✐❝♦ ② unr ,ℓ (r) s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ r ∈ [0, ∞)
 
~2 d 2 1 2 2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2
− + Mω r + unr ,ℓ (r) = Enr ,ℓ unr ,ℓ (r) ✭✶✶✳✼✻✮
2M dr2 2 2M r2

✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✽✳✻✹ ❞❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ➓✽✳✺✳✸✮✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ r → 0✱ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

unr ,ℓ (r) ❡s ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ rℓ+1 ✭❝♦♠♣r✉é❜❡❧♦✮✳ ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ Φnr ,ℓ,m (r) t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ s❡r
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φnx ,ny ,nz (r) ❝♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r
❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✼✸✮✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ unr ,ℓ (r) ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞♦
♣♦r exp[−r2 /(2α)2 ]✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r q✉❡

r  
ℓ+1 r2
unr ,ℓ (r) = r f exp − 2 ✭✶✶✳✼✼✮
α 2α

❞♦♥❞❡ f(ρ) ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❝♦♥ tér♠✐♥♦ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ♥✉❧♦✳ ❙✐ s✉st✐t✉✐♠♦s

✭✶✶✳✼✼✮ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✭✶✶✳✼✻✮✱ ♦♣❡r❛♠♦s ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♠♦s✱ s❡ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛ q✉❡ f (ρ)
s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧
 
ρ d2 f (ρ)

2 df (ρ) 3 Enr ,ℓ
+ ℓ+1−ρ − ℓ+ − ρf (ρ) = 0 ✭✶✶✳✼✽✮
2 dρ2 dρ 2 ~ω

▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ✭✶✶✳✼✽✮ ❡s✱ s❛❧✈♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛✱

   
3 1 3 Enr ,ℓ
f (ρ) = F cnr ,ℓ , ℓ + , ρ2 , con cnr ,ℓ ≡ ℓ+ −
2 2 2 ~ω

② ❞♦♥❞❡ F ❡s ❧❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❤✐♣❡r❣❡♦♠étr✐❝❛✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

a a (a + 1) 2 a (a + 1) (a + 2) 3
F [a, b, x] ≡ 1 + x + x + x + ... ✭✶✶✳✼✾✮
b b (b + 1) 2! b (b + 1) (b + 2) 3!

❈♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❛♥t✐❝✐♣❛❞♦✱ f (ρ) ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡r✐❡

 
F cnr ,ℓ , ℓ + 3/2, ρ2 ❞❡❜❡ tr✉♥❝❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳ ❊❧❧♦ só❧♦ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ s✐ cnr ,ℓ
❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✉♥ ❡♥t❡r♦ ♥♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ cnr ,ℓ = 1−nr ❝♦♥ nr = 1, 2, ... ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
f (ρ) ❡s ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ 2nr − 2 ❝♦♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♠♦♥♦♠✐♦s ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ♣❛r✳ ▲❛
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ cnr ,ℓ = 1 − nr s❡ tr❛❞✉❝❡ ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛ Enr ,ℓ ❡s

  (
3 nr = 1, 2, ...
Enr ,ℓ = 2 (nr − 1) + ℓ + ~ω , con ✭✶✶✳✽✵✮
2 ℓ = 0, 1, 2, ...
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

▲❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡stá♥ ❞❛❞❛s ♣♦r

 
3 r2 2 2
Φnr ,ℓ,m (r) = Cnr ,ℓ F 1 − nr , ℓ + , 2 rℓ e−r /(2α ) Yℓ,m (θ, ϕ) ✭✶✶✳✽✶✮
2 α

❝♦♥ Cnr ,ℓ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ nr ② ℓ q✉❡ ❞❛♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ❧❛

♠✐s♠❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✐sótr♦♣♦ ❡①❤✐❜❡ ❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡
❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❝❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧✱ q✉❡ s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥tó ❡♥ ➓✽✳✺✳✺✳

➓ ✹✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉③❝❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ N = 2 (nr − 1)+ℓ✱ q✉❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛

❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦✱ ② q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s N = 0, 1, 2, ... ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ❝♦♠♦
②❛ s❛❜í❛♠♦s✱
 
3
EN = N+ ~ω , con N = 0, 1, 2, ...
2

❯♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦ ❡st❛rá ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φnr ,ℓ,m (r)
❝✉②♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ✈❡r✐✜q✉❡♥ q✉❡

ℓ = N, N − 2, ...., ℓmı́n (
0 si N es par
m = −ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ con ℓmı́n = ✭✶✶✳✽✷✮
1 si N es impar
nr = 1 + (N − ℓ)/2

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱

X (N + 1) (N + 2)
gN = (2ℓ + 1) = ,
2
0≤ℓ≤N
ℓ par o impar

q✉❡ ❡s ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ②❛ ♦❜t✉✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♣í❣r❛❢❡ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❙✐ s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ nr ② ❧❛ ❧❡tr❛

❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ℓ ✭s✱ ♣✱ ❞✱ ❢✱✳✳✳✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛
✶✶✳✶✳ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ ❤❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ gN ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ 2ℓ + 1 ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
Φnr ,ℓ,m (r) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N✳
 ✶✶✳✺✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖ ❊◆ ❱❆❘■❆❙ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆❊❙

N EN gN ◆✐✈❡❧ ✭nr , ℓ✮ ❆✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s ✭nx , ny , nz ✮

✵ 3~ω/2 ✶ 1s ✭✵✱✵✱✵✮
✶ 5~ω/2 ✸ 1p ✭✶✱✵✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✶✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✵✱✶✮
✷ 7~ω/2 ✻ 2s✱ 1d ✭✶✱✶✱✵✮ ✭✶✱✵✱✶✮ ✭✵✱✶✱✶✮
✭✷✱✵✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✷✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✵✱✷✮
✸ 9~ω/2 ✶✵ 2p✱ 1f ✭✶✱✶✱✶✮ ✭✶✱✷✱✵✮ ✭✶✱✵✱✷✮ ✭✵✱✶✱✷✮ ✭✷✱✶✱✵✮
✭✷✱✵✱✶✮ ✭✵✱✷✱✵✮ ✭✸✱✵✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✸✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✵✱✸✮
✹ 11~ω/2 ✶✺ 3s✱ 2d✱ 1g ✭✷✱✶✱✶✮ ✭✶✱✷✱✶✮ ✭✶✱✶✱✷✮ ✭✷✱✷✱✵✮ ✭✷✱✵✱✷✮
✭✵✱✷✱✷✮ ✭✶✱✸✱✵✮ ✭✶✱✵✱✸✮ ✭✵✱✶✱✸✮ ✭✸✱✶✱✵✮
✭✸✱✵✱✶✮ ✭✵✱✸✱✶✮ ✭✹✱✵✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✹✱✵✮ ✭✵✱✵✱✹✮
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
❚❛❜❧❛ ✶✶✳✶ ✳✲ ◆✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

❊❏❊▼P▲❖ ✶✶✳❤✳ Pr✐♠❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✐sótr♦♣♦

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡①❝✐t❛❞♦ (N = 1) ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✐sótr♦♣♦

tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥ ω✳

❙✐ s❡ ✉s❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❈❈❖❈ {Ĥx , Ĥy , Ĥz }✱ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧

❞❡ t❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦r

B = {Φ1,0,0 (r), Φ0,1,0 (r), Φ0,0,1 (r)}

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ s✐ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛❧ ❈❈❖❈ {Ĥ, L̂2 , Lz }✱ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡

♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N =1 ❡s

 
1
Besf = Φ1p,m (r) = u1p (r) Y1,m (θ, ϕ) , con m = 1, 0, −1 .
r
❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s Φ1p,m (r) ② ❡①♣rés❡❧❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡

❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ B✳

❉❛t♦s✿ r r √
Z ∞
3 3 4 −x2 3 π
Y1,0 (θ, ϕ) = cos θ ; Y1,±1 (θ, ϕ) = ∓ sin θe±iϕ ; x e dx =
4π 8π 0 8

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ unr ,ℓ (r) ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✐sótr♦♣♦ tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛

rℓ+1 exp[−r2 /(2α2 )] ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ 2nr − 2✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡

❝❛s♦ ℓ = nr = 1✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s

2
/(2α2 )
u1p (r) = Ar2 e−r ,
R +∞
❞♦♥❞❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❈♦♠♦ |u1p (r)|2 dr = 1 t❡♥❡♠♦s
0
Z +∞ Z +∞ √
2 2 2 3 πα5 2
1 = A2 r4 e−r /α dr = A2 α5 ρ4 e−ρ dρ = A .
0 0 8
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ A ❡s r❡❛❧ ② ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛✱

s
8
A= √ 5,
3 πα

❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ Ĥ, L̂2 ② L̂z ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N =1 s♦♥✿

2
/(2α2 )
Φ1p,m (r) = A e−r r Y1,m (θ, ϕ) , con m = 1, 0, −1.
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ B s♦♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t♦ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡

✭✶✶✳✼✶✮ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✱

2
/(2α2 ) 2
/(2α2 ) 2
/(2α2 )
Φ1,0,0 (r) = Be−r x ; Φ0,1,0 (r) = Be−r y ; Φ0,0,1 (r) = Be−r z
❞♦♥❞❡ B ❡s ♦tr❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✳

❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s ② ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s

❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s (x, y, z) ② ❧❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s (r, θ, ϕ)✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φ1p,m (r) ♣✉❡❞❡♥

r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦✿
r r
3 2 2 r sin θ 3 2 2 x + iy
Φ1p,+1 (r) = − A e−r /(2α ) √ e+ı̀ϕ = − A e−r /(2α ) √
4π 2 4π 2
r r
3 −r 2 /(2α2 ) r sin θ −ı̀ϕ 3 2 2 x − iy
Φ1p,−1 (r) = + Ae √ e =+ A e−r /(2α ) √
4π 2 4π 2
r r
3 2 2 3 2 2
Φ1p,0 (r) = + A e−r /(2α ) r cos θ = A e−r /(2α ) z.
4π 4π
❉❡ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

r
3 A
Φ1p,0 (r) = Φ0,0,1 (r)
4π B
♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛s✱

r
3
B= A.
4π
❆sí✱ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ q✉❡

1 i
Φ1p,+1 (r) = − √ Φ1,0,0 (r) − √ Φ0,1,0 (r)
2 2
1 i
Φ1p,−1 (r) = + √ Φ1,0,0 (r) − √ Φ0,1,0 (r)
2 2
Φ1p,0 (r) = Φ0,0,1 (r)
q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ s♦❧✐❝✐t❛❜❛✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙
P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✶✳ ❖s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ tr✉♥❝❛❞♦
❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ❡stá s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛

s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧


 ∞ si x < 0
V (x) = 1
 M ω 2 x2 si x > 0
2
❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞❛s ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ s♦♥

 
3
En = 2n + ~ω con n = 0, 1, 2, ...
2

➽❈✉á❧❡s s❡rá♥ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s❄

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✷✳ ❉❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦

❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r (∆x)n ② (∆px )n ❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ n✲és✐♠♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✳ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡
q✉❡
 
1
(∆x)n (∆px )n = n+ ~.
2
❈♦♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ n = 0 ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡❧ ❝✉♠♣❧✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡

❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣ ∆x∆px ≥ ~/2✳

❆②✉❞❛✿ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛ s✐ ✉s❛ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✸✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ■■■

❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛

M ② ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ω ❡s

r r
1 3
Ψ(x, 0) = Φ0 (x) − i Φ2 (x),
4 4
❞♦♥❞❡ Φn (x) ❡s ❧❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

❛✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é

♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄ ❊✈❛❧ú❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧

❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ |Ψi✳

❜✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✱ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ q✉❡ Ψ(x, t) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ♥♦

❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ x ② px s♦♥ ❝❡r♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡

t✐❡♠♣♦✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❝✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛ ②

♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✳
❞✮ ❍❛❧❧❡✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
Jx (x, t)✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✹✳ ❱❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s♦♠❡t✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω s❡
❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❣❡♥ér✐❝♦ Ψ(x, t)✳ ❙✐ A ❡s ✉♥ ♦❜s❡r✈❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡
q✉❡ s✉ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

hAit = A0 + B0 f (t),

❞♦♥❞❡ A0 ② B0 s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ② f (t) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❝♦♥ ♣❡r✐♦❞♦ T = 2π/ω ✳ ➽❊s
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (t) ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛❄

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✺✳ ❊♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ Ψz (x) ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M ② ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥
ω ✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Ĥ s♦❜r❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱
❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❧❛ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❡♥ t❛❧ ❡st❛❞♦ s♦♥
 
1
hHi = |z|2 + ~ω y ∆H = |z|~ω.
2

❙✉❣❡r❡♥❝✐❛✿ ❯t✐❧✐❝❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ Ψz (x) ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡

❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✻✳ ✭✦✮ ▲❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ x ∈ (0, ∞) ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛
q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✭❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ▲❡♥❛r❞✲❏♦♥❡s ✮
 
x0 12  x 6
0
V (x) = V0 −2 si x > 0 ✭✶✶✳✽✸✮
x x
❞♦♥❞❡ V0 ② x0 s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ♣♦s✐t✐✈❛s ❝♦♥ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❛✮ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡ V (x) ② ❝♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛ s✉ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❡♥ x = x0 t♦♠❛♥❞♦

❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r V (x0 ) = −V0 ✳
❜✮ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✳
❝✮ ❙✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❤❛st❛ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ V (x) ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛ x0 t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

1 2
V (x) = −V0 + K (x − x0 ) si x ∼ x0
2
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❞♦♥❞❡ K = V ′′ (x0 )✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛p♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉❡❞❡

❛♣r♦①✐♠❛rs❡ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω = K/M ❝❡♥tr❛❞♦
❡♥ x = x0 ✭s✐❡♠♣r❡ ② ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❡sté ♠✉② ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ t♦r♥♦ ❛
x = x0 ✮✳ ❇❛❥♦ ❡st❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛✱ ➽❝✉á❧❡s s♦♥ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛❄ ➽❨ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s❄
❞✮ ❆♥❛❧✐❝❡ ❝rít✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❜❛❥♦ q✉é ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✈á❧✐❞❛ ❧❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛ q✉❡
❤❡♠♦s ❞❡s❝r✐t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ♠ás ❜❛❥❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ s❡ ♣♦❞rá♥ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❜❛❥♦ ❡st❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ s✐
~ω ≪ V0 ✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✼✳ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r tr✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ tr❡s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✐sótr♦♣♦ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ t = 0 s✉ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❡s
1

Ψ(r,0) = √ Φ1,0,0 (r) + Φ1,1,+1 (r) + Φ1,1,−1 (r) ,
3
❞♦♥❞❡ Φnr ,ℓ,m (r) ❡s ❧❛ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡❛ ❞❡ Ĥ ✱ ❞❡ L̂2 ② ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s Enr ,ℓ ✱
ℓ(ℓ + 1)~2 ② m~✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❛✮ ❆❧ ♠❡❞✐r ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ➽q✉é ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ② ❝♦♥ q✉é ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❄

❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ Lz ② L2 ✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s✉s ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡s✳
❝✮ ■♥❞✐q✉❡ ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ Ψ(r, t) ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦
❞✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡✱ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧ r ❡s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ➽❙✉❝❡❞❡ ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s x, y, z ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥❄

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✽✳ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✷❉

❯♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❞♦s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
1

V (x, y) = M ω 2x x2 + ω 2y y 2
2
❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ② s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r ❧❛s ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ω x ✱ ② ω y
♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡♥ ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✾✳ ✭✦✮ ❊❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✐sótr♦♣♦ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧

❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ❞❡ ♠❛s❛ M q✉❡ s❡ ♠✉❡✈❡ ❡♥ ❞♦s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
1 1

V (r) = M ω 2 r 2 = M ω 2 x2 + y 2 ,
2 2
q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✐sótr♦♣♦ ❡♥ ❞♦s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s✳
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊▲ ❖❙❈■▲❆❉❖❘ ❆❘▼Ó◆■❈❖

❛✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❡♥❡r❣í❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ s♦♥

EN = (N + 1) ~ω con N = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

② q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦ ❡s

gN = N + 1.

❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Φnx ,ny (r) ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧

N ✲és✐♠♦ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✉♥✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✳
❜✮ ❊♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

Lz = xpy − ypx

❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ❊❧❧♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡st❛❞♦s
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ EN ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ Lz ❡sté ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ Lz ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s tr❡s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✳
❝✮ ●❡♥❡r❛❧✐❝❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ N ✲és✐♠♦✳ ❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱
❞❡♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ t♦♠❛r Lz ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♥✐✈❡❧ s♦♥
0, ±2~, . . . , ±N ~ si N es par
±~, ±3~, . . . , ±N ~ si N es impar

❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉②❡ q✉❡ {Ĥ, L̂z } ❡s ✉♥ ❈❈❖❈ ❞❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢ís✐❝♦✳

❆②✉❞❛✿ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❧❛s ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♣♦❧❛r❡s ② r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡

❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂z ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s
∂Ψ(r)
L̂z Ψ(r) = −i~ .
∂ϕ

P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆ ✶✶✳✶✵✳ ✭✯✮ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s â ② ↠❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ✐sótr♦♣♦

❊❧ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡①t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r
❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡♥ ✈❛r✐❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s✳ ❇❛st❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛
❞❡ ❧❛s ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
✐sótr♦♣♦ ❜✐❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ω ② ♠❛s❛ M ✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r
   
1
1 α 1 1 α
â†x = √ x̂ − i p̂x ; â†y = √ ŷ − i p̂y
α2 ~ 2 α ~
   
1 1 α 1 1 α
âx = √ x̂ + i p̂x ; ây = √ ŷ + i p̂y ,
2 α ~ 2 α ~
p
❝♦♥ α = ~/(M ω)✳ ❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r |Φnx ,ny i ❛ ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❞❡ Ĥx ② ❞❡
Ĥy ❝♦♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ Enx ,ny = (nx + ny + 1) ~ω ✳
 P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ P❘❖P❯❊❙❚❖❙

❛✮ ❊①♣r❡s❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r L̂z ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ z ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s {â†x , â†y , âx , ây }✳

❜✮ ❖❜t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ L̂z s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ |Φnx ,ny i✳ Pr✉❡❜❡ q✉❡
L̂z |Φnx ,ny i t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ✉♥ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ Ĥ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦ N =
nx + ny ✳
❝✮ ❉❡♠✉❡str❡ ❛sí q✉❡✿ ✐✮ |Φ0,0 i ❡s ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ L̂z ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r ♥✉❧♦❀ ✐✐✮ ❧♦s
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s {|Φ1,0 i, |Φ0,1 i} s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❞❡ ❞♦s
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦s s✐♠✉❧tá♥❡♦s ❞❡ Ĥ ② L̂z ✳ ❈♦♠♣r✉❡❜❡ q✉❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s

r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ❜✮ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❆P➱◆❉■❈❊❙
 ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❆
❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❛♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s

✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ▲❛ ❣r❛♥ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❛♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡ s❡r ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ❞❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛s ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❡r ②
s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❝✉rs♦ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ ❡st❡ ❛♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❡stá ❝♦♥❝❡❜✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
♦♠✐t✐r❡♠♦s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧✐♠✐tá♥❞♦♥♦s ❛ ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♠ás r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s ② út✐❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s✳

A.1✳ ❱❊❈❚❖❘❊❙✳ ❖P❊❘❆❈■❖◆❊❙ ❈❖◆ ❱❊❈❚❖❘❊❙

• ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡✉❝❧í❞❡♦ R3 ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s tr❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ux , uy , uz

❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✱ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí ② q✉❡
❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ tr✐❡❞r♦ ❞❡①tró❣✐r♦ ✭✉♥ t♦r♥✐❧❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❡♥r♦s❝❛ ❛ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛s ❛✈❛♥③❛rí❛
❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ uz s✐ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❣✐r❛r ❞❡ ux ❛ uy ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝❛♠✐♥♦ ♠ás ❝♦rt♦✮✳

• ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❛❞♦s ♣♦r

a = ax ux + ay uy + az uz con ax,y,z ∈ R ✭❆✳✶✮

❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s✿

❛✮ ❙✉♠❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s✿

a + b = (ax + bx )ux + (ay + by )uy + (az + bz )uz ✭❆✳✷✮

❜✮ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r λ✿

λa = λax ux + λay uy + λaz uz ✭❆✳✸✮

❝✮ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ♦ ✐♥t❡r♥♦✿

a × b = (ay bz − az by )ux + (az bx − ax bz )uy + (ax by − ay bx )uz ✭❆✳✹✮

❞✮ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♦ ❡①t❡r♥♦✿

a · b = a x b x + a y by + a z b z ✭❆✳✺✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♦

√ q
|a| = a·a= |ax |2 + |ay |2 + |az |2 , ✭❆✳✻✮

❞✐❝✐é♥❞♦s❡ q✉❡ ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ s✐ ❡s ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳

• ❚♦❞❛s ❡st❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s✿

a+b=b+a (a + b) + c = (a + b) + c

λ(µa) = (λµ)a (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c

(λ + µ)a = λa + µa λ(a + b) = λa + λb

a × b = −b × a (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c

(λa) × b = λ(a × b) (λa) · b = λ(a · b) ✭❆✳✽✮

a·b=b·a a × (b × c) = −(a · b)c + (a · c)b

|λa| = |λ||a| a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b)

|a| = 0 ⇔ a=0 (a × b) · (c × d) = (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c)

• ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❞❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦
u✱ t♦❞♦ ✈❡❝t♦r G ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ú♥✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s
Gk ② G⊥ q✉❡ s♦♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ② ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ u✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✿


 Gk = {u · G}u
G = Gk + G⊥ con ✭❆✳✾✮

G⊥ = {u × G} × u

t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■●✳ ❆✲✶✳ ❆❧ ✈❡❝t♦r Gk s❡ ❧❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥

❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r G s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ u✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ G⊥ s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ G s♦❜r❡
❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❛ u✳
 ❆✳✷✳ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲❊❙

G┴ = (u × G) × u G
u1

u G|| = (u • G) u
u2
u ×G
❋✐❣✉r❛ ❆✲✶✳ ■❧✉str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ✭❆✳✾✮

• ▲❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♦♠étr✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r ② ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s✿


a · b = |a||b| cos θ 
d
con θ ≡ (a, b) ∈ [0, π]

|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
✭❆✳✼✮
|a × b| = ár❡❛ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦❣r❛♠♦ ❞❡ ❧❛❞♦s a ② b

|a · (b × c)| = ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ❞❡❧ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧❡♣í♣❡❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛❞♦s {a, b, c}

A.2✳ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲❊❙

• ❯♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ tr❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s r❡❛❧❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s {u1 , u2 , u3 }✱ ❝✉②♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥

❞❡♣❡♥❞❡r ❧♦❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ∈ R3 ✱ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s s✐ s♦♥ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ▲♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s s❡ ♦r❞❡♥❛♥ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
q✉❡ s✉ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❧❛t✐✈❛ s❡❛ ❞❡①tró❣✐r❛✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡

u1 × u2 = u3 , u2 × u3 = u1 , u3 × u1 = u2

▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ♠ás ❝♦♠✉♥❡s s❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s ♦ ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s

• ▲♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s s♦♥✿

u1 = ux ; u2 = uy ; u3 = uz ✭❆✳✶✵✮

❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ t♦❞♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

r = xux + yuy + zuz ✭❆✳✶✶✮

s✐❡♥❞♦ {x, y, z} ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦✳

• ❊♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞

✭♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛✮ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥

d3 r = dxdydz
✭❆✳✶✷✮
dr = ux dx + uy dy + uz dz

❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s

p
dℓ ≡ |dr| = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 ✭❆✳✶✸✮

❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s

• ▲♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛ ❋✐❣✳ ❆✳✷✮ s♦♥✿

u1 = ur ≡ (sin θ cos ϕ)ux + (sin θ sin ϕ)uy + (cos θ)uz

u2 = uθ ≡ (cos θ cos ϕ)ux + (cos θ sin ϕ)uy − (sin θ)uz ✭❆✳✶✹✮

u3 = uϕ ≡ −(sin ϕ)ux + (cos ϕ)uy

s✐❡♥❞♦ θ ∈ [0, π] ❡❧ á♥❣✉❧♦ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r uz ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r

✭á♥❣✉❧♦ ♣♦❧❛r✮ ② ϕ ∈ [0, 2π) ❡❧ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ux ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ r s♦❜r❡
❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ✭á♥❣✉❧♦ ❛③✐♠✉t❛❧✮✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✿

ux = (sin θ cos ϕ)ur + (cos θ cos ϕ)uθ − (sin ϕ)uϕ

uy = (sin θ sin ϕ)ur + (cos θ sin ϕ)uθ + (cos ϕ)uϕ
uz = (cos θ)ur − (sin θ)uθ ✭❆✳✶✺✮

P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ t♦❞♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

r = (r sin θ cos ϕ)ux + (r sin θ sin ϕ)uy + (r cos θ)uz = rur ✭❆✳✶✻✮
 ❆✳✷✳ ❈❖❖❘❉❊◆❆❉❆❙ ❖❘❚❖●❖◆❆▲❊❙

❋✐❣✉r❛ ❆✲✷✳ ❊sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s

❞♦♥❞❡ {r, θ, ϕ} s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r✱ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s✿

r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 = |r| x = r sin θ cos ϕ

z
θ = arc cos 2 y = r sin θ sin ϕ ✭❆✳✶✼✮
(x + y 2 + z 2 )1/2
x x
ϕ = arctan = arc cos 2 z = r cos θ
y (x + y 2 )1/2

✭❢í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ r ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ uθ ② ❛ uϕ ✮✳

• ▲♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥✿

d3 r = r2 sin θ dr dθ dϕ
dr = ur dr + uθ rdθ + uϕ r sin θdϕ ✭❆✳✶✽✮
q
dℓ = |dr| = (dr)2 + r2 (dθ)2 + r2 sin2 θ(dϕ)2

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ár❡❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦

r ❝❡♥tr❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❡s✿

1
d2 r = r2 sin θ dθdϕ = d3 r ✭❆✳✶✾✮
dr
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s

• ▲♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s s♦♥ ✭✈é❛s❡ ❧❛
❋✐❣✳ ❆✲✷✮

u1 = uρ ≡ (cos ϕ)ux + (sin ϕ)uy

u2 = uϕ ≡ −(sin ϕ)ux + (cos ϕ)uy ✭❆✳✷✵✮

u3 = uz
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡

ux = (cos ϕ)uρ − (sin ϕ)uϕ

uy = (sin ϕ)uρ + (cos ϕ)uϕ ✭❆✳✷✶✮

uz = uz
❚♦❞♦ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐rs❡ ❝♦♠♦

r = (ρ cos ϕ)ux + (ρ sin ϕ)uy + zuz = ρuρ + zuz ✭❆✳✷✷✮

❞♦♥❞❡ {ρ, ϕ, z} s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r✱ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s
❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡

ρ = (x2 + y 2 )1/2 x = ρ cos ϕ

x x
ϕ = arctan = arc cos 2 y = ρ sin ϕ ✭❆✳✷✸✮
y (x + y 2 )1/2
z=z z=z
✭♦❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ r ❡s ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ uϕ ✮✳
◆♦t❛✿ ▲❛ r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ XY ♣r♦♣♦r❝✐♦♥❛ ❧❛s
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐r❝✉❧❛r❡s ♣❧❛♥❛s✳

• ▲♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥✿

d3 r = ρ dρ dϕ dz
dr = uρ dρ + uϕ ρdϕ + uz dz ✭❆✳✷✹✮
p
dℓ = |dr| = (dρ)2 + ρ2 (dϕ)2 + (dz)2
② ❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ár❡❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ ρ ❝✉②♦ ❡❥❡ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡
❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡ OZ ❡s
1 3
d2 r = ρ dϕ dz = d r ✭❆✳✷✺✮
dρ
▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❋■● ❆✲✷
 ❆✳✸✳ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❨ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s

• ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ t♦❞♦ ♣✉♥t♦ r q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r tr❡s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
{u1 , u2 , u3 }✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ r ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❧❧❛r ✉♥❛ t❡r♥❛ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦s

1 ∂r ∂r
ui = con hi = (i = 1, 2, 3) ✭❆✳✷✻✮
hi ∂ui ∂ui

❙✐ {u1 , u2 , u3 } s♦♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s ② ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ tr✐❡❞r♦ ❞❡①tró❣✐r♦ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s q✉❡

{u1 , u2 , u3 } ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s✳
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡✿

h1 = 1 ; h 2 = 1 ; h3 = 1 coordenadas rectangulares ✭❆✳✷✼✮

h1 = 1 ; h2 = r ; h3 = r sin θ coordenadas esféricas ✭❆✳✷✽✮

h1 = 1 ; h 2 = ρ ; h 3 = 1 coordenadas cilı́ndricas ✭❆✳✷✾✮

• ▲♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✈♦❧✉♠❡♥ ② ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s s♦♥✿

d3 r = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3

∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = du1 + du2 + du3 ✭❆✳✸✵✮
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
q
dℓ = |dr| = h21 (du1 )2 + h22 (du2 )2 + h23 (du3 )2

P♦r ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛❞❡♥❛✱

    
∂/∂u1 ∂x/∂u1 ∂y/∂u1 ∂z/u1 ∂/∂x
 ∂/∂u2  =  ∂x/∂u2 ∂y/∂u2 ∂z/u2   ∂/∂y  . ✭❆✳✸✶✮
∂/∂u3 ∂x/∂u3 ∂y/∂u3 ∂z/u3 ∂/∂z

❊❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ✭❆✳✸✶✮ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ h1 h2 h 3 ✱

❞❡♥♦♠✐♥á♥❞♦s❡ ❥❛❝♦❜✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s q✉❡ ♣❛s❛ ❞❡
{x, y, z} ❛ {u1 , u2 , u3 }✳

A.3✳ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❨ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

• ❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♦ t♦❞❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❛

❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ Ψ(r)✳ ▲❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦
❡♥ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ r ❡♥
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s❀ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿ Ψ(r) ≡ Ψ(x, y, z) ≡

Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) ≡ Ψ(ρ, ϕ, z)✳
❯♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♦ ❡q✉✐❡s❝❛❧❛r ✭♦ ❧í♥❡❛ ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ s✐ ♥♦s r❡str✐♥❣✐♠♦s
❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ♣r❡✜❥❛❞❛✮ ❡s ❡❧ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ Ψ(r) t♦♠❛
✉♥ ♠✐s♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r Ψ0 ✳ ❙✐ ést❡ ❢✉❡s❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❤❛❜rá s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❞❛s
♣❛r❛ s✉s ♣❛rt❡s r❡❛❧ ❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛✳

• ❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s t♦❞❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ r

❧❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r G(r) ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s✳ ❆ ❡❢❡❝t♦s ❞❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r G(r) s❡ s✐tú❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r ❞♦♥❞❡
s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦✳ ❊❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r r❡❛❧ ②
♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r
|G(r)| = (G∗ (r) · G(r))1/2 . ✭❆✳✸✷✮

❯♥❛ ❧í♥❡❛ ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦
G(r) ❡s t❛♥❣❡♥t❡ ②✱ ❞❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❛ ❝♦♠♦ s✉❝❡❞í❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛♠♣♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✱ s✐
G(r) ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❤❛❜rá q✉❡ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❧í♥❡❛s ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s
❛ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s r❡❛❧ ❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✱ s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡❜❡♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❛ ❧♦s tr❡s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s
♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧❡s q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✱ ❜✐❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞♦ q✉❡ s✉s
♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡r ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ r s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦✿

G(r) = G1 (r)u1 + G2 (r)u2 + G3 (r)u3 con Gi (r) = ui · G(r) ✭❆✳✸✸✮

② ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r Gi (r) s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛rá ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s

❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡ r ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❝♦❣✐❞♦✳

• ❉❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ γ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ♦ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ G(r) ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧

Z
CG ≡ G(r) · dr. ✭❆✳✸✹✮
γ

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ Σ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡❧ ✢✉❥♦ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ G(r) ❡s

Z Z
ΦG ≡ (G(r) · n(r)) d2 r ≡ G(r) · dS, ✭❆✳✸✺✮
Σ Σ

❞♦♥❞❡ n(r) ❡s ✉♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ② ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦

❤❛❝✐❛ ❛q✉❡❧ ❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❤❛ t♦♠❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✏♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✑
② dS ≡ n(r)d2 r✳ ❊♥ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❝❡rr❛❞❛✱ ❡❧ ❧❛❞♦ ✏♣♦s✐t✐✈♦✑ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡❧ ❡①t❡r✐♦r✳
 ❆✳✸✳ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❨ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

❙✐ γ ❡s ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ q✉❡ ❧✐♠✐t❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ Σ✱ ❧❛ ♦r✐❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s

✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ dS s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡❧ t♦r♥✐❧❧♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛ γ✳

P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ Ω✱ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ Σ ♦ ✉♥❛ ❝✉r✈❛ γ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❞✐r❡❝t❛s ❞❡ ✉♥
❝❛♠♣♦ ✭s❡❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✮ s♦❜r❡ ❡st♦s ❧✉❣❛r❡s ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ s♦♥
Z Z Z
3 2
Ψ(r) d r ; Ψ(r) d r ; Ψ(r) |dr| ✭❆✳✸✻✮
Ω Σ γ

❝♦♥ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✳

• ❊❧ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r Ψ(r) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

∂Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r)

∇Ψ(r) ≡ grad Ψ(r) ≡ ux + uy + uz ✭❆✳✸✼✮
∂x ∂y ∂z
q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ♣❡r♣❡♥❞✐❝✉❧❛r ❛ ❧❛s s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ Ψ(r)✳ ❊♥ ✉♥
s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s✱

1 ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂Ψ(r)

∇Ψ(r) = u1 + u2 + u3 ✭❆✳✸✽✮
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
② ❡❧ ❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❡s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱

∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂Ψ(r)

∇Ψ(r) = ur + uθ + uϕ ✭❆✳✸✾✮
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂Ψ(r) ∂Ψ(r)
∇Ψ(r) = uρ + uϕ + uz . ✭❆✳✹✵✮
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

• ❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❡❧ ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ Ψ(r) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

∂ 2 Ψ(r) ∂ 2 Ψ(r) ∂ 2 Ψ(r)

∇2 Ψ(r) = + + , ✭❆✳✹✶✮
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
❝✉②❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ❡s

X3   
2 1 ∂ h1 h2 h3 ∂Ψ(r)
∇ Ψ(r) = ✭❆✳✹✷✮
h 1 h2 h3
i=1
∂ui h2i ∂ui

❬t❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ {h1 , h2 , h3 } ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ {u1 , u2 , u3 }❪✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱

     
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂ ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂ 2 Ψ(r)
∇ Ψ(r) = 2 r + sin θ +
r ∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
 
1 ∂ ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂ 2 Ψ(r) ∂ 2 Ψ(r)
∇2 Ψ(r) = ρ + 2 + . ✭❆✳✹✸✮
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ2 ∂z 2
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

• ▲❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ G(r) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r

∂Gx (r) ∂Gy (r) ∂Gz (r)

∇ · G(r) ≡ div G(r) ≡ + + ✭❆✳✹✹✮
∂x ∂y ∂z
q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s s❡rá

3
X  
1 ∂ h1 h2 h 3
∇ · G(r) = Gi (r) . ✭❆✳✹✺✮
h1 h 2 h3 ∂ui hi
i=1
P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❡s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱


1 ∂ r2 Gr (r) 1 ∂ (sin θGθ (r)) 1 ∂Gϕ (r)
∇ · G(r) = 2 + + ✭❆✳✹✻✮
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
1 ∂ (ρGρ (r)) 1 ∂Gϕ (r) ∂Gz (r)
∇ · G(r) = + + ✭❆✳✹✼✮
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

❊❧ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ G(r) ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s

✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r

ux uy uz

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × G(r) ≡ rotG(r) = . ✭❆✳✹✽✮
∂x ∂y ∂z

Gx (r) Gy (r) Gz (r)

❊♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s

h1 u 1 h2 u 2 h3 u 3

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × G(r) = = ✭❆✳✹✾✮
h 1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

h1 G1 (r) h2 G2 (r) h3 G3 (r)

X 3
3 X
3 X
1 ∂ (hk Gk (r))
= ǫi,j,k hi ui ✭❆✳✹✾✮
h 1 h2 h3 ∂uj
i=1 j=1 k=1

❞♦♥❞❡ 

 +1 si {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3}, {2, 3, 1}, {3, 1, 2}



ǫi,j,k = −1 si {i, j, k} = {1, 3, 2}, {2, 1, 3}, {3, 2, 1} ✭❆✳✺✵✮





0 en el resto de los casos
 ❆✳✸✳ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❨ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

❡s ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ t❡♥s♦r ❞❡ ▲❡✈✐✲❈✐✈✐tà✳ ❆sí✱ ❡❧ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s

❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s ❡s

ur ruθ r sin θuϕ

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × G(r) = ✭❆✳✺✶✮
r2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ

Gr (r) rGθ (r) r sin θGϕ (r)

uρ ρuϕ uz

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × G(r) = ✭❆✳✺✷✮
ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z

Gρ (r) ρGθ (r) Gz (r)

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❡s✿

∇2 G(r) = ∇2 Gx (r) ux + ∇2 Gy (r) uy + ∇2 Gz (r) uz ✭❆✳✺✸✮

• ❙♦♥ ❞❡ ✉s♦ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥t❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s✿

∇·(∇ × F) = 0 ∇ · (ΨF) = (∇Ψ) · F + Ψ(∇ · F)

∇ × (∇Ψ) = 0 ∇ × (∇ × F) = ∇(∇ · F) − ∇2 F ✭❆✳✺✹✮
2
∇ Ψ = ∇·(∇Ψ) ∇ · (F × G) = G · (∇ × F) − F · (∇ × G)
∇(ΨΥ) = Ψ∇Υ + Υ∇Ψ ∇ × (ΨF) = (∇Ψ) × F + Ψ(∇ × F)

❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡①❝❧✉✐❞♦ ♣♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❧❛ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s

Ψ ✱Υ ② ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s F, G✳ ❆s✐♠✐s♠♦✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧

∂F(r) ∂F(r) ∂F(r)

{G(r) · ∇}F(r) = Gx (r) + Gy (r) + Gz (r) ✭❆✳✺✺✮
∂x ∂y ∂z
t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛s ❞♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s✿

∇(F · G) = (F · ∇)G + (G · ∇)F + F × (∇ × G) + G × (∇ × F)

∇ × (F × G) = (G · ∇)F − (F · ∇)G + (∇ · G)F − (∇ · F)G ✭❆✳✺✻✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

• ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ s✐ Ω ❡s ✉♥❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ ❞❡ R3 ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ Σ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥

❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s
Z 
✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥ ✿
I

2 3
Υ(r)∇ Ψ(r) + ∇Υ(r) · ∇Ψ(r) d r = Υ(r)∇Ψ(r) · dS ✭❆✳✺✼✮
Ω Z IΣ
{Υ(r)∇2 Ψ(r) − Ψ(r)∇2 Υ(r)}d3 r = {Υ(r)∇Ψ(r) − Ψ(r)∇Υ(r)} · dS
Ω Σ

❈♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐ ❧♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s Ψ(r) ② Υ(r) s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛♥ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ r → ∞✱

Z Z Z
Υ(r)∇2 Ψ(r)d3 r = − 3
∇Υ(r) · ∇Ψ(r)d r = Ψ(r)∇2 Υ(r)d3 r. ✭❆✳✺✽✮
R3 R3 R3

• ■❣✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ✿

✶

Z   I
3
∇ · F(r) d r = F(r) · dS ✭❆✳✺✾✮
Ω Σ

q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛✿
Z   I
3
∇ × F(r) d r = − F(r) × dS
ΩZ I Σ
 
3
∇Ψ(r) d r = Ψ(r)dS ✭❆✳✻✵✮
Ω Σ

• ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ✉♥❛ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❛❜✐❡rt❛ Σ ❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛ ❝❡rr❛❞❛ γ✳

❊❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s s❡ñ❛❧❛ q✉❡✿
✷

Z   I
∇ × F(r) · dS = F(r) · dr ✭❆✳✻✶✮
Σ γ

✶
❊s ✐♥♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❣❧♦s❛r ❧❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦❜r❛ ❞❡ ❈❛r❧ ❋r✐❡❞r✐❝❤ ●❛✉ss ✭✶✼✼✼−✶✽✺✺✮✱ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
♠ás ❣r❛♥❞❡s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❤✐st♦r✐❛✳ ❙ó❧♦ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛r ❧❛ ❣r❛♥ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ② t❡♦r❡♠❛s q✉❡
❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss q✉✐❡♥✱ ♠✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s✱ ♥♦ ♣✉❜❧✐❝❛❜❛ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ s✉s ❞❡s❝✉❜r✐♠✐❡♥t♦s✳ ❊❧
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♠♦ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss✲❖str♦❣r❛❞s❦② ②❛ q✉❡ ❢✉❡ ▼✐❦❤❛✐❧
❖str♦❣r❛❞s❦② q✉✐❡♥ ❤✐③♦ ♣ú❜❧✐❝❛ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ r✐❣✉r♦s❛ ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✳
✷
❙✐r ●❡♦r❣❡ ●❛❜r✐❡❧ ❙t♦❦❡s ✭✶✽✶✾−✶✾✵✸✮ ❢✉❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠ás ❞❡st❛❝❛❞♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❞❡❧
s✐❣❧♦ ❳■❳✳ ❖❝✉♣ó ❧❛ ♣r❡st✐❣✐♦s❛ ❈át❡❞r❛ ▲✉❝❛s✐❛♥ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❈❛♠❜r✐❞❣❡
② ❢✉❡ ♣r❡s✐❞❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❘♦②❛❧ ❙♦❝✐❡t②✳ ❙✉ ❣❡♥❡r♦s✐❞❛❞ ✐♥t❡❧❡❝t✉❛❧ ❡r❛ ♣r♦✈❡r❜✐❛❧ ② ❧❛ ✐♥✢✉❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝✐ó
❡♥ ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ② ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ t❡ór✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♠✐t❛❞ ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ❳■❳ ❢✉❡ ♠✉❝❤♦
♠❛②♦r ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❞❛rí❛ ❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r s✉ ♣r♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝❛✱ ❞❡ ♣♦r sí ✐♥♠❡♥s❛ ❡♥ ❝❛❧✐❞❛❞ ② ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞✳
 ❆✳✸✳ ❈❆▼P❖❙ ❊❙❈❆▲❆❘❊❙ ❨ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲❊❙

♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛

Z   I
∇Ψ(r) × dS = − Ψ(r)dr ✭❆✳✻✷✮
Σ γ

• ❈♦♠♦ s❡ ❛❝❛❜❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r✱ ❧❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❛♠♣♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ②

❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s ✭❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡✱ ❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛✱ r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦✮ s❡ ❤❛♥ ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❛❝t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♥❛❜❧❛✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ≡ ux + uy + uz . ✭❆✳✻✸✮
∂x ∂y ∂z
❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ Ψ ✭❡s❝❛❧❛r ♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✮ ② ❝❛❧❝✉❧❡♠♦s s✉ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥
❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
Z Z
Ψ(r)e−ik·r 3 Ψ̃(k)e+ik·r 3
Ψ̃(k) = d r ⇔ Ψ(r) = d k ✭❆✳✻✹✮
R3 (2π~)3/2 R3 (2π~)3/2
❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♥❛❜❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦ ❡s

∇ ≡ +ik, ✭❆✳✻✺✮

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ✉s❛♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦

❧✐♥❡❛❧ p = ~k✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
i
∇ ≡ + p. ✭❆✳✻✻✮
~
❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧❛♠❜❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

Λ ≡ r × ∇. ✭❆✳✻✼✮

❊♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

∂Ψ(r) 1
∇Ψ(r) = ur − ur × ΛΨ(r) ✭❆✳✻✽❛✮
∂r  r  
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Ψ(r)
∇ = 2 r + Λ · ΛΨ(r) .
r ∂r ∂r

❯♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❝é❧❡❜r❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ q✉❡ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛r ② q✉❡ ❙t♦❦❡s ❥❛♠ás ♣✉❜❧✐❝ó✳ ❊❧❧♦
❢✉❡ ❛sí ♣♦rq✉❡ ♥♦ ❧♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡ró ❝♦rr❡❝t♦ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ s❡ ❧❛ ❤❛❜í❛ ❝♦♠✉♥✐❝❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♣r✐✈❛❞❛
▲♦r❞ ❑❡❧✈✐♥ ✭❲✐❧❧✐❛♠ ❚❤♦♠s♦♥✮ ❡♥ ✶✽✺✵✳ ❚r❛s ♣r♦❜❛r r✐❣✉r♦s❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛✱ ❙t♦❦❡s ♣r♦♣✉s♦
s✉ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✶✽✺✹ ❝♦♠♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❝✐❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
❈❛♠❜r✐❞❣❡ q✉❡ q✉✐s✐❡s❡♥ ♦♣t❛r ❛❧ ♣r❡♠✐♦ ❡①tr❛♦r❞✐♥❛r✐♦ ✜♥ ❞❡ ❝❛rr❡r❛ ✭❡❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❙♠✐t❤✬s Pr✐③❡✮
❞á♥❞♦❧❡s ❛sí ❧❛ ♦♣♦rt✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✏❧✉❝✐rs❡✑✳ ▲♦s ❣❛♥❛❞♦r❡s ❡① ❛❡q✉♦ ❞❡❧ ♣r❡♠✐♦ ❢✉❡r♦♥ ❊❞✇❛r❞ ❘♦✉t❤
② ✉♥ t❛❧ ❏❛♠❡s ❈❧❡r❦ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧ ②✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s s❡ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ❧❧❛♠❛r ❞❡
❑❡❧✈✐♥✲❙t♦❦❡s✲▼❛①✇❡❧❧✲❘♦✉t❤✳ ❙✐ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛♥ ❧♦s r❡t♦s✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡s❝❛r❣❛r ❡❧ ❢❛♠♦s♦ ❡①❛♠❡♥ ✭s✐♥ ❧❛s
s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s✮ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❯❘▲ ❤tt♣✿✴✴✇✇✇✳❝❧❡r❦♠❛①✇❡❧❧❢♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥✳♦r❣✴❙♠✐t❤sPr✐③❡❊①❛♠❴❙t♦❦❡s✳♣❞❢
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❆◆➪▲■❙■❙ ❱❊❈❚❖❘■❆▲

P♦r ❝♦♥s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✭❆✳✹✸✮

∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂Ψ(r)
ΛΨ(r) = uϕ − uθ ✭❆✳✻✽❜✮
∂θ sin θ ∂ϕ
 
1 ∂ ∂Ψ(r) 1 ∂ 2 Ψ(r)
Λ · ΛΨ(r) = sin θ + ,
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
q✉❡❞❛♥❞♦ ❝❧❛r♦ ❛sí q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Λ ❡s ♣✉r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✳
 ❆♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❇
❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙✿ ❈❖▼P▲❊▼❊◆❚❖❙

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❛♣é♥❞✐❝❡ ❡①♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s s♦❜r❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s

❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ♣r❡s❝✐♥❞✐❜❧❡s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t♦r✐❛
❞❡ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ s♦♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s s✐ s❡ ❞❡s❡❛ s❡❣✉✐r ❡♥ ✉♥ ❢✉t✉r♦ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦
♠ás ❛✈❛♥③❛❞♦✳ P✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♥✉❡str♦ ✐♥t❡rés ❡s ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ✐❞❡❛s✱
❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s s❡r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥s❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦❝♦ r✐❣✉r♦s♦s✳

B.1✳ ▲❆ ■◆❚❊●❘❆▲ ❉❊ ▲❊❇❊❙●❯❊

• P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ s❡❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡✱ ❧❛s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦

❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❜❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛rs❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ ② ♥♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠ás
❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥✳ ❙✐ ♥♦s ❧✐♠✐t❛♠♦s ♠♦♠❡♥tá♥❡❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ú♥✐❝❛
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ g(x) ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❛
tr♦③♦s ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ ár❡❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ s✉❜t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❣rá✜❝❛ ❞❡ g(x) ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s
❧í♠✐t❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥ ❝✉②♦ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦
❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛rs❡ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳

▲❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♦ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞

❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐③❛ ♥✉❡str❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✏❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✑✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♥
✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [a, b] ⊂ R s✉ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❡s b − a✱ q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s
(a, b)✱ (a, b] ② [b, a)✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R
♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡ ✭♦r❞❡♥❛❜❧❡✮ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛
❝❡r♦✱ ❞✐❝✐é♥❞♦s❡ q✉❡ ❡s♦s s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s♦♥ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ t❛❧❡s
s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s♦♥ N, Z, Q ② ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
❞❛❞♦s ❞♦s s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞✐s❥✉♥t♦s Λ1 ② Λ2 ✱ ❧❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ s✉ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡
s✉s ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞❡s✳ ❚♦❞♦ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ R ❝♦♥❝❡❜✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ✭♣✉♥t♦s
❛✐s❧❛❞♦s✱ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ② ✉♥✐♦♥❡s ❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s✮ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛
❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✱ ❞✐❝✐é♥❞♦s❡ q✉❡ ❡s ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛s ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡ ❤❛❧❧❛r ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✏♥♦ tr✐✈✐❛❧❡s✑
❞❡ R✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❢r❛❝t❛❧❡s✳

• ❯♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❡❛❧✱ g(x)✱ ❡s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ ❡♥tr❡ a ② b s✐

♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✉❜✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ❞❡ [a, b] s✉ ❛♥t✐✲✐♠❛❣❡♥ ✭❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙✿ ❈❖▼P▲❊▼❊◆❚❖❙

❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ t♦♠❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦✮ ❡s ♠❡❞✐❜❧❡
▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s t❛♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ q✉❡ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ t♦❞❛s
❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✐♥t❡rés ❢ís✐❝♦ ❝♦t✐❞✐❛♥♦ ❧❛ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥✳

▲❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ ❞❡ g(x) s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♦ s✐❣✉❡✿

✐✮ ❙❡ ❞✐✈✐❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡❛❧ ❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ dy ✱ Λn = [yn −dy, yn ]✱ ❞♦♥❞❡

yn = ndy n ∈ Z✳
❝♦♥

✐✐✮ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ Λn s❡ ❤❛❧❧❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ℓn ❞❡❧ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ g −1 (Λn )∩[a, b]✱
s✐❡♥❞♦ g
−1 (Λ ) ❧❛ ❛♥t✐✲✐♠❛❣❡♥ ❞❡ Λ ✳
n n
✐✐✐✮ ❙❡ t♦♠❛ ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ dy → 0 ② ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s
♠❡❞✐❞❛s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱

Z b +∞
X
g(x) dx ≡ lı́m yn ℓ n . ✭❇✳✶✮
a dy→0+
n=−∞

❋í❥❡s❡ q✉❡ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠❛♥♥ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s

❝❛❞❛ ✈❡③ ♠ás ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ❞❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛
♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉ r❡❝♦rr✐❞♦ ✭❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ t♦♠❛ g(x)✮✳

▲❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✐❞é♥t✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ RN ✿ só❧♦ ❤❛② q✉❡ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ ✏❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✑ ♣♦r ✏ár❡❛✑
✭s✐ N = 2✮ ♦ ♣♦r ✏✈♦❧✉♠❡♥✑ ✭s✐ N = 3✮✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦s s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡
R3 ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛ ♠ás ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡s s♦♥ ❧❛s ✉♥✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡s ❞❡
♣✉♥t♦s✱ ❝✉r✈❛s ♦ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡s✳

❙✐ g(x) ❢✉❡s❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s❡ ❤❛rí❛ ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ s✉s ♣❛rt❡s r❡❛❧❡s ❡
✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛s✳

B.2✳ ❈❖◆❱❊❘●❊◆❈■❆ ❊◆ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙

• ❉♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s g(r) ② h(r) s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❝❛s✐ ❞♦q✉✐❡r❛ ✭♦ ❝❛s✐ ♣♦r ❞♦q✉✐❡r ✮ ✭❝✳❞✳✮ s✐
só❧♦ ❞✐✜❡r❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
 −x
 e si x ∈
/Q
g(x) = e−x ; h(x) =

x si x ∈ Q
s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❝✳❞✳ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Q ❡s ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛✳ ❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡
t♦❞❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❝✳❞✳ ❞❛ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳
 ❇✳✷✳ ❈❖◆❱❊❘●❊◆❈■❆ ❊◆ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙

• ❊♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s s✐ ❧♦ s♦♥ ✏❝❛s✐ ❞♦q✉✐❡r❛✑✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱
❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ L2 (RN ) ❡stá ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ❡♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♣♦r ❝❧❛s❡s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❝✳❞✳
❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡
Z
|Ψ(r)|2 dN r ≡ kΨk2
RN

❡s ✜♥✐t❛✳ ❊st❛ ♠❛t✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ②❛ q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧

Ψ(r) = Φ(r) ⇔ kΨ − Φk = 0 ✭❇✳✷✮

❡s ❝✐❡rt❛ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✏❝✳❞✳✑ ② ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ s❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛

♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡✳

❆ s✉ ✈❡③✱ s✐ ψ(λ) ② φ(λ) s♦♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ í♥❞✐❝❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦

λ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ(r) ② Φ(r)✱ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡
ψ(λ) ② φ(λ) ❡♥ ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥✉❧❛ s♦♥ ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧❡s s♦❜r❡ λ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s♦♥ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡✳

• ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✜♥✐t❛ {Ψn (r)}✱ ❝♦♥ n =

1, 2, 3, ... ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✏❝❛s✐ ❞♦q✉✐❡r❛✑✱ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛
❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧


 existe una función Ψ(r) tal que se cumple
{Ψn (r)} converge (puntualmente) ⇔

 que lı́m Ψn (r) = Ψ(r) para todo r ∈ RN
n→∞

❊st❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r s✉st✐t✉✐❞❛ ♣♦r ♦tr❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛
♠❡♥♦s ❡①✐❣❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐❞❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✭❇✳✷✮ ❜❛s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ✿

 2 N
 existe Ψ(r) ∈ L (R ) tal que
{Ψn (r)} converge ⇔ ✭❇✳✸✮

 lı́m kΨ − Ψn k = 0.
n→∞

❊♥t♦♥❝❡s Ψ(r) ❡s ❡❧ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥✳ ❊❧ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ✭❇✳✸✮✱ ♠✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦

❢✉❡rt❡✱ ❡s ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❛ ♣♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦ ❛❧ tr❛t❛r s✉❝❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✳
❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ L2 (RN ) ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✱ t♦❞❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥
❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❈❛✉❝❤② ② ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ {Ψn (r)} ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡
✭❢✉❡rt❡♠❡♥t❡✮ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás

 Para todo ǫ > 0 existe un s ∈ N tal que
{Ψn (r)} es de Cauchy ⇔

kΨn − Ψm k < ǫ si n > s y m > s
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙✿ ❈❖▼P▲❊▼❊◆❚❖❙

♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡✱ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡s ❞❡ ❈❛✉❝❤② t♦❞❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❝✉②♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s t✐❡♥❞❡♥ ❛

❡st❛❜✐❧✐③❛rs❡✳

• ❊♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rés s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✱

❧♦ q✉❡ s✉❣✐❡r❡ ❞❡✜♥✐r ♦tr♦ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❞é❜✐❧✳
❊s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱


 la sucesión φn = hΨn |Φi
{Ψn (r)} converge (débilmente) ⇔

converge para toda Φ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ).

❊st❡ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ s✉ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛✱ ❡s ♠❡♥♦s r❡str✐❝t✐✈♦ q✉❡ ❡❧
❢✉❡rt❡✿ ❤❛② s✉❝❡s✐♦♥❡s {Ψn (x)} q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥t❡s ❢✉❡rt❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ sí
❧♦ s♦♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞é❜✐❧✳

❊st❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞é❜✐❧ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡❧❛❥❛r ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ♠ás s✐ ✐♠♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Φ(r) s❡❛♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✿


 la sucesión φn = hΨn |Φi
{Ψn (r)} converge (débilmente en S(RN )) ⇔

converge para toda Φ(r) ∈ S(RN )

② t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s

❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s✳

B.3✳ ❋❖❘▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆▲❊❙ ❨ ❉■❙❚❘■❇❯❈■❖◆❊❙ ❚❊▼P❊❘❆❉❆❙

• ▲❛s ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞❛s ♣♦r

❉✐r❛❝✱ r❡s✉❧t❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ✏♣♦❝♦ ❡❧❡❣❛♥t❡s✑ ♣❡r♦ ♠✉② út✐❧❡s ② s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦
❢ís✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ tr❛♥s♣❛r❡♥t❡s✳ ▲❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❢✉❡ rá♣✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥t❡st❛❞❛
❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ♣✉r❛ ♣♦r ❏♦❤♥ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥✱ q✉✐❡♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧ó
✉♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ♥✐♥❣ú♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛❝✉❞í❛ ❛
✏❡♥t❡s✑ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ❝♦♠♦ s♦♥ ♥✉❡str❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s θq (r) ♦ δ a (r)✳ ❊♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❝❛s♦✱ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ s♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ r✐❣✉r♦s❛s s✐ s❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛♥ ❛
♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▲❛✉r❡♥t ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s
❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❡q✉✐♣❛❞♦s ❞❡ ■sr❛ï❧ ●❡❧✬❢❛♥❞✳ ❱❛♠♦s ❛ ✈❡r ♠✉② s♦♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝ó♠♦✳

• ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (RN )✳ ❯♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❡s t♦❞❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ A

q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❛ ❝❛❞❛
2
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φ(r) ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ L (R )✱
N
 ❇✳✸✳ ❋❖❘▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆▲❊❙ ❨ ❉■❙❚❘■❇❯❈■❖◆❊❙ ❚❊▼P❊❘❆❉❆❙

❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ D(A) ❞❡❧ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ A[Φ]✳ ❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧

q✉❡ ♦❝✉rrí❛ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✱ ✉♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ q✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞♦
♣♦r s✉ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✳ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ②❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s
♣♦r ♥♦s♦tr♦s s♦♥ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♠❡❞✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
✭❡✈❛❧✉❛❞♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✮✳

❙✐ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ A ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱


 {Φ(r), Ψ(r)} ⊂ D(A)
A[αΨ + βΦ] = αA[Ψ] + βA[Φ] para todo ✭❇✳✹✮

{α, β} ⊂ C

❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❙✉ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❤❛ ❞❡ s❡r ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥

s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ L2 (RN )✳

❉✐r❛❝ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❥♦ ❝♦♥ s✉ ♣❡rs♣✐❝❛❝✐❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✳ ❙✐ A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❡♥
L2 (RN )✱ ❡❧ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ♥♦
❧♦ s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ A[Ψ]✱ s✐♥♦ ❝♦♠♦ hA||Ψi✳ ❆sí✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s
❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❦❡ts |Ψi✱ ❧❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s s❡
s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❜r❛s hA|✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ hA| s❡
❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❝♦♠♦
hA||αΨ + βΦi = αhA||Ψi + βhA||Φi,
❞♦♥❞❡ |αΨ + βΦi s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛ ❡❧ ❦❡t ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ α|Ψi + β|Φi✳

❆❞♦♣t❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ❞❛❞❛s ❞♦s ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s hA|
② hB| ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r s✉ s✉♠❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ hA + B| t❛❧ q✉❡

hA + B||Ψi = hA||Ψi + hB||Ψi para todo Ψ(r) ∈ D(A) ∩ D(B)

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ s✐ λ ❡s ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ hλA| s❡rá

hλA||Ψi = λ∗ hA||Ψi para todo Ψ(r) ∈ D(A)

✭➼❛t❡♥❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦✦✮✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ s✐ W ❡s ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ L2 (RN )

∗
② ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛♠♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞✉❛❧ W ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❝✉②♦
∗
❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ W ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s W r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❜❛❥♦
❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ② ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✳

• ❆ ❧❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡ S(RN ) ✭r❡❝✉❡r❞❡✱

❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✮ s❡ ❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s t❡♠♣❡r❛❞❛s✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙✿ ❈❖▼P▲❊▼❊◆❚❖❙

tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r Fq ② ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ δa ❞♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝♦s✳

❋✐❥❛❞❛s ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ a ② ✉♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ q✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s δa ② Fq

hδ a ||Φi = Φ(a)
Z
e−iq·r/~
hFq ||Φi = Φ̃(q) = Φ(r) dN r ∀ Φ(r) ∈ S(RN ) ✭❇✳✺✮
RN (2π~)N/2
❱❡♠♦s ❛sí q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ♣❧❡♥♦ s✐ s❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛
❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥✳ ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣❡r❛❞❛
♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ♠ás ❛♠♣❧✐♦ q✉❡ S(RN )✿ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ❡stá ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛
♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡♥ r = a✱ ② q✉❡ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡
❋♦✉r✐❡r ❞❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ♠✉❝❤❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ s✉❛✈❡s ❞❡
❞❡❝r❡❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ rá♣✐❞♦✳

• ❊♥ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
❡s❝❛❧❛r✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ t♦❞❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ) t✐❡♥❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧
✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ hΨ|✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛✱ ❝✉②♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡s t♦❞♦ L2 (RN ) ② ❝✉②❛
r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✿
Z
hΨ||Φi = Ψ∗ (r) Φ(r) dN r = hΨ|Φi ∀ Φ(r) ∈ L2 (RN ). ✭❇✳✻✮
RN

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ✈❡✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❥❛r ❞❡ ✉s❛r ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❜❛rr❛ || ♣❛r❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s Ψ ❞❡ L2 (RN )✳
2
❘❡❝í♣r♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛rs❡ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝✉②♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡s L (R )
N

❡s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ② só❧♦ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❧❛

❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❝✉②♦ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❡s t♦❞♦ L2 (RN ) ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ②
❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s✱ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ λΨ(r) + µΦ(r) ❡s ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ hλΨ + µΦ|✳

❊st❛ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ♣✐❡r❞❡ s✐ r❡str✐♥❣✐♠♦s ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s✳

❈♦♠♦ ❛❝❛❜❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✈❡r✱ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ ② ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r ♥♦ s♦♥
❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛s ②❛ ♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ s✐♥♦ ♥✐ s✐q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡
✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❆sí✱ s✐ hΛ| ❡s ✉♥❛ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣❡r❛❞❛
♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡ L2 (RN )✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛
Λ(r) ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ s✉s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✿
Z
hΛ| → Λ(r) tal que Λ∗ (r) Φ(r) dN r = hΛ||Φi ∈ C ∀ Φ(r) ∈ S(RN )
RN
✭❇✳✼✮
▲❛ ❞✐st✐♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ hΛ||Φi ② hΛ|Φi ❡s ②❛ s✉♣❡r✢✉❛ s✐ ❡①t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦
❡s❝❛❧❛r ❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s❀ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ❜❛rr❛ || ②
 ❇✳✸✳ ❋❖❘▼❆❙ ▲■◆❊❆▲❊❙ ❨ ❉■❙❚❘■❇❯❈■❖◆❊❙ ❚❊▼P❊❘❆❉❆❙

s♦❜r❡❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉❡ hΛ|Φi ❡s ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ Λ(r) s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

Φ(r)✳

▲❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✭❇✳✼✮ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❧❛s ✏❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s✑ ❞❡ Λ(r) ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r

2 N
❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L (R ) ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
2 N
s✐ {Φ1 (r),Φ2 (r), ...} ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡ L (R ) ❝♦♥ ❡st❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

∞
X
Λ(r) = hΦn |Λi Φn (r) con hΦn |Λi = hΛ|Φn i∗ ∈ C. ✭❇✳✽✮
n=1

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡st❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ♥♦ ❡s ❡str✐❝t❛✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦
♥♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❢✉❡rt❡ ✭❇✳✸✮ ❜❛s❛❞♦ ❡♥
❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ Λ(r) ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❧❛
s❡r✐❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ sí ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s
❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r q✉❡ ♣♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❡s ✜♥✐t♦

∞
X
hΦ|Λi = hΦn |ΛihΦ|Φn i = hΛ|Φi∗ ∈ C para todo Φ(r) ∈ S(RN ).
n=1

❆ ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞✐r❡❝t❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ✭❇✳✽✮✱ ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦

♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ② q✉❡ r✐❣✉r♦s❛♠❡♥t❡ só❧♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞❡♥tr♦
❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ s❡ ❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s✳
▲❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝ q✉❡ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶ ❡s ❛sí ✉♥ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❡♥
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s ❝✉②❛ ♥♦r♠❛
✈❛ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛♥❞♦ ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ R ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛
✉♥✐❞❛❞✳

❖tr♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s✿ ❡♥ L2 (R) ❧❛s ❞♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ✭❡①❝❡♣t♦ ❧❛ tr✐✈✐❛❧ Ψ(x) = Φ(x) = 0✮
 
d
(x − a)Ψ(x) = 0 ; −i − k Φ(x) = 0 ; con a yk ∈ R.
dx

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s sí t✐❡♥❡♥ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✿

Ψ(x) = Aδ a (x) ; Φ(x) = B exp(ikx),

❞♦♥❞❡ A, B s♦♥ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐✈❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙✿ ❈❖▼P▲❊▼❊◆❚❖❙

B.4✳ ❊◗❯■P❆▼■❊◆❚❖ ❉❊ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❍■▲❇❊❘❚

• ◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ♥♦ s♦♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧♦

✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✏❛♠♣❧✐❛❞♦✑ ♦
✏❡q✉✐♣❛❞♦✑ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (RN ) ❝♦♥ ♥✉❡✈❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ✈❛♥ ❛ t❡♥❡r ✉♥
✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ② ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❛❜rá ❛❞✐✈✐♥❛❞♦✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ q✉❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛ ❧❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r hFq | ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡
❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡ θq (r)✿
Z
hFq | → θq (r) tal que θ∗q (r)Φ(r) d3 r = Φ̃(q) ∀ Φ(r) ∈ S(RN ).
RN
❊♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡st❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛
❝❛s✐ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ②❛ q✉❡✱ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡①❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ✏❡①ót✐❝❛s✑ ❝♦♠♦
❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡stá♥❞❛r
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦ RN ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱
s✐ tr❛❜❛❥❛♠♦s ❡♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❜str❛❝t❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦s ♥♦ q✉❡❞❛
♠ás r❡♠❡❞✐♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝❡r ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✉á❧❡s s♦♥ ❧❛s ♥✉❡✈❛s ✏✐♥❝♦r♣♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s✑✳ ❊❧
❡sq✉❡♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡s ❛sí ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿ s❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
E ✱ s❡ ❡s❝♦❣❡ ✉♥ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥s♦ S ❝✉②♦s ❦❡ts r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡st❛❞♦s
❝♦♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❢ís✐❝♦ ② s❡ ❡q✉✐♣❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ E ❝♦♥
∗
❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❦❡ts ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞♦s ❝✉②♦s ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s ❜r❛s ❞❡ S q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥
∗ ∗
❛ E ✳ ▲❛ t❡r♥❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s {S, E, S }✱ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ tr✐♣❧❡t❡ ❞❡ ●❡❧✬❢❛♥❞✱ ❞❡✜♥❡
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉♥ ❡q✉✐♣❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt E ✳

• P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ s❡❛ r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛
♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❞❡
L2 (RN ) s♦❜r❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s✳ ❉❡ ♥✉❡✈♦✱ ❡♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ❡s
♣r❡❝✐s♦ r♦♠♣❡rs❡ ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦ ❧❛ ❝❛❜❡③❛ ②❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠✉❝❤♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s
❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❡♥ L2 (RN ) s❡ ❡①t✐❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❞❡
❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ t❛❧ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r r✐❣✉r♦s❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐❞❛
❧♦ q✉❡ t❡♥❞rá ❧❛ ✈❡♥t❛❥❛ ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❛♠♣❧✐❛r ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r✳

❙❡❛  ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❧✐♥❡❛❧ t❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ s✉ ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ † ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛

❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ t❛❧ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❤✐❝✐♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
 s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ Λ(r) ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s✿
Z   Z  ∗
∗ N
Φ (r) ÂΛ(r) d r = † Φ(r) Λ(r) dN r ∀ Φ(r) ∈ S(RN ). ✭❇✳✾✮
RN RN

❙✐ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Λ(r) ❡s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ② ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Â ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r

♥♦ ❛♣♦rt❛ ♥❛❞❛✳ P❡r♦✱ s✐ Λ(r) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ♦ ✉♥❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡
 ❇✳✺✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❉❆ ❊◆ ❙❊◆❚■❉❖ ❉❊ ❉■❙❚❘■❇❯❈■❖◆❊❙

♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ❞❡ Â✱ ❡st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❡✈❛❧✉❛r

✐♥❞✐r❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ÂΛ(r)✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ {Φ1 (r),Φ2 (r), ...} ❡s ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞❡
L2 (RN ) ❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ② q✉❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥ ❛❧ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ Â
†

t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s

∞
X
ÂΛ(r) = h† Φn |ΛiΦn (r) con h† Φn |Λi = hΛ|† Φn i∗ .
n=1

B.5✳ ❉❊❘■❱❆❉❆ ❊◆ ❙❊◆❚■❉❖ ❉❊ ❉■❙❚❘■❇❯❈■❖◆❊❙

• ▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡①♣✉❡st❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♥♦s ✈❛ ❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦

❞❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✳ P♦r s✐♠♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞✱ ♥♦s ✈❛♠♦s ❛ r❡str✐♥❣✐r ❛❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt L2 (R)
②❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ♠ás r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①t❡♥❞❡r ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❙❡❛ Λ(x) ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❜✐❡♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✳ ❙✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛
❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦✿
Z Z  
dΛ(x) dΦ(x)
Φ(x) dx = (por partes) = − Λ(x) dx ∀ Φ(x) ∈ S(R)
R dx R dx
✭❇✳✶✵✮
② ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡❛ Λ(x) ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❡①tr❛❡r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ✉♥❛
r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛ ♦ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡♥✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ Λ(x) = δ a (x)✱

Z Z  
dδ a (x) dΦ(x) dΦ(x)
Φ(x) dx = − δ a (x) dx = −
R dx R dx dx x=a

② ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ δ a (x) ❡s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛ δ ′a (x)

t❛❧ q✉❡ Z
δ ′a (x)Φ(x) = −Φ′ (a).
R
▼❡♥♦s ❡①tr❛ñ❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ♦ ❞❡ ❍❡❛✈②s✐❞❡✱

 1 si x ≥ a
Θa (x) = ✭❇✳✶✶✮

0 si x ≤ a,

❝✉②❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ✉s✉❛❧ ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦ ♠❡♥♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡♥ x=a

❞♦♥❞❡ ♥♦ ❡stá ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s✱ s✐ Ψ(x) ❡s ✉♥❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳ ❊❙P❆❈■❖❙ ❉❊ ❋❯◆❈■❖◆❊❙✿ ❈❖▼P▲❊▼❊◆❚❖❙

❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛

Z Z   Z +∞
dΘa (x) dΨ(x) dΨ(x)
Ψ(x) dx = − Θa (x) dx = − dx = Ψ(a)
R dx R dx a dx

✭♥♦ ♦❧✈✐❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③ ② ❝✉❛❧❡sq✉✐❡r❛ ♦tr❛s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦

✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡ s❡ ❛♥✉❧❛♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ✐♥✜♥✐t♦s✮✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱

Z
dΘa (x) dΘa (x)
Ψ(x) dx = Ψ(a) ⇒ = δ a (x)
R dx dx

② ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡

❉✐r❛❝✳

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ s✐ Λ(x) ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❡①❝❡♣t♦ ❡♥
x = a✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r

dΛ(x)  
= Λ′ (x) + ∆a δ a (x) con ∆a ≡ lı́m Λ(a + δ) − Λ(a − δ) ✭❇✳✶✷✮
dx δ→0+

❞♦♥❞❡ Λ′ (x) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ✏✉s✉❛❧✑ ❞❡ Λ(x) ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ t❡♥❡r ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛
❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ② ∆a ❡s ❡❧ ✏s❛❧t♦✑ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Λ(x) ❡♥ x = a✳ P❛r❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛r
✭❇✳✶✷✮ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❛❝❝❡s♦r✐❛

ϑ(x) = Λ(x) − ∆a Θa (x).

❊st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ✉s✉❛❧ ϑ′ (x) ② s✉ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥

′
❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛❞❡♠ás ϑ (x) = Λ′ (x) ✭❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ✉s✉❛❧✮✱ ❞❡r✐✈❛♥❞♦
❡♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✭❇✳✶✷✮✳
 ❇■❇▲■❖●❘❆❋❮❆

• ❊▲❊❈❚❘❖▼❆●◆❊❚■❙▼❖ ❨ ÓP❚■❈❆

❬❏❛❝❦s♦♥❪ ❏♦❤♥ ❉✳ ❏❛❝❦s♦♥❀ ❈❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ ❊❧❡❝tr♦❞②♥❛♠✐❝s ✭✸r❞ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮ ❀ ❏♦❤♥ ❲✐❧❡②

✫ ❙♦♥s ✶✾✾✾✳ ✭❯♥❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❛ s✐❞♦ tr❛❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧ ❡♥ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧
❆❧❤❛♠❜r❛✮✳

❬❘❡✐t③❪ ❏♦❤♥ ❘✳ ❘❡✐t③✱ ❋r❡❞❡r✐❝❦ ❏✳ ▼✐❧❢♦r❞✱ ❘♦❜❡rt ❲✳ ❈❤r✐st②❀ ❋♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢

❊❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐❝ ❚❤❡♦r② ✭✹t❤ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮ ❀ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② ✶✾✾✸✳ ✭❤❛② tr❛❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❧
❡s♣❛ñ♦❧ ❡♥ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② ■❜❡r♦❛♠❡r✐❝❛♥❛✮✳

❬❈❛❜r❡r❛❪ ❏♦sé ▼✳ ❈❛❜r❡r❛✱ ❋❡r♥❛♥❞♦ ❏✳ ▲ó♣❡③✱ ❋❡r♥❛♥❞♦ ❆❣✉❧❧ó✱ Ó♣t✐❝❛

❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛ ✭✷ a ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥✮ ❀ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② ■❜❡r♦❛♠❡r✐❝❛♥❛ ✴ ❯❆▼ ✶✾✾✽✳

❬❍❡❝❤t❪ ❊✉❣❡♥❡ ❍❡❝❤t✱ ❖♣t✐❝s ✭✹t❤ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮✱ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② ✷✵✵✶✳ ✭❤❛②

tr❛❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧ ❡♥ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② ■❜❡r♦❛♠❡r✐❝❛♥❛✮✳

▲❛ ♦❜r❛ ❞❡ ❏❛❝❦s♦♥ ❡s ❧❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♦❜❧✐❣❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦✱

❡♥❝✐❝❧♦♣é❞✐❝❛ ② ❝♦♥ ❣r❛♥ r✐❣♦r ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐❞❛❞✳ ❈♦♠♦ t❡①t♦✱ ❡stá ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞♦ ❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s

❞❡ ♣♦s❣r❛❞♦✳ ❊❧ ❧✐❜r♦ ❞❡ ❘❡✐t③ ❡t ❛❧ ♥♦ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❛❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s s♦♥

♠ás ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦✳

❊❧ t❡①t♦ ❞❡ ó♣t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❍❡❝❤t ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♠♦❞❡r♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛✳ ▲♦ ♠✐s♠♦

♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡❝✐rs❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦❜r❛ ❞❡ ❈❛❜r❡r❛ ❡t ❛❧ q✉❡✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❡s ✉♥ ❡①❝❡❧❡♥t❡ ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛♠✐❡♥t♦

❛ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦ ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳

• ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆✿

❬❲✐❝❤♠❛♥♥❪ ❊②✈✐♥❞ ❍✳ ❲✐❝❤♠❛♥♥❀ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❀ ❇❡r❦❡❧❡② P❤②s✐❝s ❈♦✉rs❡

❘❡✈❡rté ✷✵✵✽✳

❬❋❡②♥♠❛♥❪ ❘✐❝❤❛r❞ P✳ ❋❡②♥♠❛♥✱ ❘♦❜❡rt ❇✳ ▲❡✐❣❤t♦♥✱ ▼❛t❤❡✇ ❙❛♥❞s❀ ❚❤❡

❋❡②♥♠❛♥ ▲❡❝t✉r❡s ♦♥ P❤②s✐❝s✱ ❚❤❡ ◆❡✇ ▼✐❧❧❡♥✐✉♠ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥ ✭❱♦❧ ■■■✿ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠
▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s✮ ❀ ❇❛s✐❝ ❇♦♦❦s ✷✵✶✶✳ ✭❤❛② tr❛❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧
❡♥ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② ■❜❡r♦❛♠❡r✐❝❛♥❛✮✳

❬❙á♥❝❤❡③✲●✉✐❧❧é♥❪ ❏♦❛q✉í♥ ❙❛♥❝❤❡③ ●✉✐❧❧é♥ ② ▼✐❥❛✐❧ ❆✳ ❇r❛✉♥✱ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱

❆❧✐❛♥③❛ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ✶✾✾✸

❬❊✐s❜❡r❣❪ ❘♦❜❡rt ❊✐s❜❡r❣ ❛♥❞ ❘♦❜❡rt ❘❡s♥✐❝❦✱ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ P❤②s✐❝s ♦❢ ❆t♦♠s✱

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

▼♦❧❡❝✉❧❡s✱ ❙♦❧✐❞s✱ ◆✉❝❧❡✐✱ ❛♥❞ P❛rt✐❝❧❡s ✭✷♥❞ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮ ❀ ❏♦❤♥ ❲✐❧❡② ✫ ❙♦♥s✱ ✶✾✽✺✳
✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ▲✐♠✉s❛✲❲✐❧❡②✮✳

❬❈♦♠♣❧✉t❡♥s❡❪ ❈❛r❧♦s ❙á♥❝❤❡③ ❞❡❧ ❘í♦ ✭❝♦♦r❞✳✮✱ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ✭✹♦ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥✱
❝♦rr❡❣✐❞❛✮ ❀ P✐rá♠✐❞❡✱ ✷✵✵✷✳

❬❋r❡♥❝❤❪ ❆✳ P✳ ❋r❡♥❝❤✱ ❊❞✇✐♥ ❋✳ ❚❛②❧♦r✱ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ✭▼■❚

P❤②s✐❝s ❈♦✉rs❡✮ ❀ ❘❡✈❡rté ✶✾✽✷✳

❬▲❡✈✐❪ ❆✳ ❋✳ ❏✳ ▲❡✈✐✱ ❆♣♣❧✐❡❞ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ✭✷♥❞ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮ ❀ ❈❛♠❜r✐❞❣❡

❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② Pr❡ss ✷✵✵✻✳

▲♦s t❡①t♦s ❞❡ ❲✐❝❤♠❛♥♥ ② ❋❡②♥♠❛♥♥ ❡t ❛❧ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❧♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s

❢❡♥♦♠❡♥♦❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s✉ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡❜❡ s✐t✉❛rs❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛s

❞❡ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❋ís✐❝❛ ■■■ ② ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■ ② ■■✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❧❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ② ♠✉②

❝✉✐❞❛❞❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❧❡❣❡♥❞❛r✐♦ ❈✉rs♦ ❋❡②♥♠❛♥ ❞❡ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❡s ❞❡ ❛❞q✉✐s✐❝✐ó♥ ♦❜❧✐❣❛❞❛ ♣♦r
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❢ís✐❝♦✳ ❙✐❡♠♣r❡ ♣♦❞rá ❞✐s❝✉t✐rs❡ s✐ ❧❛ ♦r❞❡♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t❡♠❛s ❡s ❧❛ ♠ás ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛

♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❛✉tó♥♦♠♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❜✐❡♥ ❛s❡♥t❛❞♦s ❧♦s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s s✉

❧❡❝t✉r❛ ❡s ✐♥❡❧✉❞✐❜❧❡✳

▲♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s t❡①t♦s ❝✉❜r❡♥ ❡❧ t❡♠❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛s✐❣♥❛t✉r❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

❬❙á♥❝❤❡③✲●✉✐❧❧é♥❪ ❡s ❝♦♥❝✐s♦ ② ❝❧❛r♦✳ ❬❊✐s❜❡r❣❪ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛

❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❞✐❞á❝t✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❡✈✐t❛ ❧♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ♠ás té❝♥✐❝♦s✱ ❤❛❝✐❡♥❞♦ ♠ás

❤✐♥❝❛♣✐é ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❢ís✐❝♦s✳ ❙✉ tr❛❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧✱ ❡❞✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ▲✐♠✉s❛✱ ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡❧

t♦❞♦ s❛t✐s❢❛❝t♦r✐❛ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦s s✉ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐❞✐♦♠❛ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳ ❬❋r❡♥❝❤❪

❤❛❝❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧ú❝✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♥✐✈❡❧ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛❧ q✉❡

♥♦s♦tr♦s ❤❡♠♦s ❛❞♦♣t❛❞♦✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❬❈♦♠♣❧✉t❡♥s❡❪ ❡s ✉♥ tr❛❜❛ ❥♦ ❝♦❧❡❝t✐✈♦ ❡s❝r✐t♦ ♣♦r

✈❛r✐♦s ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❈♦♠♣❧✉t❡♥s❡ ❞❡ ▼❛❞r✐❞✳ ❙✉ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡s✉❧t❛r

❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❢♦q✉❡s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ t❡①t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛ ❡s

❡①❝❡❧❡♥t❡✳

P♦r ú❧t✐♠♦✱ ❡❧ t❡①t♦ ❞❡ ▲❡✈✐ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ♣❡❝✉❧✐❛r✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❛r ❞✐r✐❣✐❞♦ ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛

✐♥❣❡♥✐❡r♦s✱ ♥♦ ❛ ❢ís✐❝♦s✳ ❊s♦ ❤❛❝❡ q✉❡ s✉ ❡st✉❞✐♦ s❡❛ ❡♥r✐q✉❡❝❡❞♦r ❛❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡r ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s

❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠✉② ♣r❛❣♠át✐❝❛ ② ♦r✐❡♥t❛❞❛ ❛ s✉s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

• ❋❖❘▼❆▲■❙▼❖ ▼❆❚❊▼➪❚■❈❖ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋❮❙■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆✿

❬●✉✐❧❧❡s♣✐❡❪ ❉❛♥✐❡❧ ❚✳ ●✉✐❧❧❡s♣✐❡✱ ❆ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s Pr✐♠❡r ❀ ❏♦❤♥ ❲✐❧❧❡②

✫ ❙♦♥s✱ ✶✾✼✵✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧ ❡♥ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧ ❘❡✈❡rté✮✳

❬❉✐r❛❝❪ P✳ ❆✳ ▼✳ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❧❡s ♦❢ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ❀ ❖①❢♦r❞ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②

Pr❡ss ✶✾✺✽✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❡♥ ❆r✐❡❧✱ ✶✾✻✽✮✳

❬✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥❪ ❏♦❤♥ ✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥✱ ▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝❛❧ ❋♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠

▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s✱ Pr✐♥❝❡t♦♥ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② Pr❡ss ✶✾✾✻✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s
 ❇■❇▲■❖●❘❆❋❮❆

♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ♣✉❜❧✐❝❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❈❙■❈✱ ✶✾✾✶✮✳

❬▼❡ss✐❛❤❪ ❆❧❜❡rt ▼❡ss✐❛❤✱ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ❀ ❉♦✈❡r ✶✾✾✾✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛

❡♥ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧ ❚❡❝♥♦s✱ ✶✾✼✺✮✳

❬●❛❧✐♥❞♦❪ ❆❧❜❡rt♦ ●❛❧✐♥❞♦ ② P❡❞r♦ P❛s❝✉❛❧✱ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❀ ❊✉❞❡♠❛ ✶✾✽✾✳

❈♦♠♦ s✉ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛✱ ❬●✉✐❧❧❡s♣✐❡❪ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❜r❡✈❡ ② s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❛❧

❢♦r♠❛❧✐s♠♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦✳ ❬❉✐r❛❝❪ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♦❜r❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛r✐❞❛❞ ❡①♣♦s✐t✐✈❛
❡①❝❡♣❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ❝✉②❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ r❡♠♦♥t❛ ❛❧ ❛ñ♦ ✶✾✸✵✳ ❊s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❧✐❜r♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡
♣r❡s❡♥tó ♣♦r ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈❡③ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❝♦♠♣r❡❤❡♥s✐✈❛ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡♥
❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❤♦② ❡♥ ❞í❛✳ ❬✈♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥❪ ❡s ♦tr❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ♣✉❜❧✐❝❛❞❛
♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✶✾✸✷✳ ❱♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ ✉♥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❛①✐♦♠át✐❝❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡
✐♠♣❡❝❛❜❧❡ ② ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛ ✈❛ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♥❞♦ t♦❞❛ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛❧✳
❬▼❡ss✐❛❤❪ ❡s ♦tr❛ ❝✐t❛ ♦❜❧✐❣❛❞❛✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rs❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡
✐♥t❡❧✐❣✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ❡①❝❡❧❡♥t❡ ② ♠✉②
❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❬●❛❧✐♥❞♦❪ ❡s r✐❣✉r♦s♦ ② ❝♦♥❝✐s♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❛ ✈❡❝❡s ♠✉② ❛r❞✉♦ s✉ ❡st✉❞✐♦
s✐ ♥♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥♦s ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ② ❢ís✐❝♦s ♣r❡✈✐♦s ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ❛s❡♥t❛❞♦s✳
❯♥❛ ✈❡③ s✉♣❡r❛❞❛s ❧❛s ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞❡s✱ s✉ ❧❡❝t✉r❛ ❡s ❡st✐♠✉❧❛♥t❡✳

• ▼❊❈➪◆■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆✿

❬❆❧♦♥s♦❪ ▼❛r❝❡❧♦ ❆❧♦♥s♦✱ ❍❡♥r② ❱❛❧❦❀ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛✿ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ②

❆♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❀ ❊❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❛❧❛♠❛♥❝❛ ✷✵✵✽✳

❬P❡ñ❛❪ ▲✉✐s ❞❡ ❧❛ P❡ñ❛❀ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ✭✸❛ ❊❞✐❝✐ó♥✮ ❀

❊❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❈✐❡♥tí✜❝❛s ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t❛r✐❛s ✭▼é❥✐❝♦✮ ✷✵✵✻✳

❬❨♥❞✉r❛✐♥❪ ❋r❛♥❝✐s❝♦ ❏♦sé ❨♥❞✉r❛✐♥✱ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ❆❧✐❛♥③❛ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞

✶✾✽✽✳

❬❈♦❤❡♥❪ ❈❧❛✉❞❡ ❈♦❤❡♥✲❚❛♥♥♦✉❞❥✐✐✱ ❇❡r♥❛r❞ ❉✐✉✱ ❋r❛♥❝❦ ▲❛❧♦ë❀ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠

▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ✭❱♦❧✉♠❡ ❖♥❡✮ ❀ ❏♦❤♥ ❲✐❧❡② ✫ ❙♦♥s ✶✾✼✼✳

❬●♦tt❢r✐❡❞❪ ❑✉rt ●♦tt❢r✐❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❚✉♥❣✲▼♦✇ ❨❛♥✱ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ✿

❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧s ✭✷♥❞ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥ ✮❀ ❙♣r✐♥❣❡r ✷✵✵✸✳

❬▲❛♥❞❛✉❪ ▲❡✈ ❉✳ ▲❛♥❞❛✉ ❛♥❞ ❊✈❣❡♥② ▼✳ ▲✐❢s❤✐t③✱ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s✱

P❡r❣❛♠♦♥ ✶✾✼✼✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧ ❘❡✈❡rté✮✳

❬▲❡ ❇❡❧❧❛❝❪ ▼✐❝❤❡❧ ▲❡ ❇❡❧❧❛❝✱ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ P❤②s✐❝s ❀ ❈❛♠❜r✐❞❣❡ ❯♥✐✈✳ Pr❡ss ✷✵✵✻✳

❆✉♥q✉❡ s✉ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡s ♠ás ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦ ❛ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦ ❞❡ ▼❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛rt♦ ❝✉rs♦

❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦✱ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛r ❛❧❣✉♥♦s t❡①t♦s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r ❧♦ ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ♦❜r❛✳ ❊♠♣❡③❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❜✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛ ❡♥ ❝❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦✱ ❬ ❆❧♦♥s♦❪ ❡s ❧❛ tr❛❞✉❝❝✐ó♥
❛ ♥✉❡str♦ ✐❞✐♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ t❡①t♦ ❡❞✐t❛❞♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✶✾✼✸ ♣♦r ❆❞❞✐s♦♥ ❲❡s❧❡② ❡♥ ❡❧
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

q✉❡ ♣♦❞rá r❡❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❛❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❛✉t♦r ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠ás ❢❛♠♦s♦s ② ♠❡❥♦r❡s ♠❛♥✉❛❧❡s ❞❡

❢ís✐❝❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✳ ◆♦ ❡s ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞❡ ❡①tr❛ñ❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ t❡①t♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♦❝✉♣❛ s❡❛ ❝❧❛r♦✱ ♣r❡❝✐s♦

② ✏r♦❜✉st♦✑ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠❡❥♦r s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛✳ Ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❡❝❤❛ ❡♥ ❢❛❧t❛ ✉♥ ♠❛②♦r

♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s r❡s✉❡❧t♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡st❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝rít✐❝❛ ♠❡♥♦r ❤❛❜✐❞❛ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❞❡ q✉❡

❡st❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❧✐❜r♦ ❞❡ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♠❡❞✐♦✲❛❧t♦✳ ❊❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❬P❡ñ❛❪ ❡s

t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♥♦t❛❜❧❡✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❡s ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠ás ❛✈❛♥③❛❞♦ ❛❧ q✉❡

❛q✉í ❤❡♠♦s ❛❞♦♣t❛❞♦✳ ❬❨♥❞✉r❛✐♥❪ ❡s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❝♦♥❝✐s♦ ♣❡r♦ ❝❧❛r♦✳

❬❈♦❤❡♥❪ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❡❥♦r❡s ② ♠ás ❞✐❞á❝t✐❝❛s ♦❜r❛s ❞❡ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ −♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛

❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❡①✐st❡♥t❡s✳ ❊♥ ❡❧❧❛ s❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥ ❧♦s ❛s♣❡❝t♦s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛

❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s✐♥ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❛❜str❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♦tr♦s t❡①t♦s ♠ás ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s✳

▲❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s❬●♦tt❢r✐❡❞❪ ② ❬▲❛♥❞❛✉❪ s♦♥

❝❧❛r❛s ② r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❝✐s❛s✳ ❬▲❡ ❇❡❧❧❛❝❪ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ♠ás ❝♦♥t❡♠♣♦rá♥❡❛
❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ② q✉❡ ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛ ❛s♣❡❝t♦s q✉❡ ❛♣❡♥❛s s❡ tr❛t❛♥ ❡♥ ♦❜r❛s ♠ás

❛♥t✐❣✉❛s✳

❬●❛❧✐♥❞♦❪✱
◆❛t✉r❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡♥

❬▼❡ss✐❛❤❪ ② ❬❉✐r❛❝❪✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rs❡ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡s ❞✐s✉❝✉s✐♦♥❡s ❛✉♥q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦

♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❡♥ s✉ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ♠ás ❛✈❛♥③❛❞♦✳

• ▼➱❚❖❉❖❙ ▼❆❚❊▼➪❚■❈❖❙✿

❬❙❝❤✇❛rt③❪ ▲❛✉r❡♥t ❙❝❤✇❛rt③❀ ▼❛t❤❡♠❛t✐❝s ❢♦r t❤❡ P❤②s✐❝❛❧ ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡s✱

❉♦✈❡r ✷✵✵✽✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❡♥ ❙❡❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❈✐❡♥tí✜❝❛s✮✳

❬❈❤✉r❝❤✐❧❧❪ ❏❛♠❡s ❲✳ ❇r♦✇♥✱ ❘✉❡❧ ❱✳ ❈❤✉r❝❤✐❧❧❀ ❈♦♠♣❧❡① ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛♥❞

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✭✽t❤ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮ ❀ ▼❝●r❛✇✲❍✐❧❧ ✷✵✵✽ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❡♥ ▼❝●r❛✇✲❍✐❧❧✱
✷✵✶✵✮✳

❬▼❛rs❞❡♥❪ ❏❡rr♦❧❞ ❊✳ ▼❛rs❞❡♥✱ ❆♥t❤♦♥② ❚r♦♠❜❛❀ ❱❡❝t♦r ❝❛❧❝✉❧✉s ✭✺t❤ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮ ❀

❲✳ ❍✳ ❋r❡❡♠❛♥ ✷✵✵✸✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ ❡♥ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡②✮✳

❬❑♦❧♠♦❣♦r♦✈❪ ❆♥❞r❡✐ ◆✳ ❑♦❧♠♦❣♦r♦✈✱ ❙❡r❣❡✐ ❱✳ ❋♦♠✐♥❀ ❊❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❚❤❡♦r②

♦❢ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥❛❧ ❆♥❛❧②s✐s ❀ ❉♦✈❡r ✶✾✾✾✳ ✭✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❡♥
❧❛ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧ ▼■❘ ❞❡ ▼♦s❝ú✱ ✶✾✼✽✮✳

❬❆❜❡❧❧❛♥❛s❪ ▲♦r❡♥③♦ ❆❜❡❧❧❛♥❛s ② ❆❧❜❡rt♦ ●❛❧✐♥❞♦✱ ❊s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt✱ ❊✉❞❡♠❛

✶✾✽✽✳

▲❛s tr❡s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s s♦♥ ♦❜r❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s q✉❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱
❧♦s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛ ② ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊stá♥ tr❛❞✉❝✐❞❛s ❛ ♥✉❡str♦ ✐❞✐♦♠❛✳

P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛ ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❡s ❛♠♣❧ís✐♠❛✳ ❙✐♥ á♥✐♠♦ ❞❡ s❡r
❡①❤❛✉st✐✈♦s s✉❣❡r✐♠♦s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣❛r ❞❡ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s✱ ♣♦r s✐ ❞❡s❡❛ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛r ❡♥ ❡st❛
✐♠♣♦rt❛♥tís✐♠❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✳ ❙♦♥ ❡❧ t❡①t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❑♦❧♠♦❣♦r♦✈ −❋♦♠✐♥
 ❇■❇▲■❖●❘❆❋❮❆

✭❡♥ s✉ r❡❡❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❡❞✐t♦r✐❛❧ ❉♦✈❡r✮ ② ❧❛ ♠✉② ♣❡❞❛❣ó❣✐❝❛ ♦❜r❛ ❡♥ ❝❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦ ❞❡

❆❜❡❧❧❛♥❛s−●❛❧✐♥❞♦

• ❋Ó❘▼❯▲❆❙ ❨ ❚❆❇▲❆❙ ▼❆❚❊▼➪❚■❈❆❙✿

❬❙♣✐❡❣❡❧❪ ▼✉rr❛② ❘✳ ❙♣✐❡❣❡❧✱ ❏♦❤♥ ▲✐✉✱ ▲♦r❡♥③♦ ❆❜❡❧❧❛♥❛s❀❋ór♠✉❧❛s ② t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡

♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ✭✷❛ ❊❞✐❝✐ó♥✮✱ ▼❝●r❛✇✲❍✐❧❧ ✭❙❡r✐❡ ❙❝❤❛✉♠✮ ✷✵✵✵✳

◆♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❡♥❞✐♦ ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦✱ ♣❡r♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ ♠ás q✉❡ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✐❡♥❝✐❛s ❡ ✐♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❝♦♠♣❛❝t❛
❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧❡s ✭❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧✱ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✱
❤✐♣❡r❣❡♦♠étr✐❝❛s✱ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡✱ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦s ❡s❢ér✐❝♦s✱ ❡t❝✳✮ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ r❡sú♠❡♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s
❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ✭❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ✐♥t❡❣r♦✲❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛s
❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦s✱ ❡t❝✳✮

• ❆❙P❊❈❚❖❙ ❍■❙❚Ó❘■❈❖❙✿

❬❞❡❧ ❘í♦❪ ❈❛r❧♦s ❙á♥❝❤❡③ ❞❡❧ ❘í♦✱ ▲♦s Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❡♥ s✉ ❊✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
❍✐stór✐❝❛✱ ■♥st✐t✉t♦ ❞❡ ❊s♣❛ñ❛✱ ✷✵✵✹✳

❬P❡❛❝♦❝❦❪ ❑❡♥t ❆✳ P❡❛❝♦❝❦✱ ❚❤❡ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ❘❡✈♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿ ❆ ❍✐st♦r✐❝❛❧ P❡rs♣❡❝t✐✈❡ ❀

●r❡❡♥✇♦♦❞✱ ✷✵✵✽✳

❬●❛♠♦✇❪ ●❡♦r❣❡ ●❛♠♦✇✱ ❇✐♦❣r❛❢í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❋ís✐❝❛ ❀ ❆❧✐❛♥③❛ ❊❞✐t♦r✐❛❧✱ ✷✵✵✶✳

❊❧ ❧❡❝t♦r ✐♥t❡r❡s❛❞♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛r ❧✐❜r♦s s♦❜r❡ ❤✐st♦r✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❢ís✐❝❛ ② ❛sí ❝♦♥t❡①t✉❛❧✐③❛r
❛❞❡❝✉❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦s ❞❡s❝✉❜r✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❝❛♣✐t❛❧❡s q✉❡ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛r♦♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r t❡r❝✐♦ ❞❡❧
s✐❣❧♦ ♣❛s❛❞♦✳ ❊❧ ❧✐❜r♦ ❞❡ ❙á♥❝❤❡③ ❞❡❧ ❘í♦ ❡s ♥♦t❛❜❧❡ ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛r ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❤✐stór✐❝♦ ❝♦♥
❧❛ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡t❛❧❧❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s✳ ▲❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❡③❝❧❛ ❞❡
♠❛♥❡r❛ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ ❤✐st♦r✐❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♣✐st❡♠♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛
❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧✐st❛ ❡♥ ❋✐❧♦s♦❢í❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❈✐❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❊❧ ❧✐❜r♦ ❞❡
●❛♠♦✇ ❡s ♠✉② ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡✱ ❛♠❡♥♦ ❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐✈♦✳ ✶

• P❘❖❇▲❊▼❆❙ ❈❖◆❈❊P❚❯❆▲❊❙ ❊◆ ▼❊❈➪◆■❈❆ ❈❯➪◆❚■❈❆✿

❬❞✬❊s♣❛❣♥❛t❪ ❇❡r♥❛r❞ ❞✬❊s♣❛❣♥❛t✱ ❈♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧ ❋♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠

▼❡❝❤❛♥✐❝s ✭✷♥❞ ❊❞✐t✐♦♥✮✱ P❡rs❡✉s ✶✾✾✾✳

❬P❡r❡s❪ ❆s❤❡r P❡r❡s✱ ◗✉❛♥t✉♠ ❚❤❡♦r②✿ ❈♦♥❝❡♣ts ❛♥❞ ▼❡t❤♦❞s✳ ❑❧✉✇❡r ✷✵✵✷✳

✶
●❡♦r❣❡ ●❛♠♦✇✱ ❛❧ q✉❡ ♥✉♥❝❛ s❡ ❧❡ ❝♦♥❝❡❞✐ó ❡❧ ♣r❡♠✐♦ ◆♦❜❡❧✱ r❡❛❧✐③ó s✉ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦st❞♦❝t♦r❛❧

❞❡ ❡st✉❞✐♦s ❝♦♥ ◆✐❡❧s ❇♦❤r✱ ♣r❡s❡♥❝✐❛♥❞♦ ❞❡s❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♣r✐✈✐❧❡❣✐❛❞❛ ❡❧ ♥❛❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ② ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡

❧❛ r❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛ñ♦s ✷✵ ❞❡❧ s✐❣❧♦ ♣❛s❛❞♦✳

❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

▲❛ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♠✉❝❤❛s s✉t✐❧❡③❛s ❡♣✐st❡♠♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛ ❞❡❜❡

❤❛❝❡rs❡ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❝✉rs♦s ♠ás ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧✐③❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❣r❛❞♦ ② ❞❡ ♣♦s❣r❛❞♦✳ ❆ú♥ ❛sí✱ ② ♣♦r

❝♦♠♣❧❡t✐t✉❞✱ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❡st❛s ❞♦s ❡①❝❡❧❡♥t❡s ♦❜r❛s✳ ▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡s ✉♥ t❡①t♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡

❧❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛✱ s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ r❡❡❞✐t❛❞♦✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡s ♠ás ❝♦♥t❡♠♣♦rá♥❡❛✳

 ❮◆❉■❈❊ ❉❊ ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙

••••• ❯❙❖ ●❊◆➱❘■❈❖ ❉❊ ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙

a, b, . . . ❊s❝❛❧❛r❡s ✭r❡❛❧❡s ♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✮
a∗ ❈♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦ ❞❡ a
|a| ▼ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡ a
arg(a) ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ a
Re(a) P❛rt❡ r❡❛❧ ❞❡ a
Im(a) P❛rt❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛ ❞❡ a
a, b, . . . ❱❡❝t♦r❡s ✭r❡❛❧❡s ♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✮
a∗ ❱❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞♦ ❞❡ a
1/2
|a|✱ a ▼ó❞✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦r a ❬s✐ a ❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✱ |a| = (a∗ · a) ❪
an ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ n✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❡❝t♦ra
❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ n✲és✐♠♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ {an }
A, B, ... ❊s❝❛❧❛r
▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛r
Â, B̂, ... ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r
 ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A
† ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛❞❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ Â
A, B, . . . ▼❛tr✐❝❡s
A ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â
At ▼❛tr✐③ tr❛s♣✉❡st❛ ❞❡ A
A† ▼❛tr✐③ tr❛s♣✉❡st❛ ② ❝♦♥❥✉❣❛❞❛ ✭❛❞❥✉♥t❛✮ ❞❡ A
Ai,j ❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ A
A, B, . . . ❱❡❝t♦r✳ ▼❛❣♥✐t✉❞ ❢ís✐❝❛ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧
α, β, . . . ❊s❝❛❧❛r❡s ✭r❡❛❧❡s ♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s✮
{A, B, . . . } ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢r♦♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r A✱ B ✱ . . .
|Ψi, |Φi, . . . ❱❡❝t♦r❡s ✭❦❡ts✮ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
Ψ, Φ, ... ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
kΨk ◆♦r♠❛ ❞❡ |Ψi
hΨ|, hΦ| ❈♦✈❡❝t♦r❡s ✭❜r❛s✮ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
W ❙✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
W⊥ ❈♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❞❡ W

••••• ❘❊▲❆❈■❖◆❊❙ ▼❆❚❊▼➪❚■❈❆❙

<❀ > ▼❡♥♦r q✉❡❀ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡
≤❀ ≥ ▼❡♥♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡❀ ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡
≪❀ ≫ ▼✉❝❤♦ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡❀ ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

.❀ & ❆♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡❀ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡

= ■❣✉❛❧
6= ❉✐st✐♥t♦
≡ ❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡
■❣✉❛❧ ♣♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥
≃ ❆♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧
∼ ❉❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ♠❛❣✐t✉❞
∈❀ ∈
/ P❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛❀ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛
⊂❀ 6⊂ ■♥❝❧✉✐❞♦ ❡♥❀ ❡①❝❧✉✐❞♦ ❞❡

••••• ❖P❊❘❆❈■❖◆❊❙
+ ❙✉♠❛
− ❘❡st❛
× ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥
Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❡✉❝❧í❞❡♦s
· ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥
Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❡✉❝❧í❞❡♦s
/ ❉✐✈✐s✐ó♥
∪ ❯♥✐ó♥
∩ ■♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥
∗ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
⊗ Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
⊕ ❙✉♠❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s
hAi ❱❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A
hΨ|Φi Pr♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❝t♦r❡s |Ψi ② |Φi ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
Ψ̃ ❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛ ✭♦ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✮ ❞❡ Ψ

••••• ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙ ▲❆❚■◆❖❙

a ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛
❆❝❡❧❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✭♠ó❞✉❧♦✱ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡✮
a0 ❘❛❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r
aE ❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥
a ❱❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
â ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
↠❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
A, B, C, . . . ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡t❝✳
A P♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦
A P♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ❢ís✐❝♦ ✭r❡❛❧✮ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦
❆✐✭u✮ ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❆✐r②
➴ ❆♠str♦♥❣ ✭✉♥✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞✮

b ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛
b ❱❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
B ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥
B ❇❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
 ❮◆❉■❈❊ ❉❊ ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙

B(r) ❈❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✭❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✮

B(r) ❈❛♠♣♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✭r❡❛❧✮
❇✐✭u✮ ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❆✐r②

c ❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③
cn ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ n✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Ψ(r)
C ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥
C ❈✉❡r♣♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s
C∞2 ❊s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ s✉❝❡s✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ s✉♠❛❜❧❡
d ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞✱ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛
D(Â) ❉♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r Â
D̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛
❞✐♠ ❉✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛
e ❈❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦
E ❊♥❡r❣í❛
E(r) ❈❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ✭❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✮
E(r) ❈❛♠♣♦ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦ ✭r❡❛❧✮
E ❊s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s

fn ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ❡♥és✐♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ Φ(r)

F ❋✉❡r③❛
F̂i ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ i ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛ ✭i = x, y, z ✮
F ❙í♠❜♦❧♦ ❞❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r
❋❬❛✱❜✱①❪ ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❤✐♣❡r❣❡ó♠❡tr✐❝❛

g ❉❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❡♥❡r❣ét✐❝♦

GN ❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧

h ❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦
~ ❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛
hn (u) n✲és✐♠♦ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡
H ❊s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ✭❣❡♥ér✐❝♦✮
H ❊♥❡r❣í❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛
Ĥ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦

i ❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥
√ ✭❣❡♥ér✐❝♦✮
i ❯♥✐❞❛❞ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r✐❛ ✭ −1✮
Î ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞
I ▼❛tr✐③ ✉♥✐❞❛❞

j ❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✭❣❡♥ér✐❝♦✮

J(r) ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✮
J(r) ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡✮
J c (r) ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝❛r❣❛ ✭❢✉❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✮
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

Jn (u) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ n

k ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
K ❊♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛
K̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛
Ke ❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❡❧ást✐❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠✉❡❧❧❡
k ❱❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

ℓ ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r

L ▼♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦ ❝✐♥ét✐❝♦
Li ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ i✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r
L̂i ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ i✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r
L2 ▼ó❞✉❧♦ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r
L̂2 ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❛❧ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r
L2 (U) ❊s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡
❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ r❡❣✐ó♥ U
L2rad ❊s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧❡s
L2ang ❊s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s

M ▼♦♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉❡r③❛

M ▼❛s❛
m ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✭❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ L̂z ✮
me ▼❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
mp ▼❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦tó♥
mn ▼❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ♥❡✉tró♥
M ❉✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ❣❡♥ér✐❝♦ ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛

n ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✭❣❡♥ér✐❝♦✮

❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s
◆ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ✭❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✮
NA ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❆✈♦❣❛❞r♦
N ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s ❧✐❣❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
N ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s
nr ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ r❛❞✐❛❧
|nuli ❑❡t ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s
n̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦

p, P ▼♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
pi , Pi ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ i✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
p̂i ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ i✲és✐♠❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
P̂ Pr♦②❡❝t♦r ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧
Pr Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛
Pℓ,m (u) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡
P Pr❡s✐ó♥
 ❮◆❉■❈❊ ❉❊ ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙

q ❈❛r❣❛
◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
Q ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s
q ▼♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧
❱❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛

r ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ r❛❞✐❛❧
r ❱❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
R ❘❛❞✐♦
R ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s
R+ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s
R ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥
rE ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥
R(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧
R(Â) ❘❡❝♦rr✐❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r

s ❊s♣í♥
S ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡
S1 ❙✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ r❛❞✐♦ ✉♥✐❞❛❞

t ❚✐❡♠♣♦
T P❡r✐♦❞♦ ❞❡ ♦s❝✐❧❛❝✐ó♥
T ❈♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠s✐ó♥
T ▼❛tr✐③ ❞❡ tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥

u ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧
u ❱❡❝t♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦
Û ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧
u(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛

v ❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞
v ❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ✭♠ó❞✉❧♦ ♦ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡✮
V ❱♦❧✉♠❡♥
V (r) ❊♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
V̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧

w P♦t❡♥❝✐❛
W ❙✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt

x ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✭❣❡♥ér✐❝❛✮
x̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ x
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

y ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
ŷ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ y
Yℓ,m ❆r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦

z ❈♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
ẑ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ z
Z ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❡♥t❡r♦s

••••• ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙ ●❘■❊●❖❙

α ❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ✜♥❛
▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
ψ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
Ψ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭❣❡♥❡r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡ ② ♥♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✮
δ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝
δ i,j ❉❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❑r♦♥❡❝❦❡r
δ ❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧
∆A ■♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A
ε ❊♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
❊♥❡r❣í❛ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛
ǫ0 P❡r♠✐t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦
φ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
Φ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭❣❡♥❡r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✮
γ ❋♦tó♥
❙✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ ♣❛r❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧í♥❡❛ ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉r✈❛ γ
Γ ❆♥❝❤✉r❛ ❞❡ r❡s♦♥❛❝✐❛
η ◆ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
ϕ ➪♥❣✉❧♦ ❛③✐♠✉❧t❛❧ ✭❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s ② ♣♦❧❛r❡s✮
κ ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧
λ ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
λe ▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
Λ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭❣❡♥❡r❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✮
ν ❋r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛
π P✐
π̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧ ✭s❛❧✈♦ ❢❛❝t♦r ~✮
Π̂ ❖♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣❛r✐❞❛❞
ρ ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ✭❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✮
❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ r❛❞✐❛❧ ❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✐③❛❞❛
ρ(r) ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✮
ρA ❉❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ✭❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞ A✮
σ ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✭❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✮
σp ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧
σc ❊s♣❡❝tr♦ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦
Σ ❙✉♠❛t♦r✐♦
 ❮◆❉■❈❊ ❉❊ ❙❮▼❇❖▲❖❙

❙✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ ♣❛r❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛r ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡

τ ❚✐❡♠♣♦
❱✐❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛
Υ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ✭♥♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❜❧❡✮
ω ❋r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♦ ♣✉❧s❛❝✐ó♥
Ω ➪♥❣✉❧♦ só❧✐❞♦
θ ❈♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛ ♣♦❧❛r ✭❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✮
θp (r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡
Θ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
Θ(u) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡❛✈②s✐❞❡
ϑ(r) ❋✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳
❈❖◆❙❚❆◆❚❊❙ ❋❮❙■❈❆❙
❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ✜♥❛
❘❛❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r
❱❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③
❈❛r❣❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥ ❡♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦
❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❣r❛✈✐t❛❝✐ó♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧
❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛
❈♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥
▲♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
▼❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ❡❧❡❝tró♥
▼❛s❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦tó♥
α = 1/137,036
a0 = 5,191771 × 10−10 m
c = 2,997925 × 108 m s−1
e = 1,602189 × 10−19 ❈
GN = 6,672 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
~ = 1,054589 × 10−34 J s
kB = 1,380662 × 10−23 J K−1
λe = 2,42630 × 10−12 m
me = 9,109534 × 10−31 kg
mp = 1826,152 me
 ❮◆❉■❈❊ ❆▲❋❆❇➱❚■❈❖

❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ ✶✸✱ ✼✾ ❝❛tástr♦❢❡ ❞❡❧ ✉❧tr❛✈✐♦❧❡t❛✱ ✹✸

❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✱ ✻✷ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡✱ ✸✾
❛♥❝❤✉r❛ ❡♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s✱ ✶✻ ❈❈❖❈✱ ✷✸✼
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛r♠ó♥✐❝❛✱ ✸✾✾ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ✭❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡✮✱ ✶✺ ❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✷✺
❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✱ ✷✻✹ ❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ✷✹✽
❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✶✾✸ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ✷✸✷
❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦✱ ✶✺✺ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐❡❞❛❞✱ ✾✾
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ✶✺✺✱ ✶✾✸ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✶✷✼
❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r✱ ✶✺✺ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t♦r♥♦✱ ✸✾
❛①✐♦♠❛s ❞❡ ❑♦❧♠♦❣♦r♦✈✱ ✶✻✼ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✱ ✶✶✻
❝♦♥♠✉t❛❞♦r✱ ✶✸✷✱ ✷✶✶
❜❛rr❡r❛ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥✱ ✹✶
❛s✐♠étr✐❝❛✱ ✸✹✷ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ✜♥❛✱ ✻✷
r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✸✸✻ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✽✷
t✐♣♦ ❞❡❧t❛✱ ✸✺✾ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡ P❧❛♥❝❦✱ ✸✷
tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✸✹✺ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦✱ ✷✶✷
❜❛s❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ ✶✷✺ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ✶✸✻
❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✶✷✺
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✶✷✵
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✶✷✺
❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧❡s
♦rt♦♥♦r♠❛❧✱ ✶✷✶
❝❛rt❡s✐❛♥❛s✱ ✹✵✽
♣r♦♣✐❛✱ ✶✻✹
❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛s✱ ✹✶✵
❇♦❤r ✭✉♥✐❞❛❞✮✱ ✺✽
❝✉r✈✐❧í♥❡❛s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛s✱ ✹✶✶
❇♦❤r✱ ◆✐❡❧s✱ ✾✾
❜r❛✱ ✶✸✼✱ ✹✷✸ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛s✱ ✹✵✽
❝♦r❝❤❡t❡ ❞❡ P♦✐ss♦♥✱ ✷✶✺
❝❛♠♣♦ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦✱ ✺ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ✶✽✾
❝❛♠♣♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ t✉♥❡❧✱ ✸✹✼
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✶✷ ❝♦✈❡❝t♦r✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❜r❛
❣r❛❞✐❡♥t❡✱ ✹✶✸ ❝✉❛♥t✐③❛❝✐ó♥
❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦✱ ✹✶✸ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✶✾✺
❝❛♠♣♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✶✺✼
❝✐r❝✉❧❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✶✷ ❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✶✺✽
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✶✷ ❝✉❛s✐✲❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦✱ ✶✺✾
❞✐✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✹✶✹
✢✉❥♦✱ ✹✶✷ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✶✺✻✱ ✶✻✺
❧❛♣❧❛❝✐❛♥♦✱ ✹✶✺ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❝❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧✱ ✷✽✷✱ ✸✾✹
r♦t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ✹✶✹ ❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ✶✹✱ ✶✶✽
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳

❞❡❧t❛ ❞❡ ❑r♦♥❡❝❦❡r✱ ✶✷✶ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥✱ ✷✶✺

❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✱ ✺
♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✽✵ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥✱ ✹✾
♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✽✶ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❢♦t♦❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦✱ ✸✶
♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✱ ✶✻✻ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❘❛♠s❛✉❡r✱ ✸✸✾
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛❧✱ ✷✺✾ ❡❢❡❝t♦ tú♥❡❧✱ ✸✹✶
❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✹✷✼ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③✱ ✶✸✸
❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧✱ ✷✺✶ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡ ❋❡r♠✐✱ ✸✹✼
❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛r③✱ ✽✷ ❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❞❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❝❡r♦✱ ✶✵✺
❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✶✵✹ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛❞♦✱ ✶✸✾
❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ✾✽ ❡♥tr❡❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦✱ ✷✺✸
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ✜♥✐t❛s✱ ✶✽✽ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✐❧❜❡rt
❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ✭❡♥ ❊▼✮ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✹✷✷
❝❛s♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✷✵ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✶✶✻
♣♦r ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✱ ✷✸ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st❛❞♦s✱ ✶✸✻
♣♦r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛✱ ✷✷ ❡q✉✐♣❛♠✐❡♥t♦✱ ✹✷✻
❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❋r❛✉♥❤♦❢❡r✱ ✾✶ s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡✱ ✶✷✶
❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❢❛s❡s✱ ✶✶✶
❝❛s♦ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✽✽ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✷✶
♣♦r ❞♦s r❡♥❞✐❥❛s✱ ✻✼ ❡s♣❛r❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❚❤♦♠s♦♥✱ ✹✽
♣♦r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❛♥❝❤❛✱ ✾✵ ❡s♣❡❝tr♦
♣♦r ✉♥❛ r❡♥❞✐❥❛ ❡str❡❝❤❛✱ ✽✽ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✱ ✶✻✵
❉✐r❛❝✱ P✳❆✳▼✳✱ ✶✸✻ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✱ ✶✻✸
❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥ ❝✉❛❞rát✐❝❛ ♠❡❞✐❛✱ ✶✻✱ ✽✹ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ✶✺✺
❞✐str✐❜✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣❡r❛❞❛✱ ✹✷✸ ❡st❛❞íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ▼❛①✇❡❧❧✲❇♦❧t③♠❛♥♥✱ ✹✶
❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♦♥❞❛✲❝♦r♣ús❝✉❧♦✱ ✾✾ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡✱ ✸✽✻
❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ✻✽
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r❡s✱ ✶✺✺✱ ✶✾✸ ❡st❛❞♦ ❝✉❛s✐❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦✱ ✶✾✻
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞ ❡st❛❞♦ ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦
❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✺ ❞❡ ❝♦❧✐s✐ó♥✱ ✶✾✽✱ ✸✷✹
❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ✶✽✾ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✶✾✷
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ✷✶✽ ❧✐❣❛❞♦✱ ✶✾✽✱ ✷✾✾
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡❧♠❤♦❧t③✱ ✾ ❡st❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❛✉t♦❡st❛❞♦
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ▲✐♦✉✈✐❧❧❡✱ ✷✶✺
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❞❡ ●❛♠♦✇✱ ✸✹✺
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ✷✾✹ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❜r❛
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ✶✾✸✱ ✷✾✹ ❢♦tó♥
♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❧✱ ✶✽✷ ❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ✭❡♥ ✉♥ ♣✉❧s♦ ❊▼✮✱ ✸✻
r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛✱ ✷✽✵✱ ✸✾✸ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✸✷
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ ✶✽✹ ❡s♣í♥✱ ✸✾
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✷✵✵ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦✱ ✸✻
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✼✸
❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✱ ✸✻✻ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✼✸
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡✱ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r ✐♥trí♥s❡❝♦✱ ✸✾
✷✻✺ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✸✷

❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ♠❡❞✐❛✱ ✶✻
❢✉❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♠♣♦ ❊▼✱ ✺
❢✉❡r③❛ ❝❡♥tr❛❧✱ ✸✾✷
❢✉❡r③❛ ❞❡ ▲♦r❡♥t③✱ ✺
❢✉❧❧❡r❡♥♦✱ ✶✵✹
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝✉❛s✐♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛✱ ✶✻
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇❡ss❡❧✱ ✷✽✹
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❜❧❡✱ ✽✶
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡❛✈②s✐❞❡✱ ✹✷✼
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛
❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ✼✻✱ ✶✶✽
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛✱ ✻✾✱ ✼✺
❡♥s❛♥❝❤❛♠✐❡♥t♦✱ ✶✼✽
❣❛✉ss✐❛♥❛✱ ✶✵✵✱ ✶✼✽
❧♦r❡♥t③✐❛♥❛✱ ✽✹
♥♦r♠❛✱ ✽✶
♣r♦♣❛❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❧✐❜r❡✱ ✶✼✺
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛✱ ✶✷✷
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✱ ✷✵✵
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦s✱ ✼✾
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✽✵
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✶
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✱ ✸✸✱ ✸✹✼
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❣❡♥❞r❡✱ ✷✻✻
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❤✐♣❡r❣❡♦♠étr✐❝❛✱ ✸✾✸
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ r❛❞✐❛❧ r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛✱ ✷✽✵
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ✹✷✸
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❆✐r②✱ ✶✾✼
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❍❡r♠✐t❡✱ ✶✷✸✱ ✸✻✼
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❙❝❤✇❛rt③✱ ✶✶✼
●❛✉ss✱ ❈❛r❧ ❋r✐❡❞r✐❝❤✱ ✹✶✻
❍❛rtr❡❡ ✭✉♥✐❞❛❞✮✱ ✺✾
❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ❲❡r♥❡r✱ ✷✶✽
✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ●r❡❡♥✱ ✹✶✻
✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❝✳❞✳✱ ✹✷✵
✐♠❛❣❡♥
❞❡ ❍❡✐s❡♥❜❡r❣✱ ✷✶✽
✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✱ ✽✹✱ ✾✸
✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡❜❡s❣✉❡✱ ✹✶✾
✐♥t❡r❢❡ró♠❡tr♦ ❞❡ ❨♦✉♥❣✱ ✷✸✱ ✻✻
✐♥t❡r❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❛③ ❞❡ ♣❛rtí❝✉❧❛s✱ ✽✽
❮◆❉■❈❊ ❆▲❋❆❇➱❚■❈❖
❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✷✵
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❈♦♣❡♥❤❛❣✉❡✱ ✾✾
✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧íst✐❝❛
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✽✵
❞❡❧ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢♦tó♥✱ ✸✻
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✶✻✻
♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✷✵✷
♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦✱ ✷✹✺
✐s♦♠♦r✜s♠♦✱ ✶✸✻
❥❛❝♦❜✐❛♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✶✶
❦❡t✱ ✶✸✻✱ ✹✷✸
❧❡② ❞❡ ❙t❡❢❛♥✱ ✹✻
❧❡② ❞❡❧ ❞❡s♣❧❛③❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❲✐❡♥✱ ✹✻
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❈♦♠♣t♦♥✱ ✹✾
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛ ❉❡ ❇r♦❣❧✐❡✱ ✼✹
♠❡❞✐❞❛
❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ✷✷✼
✐❞❡❛❧✱ ✷✷✽
♠❡❞✐❞❛ ✐❞❡❛❧✱ ✼✶
♠❡③❝❧❛ ✐♥❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ✾✵
❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✷✼
♠♦❞✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ♣❧❛♥❛s✱ ✶✸
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r
❛✉t♦❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✷✻✸
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐❞❛❞✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ✶✷✻✱ ✶✻✺✱ ✷✵✵✱ ✷✸✼
❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✷✽✶
♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦✱ ✷✽✶
♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛
❡①❝✐t❛❞♦✱ ✶✾✾
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧✱ ✶✾✾
♥♦❞♦✱ ✸✵✵
♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❉✐r❛❝✱ ✶✸✼
♦♥❞❛ ❝✐❧í♥❞r✐❝❛✱ ✷✸✱ ✽✽
♦♥❞❛ ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ✻✾✱ ✼✹
♦♥❞❛ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱ ✻
♦♥❞❛ ❡s❢ér✐❝❛✱ ✷✶
♦♥❞❛ s❡❝✉♥❞❛r✐❛✱ ✷✷
♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s✱ ✹✵✺
❋ís✐❝❛ ❈✉á♥t✐❝❛ ■✳
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r
❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ✶✸✶
❛✉t♦❛❞❥✉♥t♦✱ ✶✸✶
❝r❡❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✸✼✼
❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ t❡♠♣♦r❛❧✱ ✶✽✼
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✶✷✽
❞❡str✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ ✸✼✼
❞♦♠✐♥✐♦✱ ✶✷✽
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ❝✐♥ét✐❝❛✱ ✶✺✶✱ ✶✼✵
❡♥❡r❣í❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ✶✺✵
❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦✱ ✶✺✶✱ ✶✽✷
❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✶✷✾
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✶✺✸
♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✶✹✽
♥ú♠❡r♦✱ ✸✼✽
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✶✹✽
♣r♦②❡❝t♦r ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✶✸✵✱ ✷✷✾
r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✶✷✽
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛tr✐❝✐❛❧✱ ✶✸✸
s✐♠étr✐❝♦✱ ✶✸✵
✉♥✐t❛r✐♦✱ ✶✸✵
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❡s❝❛❧❡r❛✱ ✷✻✾
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ❧❛♠❜❞❛✱ ✹✶✼
♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧ ♥❛❜❧❛✱ ✹✶✼
♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✶✶✸
♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦
❛♥✐sótr♦♣♦✱ ✸✾✶
❛✉t♦❡♥❡r❣í❛s✱ ✸✻✼
❡♥ ✈❛r✐❛s ❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❡s✱ ✸✾✵
❡st❛❞♦s ❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s✱ ✸✻✼
❤❛♠✐❧t♦♥✐❛♥♦✱ ✸✻✹
✐sótr♦♣♦✱ ✸✾✶✱ ✸✾✾
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧✱ ✸✻✹
♣❛q✉❡t❡ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s✱ ✶✼✻
♣❡r♠❡❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛✱ ✺
♣❡r♠✐t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛✱ ✺
♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❇♦❤r✱ ✶✺✽
♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ r❡❞✉❝❝✐ó♥✱ ✷✸✶✱ ✷✹✻
♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❝á♥✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ✷✹✹
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ❛ tr♦③♦s✱ ✸✵✶
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▲❡♥❛r❞✲❏♦♥❡s✱ ✸✾✽
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✱ ✽
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❡s❝❛❧ó♥
❞❡ ❛❧t✉r❛ ✜♥✐t❛✱ ✸✸✷
✐♥✜♥✐t♦✱ ✷✷✶
♣♦③♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ✷✵✽
♣♦③♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛❧
❛s✐♠étr✐❝♦✱ ✸✷✵
❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✜♥✐t♦✱ ✸✵✺✱ ✸✺✾
❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦ ✐♥✜♥✐t♦✱ ✷✵✽✱ ✸✶✸
s❡♠✐✲✐♥✜♥✐t♦✱ ✸✶✺
t✐♣♦ ❞❡❧t❛✱ ✸✶✸
♣r❡♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✻✺✱ ✷✷✾
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✷✹✺
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❍✉②❣❡♥s✲❋r❡s♥❡❧✱ ✷✶
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡✱ ✼✷✱ ✾✽✱ ✷✹✷
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ✷✹✺
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✻
❡♥ ❢ís✐❝❛ ❝✉á♥t✐❝❛✱ ✼✾✱ ✷✹✹
♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦❝✉rr❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✶✻✻
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛✈✐❞❛❞ r❛❞✐❛♥t❡✱ ✹✷
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ✷✸✷✱ ✷✹✼
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ ✷✽
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ ✶✶✷
♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ t❡♥s♦r✐❛❧✱ ✶✸✾
♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✶✷✼
♣r♦②❡❝t♦r ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧✱ ✷✸✵
♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦✱ ✷✵✽
♣✉♥t♦ ❝✉á♥t✐❝♦ ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✱ ✷✽✸
q✉❛♥t❛ ❞❡ ❧✉③✱ ✸✷
r❛❞✐ó♠❡tr♦ ❞❡ ❈r♦♦❦❡s✱ ✻✵
r❛❞✐❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥ét✐❝❛
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✼✱ ✶✽✱ ✶✾
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✱ ✼
❞❡♥s✐❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛✱ ✹✷
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ✻✶
❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✽
❡st❛❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✱ ✹✶
✐♥t❡♥s✐❞❛❞✱ ✶✷
❧✐❜r❡✱ ✻✱ ✽
❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✶✵
♠♦❞♦ ♥♦r♠❛❧✱ ✶✽
♠♦♥♦❝r♦♠át✐❝❛✱ ✾
♣❧❛♥❛✱ ✶✵
♣♦❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✸✾

♣r❡s✐ó♥✱ ✺✺
♣✉❧s♦✱ ✶✸
r❡❞ ❞❡ ❞✐❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥✱ ✶✵✷
r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ✸✷✻✱ ✸✸✵
r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❝❛♥ó♥✐❝❛s✱ ✶✹✾✱ ✷✹✷
❞❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ✷✸✻✱ ✷✺✼
r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡♥❝✐❛✱ ✶✺✷
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝✐❡rr❡✱ ✶✷✻
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞✐s♣❡rs✐ó♥
❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✶✵
♣❛r❛ ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ✼✼
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♥❝❡rt✐❞✉♠❜r❡
❡♥❡r❣í❛✲t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ✷✹✸
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❞❛✱ ✷✹✵
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✲♠♦♠❡♥t♦✱ ✾✽
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛✱ ✾
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝❛✱ ✶✹
r❡s♦♥❛♥❝✐❛✱ ✸✺✹
❙❝❤rö❞✐♥❣❡r✱ ❊r✇✐♥✱ ✷✶✼
s✐♠❡trí❛ ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐❛❧✱ ✷✶✾
s✐st❡♠❛ s❡♣❛r❛❜❧❡✱ ✷✵✼
❙❚▼✱ ✸✹✼
❙t♦❦❡s✱ ●❡♦r❣❡✱ ✹✶✻
s✉❜❜❛♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❡r❣í❛s✱ ✷✶✵
s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡♥s♦✱ ✶✶✼
s✉❜❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦✱ ✶✺✻✱ ✶✼✵✱ ✷✸✵
s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❈❛✉❝❤②✱ ✹✷✶
s✉♣❡r♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡
❞❡ ♦♥❞❛s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡r✐❛✱ ✽✾
❡♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✱ ✷✼
tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❞❡❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✶✵✷
t❡♥s♦r ❞❡ ▲❡✈✐✲❈✐✈✐t❛✱ ✹✶✺
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❛t✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ✷✸✹
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ ✷✽
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡q✉✐♣❛rt✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✶
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●❛✉ss✱ ✹✶✻
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦②❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦rt♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✶✷✼
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ P❛rs❡✈❛❧✱ ✶✹✱ ✼✾
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❘✐❡s③✲❋✐s❝❤❡r✱ ✶✷✶
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t♦❦❡s✱ ✹✶✻
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❙t✉r♠✱ ✸✵✵
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✐❛❧
❮◆❉■❈❊ ❆▲❋❆❇➱❚■❈❖
❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ ✸✼✷
♣❛r❛ ✉♥ ♦s❝✐❧❛❞♦r ❛r♠ó♥✐❝♦✱ ✸✼✶
t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡s♣❡❝tr❛❧✱ ✶✻✹
t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❊❤r❡♥❢❡st✱ ✶✾✷✱ ✷✶✶✱ ✸✼✸
t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ✷✹✹
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞✱ ✷✹✷
tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❋♦✉r✐❡r✱ ✶✸
tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❞✐♠❡♥s✐ó♥✱ ✸✸✵
tr❛♥s♠✐s✐ó♥ r❡s♦♥❛♥t❡✱ ✸✺✻
✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❛tó♠✐❝❛s✱ ✺✼
✈❛❧♦r ❡s♣❡r❛❞♦✱ ✈é❛s❡ ✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦
✈❛❧♦r ♠❡❞✐♦✱ ✽✸✱ ✶✻✻
✈❛❧♦r ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦✱ ✶✻✸
✈❛❧♦r ♣r♦♣✐♦✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❛✉t♦✈❛❧♦r
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♦❝✉❧t❛s✱ ✶✵✵
✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ❡st❛❞♦✱ ✈é❛s❡ ❦❡t
✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♦♥❞❛✱ ✶✵
✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ✹✵✺
✈❡❝t♦r ❞❡ P♦②♥t✐♥❣✱ ✼
✈❡❧❡r♦ s♦❧❛r✱ ✺✻
✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❢❛s❡✱ ✼✹✱ ✶✼✼
✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❣r✉♣♦✱ ✶✼✻
✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧✉③✱ ✺
❨♦✉♥❣✱ ❚❤♦♠❛s✱ ✷✸
③♦♥❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞❛✱ ✷✷✷✱ ✸✵✵
 Juan del Rosal, 14
28040 MADRID
Tel. Dirección Editorial: 913 987 521