Todo Ipa Apuntes 1 4

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Todo IPA - Apuntes 1-4
Inglés Profesional y Académico I: Textos Jurídico y Económico-Comerciales (UNED)
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Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional.
Autores: Eva Samaniego Fernández, María Beatriz Pérez Cabello de Alba e Ismael Iván Teomiro García
INGLÉS PROFESIONAL Y
ACADÉMICO I: TEXTOS JURÍDICOS
Y ECONÓMICO-COMERCIALES
Tema 1:
Specialised texts in English

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ÍNDICE
1.1. Introducción 5
1.2. Los lenguajes de especialidad 5
1.2.1. La naturaleza de los lenguajes de especialidad 5
1.2.2. Términos y palabras 13
1.2.3. Los textos especializados: función, género y tipo textual 15
1.2.4. Rasgos generales de los lenguajes de especialidad 21
1.3. El Inglés Profesional y Académico (IPA) 27
1.3.1. La naturaleza del IPA 28
1.3.2. La estilística del IPA 30
1.3.2.1. Fase prescriptiva 30
1.3.2.2. El impacto de otros paradigmas 31
1.3.2.3. Fase descriptiva 33
1.3.3. Rasgos distintivos del IPA 35
1.3.3.1. Rasgos léxico-sintácticos 36
1.3.3.2. Rasgos textuales y pragmáticos 40
1.4. Conclusión 48
1.5. Listado de términos fundamentales 49
1.6. Cuestiones fundamentales 50

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1.1. INTRODUCCIÓN
El término “Inglés Profesional y Académico” (IPA), o ESP (English for Specific

Purposes) designa una disciplina académica fundamental.
Este tema introduce los lenguajes de especialidad y el Inglés Profesional y

Académico (IPA) o English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Por tanto, explica el origen y
desarrollo de los estudios centrados en los lenguajes de especialidad. A
continuación se describen los parámetros (pragmáticos, cognitivos, lingüísticos,
etc.) que permiten distinguir entre un texto general y un texto de especialidad, pues
no siempre la terminología (vocabulario especializado) discrimina claramente entre
ambos. También se estudian los rasgos distintivos del inglés especializado a varios
niveles: léxico, sintáctico, textual, pragmático, etc.
Las actividades prácticas sobre este tema se pondrán a disposición de los

alumnos en el curso virtual.
1.2. LOS LENGUAJES DE ESPECIALIDAD
En este apartado analizaremos la naturaleza de los lenguajes de especialidad.
1.2.1. LA NATURALEZA DE LOS LENGUAJES DE ESPECIALIDAD

El término lenguaje de especialidad, tomado del francés langue d’especialité, se
utiliza para designar el tipo de lenguaje utilizado en la comunicación especializada,
es decir, “el lenguaje específico que usan algunos profesionales y especialistas para
los términos, los conceptos y los conocimientos de una determinada área de
conocimientos (Alcaraz Varó 2000:15). Equivale al término inglés Language for
Special/Specific Purposes (LSP, que se utiliza de forma genérica para hacer
referencia a la “comunicación entre especialistas” 1). Este término se ha impuesto a
1
El término “lenguaje de especialidad”, como veremos más adelante, debe entenderse como un
continuo, que va desde el que utilizan los especialistas cuando se comunican entre sí en un contexto

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otras alternativas con las que ha estado compitiendo durante algún tiempo, entre
ellas special utility language, sublanguage, functional language type, dialect, register,
jargon, functional variety of language, etc. Al igual que ocurre con el término inglés
“LSP”, existen en español diversas formas de referirse a los lenguajes de
especialidad. Las más frecuentes son los siguientes: “lenguajes especializados”,
“lenguajes de especialidad”, “lenguajes con fines/propósitos específicos/especiales”,
“lenguajes especiales”, “lenguajes especializados por la temática”, “lenguajes de
especialidad determinados por la temática”, “tecnolectos” (Rabadán Álvarez 1992:
96; Alcaraz Varó 2000: 15), “dialectos profesionales/ocupacionales” (Rabadán
Álvarez 1991: 90), “jergas profesionales”, etc.
La demarcación de las diferencias que definen los lenguajes de especialidad

frente a la lengua general es una cuestión todavía hoy polémica y difusa (Cabré
Castellví 1993: 132). La definición clásica de Sager de la lengua general es “the
language used for every day non-specialist communication among a speech
community” (Sager 1990). Para llegar a una definición de lenguaje de especialidad
podríamos basarnos bien en sus diferencias respecto de la lengua general, en las
funciones o usos que desempeña, o finalmente, en las restricciones a las que está
sujeto.
Los lenguajes de especialidad son tipos mixtos a medio camino entre los
lenguajes artificiales y las lenguas naturales 2 (Cabré 1993: 132). Su naturaleza es
restrictiva respecto a los siguientes aspectos:
• su adquisición, que debe hacerse de forma consciente;
• su flexibilidad, que se ve constreñida por la incorporación de lenguajes

artificiales 3;
• su manifestación suele ser el medio escrito, y por lo tanto se trata de un

lenguaje más controlado 4;
profesional altamente especializado, hasta el que se emplea para la divulgación (de la ciencia, la
tecnología, la economía, etc.).
2
El lenguaje natural es un lenguaje que se adquiere como parte de una cultura (aprendizaje
inconsciente en la mayoría de los casos), mientras que en los lenguajes artificiales sus normas y
lexicón están explícitamente establecidos a priori por un colectivo determinado (Sager 1993: 321), lo
cual significa que se adquieren de una forma consciente e intencionada. Un ejemplo sería el lenguaje
de la programación informática.
3
Por ejemplo, los símbolos químicos o matemáticos.

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• sus funciones, que suelen estar reducidas a lo descriptivo, clasificativo e

informativo;
• la intención, que suele ser informativa o incluso directiva5.
Para la descripción de los lenguajes de especialidad Cabré (1999a: 1) propone

utilizar un eje horizontal y otro vertical. La variación horizontal se refiere a la
temática y la perspectiva, y la vertical a la intención y el nivel de especialización (cit.
en Montero Martínez, http://elies.rediris.es/elies19/index.html).
En cuanto a la variación horizontal, dado que la temática especializada es una

característica definitoria de estos lenguajes, en función de ésta se puede establecer
una primera clasificación de los mismos. Sin embargo, además de la temática habrá
que tener en cuenta la perspectiva desde la que se aborda el mensaje (Cabré
Castellví), ya que es posible tratar el conocimiento científico de una forma trivial
(Wierzbicka 1996: 350), como sucede en la divulgación.
Respecto a la variación vertical, incluye la intención y el nivel de especialización,

que vienen determinados por el emisor. Por lo general el emisor será un especialista
que quiere transmitir un mensaje sobre un tema determinado, mensaje que será
recibido por el destinatario en una situación determinada (Sager 1990: 99), es decir,
“marcada” (=distinta, concreta). Puesto que el emisor desea modificar de algún
modo el conocimiento del receptor (ampliarlo, mejorarlo, concretarlo…), habrá de
tener en cuenta las características de éste (si es un experto, si es un alumno, etc.)
para adaptar el texto al grado de conocimiento del receptor de manera que éste
pueda acceder al contenido. Por ejemplo, a mayor nivel de especialización del
receptor, menor cantidad de información es necesario incluir.
Para Marimón Llorca y Santamaría Pérez (2007: 128), una lengua de especialidad
“está constituida por un conjunto de conocimientos morfológicos, léxicos,
sintácticos y textuales que conforman el conjunto de recursos expresivos y
comunicativos que necesitan los especialistas en una materia para desenvolverse de
forma adecuada en el contexto profesional de una especialidad”.
4
El lenguaje escrito se cuida más que el verbal por ser planificado.
5
Las teorías clásicas afirmaban que el propósito fundamental de los textos de especialidad era
informativo, es decir, transmitir una serie de ítems de información. De forma secundaria, podían ser
directivos (=impositivos), como por ejemplo los textos jurídicos pertenecientes al género de las leyes.
Sin embargo, se ha demostrado que bastantes textos especializados tienen un propósito persuasivo, es
decir, intentan convencer al destinatario de una tesis/hipótesis determinada. Un ejemplo serían los
artículos científicos.

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Sager et al. (1980: 68 y sigs.) afirman que el lenguaje de especialidad es un

sistema semiótico complejo, semiautónomo (es decir, que depende del lenguaje
general pero funciona de forma semiautónoma) y basado en el lenguaje general, que
se diferencia en función de factores de índole pragmática. Podemos decir por tanto
que el conjunto de reglas, unidades y restricciones que conocen los hablantes de
una lengua constituyen lo que se llama “lengua general” o “lengua común”, que es
la lengua que se utiliza, normalmente, en situaciones comunicativas “no marcadas”
(= generales). Una definición clásica de “lenguaje de especialidad” es la siguiente
(Cabré Castellví 1993: 128-129; cf. 1993: 135):
“(…) conjunto de subcódigos -parcialmente coincidentes con el subcódigo

de la lengua común- caracterizados en virtud de unas peculiaridades
“especiales”, esto es, propias y específicas de cada uno de ellos, como
pueden ser la temática, el tipo de interlocutores, la situación
comunicativa, la intención del hablante, el medio en que se produce un
intercambio comunicativo, el tipo de intercambio, etc.”.
La variación lingüística hace referencia a los cambios que experimenta una

lengua en función del usuario (variación geográfica, temporal, social, idiolectal, etc.;
es decir, dialectos) o en función del uso (campo, tenor y modo; es decir, registros).
Por consiguiente, la variable que define un lenguaje de especialidad parece ser la
variación lingüística según el uso, más concretamente la variable denominada
“campo” 6.
La relación entre el lenguaje de especialidad y el lenguaje general puede ser de

cuatro tipos (cf. Bergenholtz y Tarp 1995):
1. El lenguaje general es sinónimo de la variante estándar y, por

consiguiente, todos los lenguajes de especialidad se consideran
“elements of general language” (Bergenholtz y Tarp 1995: 16). Para
los defensores de esta postura, los lenguajes de especialidad son
6
El término “campo” (“field”) hace referencia al ámbito de actividad (Hatim y Mason 1990:48), y
reflejaría la función social del texto). Crystal y Davy (1969/1990:71) lo denominan province; Bell
(1991:9) sin embargo prefiere el término de domain. Aunque el concepto de “campo” no es sinónimo
del de “área temática” (un campo tiene varias áreas temáticas), tienden a confundirse (Rabadán
Álvarez 1991:90). En definitiva, el campo analiza el tipo de lenguaje determinado por la actividad que
desarrolla el hablante y hace referencia al grado de especialización del área de actividad, que varía en
función de la situación comunicativa. El “modo” (“mode”) designa la forma en que se desarrolla el acto
comunicativo: oral, escrito, y todas las alternativas posibles: lenguaje escrito para ser hablado, como
el teatro, o lenguaje hablado para ser escrito, como una clase magistral. El “tenor” (“tenor”) o “variedad
según la actitud” (Mayoral Asensio 1990: 71) sería la relación existente entre emisor y receptor, en un
continuo que va de muy formal a muy informal, dependiendo de factores como la proximidad entre los
interlocutores, el grado de parentesco, la educación, etc. (cf. Baker 1992:16; Swales 1990:40).

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subconjuntos del lenguaje general (cf. Varantola 1986; Sager et al.

1980; Beaugrande 1987; Cabré Castellví 1993).
2. El lenguaje general es un subconjunto de los lenguajes de

especialidad, ya que todas las expresiones de la lengua general
pueden encontrarse en los lenguajes de especialidad que, además,
tienen una serie de entes léxicos propios y específicos de cada
temática (cf. Rondeau 1983).
3. Los lenguajes de especialidad y el lenguaje general son dos

fenómenos iguales pero de naturaleza diferente, ya que desde el
punto de vista comunicativo se utilizan en situaciones distintas.
4. No existe el lenguaje general, ya que “each usage is specific to a

certain situation. This approach implies that every language
variety is an LSP (language for specific purposes)” (Bergenholtz y
Tarp 1995: 18). Así pues, cualquier tipo de variación lingüística
constituiría un lenguaje de especialidad. Para Widdowson (1998:
3-4) éste sería el mayor inconveniente de utilizar el término
“lenguaje específico”, ya que cualquier uso que hagamos del
lenguaje siempre será “específico”.
Ahmad et al. (1995) resumen las tres primeras posturas en la figura siguiente.
Figura 1: Relación entre lengua general y lenguajes de especialidad

(Sublenguaje).

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Lengua Lengua
General Sub- General
lenguaje
Sub- Lengua
lenguaje General Sub-
lenguaje
Fuente: Pérez Hernández, Chantal. http://elies.rediris.es/elies18/index.html
Para Cabré (1993: 140), los lenguajes de especialidad están en relación de

inclusión respecto a la lengua global y en relación de intersección tanto entre sí
como con respecto a la lengua general, con la que comparten características. Entre
la lengua general y los lenguajes de especialidad se produce un constante trasvase
de unidades.
Figura 2: Relación entre lengua global, lengua general y lenguajes de

especialidad.
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Fuente: Pérez Hernández, Chantal. http://elies.rediris.es/elies18/index.html

Hoy en día está comúnmente aceptado que no resulta viable definir los lenguajes
de especialidad en términos estrictamente lingüísticos, ya que lo que los diferencia
de la lengua general son características pragmáticas o extra-lingüísticas.
Lehrberger (1986: 22, cit. en Pérez Hernández,
http://elies.rediris.es/elies18/index.html) considera que hay seis factores que
pueden ayudar a definir un lenguaje de especialidad:
1. la temática específica;
2. las restricciones léxicas, sintácticas y semánticas;
3. las reglas gramaticales “anómalas”;
4. la alta frecuencia de aparición de determinadas construcciones;
5. la estructura textual
6. el uso de símbolos específicos.
A estos seis factores habría que añadir las características especiales en que se
desarrolla el intercambio de información (Cabré 1993: 136), es decir, los rasgos
definitorios de la situación comunicativa, que atañen tanto a los interlocutores
(productores y receptores de comunicaciones especializadas) como a la situación y
función comunicativa o al canal de transmisión de los datos.
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La postura más comúnmente aceptada hasta ahora, que recientemente se ha

puesto en duda, es la que afirma que el lenguaje de especialidad es un subconjunto
del lenguaje general caracterizado pragmáticamente por tres variables:
• La temática (campo o field). Una temática es

especializada si no forma parte del conocimiento
general de los hablantes de una lengua y, por tanto,
ha de ser objeto de un aprendizaje específico.
• Los usuarios. Están agrupados en torno a una escala

de abstracción, que va desde los especialistas hasta el
público en general.
• La situación comunicativa. Sería, como ya hemos

visto, una situación “marcada”: se trata de situaciones
muy codificadas y convencionalizadas (González
Gómez-Jover 2007: 30). Esto implica la existencia de
tipos textuales y de géneros (cf. Swales 1990; Bhatia
1993), entre otros factores.
Según estas premisas, “the threshold between general and special language can
be delineated only by pragmatic criteria derived from usage” (Sager et al. 1980: 68;
cf. Lerat 1997: 17).
Sin embargo, como ya hemos mencionado, recientemente han comenzado a

plantearse dudas sobre esta caracterización de los lenguajes de especialidad. Las
últimas investigaciones de Cabré Castellví (2005) apuntan a que no es posible
definir en términos exclusivamente pragmáticos los lenguajes de especialidad, ya
que son necesarias otras condiciones para que se dé un discurso especializado
(2005: 194-195):
“(…) la detección inicial de los textos especializados se lleva a cabo por

condiciones externas, esto es, por las condiciones discursivo-
comunicativas en las que algunos textos se producen. Estas condiciones
se refieren más concretamente a los factores siguientes: los interlocutores
(…); las situaciones en que éste [el discurso] se produce habitualmente
(…); la temática, o más precisamente, el tratamiento de la temática; la
función lingüística básica del discurso producido; las funciones socio-
comunicativas del discurso: la función básica y la complementaria”.
Por consiguiente, el lenguaje de especialidad sería un subconjunto del lenguaje

general caracterizado por tres tipos de condiciones (Cabré Castellví 2005: 194-197):
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1. Condiciones pragmáticas. Pragmáticamente, los lenguajes de

especialidad se distinguen por dos variables: los usuarios (interlocutores)
y la situación socio-comunicativa. Los usuarios están agrupados en torno
a una escala de abstracción, que va desde los auténticos especialistas
hasta el público en general. El emisor de estos textos puede ser: (a)
experto, (b) semiexperto o aprendiz (futuro experto) o (c) experto puntual
(por ejemplo, un periodista). Respecto al receptor, puede tratarse de un
experto, un semiexperto o un lego 7. El punto en común que tienen todos
estos receptores, como afirma Cabré Castellví (2005: 195), es “su
expectativa a ser informados”. Finalmente, la situación socio-comunicativa
suele ser una situación profesional o, al menos, una situación
comunicativa con un enfoque profesional (cf. Swales 1990; Bhatia 1993).
2. Condiciones cognitivas. Básicamente se refieren a la temática y

sobre todo a su modo de conceptualización, así como al tratamiento que
ésta recibe. El concepto de “temática especializada”, estrechamente
relacionado con el de “campo”, ha cambiado considerablemente; como
recogen Bowker y Pearson (2002: 39): “un lenguaje de especialidad es el
que se emplea para hablar de campos especializados de conocimiento,
que pueden incluir los más diversos ámbitos, desde la actividad
profesional hasta los hobbies, siempre y cuando hagan referencia a un
campo restringido” [traducción propia]. La relación entre la temática y el
discurso especializado, como refleja Cabré Castellví (2005: 195-196), es
probabilística pero no automática: es cierto que la temática suele
discriminar el discurso especializado de manera habitual, pero lo que
identifica el discurso especializado en realidad es la forma en que se
expresa y comunica esa temática. Veamos las palabras de la autora al
respecto (2005: 196):
“(…) no podemos decir que sea la temática el factor que determina la

especialidad del discurso, sino que lo que identifica el discurso
especializado será la forma cómo se expresa y comunica esta temática,
forma condicionada a cómo se ha conceptualizado. Un discurso sobre un
tema será especializado si y sólo si transmite una estructura conceptual
reconocida por los expertos del ámbito como propia de este ámbito”.
7
En función de la relación emisor-receptor, podemos establecer varios tipos de discursos: discurso de
experto, discurso didáctico (formación de futuros especialistas) y discurso divulgativo.
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3. Condiciones lingüísticas. No se refieren exclusivamente a los

aspectos gramaticales como elementos discriminatorios de los textos
especializados, sino que van más allá, incluyendo aspectos como la
organización de los textos, la distribución de la información en estos, su
presentación en géneros y tipos textuales, sus convenciones discursivas,
etc. La función lingüística de los textos especializados suele ser una
función referencial (textos informativos), con poca incidencia de la
función emotiva aunque sí de la conativa 8 (determinados textos
jurídicos), de la metalingüística (textos didácticos que explican conceptos
e introducen denominaciones propias de la materia) y de la
argumentativa/persuasiva (textos con función persuasiva secundaria,
como por ejemplo un artículo médico que defiende las ventajas de una
técnica quirúrgica frente a otra).
1.2.2. TÉRMINOS Y PALABRAS.

Una de las mayores dificultades para poder discriminar entre el lenguaje general
y el lenguaje de especialidad es establecer la distinción entre “palabra” y “término”.
Sager (1990: 19) establece la distinción entre términos y palabras de la forma
siguiente:
The items which are characterised by special reference within a discipline

are the "terms" of that discipline, and collectively they form its
"terminology"; those which function in general reference over a variety of
sublanguages are simply called "words" and their totality the "vocabulary".
Algunos autores (Hoffman 1985 o Yang 1986), han propuesto una división
tripartita de los términos y las palabras:
1. Términos específicos (subject-specific terms o technical terms):

aquellos usados sólo en un dominio de conocimiento, con un
significado altamente concreto y un único referente conceptual.
Por ejemplo, “adenocarcinoma”.
2. Términos no-específicos (non subject-specific terms, nontechnical

terms o subtechnical terms): términos que son comunes a varias
disciplinas. Por ejemplo, “terapia”.
8
También denominada impositiva.
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3. Vocabulario / léxico general: unidades léxicas de la lengua

general que no pertenecen a ninguna disciplina científica 9. Por
ejemplo, “tratamiento”.
Esta dificultad de distinción entre términos y palabras se ve aumentada por el

continuo transvase de unidades léxicas entre la lengua general y las lenguas de
especialidad. El avance de los medios de comunicación ha multiplicado la
divulgación de ciencias (Cabré 1993: 167), lo que ha traído consigo la difusión de la
terminología especializada, motivo por el que muchos hablantes están
familiarizados con términos como “clonación”, “gen”, “cromosoma”, etc.
Cuando se produce un transvase de términos de la lengua común a los lenguajes

especializados se habla de “terminologización” (Cabré 1993: 168) de palabras de la
lengua general, que pasan a los distintos ámbitos de especialización con
significados precisos. Igualmente puede darse un transvase de unidades de una
lengua de especialidad a otra, en ocasiones con un cambio de significado o del
referente conceptual en ambas disciplinas.
Ahmad et al. (1985: 10) ofrecen las siguientes posibilidades de trasvase de

elementos léxicos (Montero Martínez, http://elies.rediris.es/elies19/index.html):
• LESP  LG: un término de un lenguaje de especialidad extiende su uso a

la lengua general, por ejemplo parameter o paranoid. Esto tiene varias
consecuencias:
- pérdida de precisión en el significado;
- aumento del número de usuarios;
- posibilidad de un comportamiento lingüístico distinto (por ejemplo

más variantes combinatorias o distintas derivaciones y flexiones
morfológicas).
• LG  LESP: una unidad léxica de la lengua general se incorpora a un

lenguaje de especialidad, por ejemplo window o mouse. Algunas de las
consecuencias de este trasvase suelen ser:
- incremento en la precisión del significado;
9
Pero es necesario recordar que en algunos contextos pueden adquirir un significado específico, y por
ello convertirse en términos al ser empleados en un dominio restringido.
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- menor grupo de usuarios, que están más claramente definidos;
- comportamiento lingüístico diferente, probablemente más

restringido.
• LESP1  LESP2: un lenguaje de especialidad adopta un término

perteneciente a otro lenguaje de especialidad, por ejemplo virus. Algunas
de las consecuencias probables son las siguientes:
- se mantiene la precisión semántica, pero puede producirse un

cambio de significado;
- el grupo de usuarios cambia;
- comportamiento lingüístico diferente, probablemente más

restringido.
Tres son por consiguiente los parámetros principales que determinan el

comportamiento terminológico (o no-terminológico) de las unidades léxicas: el grado
de precisión semántica, el comportamiento lingüístico y el número de usuarios (que
está estrechamente relacionado con la frecuencia de uso).
1.2.3. LOS TEXTOS ESPECIALIZADOS: FUNCIÓN, GÉNERO Y TIPO TEXTUAL

Un texto especializado, según Cabré Castellví, se definiría de la siguiente forma
(2005: 196):
(…) conjuntos de unidades de información estructuradas lingüísticamente

cuya principal característica semántica es su precisión, siempre en
relación a un esquema conceptual preestablecido (y aprendido) y
reconocido por los expertos de cada ámbito. (…) En síntesis, un discurso
es especializado si se cumplen las siguientes condiciones con relación al
tratamiento temático: precisión conceptual; significado discreto; ubicación
estructural; establecimiento explícito y sanción por el grupo experto.
Arntz (1996: 121) ofrece una tipología de textos especializados en la que se

recogen once tipos de textos, ordenados según la dificultad temática del texto, sus
destinatarios potenciales y los conocimientos necesarios para trabajar con ellos:
Figura 3: Tipología de textos especializados.

Level Text Type(s) Target Audience Knowledge Required
I Encyclopaedias and Public interested in technology Little or no knowledge of technology
popular specialised
texts
II General technical Public especially interested in General knowledge of technology
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reference books technology

III Reference works in a Public interested in subfield of Knowledge of the subfield of
subject field technology technology
IV Introductory books Public interested in thorough Knowledge of the fundamentals of
and textbooks knowledge of a subfield science
V Practical reference Public interested in a working Working knowledge of a technical
works in a particular knowledge of a technical subject
area of technology subject
VI Advertising material Potential users from the User-specific technical knowledge
from specialised subject area
publications, product
information
VII Specialised article Specialists interested in a Good theoretical and practical
from specialised special subject area knowledge of a technical special
publication subject
VIII Fitting and installation Specialists working in a very Application-specific technical
instructions special area knowledge
IX Academic textbooks Students, scientists working in Good basic scientific and technical
a particular area knowledge
X Research reports Researchers working on Intricate theoretical knowledge
theoretical issues
XI Standards, patent Engineers familiar with system Combination of theoretical and
specifications, planning practical knowledge
application reports
Fuente: Arntz (1996: 121)
Los textos pueden ser, en términos generales, de tres tipos: no especializados,

especializados y divulgativos. Veamos los tres:
1. Texto general o no especializado: se da en una interacción social no

marcada (=concreta, distinta, especial), por lo que no se relaciona con un
campo profesional concreto.
2. Texto especializado: sería “the kind of language use associated with

highly specialized communication in a wide variety of subject areas”
(Asher y Simpson 1994: 2010). Se dividiría en lenguaje académico y
lenguaje profesional, y éste a su vez puede ser bidireccional o
unídireccionalo 10. El discurso académico sería propio de la comunicación
establecida entre un profesional y una institución o persona relacionada
con su profesión que se considera de prestigio 11. Sería el registro más
elevado, en el que el grado de conocimiento compartido con el
10
El lenguaje “unívoco” para Cabré Castellví (1993) sería otro tipo de discurso, que denomina “para
aprendices”.
11
Un ejemplo sería un arquitecto cuando escribe un artículo para una revista especializada, o cuando
da una conferencia en un congreso para especialistas.
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destinatario es máximo. El discurso profesional sería aquel en el que el

emisor es un experto, y el receptor otro experto o futuro experto; es por
tanto el que usan profesionales de un mismo campo o de campos afines
para comunicarse entre sí; por ejemplo, un médico cuando habla con
otro. Se da un grado alto de conocimiento compartido, aunque no es tan
especializado como el académico, y presenta dos niveles:
- bidireccional 12, típico de la comunicación entre expertos, por

lo que el emisor y el receptor presentan una equiparación de
especificidad discursiva. Se denomina “bidireccional” porque la
especificidad discursiva circula en ambos sentidos. Teresa
Cabré denomina a esta variante “comunicación entre
especialistas” (expert-expert communication). Tiende a usar un
vocabulario altamente especializado y los términos se usan de
forma precisa. No suelen encontrarse explicaciones de los
términos, a no ser que el especialista esté redefiniendo un
concepto existente o acuñando un término nuevo.
- unidireccional 13, o texto didáctico, propio de la comunicación

entre un profesional y un estudiante (o “aprendiz” según Cabré
Castellví 1993). Dado su carácter pedagógico, se hace un uso
alterno de términos especializados y de términos de
divulgación y/o sinónimos funcionales (“cuasisinónimos”), y se
da una mayor presencia de definiciones, clasificaciones y
categorizaciones. En ocasiones se acerca al discurso de
divulgación, pero no se da el mismo grado de conocimiento
compartido; por ende, en este caso la situación comunicativa
es especializada.
3. Texto divulgativo (o de transición): sería típico de una situación

comunicativa en el que el emisor es un experto, semi-experto (por
ejemplo, un estudiante) o pseudo-experto (una persona que se
documenta puntualmente en un tema, como un investigador o
documentalista) y el receptor un público general, profano o no
12
Es decir, la especificidad discursiva circula en ambos sentidos.
13
La especificidad discursiva circula fundamentalmente en un sentido (experto/profesional >
aprendiz/estudiante).
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especializado. Es lo que Alcaraz Varó (1994: 74) denomina “lenguaje

paralelo” 14, y Teresa Cabré lo denomina “comunicación entre semi-
especialista y lego” (relative expert to the uninitiated). Puesto que no se
presupone ningún conocimiento especializado por parte de los lectores, la
densidad de términos especializados suele ser bastante baja y, cuando se
usan, se indica su significado de forma genérica, por lo que se peca de
imprecisión. Se generaliza, se utiliza la sinonimia funcional (cuasi-
sinónimos), y se clasifica de forma sencilla y clara. El grado de
conocimiento compartido entre emisor y receptor es mínimo.
Algunos textos están tan sistematizados que se convierten en “documentos

especializados”, que Cabré Castellví (1993: 164) define de la siguiente forma: “textos
especializados que requieren una codificación formal muy elaborada desde el punto
de vista del diseño y de la expresión lingüística”. Un ejemplo lo constituyen los
formularios jurídicos y administrativos, que tienen un esquema rígido de
distribución, contenido, fórmulas, etc., hasta tal punto que si se altera u omite
alguno de estos elementos, el texto puede quedar invalidado. Estos documentos
conforman listas cerradas, no son espontáneos y se dan casi exclusivamente en el
nivel escrito (Sager et al. 1980).
Respecto a la función de los textos especializados, es fundamental en primer

lugar distinguir entre “propósito” y “función”, que hacen referencia a dos conceptos
diferentes, pues el propósito proviene del emisor textual y la función proviene del
receptor. El propósito hace referencia a la intención que el emisor quiere que tenga
el texto, o el objetivo que quiere que éste cumpla. Por el contrario, la función se
valora desde el receptor, es decir, independientemente del propósito que el emisor
deseara que tuviera ese texto, la función sería el papel que finalmente desempeña
ese texto en una sociedad determinada15.
Aunque lo habitual sea que coincidan ambas, la intención que el emisor del texto
otorga a éste no tiene que coincidir necesariamente con la que percibe el
14
“(...) existe un lenguaje paralelo, mediante el cual los medios de comunicación hacen accesible al
público en general la información técnica o especializada” (1994: 74).
15
Un ejemplo clásico son Los Viajes de Gulliver. Utilizando el género del relato infantil, Swift en
realidad introdujo en el texto original un propósito claramente crítico, pues se trata de una obra
sarcástica que critica todas las instancias sociales de la época. Sin embargo, con el paso del tiempo la
función que ha terminado por cumplir la obra es un relato de entretenimiento perteneciente al género
infantil
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destinatario (cf. Sager et al. 1980:23). Por ello, tal y como afirman Reiss y Vermeer
(trad. de 1996:177) y Nord (1991:16 y 47; 1994:86) un texto no tiene una función
inmanente, sino que es el receptor el que la asigna, de ahí que un mismo texto en
principio pueda tener tantas funciones como receptores 16.
Respecto a las funciones textuales, es posible proponer la siguiente división:
I) función mediativa: trata de influir en el receptor, y reflejaría la

función apelativa del lenguaje. Propósito: persuadir. Presenta dos
alternativas:
- función argumentativa o persuasiva: Propósito: se trata de

influir en el receptor o persuadirle de algo, utilizando todas las
estrategias que se consideren efectivas;
- función impositiva: Propósito: imponer al receptor la

propuesta/tesis del emisor, ya que se influye en su
comportamiento y pensamiento de forma directa (por ejemplo,
las leyes), independientemente de argumentación alguna;
II) función expositiva: los textos en los que predomina esta función
comunican información de forma relativamente aséptica, por lo que
predomina la transmisión de contenidos. Propósito: la transmisión de
información. Manifiestan la función representativa del lenguaje;
III) función expresiva: los textos en que predomina esta función

transmiten una información de forma emotiva/artística, y tratan de
producir un efecto determinado en el receptor (por lo general de deleite)
mediante los recursos de una lengua. Propósito: deleitar al receptor.
Manifiestan la función expresiva del lenguaje;
IV) función fática o de contacto: trata de mantener la comunicación

establecida entre emisor y receptor. Propósito: mantener el contacto
comunicativo. Los textos manifiestan la función fática del lenguaje;
Respecto a los conceptos de “género” y “tipo textual”, existe confusión. Biber

propone una distinción entre género, o “text distinctions recognized by mature
16
“Es un hecho conocido que un mismo texto puede tener diferentes funciones para la misma persona
en varios momentos de su vida. (…) Un texto no tiene una función inherente. En el acto de recepción,
el receptor decide sobre la función que el texto tendrá para él” (Nord 1994:86).
20

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adult speakers reflecting differences in external format and situations of use” (1989:
39) y tipo de texto, o “linguistically distinct texts within a genre” (1989: 5-6).
A continuación definimos el uso que se va a hacer en esta asignatura de los

términos expuestos:
- género: formas convencionalizadas de textos asociadas a determinadas

situaciones sociales y que por ello un hablante nativo de una lengua es
capaz de distinguir, al menos a grandes rasgos 17; por ejemplo, textos
periodísticos (que tendría como subgéneros los editoriales, las cartas al
director, etc.);
- tipo de texto o tipo textual: conjunto mental (Hatim y Mason 1997) y

abstracto (Roberts 1996:45) de textos agrupados en función de una(s)
dimensión(es) determinada(s) y que se caracteriza por: compartir tanto
determinadas manifestaciones lingüísticas como algunos rasgos de la
situación comunicativa (intención, función, etc.). Estos rasgos en común
no se encontrarían en igual medida en otros tipos de textos. Ejemplo:
textos expositivos;
Podemos proponer los siguientes tipos textuales:
• textos mediativos: tratan de lograr una reacción determinada en el

receptor. Pueden ser de dos tipos:
- argumentativos: predomina la interpretación sobre la

información. Su propósito es persuadir al receptor influyendo
en él, y valiéndose para ello de todas las estrategias que se
consideren efectivas. Ejemplo: un anuncio publicitario;
- impositivos: imponen al receptor la tesis del emisor, ya que

influyen en su comportamiento y/o ideología de forma directa,
con o sin razonamiento previo. Ejemplo: las leyes;
• textos expresivos: su propósito es deleitar al receptor. Ejemplos:

cuentos, poemas, etc.;
• textos informativos: su propósito es informar mediante la transmisión
17
Cf. Richards et al. (1985:122), Birch (1995:7), Hatim y Mason (1990:69) y Colina (1997:336).
21

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de información de forma neutral 18. Ejemplo: un informe de auditoría;
• textos fáticos: su propósito es mantener la comunicación. Ejemplo:

saludos;
• textos híbridos: combinan de forma simultánea varias funciones, de

ahí que puedan ser textos “expositivo-argumentativos”, “argumentativo-
estéticos”, etc.
1.2.4. RASGOS GENERALES DE LOS LENGUAJES DE ESPECIALIDAD

En este apartado haremos sólo mención general de los rasgos más destacados de
los lenguajes de especialidad en general, ya que en el apartado siguiente, dedicado
al Inglés Profesional y Académico, trataremos con más detenimiento los rasgos de
los lenguajes de especialidad en inglés.
Todos los textos de especialidad están unificados por la existencia de un código

común y cuentan, además, con peculiaridades léxico-gramaticales, pragmáticas,
funcionales, textuales y discursivas. Sin embargo las investigaciones estilísticas
actuales ponen en duda la posibilidad de caracterización de todos los lenguajes de
especialidad mediante una serie de rasgos comunes. La coincidencia en las
descripciones de estas pautas podría llevar a la conclusión de que, por encima de
las especialidades, estos rasgos caracterizan a todos los lenguajes de especialidad
en cuanto tales (Martínez Linares 2007: 15), como si todos los discursos
especializados compartieran unos mismos rasgos.
Para exponer estos rasgos de una forma práctica consideramos oportuno

dividirlos en dos niveles: léxico-sintáctico y textual-pragmático. Esto se hace
únicamente por motivos prácticos, ya que se trata de dos niveles en realidad
indivisibles, pues se hallan unidos de forma intrínseca (Martínez Linares 2007: 23).
Según Asher y Simpson (1994: 2011), la diferencia fundamental entre el lenguaje

“general” y el “especializado” radicaría más en la frecuencia de aparición de
determinados rasgos que en la naturaleza de estos:
18
Se trata de una utopía, ya que como afirma Roberts (1996), igual que es difícil imaginar un texto
puramente informativo (sin sesgo alguno), también lo es imaginar uno cuyo nivel de información sea
cero.
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“The morphological and syntactic properties of LSP, by and large,

correspond to those of the general language, but may differ strikingly in
frequency of occurrence”.
Para Martínez Linares (2007: 14), propiedades tales como la ‘neutralidad’, la

‘objetividad’, (…) junto con la ‘economía’, la ‘claridad’ y la ‘precisión’ parecen
perfilarse como atributos de los lenguajes de especialidad o, al menos, “como
ideales a los que deben aspirar”. Como veremos más adelante, alguno de estos
atributos, que tradicionalmente se daban por supuestos en los textos de
especialidad, no siempre son característicos de ellos.
El léxico
El léxico puede ser de tres tipos (cf. Trimble 1985: 128 y sigs; cf. Alcaraz Varó
2000):
• Léxico común o general, que puede aparecer en cualquier tipo de texto.
• Términos especializados o “técnicos”, que son “unidades léxicas (...)

llamadas “términos”, cuyos significados están definidos de forma unívoca
dentro de una teoría” (Cabré Castellví 1993). Predominan, en el caso de las
lenguas occidentales, los vocablos de raíz grecolatina, que se suelen
denominar “formantes cultos”
• Términos sub-técnicos (“semitécnico” según Alcaraz Varó 2000: 43; re-

designated general language items para Sager et al. 1980:24 y
“vocabulario interdisciplinario” para Hoffman 1998), que Trimble (1985:
129) define de la siguiente forma: “those words that have one or more
‘general’ English meanings and which in technical contexts take on
extended meanings (technical, or specialized in some fashion)”. Son
unidades léxicas del lenguaje común que han adquirido uno o varios
nuevos significados dentro de un campo del saber 19. Por tanto, tienen “un
significado dinámico o dependiente del contexto” (González Gómez-Jover
2007: 29). Este vocabulario en su mayoría se ha formado por extensión del
significado mediante analogía, añadiendo acepciones adicionales al
significado a través de extensiones en su mayoría de origen metafórico.
19
Veamos algún ejemplo: frog: rana; leap-frog test: comprobación por salto (informática); dog: perro;
yellow-dog contract: contrato laboral por el que el trabajador no se sindica.
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Los términos se diferencian de las unidades léxicas del lenguaje general en que
los términos son monosémicos, mientras que las unidades léxicas son “polisémicas,
ambiguas, transportan connotaciones, poseen sinónimos y su significado se activa
dentro de un contexto” (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 42). La terminología tiene “un único
referente conceptual (…); por lo general, estas unidades tienen “un significado
encapsulado, esto es, monorreferencial, unívoco y universal, que no se ve alterado
aunque varíen las situaciones comunicativas y discursivas” (Gómez González-Jover
2007: 28).
Los entes subtécnicos y técnicos resultan en su mayor parte de los siguientes

procesos (Alcaraz Varó 2000): (i) palabras cotidianas que adquieren un significado
especializado, normalmente a través de extensiones metafóricas; (ii) procesos de
formación de palabras con afijos clásicos; (iii) procesos de formación con elementos
nativos; (iv) préstamos; (v) designaciones por medio de figuras o símbolos
artificiales; (vi) nomenclaturas; (vii) marcas comerciales y/o nombres de productos.
Los lenguajes de especialidad también tienen un vocabulario cuya flexión plantea

algunos problemas concretos en determinadas lenguas (Lerat 1997: 73):
• Ausencia de variación de género (por ejemplo, “derechohabiente”,

“testigo”).
• Ausencia de variación de número (por ejemplo, “daños y perjuicios”,

“atrasos”, “buena fe”).
• Ausencia de concordancias (por ejemplo, “video cassettes”, “rayos alfa”).
• Vacilación de género (sobre todo en la designación de máquinas:

“amolador/amoladora”, etc.).
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Unidades sintagmáticas
En lo referente al léxico, abundan también las unidades sintagmáticas, es decir,

cierto tipo de combinaciones que son primordialmente fijas (por ejemplo, “síndrome
de inmunodeficiencia adquirida”.
Lenguajes artificiales
Suele ser frecuente, dependiendo del ámbito de conocimiento de que se trate, el

empleo de lenguajes artificiales con símbolos semióticos alternativos, como las
siglas y símbolos especializados (lenguaje de programación, símbolos de la química,
símbolos fonéticos, etc.). Estos lenguajes, habitualmente establecidos por
organismos competentes (asociaciones, órganos gubernamentales, etc.) son muy
específicos y no conceden apenas margen de variabilidad. Las nomenclaturas están
diseñadas para identificar, designar y describir entidades de forma precisa,
otorgando concisión y univocidad 20 a los elementos que designan.
Nominalizaciones
Una característica común a los lenguajes de especialidad es la alta proporción de

sustantivos (Martínez Linares 2007: 15), y por tanto la frecuencia de las
nominalizaciones procedentes en su mayoría de verbos, que permiten resumir en
pocas palabras fenómenos muy complejos y condensan una gran cantidad de
información. Se emplean nominalizaciones en los siguientes casos (González Pueyo
y Val 1996):
• Formación de términos técnicos. Se utilizan para agrupar una serie de

sucesos y estados, lo que trae consigo la formación de términos técnicos
que hacen referencia a fenómenos complejos.
• Desarrollo de conceptos técnicos y científicos abstractos. La complejidad

de la información científica hace que sea necesario utilizar grupos
nominales para elevar el nivel de abstracción de las palabras.
• Establecimiento de las relaciones de causa y efecto entre sucesos.
• Medición, comparación y ordenamiento.
• Cualificación y modificación de las descripciones y las explicaciones.
20
Cualidad o propiedad de ser unívoco, de poseer un sólo significado o ser utilizado siempre con un
sólo y único significado.
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• Organización de la información en el texto. La nominalización es un

recurso para agrupar el significado en tema y rema 21 y, por consiguiente,
es una herramienta de organización textual.
Univocidad y denotación
Con frecuencia se menciona la univocidad de los términos de los lenguajes de

especialidad. Es cierto que, en comparación con lo que sucede en el lenguaje no
especializado, en los lenguajes de especialidad se tiende a la monosemia, pero no se
puede afirmar que no exista la sinonimia, que se emplea con bastante frecuencia en
los lenguajes profesionales, como demuestran Trimble (1985), Alcaraz Varó (2000),
Lerat (1997), Congost Maestre (1994) o Sager et al. (1980) entre otros muchos.
Igualmente se solía afirmar que los lenguajes de especialidad eran denotativos; sin
embargo, y como afirma Lerat (1997: 98) “la connotación está muy lejos de ser
ajena a las lenguas especializadas”.
Impersonalización
Existe también un alto grado de impersonalización, que se logra mediante

diversos mecanismos textuales (Martínez Linares 2007: 14). Algunos de los más
usados en español son:
• El uso de la construcción pasivo-perifrástica22, que permite omitir al

experimentador del proceso o al agente que lleva a cabo la acción.
• El empleo de verbos y oraciones impersonales, carentes de sujeto al que

asignar la predicación (“se prohíbe el uso de dispositivos”).
• El uso de pasivas reflejas, que posibilitan una interpretación genérica del

agente y neutra con respecto a la inclusión del emisor (“se indemnizará a
la víctima”).
• El uso de sujetos inanimados, que hacen posible ocultar la participación

del agente para dejar paso a los objetos 23.
21
El “tema” sería la parte general del ítem del que se y de la que se supone un conocimiento previo por
parte del interlocutores; el “rema” es lo que se dice del tema aportando información nueva. Es decir,
sería la información conocida frente a la información novedosa y desconocida.
22
“La dureza del material fue determinada mediante otro procedimiento”.
23
“Los análisis muestran una alta concentración de esta sustancia”.
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• El uso de la segunda y tercera persona del plural (“Muchos estudios

afirman que…”; “si aplican esta técnica, los resultados son pobres”).
• Uso de los verbos “haber”, “ser” y “hacer” como impersonales (“hay

problemas”; “es difícil saber”, etc.).
Sin embargo, y como nos recuerda Martínez Linares (2007: 17), “no se debe
suponer el mismo grado de desagentivación o impersonalidad para todos los
géneros de especialidad”.
El objetivo de esta impersonalidad es intentar transmitir información de forma

neutral y objetiva. Sin embargo, según afirman Marimón Llorca y Santamaría Pérez
(2007: 129) los mecanismos lingüísticos de la impersonalidad pueden aportar un
elemento de persuasión al texto: “incluso la impersonalidad (…) en realidad es un
mecanismo que sirve para persuadir al lector: aquello que se está diciendo es un
hecho tan objetivo y claro que no hay más remedio que aceptarlo”.
La neutralidad se trata de lograr a través de fórmulas textuales como la

descripción, la definición, la clasificación, la enumeración, el cálculo, el
razonamiento, la argumentación, la citación, la referencia, etc. Todos estos
elementos conllevan una tendencia hacia la despersonalización reflejada en verbos
en presente, primeras personas del plural, ausencia de exclamaciones, uso de
frases cortas, falta de redundancia innecesaria, utilización de fórmulas
impersonales, sintagmas nominales, y otros sistemas de representación
incorporados en el texto.
Sintaxis
Especialmente significativo resulta el desacuerdo existente en torno a la

supuesta “complejidad sintáctica” de los lenguajes de especialidad (Martínez
Linares 2007: 16), pues depende del ámbito al que se haga referencia. Los textos
jurídicos en general presentan un grado de complejidad sintáctica muy elevado, con
abundante subordinación, mientras que los textos científico-técnicos suelen tener
una sintaxis más sencilla y poca subordinación compleja.
Formas verbales no personales
Otra pauta en la caracterización sintáctica de estos lenguajes es “la tendencia al

empleo de formas verbales no personales –infinitivos, gerundios y participios, en
‘construcción absoluta’ o ‘concertada’” (Martínez Linares 2007: 15).
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Funciones textuales
La mayoría de estos textos se sirven de la función referencial, por lo que

“recurren a menudo a fórmulas textuales como la descripción, la definición, la
clasificación, la enumeración, el cálculo, el razonamiento, la argumentación, la
citación, la referencia, etc.”. (Cabré Castellví 1993: 155). Sin embargo,
investigaciones recientes defienden la presencia frecuente de la función persuasiva
en ciertos géneros de los lenguajes de especialidad24 (cf. Alcaraz Varó 2000, Congost
Maestre 1994).
Mecanismos referenciales extratextuales
Alcaraz Varó (2000), Sager et al. (1980) y otros muchos nos recuerdan también el
uso de mecanismos referenciales metatextuales de índole semiótica (gráficos,
tablas, figuras, imágenes, etc.) típico de estos lenguajes.
1.3. EL INGLÉS PROFESIONAL Y ACADÉMICO

(IPA)
En este apartado nos centramos en el Inglés Profesional y Académico (IPA),

también denominado Inglés para Fines Específicos (IFE; procede del inglés ESP o
English for Specific Purposes).
24
Por ejemplo un artículo académico escrito por un cirujano en el que aboga por una técnica de
intervención concreta frente a otras. Independientemente del volumen informativo del texto, que
probablemente será relevante, en realidad el autor trata de convencer a la comunidad científica de que
la técnica que ha utilizado ofrece mejores resultados que otra/s, y por tanto las estrategias utilizadas
en el texto serán argumentativas, valiéndose de la información como mecanismo persuasivo.
28

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Una de las divisiones más frecuentes hoy en día es la siguiente:
Figura 4: Areas of ESP teaching
BRANCH SUB BRANCHES EXAMPLE

English for Academic English for General English for academic
Purposes (EAP) Academic Purposes (EGAP) reading and writing
English for Specific English for law, economy
Academic Purposes (ESAP) or sociology students
English for Professional English for General English for the health care
Purposes (EPP) Professional Purposes sector
(EGPP)
English for Specific English for nursing.
Professional Purposes
(ESPP)
English for Occupational English for General English for the hotel
Purposes (EOP) Occupational Purposes industry
(EGOP)
English for Specific English for hotel
Occupational Purposes receptionist
(ESOP)
El inglés es hoy la lingua franca por excelencia en los ámbitos de especialidad. El

desarrollo científico-tecnológico (y el creciente interés de la sociedad por éste), el
proceso de globalización y movilidad han favorecido la importancia de la lengua
inglesa, puesto que “en la sociedad del conocimiento se hace necesario el dominio
del lenguaje que emplea la comunidad científica para transmitir y difundir la
información” (Alcón Soler 2007: 259).
1.3.1. LA NATURALEZA DEL IPA

El término English for Specific Purposes en realidad puede significar dos cosas
distintas: de forma genérica, su docencia (es decir, los cursos que se imparten sobre
el inglés de diversas especialidades), y de forma específica, el inglés que se usa en
situaciones comunicativas marcadas (=concretas, específicas).
Aunque habitualmente se habla de “inglés para fines específicos”, Henry

Widdowson (1998: 3-4) descarta el adjetivo specific del término, pues para él
cualquier uso que se haga de la lengua es “específico”, ya que sirve siempre para un
fin concreto. Alcaraz Varó, siguiendo la opinión de Widdowson, prefiere usar el
29

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término “Inglés Profesional y Académico 25” (IPA), precisamente para evitar cualquier
ambigüedad.
Aunando las definiciones de Mackay y Palmer (1981) y Hutchinson y Waters

(1987), la noción de inglés para fines específicos responde a la enseñanza de la
lengua inglesa con fines primordialmente utilitarios o instrumentales, a fin de que
el alumno pueda utilizarlo dentro de su actividad profesional.
Autores como Hutchinson y Waters (1987: 18) han utilizado fórmulas indirectas
(es decir, definiciones por oposición) para perfilar el IFE:
• “ESP is not a matter of teaching ‘specialised varieties’ of English”.
• “ESP is not just a matter of science words and grammar for scientists,
hotel words and grammar for hotel staff and so on”.
• “ESP is not different in kind from any other form of language teaching”.
Muchos autores dividen el Inglés Profesional y Académico en dos grandes

ramas 26, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) e English for Occupational Purposes
(EOP):
1. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) se ocupa de las estrategias

comunicativas en lengua inglesa necesarias para realizar enseñanzas
regladas dentro de una institución o para llevar a cabo actividades
académicas de cualquier tipo (redacción y defensa de trabajos, exposición
de ponencias, impartición de clases, etc.).
2. EOP (English for Occupational Purposes) se ocupa de satisfacer las

necesidades de lengua inglesa de los profesionales. Estos pueden ser de tres
tipos (cf. Strevens 1988a: 139): (i) los que están preparándose y no cuentan
con experiencia profesional; (ii) los que están desarrollando una actividad
profesional concreta; (iii) cursos de reciclaje. Los grandes ámbitos
profesionales en que se han centrado la investigación y la docencia hasta
25
Esta distinción entre “Inglés Profesional” e “Inglés Académico” soluciona, en parte, alguna de las
dificultades metodológicas con las que se ha encontrado el Inglés para Fines Específicos desde sus
inicios.
26
Ver el glosario de términos de EAP: http://www.uefap.com/bgnd/glossfram.htm.
30

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ahora son tres 27: el inglés económico-comercial, el inglés jurídico (o jurídico-

administrativo) y el inglés científico-técnico.
1.3.2. LA ESTILÍSTICA DEL IPA

En la evolución de la investigación sobre el IPA podríamos hablar de tres fases:
(1) fase prescriptiva, (2) fase intermedia, en la que se deja sentir el impacto de
diversas disciplinas, y (3) fase descriptiva, en la que nos hallamos ahora mismo.
Veamos estas fases de forma individual.
1.3.2.1. Fase prescriptiva

Esta fase, para García Mayo (2000: 29-33), iría aproximadamente desde 1965
(Halliday, McIntosh y Strevens 1964) hasta mediados de los años 70. En estos años
iniciales del Inglés para Fines Específicos, éste se equiparaba con el English for
Science and Technology (EST), que fue el ámbito en el que comenzó.
Las investigaciones son en su mayoría de índole prescriptiva (afirmaciones de

naturaleza “intuitiva” según García Mayo 2000: 32): se suelen basar en hipótesis
que no se apoyan en corpus amplios de textos reales; son generalistas, extrapolan a
todos los lenguajes de especialidad rasgos que en realidad son típicos de uno o
varios de ellos, y se limitan a aspectos morfosintácticos sin ascender a niveles
superiores al de la oración (Alcaraz Varó 2000; García Mayo 2000: 32). El objetivo
didáctico es la competencia lingüística escrita.
Por otro lado, son característicos de esta etapa los estudios en los que se pueden
encontrar afirmaciones prescriptivas que carecen de base real, como las siguientes:
• Los factores determinantes de la especialidad de un texto son el

grado de especialización de su léxico y la presencia de una sintaxis
atípica (cf. García Mayo 2000: 33).
• Todos los textos de especialidad tienen una función informativa.
27
Estos ámbitos también se pueden dividir de distintas formas: por ejemplo, hay autores que
prefieren hablar del “inglés biosanitario” o del “inglés de las ciencias de la salud” en vez de “inglés
científico”. Otros incluyen el inglés del turismo dentro del inglés comercial o el inglés económico.
31

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• En los textos de especialidad no se dan los recursos retóricos. Por

tanto, no se hallarían en ellos metáforas, metonimias,
personificaciones, etc.
• Los textos de especialidad se caracterizan por su despersonalización,

pues recurren a mecanismos gramaticales que expresan la
impersonalidad, y por ello son neutrales.
• Los textos de especialidad son denotativos, es decir, en ellos la

connotación estaría ausente. Esto a su vez supondría la ausencia de
ambigüedad, de polisemia y de sinonimia.
• La gramática empleada por los textos de especialidad es clara,

correcta y sencilla.
• Los textos de especialidad se caracterizan por su concisión, es decir,

por la ausencia de redundancia.
1.3.2.2. El impacto de otros paradigmas

Son varios los paradigmas lingüísticos que han tenido una influencia directa en
la estilística de los lenguajes de especialidad, impacto que se ha traducido en una
modificación de sus principios fundamentales. Por ejemplo, Alcaraz Varó (2000) y
Fuertes Olivera (2005a) mencionan que en gran medida el futuro investigador de los
lenguajes de especialidad descansa sobre los principios de la pragmática (cf.
Aguado de Cea y Durán 2001b: 13), la lingüística cognitiva (Roldán 1999; Aguado
de Cea y Durán 2001b: 13) y la lingüística computacional, entre otras disciplinas.
En este apartado resumiremos muy brevemente las aportaciones de algunos

campos al estudio del IPA: la Lingüística Funcional y la Pragmática, la Lingüística
Cognitiva, los Estudios de Traducción, la Lingüística del Texto y el Análisis del
Discurso.
1. La lingüística sistémico-funcional y la pragmática. En ambos

paradigmas el centro de atención es la función, no la forma del lenguaje;
es decir, se centran en el sistema, no en la estructura. Así pues, el
lenguaje sería un proceso social frente a la antigua concepción de éste
como un conjunto de reglas gramaticales, lo que hace que se incluya la
importancia del contexto y la cultura en la comunicación especializada.
Cobra importancia el concepto de “uso” frente al de “gramaticalidad” (o
32

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“corrección”), y las investigaciones dejan de girar en torno al nivel léxico o

sintáctico para ascender al nivel textual/discursivo. Esta focalización en
el concepto de uso propicia el empleo de textos reales (material auténtico)
y, por consiguiente, el análisis de datos cuantificados. Dos aspectos de la
pragmática han tenido un impacto directo en el IPA: el análisis de la
comunicación entendida como lenguaje en acción, tanto en su vertiente
oral como escrita, y el empleo de material auténtico. Gracias a la
pragmática, se han incluido en el estudio del significado aspectos que
antes se dejaban de lado, como los textos orales, el lenguaje no verbal
(paralenguaje 28, kinésica 29 o proxémica 30) o la cortesía verbal.
2. La lingüística cognitiva 31. Son fundamentalmente tres las

contribuciones fundamentales: (a) la afirmación de que la estructura
lingüística depende de la conceptualización y a la vez influye en ella
(Ungerer y Schmid 2006); (b) el enfoque basado en el uso, pues el estudio
del lenguaje no puede separarse de su función cognitiva y comunicativa
(Croft y Cruse 2004: 1); y, (c) la concepción enciclopédica de la
semántica, ya que un diccionario no sería más que un repertorio
necesariamente limitado de los significados más frecuentes de algunos
términos. Para los cognitivistas no sería correcto separar el componente
gramatical del semántico; de este modo, se difuminan las fronteras entre
los componentes de la gramática.
3. Los estudios de traducción. Destacamos aquí dos aportaciones de

los DTS (Descriptive Translation Studies): en primer lugar, la afirmación
de que el componente gramatical no puede codificar todo el significado de
un texto/discurso. El segundo postulado, derivado de éste, es que la
diferencia entre fondo y forma es artificial: al depender el significado de
las unidades lingüísticas concretas, sin las cuales no se puede invocar,
éste es inherente a una lengua y una cultura determinadas.
28
Volumen, entonación, ritmo, pausas…
29
Llamado coloquialmente “lenguaje corporal”: estudia el significado comunicativo de los movimientos
corporales y de los gestos en relación con la situación comunicativa.
30
Grado de distancia física entre los interlocutores.
31
Trata fundamentalmente del conocimiento lingüístico en relación con otros procesos cognitivos.
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4. La lingüística del texto y el análisis del discurso. La Língüística

del Texto ha logrado que se estudien y clasifiquen los textos profesionales
y académicos en sus aspectos formales y funcionales como géneros,
junto con sus correspondientes tipos textuales. El Análisis del Discurso
ha aportado también el estudio de los rasgos característicos de la
comunicación oral en inglés en los ámbitos profesionales.
1.3.2.3. Fase descriptiva

La segunda fase, que es descriptiva, funcional y comunicativa, se desarrolla
desde principios de los años 80 a partir de conceptos como “discurso”, “análisis de
las necesidades”, “destrezas comunicativas” y “enfoque centrado en el aprendizaje”
(Dudley-Evans y St. John 1998; cf. García Mayo 2000: 29-47).
Entre los cambios fundamentales que se producen en esta fase (Fuertes Olivera
2007: 207) destaca la visión funcional del lenguaje, la inclusión del componente
oral, el uso de material auténtico, la relevancia del contexto comunicativo y de la
cultura, el análisis de datos cuantificados, el estudio de elementos
textuales/discursivos superiores a la oración, etc.
A partir de finales de los años ochenta, y dentro de la interdisciplinariedad que

caracteriza al IPA (cf. Gil Salom y Aguado de Cea 2005), es importante mencionar
los siguientes avances:
1. La división consolidada entre “inglés profesional” e “inglés académico”.

El ESP habitualmente se divide en dos grandes ramas, el English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) y el English for Occupational Purposes (EOP),
que ya hemos visto anteriormente (cf. Hutchinson y Waters 1987: 16;
Alcaraz Varó 2000: 61-62; Strevens 1988: 139).
2. La importancia del concepto de “género” (genre), que traerá consigo

una progresión geométrica de los estudios que llevan a cabo una
categorización y clasificación de los distintos géneros, subgéneros y tipos
textuales profesionales y académicos.
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3. La focalización en los rasgos supraoracionales. Por fin se reconoce que

la peculiaridad de los lenguajes de especialidad no se limita a su léxico o
a su gramática 32.
4. La ampliación de las competencias para la docencia (y aprendizaje) del

IPA. El fin último de los cursos de IFE ya no es sólo la competencia
lingüística en la L2, sino la competencia comunicativa o discursiva, es
decir, el conocimiento y dominio del lenguaje en acción (cf. Alcaraz Varó
2000).
5. La focalización en las necesidades del destinatario y en la situación

meta (needs analysis o, para Chambers 1980: 29, target situation
analysis, TSA; cf. García Mayo 2000: 37).
6. La integración metodológica del IFE en el aprendizaje del inglés como

lengua extranjera (ELT continuum). De hecho, el inglés para fines
específicos (IFE) se ha convertido en una de las áreas más destacadas de
la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera.
Es obvio, pues, como afirma Alcaraz Varó (2000: 16), que “(...) el inglés con fines
específicos es hoy una disciplina académica reconocida”
Todos estos cambios se pueden sintetizar en los siguientes principios, que hoy en
día ya son comúnmente aceptados:
• La sinonimia y la polisemia existen en los lenguajes de especialidad,

que no están exentos de ambigüedad “ya sea por polisemia,
sinonimia, homonimia o variantes terminológicas por especialidades”
(Aguado de Cea y Durán 2001b: 16). También Alcaraz Varó (2000: 47
y 122) afirma que “en los lenguajes de especialidad la monosemia
sería la situación ideal, pero desgraciadamente no sucede en
ninguno” (2000: 49).
• El lenguaje figurado existe en los lenguajes de especialidad 33, y en

algunos es abundante.
32
En palabras de Bowker y Pearson (2002: 26), “aunque el vocabulario especializado de un lenguaje
de especialidad a menudo es el rasgo más llamativo, es importante recordar que éste último no se
limita a ser un lenguaje general al que se han añadido unos cuantos términos específicos. Un lenguaje
de especialidad también puede presentar formas especiales de combinación de términos o de
organización de la información que pueden diferir de los empleados por el lenguaje general” [traducción
propia].
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• Existen rasgos que los lenguajes de especialidad comparten con el

lenguaje coloquial (lenguaje conversacional): por ejemplo, la
tematización, la repetición léxica o la elipsis.
• Va desapareciendo la afirmación de que los lenguajes de especialidad

presentan una sintaxis “más sencilla”. Salvo algunas excepciones
(por ejemplo, la complejidad sintáctica de determinados textos
jurídicos), la estructura oracional tiende a ser más rutinaria, lo cual
no supone que haya de ser más sencilla.
• Se incluye por fin el estudio del lenguaje no verbal (Alcaraz Varó y

Martínez Linares 1997). Esto refleja el componente cultural de la
comunicación, que es aplicable también a la comunicación de tipo
profesional (Tannen 1986).
• Se analizan datos estadísticos aspectos supraoracionales

(condiciones de textualidad, macroestructura y superestructura de
los textos, modalidades discursivas, etc.) y se descubren rasgos
textuales distintivos como, por ejemplo, la existencia de una
coherencia y cohesión más relajadas, el mayor grado de tolerancia
del receptor respecto de un estilo gramatical menos cuidado (incluso
con incorrecciones gramaticales), el reflejo de la actitud del emisor
del texto a través de mecanismos lingüísticos (matizadores,
adverbios, verbos modales), etc.
• Se estudia el papel comunicativo que desempeñan otros sistemas

semióticos incluidos como elementos de referencia metatextual:
fotografías, gráficos, tablas, etc.
1.3.3. RASGOS DISTINTIVOS DEL IPA

En este apartado exponemos de forma muy genérica los “rasgos peculiares” del
IPA, pero hemos de hacer la misma advertencia que ya hacía Trimble en la década
de los años ochenta (1985: 2): “a word of caution: ‘different’ here means ‘different in
degree’, not ‘different in kind’”.
33
Esto se refleja en la proliferación de publicaciones sobre la metáfora y la metonimia en los lenguajes
de especialidad.
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Dividiremos estos rasgos en: (1) rasgos léxico-sintácticos y (2) rasgos textuales y
pragmáticos.
1.3.3.1. Rasgos léxico-sintácticos

Para Sager et al. (1980: 184), los rasgos distintivos estadísticamente
significativos se podrían resumir en lo siguiente: “a high density of nominal groups,
usually heavily modified, a large number of non-finite verb forms and extensive use
of the passive”. Entre los rasgos que aparecerían con poca frecuencia estarían las
contracciones de formas verbales, los idioms, algunos pronombres personales, las
tag questions, etc. (Sager et al. 1980: 186 y 224-228).
Veamos pues con algo más de detenimiento los rasgos léxico-sintácticos más
destacados del IPA:
• Monosemia/polisemia: como ya hemos visto, existen la sinonimia, la

polisemia 34 y la ambigüedad 35. La relación unívoca total entre significante
y significado sólo se encuentra en las fórmulas científicas (H2O = agua),
donde en teoría se daría la monosemia absoluta.
• Abundancia de léxico de origen greco-latino, lo que da lugar a cierto

grado de transparencia interlingüística, ya que la forma de los términos
puede ser muy similar en las lenguas con un componente greco-latino
relevante.
• Neología: existen básicamente dos tipos de neología: léxica y semántica.

La primera, también llamada “de forma” (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 50), es de
carácter morfológico, y consiste en la creación de nuevas unidades
léxicas utilizando los recursos léxicos y morfológicos de una lengua (cf.
Lerat 1997: 144). En la neología “de sentido” se suelen incluir los
préstamos y calcos, las metáforas y los falsos amigos. Veamos
brevemente los tipos de neología (cf. Gómez González-Jover 2007: 35-39):
34
Por ejemplo, case en el lenguaje jurídico, que puede ser un proceso o sumario, pero también el
argumento de la defensa o de la acusación.
35
Alcaraz Varó (2000: 122) nos proporciona unos ejemplos que prueban la existencia y el uso
frecuente de sinónimos en textos de naturaleza técnica: “region, area, site, patch, cluster, location,
domain”; “group, set, sample, batch, lot”; “disease, disorder, dysfunction, syndrome”; “compound,
product, drug, substance”; “factor, variable, parameter, effect”; “period, stage, phase”, etc.
37

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(1) Neología léxica
- Derivación. En las palabras formadas por derivación intervienen una

base léxica y unos afijos (prefijos y/o sufijos), que son elementos sin
autonomía que ocupan una posición fija en la estructura de la palabra y
que no pueden combinarse entre sí para constituir nuevas palabras 36.
Los prefijos son afijos prepuestos a la base léxica, y pueden ser de origen
anglosajón (counter-, over, self-, under-, un-, etc.) o greco-latino (auto-,
neo-, proto-, pseudo-, super-, etc.). Los sufijos son afijos pospuestos a la
base léxica, y es una de las formas principales de nominalización en los
lenguajes de especialidad (-tion, -al, -ism, -ment, -ure, etc.). La derivación
regresiva (backformation) es el proceso de formación de palabras
mediante su acortamiento (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 53), por ejemplo,
housekeep de housekeeper.
- Composición: es el recurso de formación de palabras más

característico del inglés (bookshop, chessboard, etc.). Se trata de dos
palabras yuxtapuestas. Normalmente comienzan separadas; a medida
que se van lexicalizando tienden a escribirse con guión y suelen terminar
escribiéndose juntas, aunque el uso de los guiones es una cuestión muy
controvertida en inglés 37.
- Conversión: una misma palabra puede tener varias categorías

gramaticales (to face, a face).
- Cruce o fusión: composición mediante palabras mutiladas (brunch =

breakfast y lunch, sitcom = situation y comedy, etc.).
- Condensación: formas abreviadas que provienen de siglas,

acrónimos, abreviaturas, mutilaciones léxicas o parasíntesis. Las siglas
son abreviaciones formadas por una o varias letras iniciales de un
lexema o sintagma, y que presentan la particularidad de deletrearse al
ser pronunciadas (por ejemplo, UN, tv). Los acrónimos son una variedad
de siglas que están lexicalizadas y adaptadas por completo a las formas
36
.
37
En algunos casos se contemplan las tres posibilidades, como head master, head-master y
headmaster.
38

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canónicas de la lengua (por ejemplo, radar: radio detection and ranging).

Las abreviaturas son representaciones gráficas reducidas de una palabra
o unidad léxica y se basan en el principio de economía lingüística (por
ejemplo, atb por antibiotic, mx por mixture, etc.). Las mutilaciones léxicas
consisten en la reducción de una parte de la unidad léxica (por ejemplo,
demo por demonstration).
(2) Neología semántica
- El uso de metáforas: Una metáfora es un mecanismo conceptual

consistente en una proyección de un campo conceptual a otro; así, el
lenguaje sería una manifestación de nuestros modelos cognitivos. Una
metáfora frecuente en los lenguajes de especialidad es THINGS ARE
PERSONS 38 (personificación), como por ejemplo our results show that ...,
the data demonstrate the view that..., this hypothesis suggests that...
Mediante este recurso se da carácter animado a algo que es inanimado. -
- Los falsos amigos son términos cognados, es decir, palabras cuyos
significantes son similares por tener el mismo origen, pero cuyos
significados se han alejado en el desarrollo histórico (por ejemplo, realize,
actual, etc.)
A continuación destacamos algunos de los rasgos sintácticos más

sobresalientes del IPA, aunque es necesario recordar de nuevo que la división en
rasgos léxicos y sintácticos es artificial, ya que existen muchos fenómenos que
pertenecen a ambos ámbitos, como los compuestos nominales o las metáforas. Los
rasgos más sobresalientes son:
• El uso de la pasivización: por lo general al hablar de datos se

emplea la pasiva (por ejemplo, Between 1995 and 1996 twenty
patients were studied). Al eliminar el agente 39, se da mayor énfasis
al resultado de la acción, que es lo fundamental, dada la
universalidad de la mayoría de las ciencias 40.
38
Por convención, se representan las metáforas cognitivas (o simplemente, “metáforas”) en
mayúsculas.
39
Otro modo frecuente de expresar la acción en IFE sin expresar el agente es el uso de verbos
ergativos, que expresan un estado de cosas sin nombrar al agente (por ejemplo, The water boiled).
40
Se suelen citar como excepción las ciencias jurídicas.
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• La frecuencia de las estructuras oracionales sencillas, que

provienen de la tendencia a la claridad expositiva y de la búsqueda
de precisión conceptual. Esta característica tiene, sin embargo,
algunas excepciones, como la sintaxis del inglés jurídico, que
presenta un grado muy alto de subordinación. Las contrucciones
más corrientes en el inglés de especialidad son las paratácticas
(coordinación y yuxtaposición), que buscan “objetividad expresiva
y comprensiva de datos” (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 32), pero también
está presente la hipotaxis o subordinación: expresiones
condicionales o hipotéticas (siendo la partícula más frecuente if);
causales, que son recurrentes en el IPA (because, since, as a result
of, etc. 41); consecutivas (therefore, thus,); finales (in order to; so as
to); concesivas, que son muy frecuentes en todos los tipos de
discurso especializado (although, however, etc.) y restrictivas (as
far as I know; to the best of my knowledge, etc.).
• El empleo de oraciones de relativo reducidas (Sager et al. 1980:

223-224) mediante la omisión del pronombre relativo y sustitución
de la forma finita por una forma en –ing (Circuit functions requiring
thin film include D/A and A/D conversion), o la omisión de to be
cuando es el verbo principal (Thin film substrates have dissipation
properties much worse than the pure alumina of thick films).
• La presencia recurrente de sintagmas nominales muy largos. Es

difícil establecer la frontera entre los sintagmas nominales
extensos, que son unidades sintácticas, y las palabras
compuestas, que son unidades léxicas. En cualquier caso, estas
unidades logran máxima eficiencia comunicativa, precisión y
capacidad de síntesis, ya que en algunos casos son auténticos
discursos resumidos, como demuestra uno de los ejemplos, casi
inverosímiles, que cita Trimble (1985: 133-134): Split damper
inertially coupled passive gravity gradient satellite attitude control
system.
41
También los verbos pueden expresar causa y efecto, por ejemplo lead to, cause o result in, que
expresan causa, y arise from o result from, que expresan consecuencia.
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• La frecuencia de cláusulas no finitas (Sager et al. 1980: 212-218).

El infinitivo se usa como complemento de adjetivos, sustantivos y
verbos 42. El participio de pasado la mayoría de las ocasiones
aparece como adjetivo 43. También se da en posición de
posmodificación como núcleo de una cláusula no finita que en
realidad es una oración de relativo sin pronombre relativo y sin el
verbo to be 44, o se tematiza a la posición inicial, siendo en este
caso premodificador 45. Las formas en –ing presentan varias
posibilidades en la oración: (i) sustantivos (In these conditions,
flooding is impossible); (ii) tras preposiciones (This is illustrated by
considering iron-carbon mixtures); (iii) como adjetivos (Collisions are
the dominating process in heat transfer); (iv) como reducción de
una cláusula (Assuming the standard rate, we can ...); (v) para
expresar resultados (The main case can be withdrawn, leaving all
the gears exposed) y (vi) en cláusulas no finitas del tipo detached,
en las que el sujeto no aparece (Radioactive decay is a first order
process, the rate of decay depending only upon the number of
radioactive atoms).
• La nominalización es una transformación que reduce una oración

completa a un sustantivo. En inglés puede llevarse a cabo
fundamentalmente mediante una conversión de verbo a nombre
(to study – a study) o una derivación (-ism, -tion, -ure, etc). Su
finalidad es resumir un predicado verbal largo en un dustantivo,
que es una forma sintética (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 28).
Una vez estudiados los rasgos léxicos y sintácticos generales del IFE, veamos
cuáles son sus principales rasgos discursivos (oralidad), textuales (textos escritos) y
pragmáticos.
42
Por ejemplo: Roof systems are easy to suspend (...); This suffices to show (...).
43
Por ejemplo: The most widely discussed result (...).
44
Por ejemplo: The best timing for a particular engine is a matter determined by its makers by a series
of experiments.
45
Por ejemplo: Marketed under a different name, our product still has the same quality.
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1.3.3.2. Rasgos textuales y pragmáticos

Como ya hemos visto, la Lingüística de Texto, el Análisis del Discurso, la
Semiótica, la Pragmática o la Cortesía Verbal han tenido un gran impacto en la
didáctica del IPA.
El análisis del discurso se centra en el estudio de los rasgos característicos de la

comunicación oral en inglés propia de los lenguajes de especialidad. En cuanto a la
Semiótica, también investiga los géneros y el uso de material metatextual no verbal,
y la pragmática se ocupa de muchos rasgos del uso de los lenguajes de
especialidad, entre ellos la cortesía verbal, la relación emisor-receptor, la
intencionalidad de los textos, etc.
El abanico de competencias, por tanto, se amplía y reorganiza: competencia

lingüística (conocimiento del código lingüístico), competencia sociolingüística
(conocimiento de las variaciones lingüísticas según el uso y según el usuario, así
como de la cortesía verbal), competencia discursiva y textual (conocimiento de las
reglas de organización estructural del discurso y de los textos, así como de sus
variaciones genéricas y tipológicas), y competencia estratégica (conocimiento de los
mecanismos necesarios para resolver problemas provocados por algún fallo en la
comunicación), entre otras.
Condiciones de textualidad
Un aspecto esencial del estudio de los textos de especialidad es la manifestación

de los “principios reguladores de la comunicación textual” y de las “condiciones de
textualidad”, de lo que se ocupan fundamentalmente los estudios de IPA influidos
por la lingüística textual. Los principios reguladores son la eficiencia 46, la eficacia 47,
la adecuación 48 y la naturalidad 49 (Malmkjaer 1991: 469-471). Las condiciones de
textualidad son las siguientes:
46
“Efficiency depends on the text being used in communicating with minimum effort by the
participants” (Malmkjaer 1991: 469-470).
47
“Effectiveness depends on the text leaving a strong impression and creating favourable conditions
for attaining a goal” (Malmkjaer 1991: 470).
48
“Appropriateness is the agreement between the setting of a text and the ways in which the
standards of textuality are upheld” (Malmkjaer 1991: 470).
49
“Naturalness is Sinclair’s term for the concept of well-formedness of sentences in a text” (Malmkjaer
1991: 470).
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• Intencionalidad (intentionality). Es la finalidad o propósito del

hecho comunicativo. La intencionalidad se puede manifestar
mediante varios recursos que afectan al IFE (Alcaraz Varó 2000:
94), entre ellos la pasivización (que borra al agente), la
nominalización (que omite información oracional), la modalidad
(que indica la actitud del hablante), los adverbios de opinión, los
micromarcadores, los macromarcadores, etc.
• Aceptabilidad (acceptability). Es el grado de tolerancia hacia el

texto por parte del receptor, en diversos aspectos: contenido
informativo, género, etc. Para que un texto resulte aceptable, ha
de adecuarse a las convenciones de su género.
• Situacionalidad (situationality). Los textos han de adecuarse a una

situación comunicativa “marcada” (= especializada).
• Informatividad (informativity). El grado de informatividad de los

textos de especialidad queda reflejado en el grado de
especialización que muestre el texto (“campo”), y el tipo y género a
que pertenezca (“tipo textual” y “género”). También haría referencia
al conocimiento compartido, ya que un texto nace y se articula en
función de los conocimientos que se presuponen en el
destinatario 50.
• Intertextualidad (intertextuality). Este factor determina la validez

de un texto en función de su relación con textos ya conocidos (por
ejemplo, un artículo académico ha de adaptarse a ciertas
convenciones), y por tanto se centra en aspectos como el género.
• Coherencia (coherence). El desarrollo de la estructura lógica del

texto queda expresado en su grado de conformidad a un tipo
textual y género específicos. Conformaría, por consiguiente, la
“estabilidad conceptual” del texto (Alcaraz Varó 1998: 131 y 2000:
92). La coherencia se dirige hacia las relaciones conceptuales, por
lo que se centra en aspectos como la retórica de la definición, la
50
“A good author (...) will put into a text as much information as he thinks it necessary for the
receptors to understand what he is saying, but no more than what he considers necessary” (Roberts
1996: 42).
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clasificación, las instrucciones, la descripción o la causalidad y el

resultado (cf. Trimble 1985: 52-103).
• Cohesión (cohesion). Sería la “trabazón morfosintáctica del texto”

(Alcaraz Varó 1998: 131 y 2000: 92); constituiría por tanto la
manifestación lingüística de la coherencia en tanto organización
de los elementos lingüísticos que contribuyen a mantener ésta. Por
ejemplo, el análisis de la distribución de los párrafos y su relación
con la distribución de la información (“párrafos físicos” y “párrafos
conceptuales” de Trimble 1985), o la distribución de la
información a lo largo del texto así como la trabazón semántica
entre los distintos elementos de éste.
Alcaraz Varó (1990: 120 y sigs.) menciona una condición adicional, la

“completez”, que haría que el texto se conciba como una unidad íntegra completa y
terminada.
Género y tipo textual
Es obligado mencionar aquí los estudios de género y tipo textual. Para el

establecimiento de los géneros del mundo profesional y académico, según Alcaraz
Varó (2000: 133; cf. Swales 1990, Bhatia 1993) se puede acudir a una serie de
convenciones formales y estilísticas que han de compartir los textos pertenecientes
a una misma categoría textual:
(1) Una misma función comunicativa.
(2) Un esquema organizativo (macroestructura) similar.
(3) Una modalidad discursiva semejante y unas técnicas

discursivas equiparables.
(4) Un nivel léxico-sintáctico análogo, formado por unidades y

rasgos funcionales equivalentes.
(5) Unas convenciones socio-pragmáticas comunes (es decir, su

utilización por profesionales y académicos en contextos socio-
culturales similares).
Es tal la importancia de los géneros, que muchos cursos de ESP han pasado de
centrarse en la competencia lingüística a dedicarse a la enseñanza de los géneros
profesionales. (artículos académicos, de divulgación, etc.).
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Modalidad discursiva
Es de destacar también la modalidad discursiva en los textos de especialidad.

Cada tipo textual puede valerse de diversas modalidades discursivas (discourse
modality (Halliday 1978: 108), que son las distintas formas que puede adoptar el
discurso. Alcaraz Varó y Martínez Linares (1997: 354) distinguen tres modalidades:
el discurso descriptivo, el narrativo, y el dialógico o diálogo. La narración, por
ejemplo, caracteriza la acción y los acontecimientos; la descripción crea una imagen
mental por medio de una representación verbal, y el diálogo es el intercambio de
información entre interlocutores. Con posterioridad Alcaraz Varó (2000: 120-130)
aumenta estos tipos de tres a cinco: descriptivo, narrativo, expositivo (también
llamado informativo o explicativo), persuasivo y conversacional:
• El discurso descriptivo se sirve de sintagmas nominales largos; oraciones

en presente, presencia de vocabulario de índole descriptiva, etc.
• En el discurso narrativo los tiempos verbales más frecuentes son: simple

past, present perfect y simple present (con función de presente histórico).
El narrador más frecuente es el omnisciente.
• El discurso expositivo se sirve de diversos recursos (Alcaraz Varó 2000:

125):
- Las técnicas de identificación (búsqueda de expresiones de

correspondencia51, semejanza, equivalencia y equivalencia
subjetiva52), y de contraste (antonimia53, antítesis 54, oxímoron 55,
dicotomía 56).
- Las técnicas de inclusión o de pertenencia a una clase: mediante

clasificación; mediante ejemplificación; mediante escala57, y
51
Correspond to, match, be proportional to, etc.
52
Be considered, be regarded as, be thought of as, etc.
53
Better/worse; successful/useless, etc.
54
Manifiesta un contraste entre los términos de la comparación, que suelen ser incompatibles o
irreconciliables (Alcaraz Varó y Martínez Linares 1997: 416, cf. Freeborn 1996: 68).
55
El oxímoron contrasta dos términos marcadamente diferentes (por ejemplo, “dulce muerte”, Alcaraz
Varó y Martínez Linares 1997: 416; cf. Freeborn 1996: 66). Se diferenciaría de la antítesis en que el
oxímoron “se aplica al choque en un mismo sintagma de dos unidades léxicas” (Alcaraz Varó y
Martínez Linares 1997: 416).
56
Form/function, etc.
57
Range from...to, vary from...to, etc.
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mediante composición (inclusión del todo con la parte 58 o

implicación 59).
- Las técnicas de exclusión, manifestadas mediante expresiones

como missing, be devoid of, be excluded from, lack, etc.
- Las técnicas de análisis procedimental, que son

fundamentalmente tres: la expresión del origen (arise from, derive
from, etc.); la expresión de la causa y el efecto (be due to, be result
from, etc.) y la expresión del cambio (become, transform into, etc.).
• El discurso persuasivo intenta influir en la conducta o pensamiento del

receptor por medio del mensaje. Como ya hemos comentado
anteriormente, es un tipo de discurso al que no se ha prestado suficiente
atención en los lenguajes de especialidad, ya que se pensaba que no era
característico de ellos. La persuasión hace uso de todos los recursos,
verbales o no verbales, para convencer al receptor; sin embargo, en los
lenguajes de especialidad las convenciones genéricas limitan hasta cierto
punto esta explotación de recursos, limitándolos en la mayoría de los
casos a una expresión implícita de la persuasión (subjetividad en el
discurso, matizadores, connotaciones, etc.), con la excepción de
determinados discursos de especialidad, como el turístico.
Las modalidades más frecuentes en el IPA (dependiendo en gran medida del

género de que se trate) son el descriptivo, el expositivo, el persuasivo y el narrativo,
con muy poca incidencia del conversacional (con ciertas excepciones como por
ejemplo los folletos publicitarios o algunos textos periodísticos).
58
Be a portion of, be a piece of, etc.
59
Appear in, be characteristic of, etc.
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Macroestructura
Dentro de las investigaciones dedicadas al análisis textual y discursivo, cobra

especial importancia el estudio de la macroestructura de un texto. La
macroestructura puede ser primaria o secundaria. La primaria consiste en
secciones: por ejemplo, en un artículo académico, las secciones o partes suelen ser
el título, las palabras clave, el abstract, la introducción, el método, los resultados, la
discusión, la conclusión y las referencias o bibliografía. La estructura secundaria
está compuesta por movimientos o moves, término tomado de las ciencias
musicales y que consisten en “segmentos textuales formados por un haz de rasgos
lingüísticos que confieren a dicho segmento una orientación uniforme” (Nwogu
1991: 114, cit. en Alcaraz Varó 2000: 135). Estos movimientos pueden o no
coincidir con los párrafos (recordemos los “párrafos físicos” y los “párrafos
conceptuales” de Trimble 1985).
Tópico y tematización
Esencial también para la comprensión de los textos escritos y orales del IPA es el
dominio del tópico. El tópico es “la unidad sintáctico-semántica (...) sobre la que se
da o se pide nueva información” (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 96). La localización del tópico o
tema discursivo es crucial para la interpretación de los textos, para lo cual es
necesario dominar con soltura las técnicas de topicalización, como la isotopía 60, los
macromarcadores y micromarcadores, etc.
Otro aspecto destacado es la tematización. Cuando se tematiza, mediante ciertas

técnicas (fundamentalmente la entonación, el uso de pasivas, las oraciones
truncadas 61 o la inversión sintáctica 62) se pasan a la posición inicial del enunciado
elementos lingüísticos que no suelen encontrarse allí, por lo cual se convierten en
elementos "marcados" 63.
60
Repetición de un mismo sema o rasgo semántico en las unidades léxicas del discurso (por ejemplo,
universe, world, global, etc.).
61
También denominada "discontinuidad sintáctica", por ejemplo: "A secure tenant has the right –
- if the dwelling-house is a house, to acquire the freehold of the dwelling-house;
- if the dwelling-house is a flat, to be granted a long lease of the dwelling-house"
62
Por ejemplo, "Had she known about it, she wouldn’t have gone" ("If she had known about it, she
wouldn't have gone").
63
In linguistics, markedness refers to the way words are changed or added to give a special meaning.
The unmarked choice is just the normal meaning.
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Modalidad
Los modofóricos 64 nos indican la actitud del emisor de un texto/enunciado

respecto de lo que emite (cf. Vilarnovo y Sánchez 1992) con relación a la verdad
(modalidad epistémica), la obligación (modalidad deóntica), el permiso (la modalidad
bulética) y la conveniencia (modalidad alética). El análisis de la modalidad en el IPA
es de una importancia capital, ya que permite al receptor de un texto o discurso
detectar el sesgo del mensaje (por ejemplo, si un arquitecto está sugiriendo que una
técnica no es adecuada, aunque en ningún momento lo diga de forma explícita). El
artículo de divulgación, por ejemplo, es más taxativo que el de investigación
(Martínez Linares 2007: 19; cf. Alcaraz Varó 2000: 144) por lo que concierne a la
modalidad. Entre los modofóricos destacan los matizadores discursivos 65 o hedges
(“frases mitigadoras” según Hyland 1998), los adverbios y los verbos modales. Entre
los modofóricos léxicos podemos citar los marcadores de distancia (por ejemplo, I
heard you say...), los adverbios de opinión (evidently, frankly, etc.), las partículas
modalizadoras (sort of, really, quite, etc.), y los matizadores (as far as I know...,
etc.). Algunos modofóricos oracionales son los topicalizadores (the thing is..., etc.),
las claúsulas de actitud (I think that...; I suppose that..., etc.) y los conectores
(however, although, etc.).
Cortesía verbal
La cortesía verbal o linguistic politeness se podría definir como un fenómeno

pragmático orientado a favorecer las relaciones sociales entre los interlocutores y
que está integrado por un conjunto de estrategias verbales, de entre las cuales los
hablantes “eligen” las más adecuadas a la situación comunicativa y al acto de habla
en cuestión (Alcaraz Varó 2000). El conocimiento de la cortesía verbal es
fundamental para lograr una máxima eficacia comunicativa mediante el dominio de
las estrategias comunicativas aplicables a cada situación específica (una comida de
trabajo, una reunión, un debate oral tras una conferencia, etc.) y ser consciente de
los objetivos específicos de la comunicación, así como de los medios para lograrlos.
En palabras de Yus Ramos (2007: 84):
64
“Elementos lingüísticos que informan u orientan sobre la actitud del emisor en un enunciado”
(Alcaraz Varó 2000: 144).
65
Serían “cualquier medio lingüístico para indicar o bien una ausencia de compromiso con la verdad
de la proposición a la que acompañan, o un deseo de no expresar dicho compromiso de forma
categórica” (Hyland 1998, cit. en Yus Ramos 2007: 85).
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En la mayoría de los contextos comunicativos, como las negociaciones

entre empresarios, o las disputas legales, los juicios, las entrevistas, etc.,
es muy importante prestar una atención especial a los requisitos de la
cortesía para poder obtener los fines conversacionales pretendidos.
Paralingüística, kinésica y proxémica
Igualmente fundamentales son la paralingüística66, la proxémica y la kinésica 67.

Aquí se da también un importante anisomorfismo cultural: la cultura anglosajona
en sus intercambios comunicativos prefiere mantener una cierta distancia física
con el interlocutor, distancia que considera parte de su propia individualidad.
Cuando un interlocutor procedente de otra cultura “viola” ese espacio
transpasándolo y acercándose más de lo debido, el “agredido” interpreta ese acto
como una intromisión en su privacidad. Esta es una diferencia típica entre la
cultura mediterránea y la anglosajona: los latinos se tocan, guardan mucha
proximidad en los intercambios comunicativos y hablan alto; los anglosajones
habitualmente no se tocan, guardan las distancias y hablan en un tono más
moderado. De hecho, Tannen (1986) afirma que los nórdicos piensan que los latinos
están siempre enfadados porque hablan muy alto, y a los latinos les da la impresión
de que los nórdicos son fríos y distantes.
El conocimiento de todos estos aspectos tan sutiles es fundamental para la

consecución del éxito comunicativo en los intercambios profesionales.
1.4. CONCLUSIÓN
A lo largo de este capítulo hemos analizado la naturaleza y rasgos de los

lenguajes de especialidad y de los textos especializados. Hemos visto que la
naturaleza de los lenguajes de especialidad es mucho más compleja de lo que creía
la estilística tradicional, y hemos estudiado también los nuevos campos de
investigación que han surgido de los nuevos enfoques.
66
Para Lyons (1977/1993: 64, cf. Richards et al. 1985: 206) a su vez incluiría “non-prosodic verbal
phenomena (variations of pitch, loudness, duration, etc.)” y “non-vocal phenomena (eye-movements,
head-nods, facial expressions, gestures, body-posture, etc.)”. Alcaraz y Martínez (1997: 114), sin
embargo, separan estos factores en: “paralingüística (carraspeo, modulaciones de la voz, etc), y
kinésica (movimientos faciales, dirección de la mirada, etc.)”. Para Crystal (1985: 171), la kinésica
incluiría los gestos corporales y la proxémica (espacio, posición o distancia que, conscientemente, los
interlocutores guardan entre sí).
67
O “cinésica”, (cf. Alcaraz y Martínez, 1997: 111, 315 y 473).
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Es fundamental recordar, por tanto, que no se pueden aceptar como premisas

ciertas las afirmaciones intuitivas sobre los rasgos característicos del inglés
especializado, pues estas han de estar basadas en estudios de textos reales.
1.5. LISTADO DE TÉRMINOS FUNDAMENTALES
En este apartado incluimos un listado de alguna de la terminología más

importante de este tema. Recuerde que no se incluye toda, sino sólo una selección.
TERMINOLOGÍA FUNDAMENTAL
- Lengua internacional
- Término
- Palabra
- Inglés Profesional y Académico (IPA) o English for Specific Purposes
(ESP)
- Lenguaje de especialidad o Language for Special/Specific purposes”
(LSP)
- Lengua general
- Variación lingüística
- Variación lingüística según el uso
- Variación lingüística según el usuario
- Función textual
- Género
- Tipo textual
- Textos argumentativos
- Textos impositivos
- Textos fáticos
- Textos estéticos
- Textos híbridos
- Lenguaje artificial
- Nominalización
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- Univocidad
- Denotación
- Formas verbales no personales
- Mecanismos referenciales metatextuales
- Tema
- Rema
- Tópico
- Tematización
- Modofóricos
- Cortesía Verbal
- Paralingüística
- Proxémica
- Kinésica
1.6. CUESTIONES FUNDAMENTALES
En este apartado incluimos un listado de las principales cuestiones que deben

saber responder los alumnos tras haber estudiado este tema. Recuerde que no se
incluyen todas las cuestiones, sino sólo una selección.
CUESTIONES FUNDAMENTALES
Apartado La naturaleza de los lenguajes de especialidad
Los lenguajes de 1) ¿Cómo influyó el paradigma funcionalista en el
Especialidad desarrollo del ESP?
2) ¿Qué es una lengua internacional y cuál es hoy en
día?
3) ¿Cuál es la definición de “lenguaje de especialidad
según Alcaraz Varó?
4) ¿Qué términos conoce en inglés y en español que
funcionen como sinónimos de LSP/Lenguaje de
especialidad?
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5) ¿Qué definición da Sager de “lengua general”?

6) ¿En qué tipo de situaciones comunicativas se usa la
lengua general? Explique su respuesta.
7) ¿Por qué principios está determinado el lenguaje
especializado?
8) Explique la siguiente definición de Sager et al. (1980:
68 y sigs.): “el lenguaje de especialidad es un sistema
semiótico complejo, semiautónomo y basado en el
lenguaje general”.
9) Explique lo que es la variación lingüística y explique
la variación lingüística según el uso.
10) ¿Respecto a qué aspectos es restrictiva la
naturaleza de los lenguajes de especialidad? Enumere
y explique.
11) Indique y explique la variación horizontal y
vertical en función de las cuales se pueden describir
los lenguajes de especialidad según Teresa Cabré.
12) ¿Qué significa una situación comunicativa
“marcada”?
13) Explique los tipos de relaciones posibles entre
la lengua general y las lenguas de especialidad.
14) ¿Es posible definir los lenguajes de
especialidad en términos exclusivamente lingüísticos?
Justifique su respuesta.
15) Un lenguaje de especialidad según la teoría
tradicional es un subconjunto del lenguaje general
caracterizado pragmáticamente por tres variables.
Indíquelas y explíquelas.
16) Según Teresa Cabré, un lenguaje de
especialidad sería un subconjunto del lenguaje
general caracterizado por tres tipos de condiciones.
¿Cuáles son? Explíquelas.
17) ¿Qué significa que “la relación entre la
temática y el discurso especializado es probabilística
pero no automática (Cabré Castellví 2005: 195-196)?
18) ¿Por qué, según Teresa Cabré, no se puede
afirmar que sea la temática el factor que determina la
especialidad del discurso?
Términos y palabras
1) ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre término y palabra?
2) Explique las consecuencias de las tres principales
posibilidades de trasvase de elementos léxicos: LESP
52

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 LG, LG  LESP y LESP1  LESP2.
Los textos especializados: función, género y tipo textual

1) ¿Cuáles son las funciones lingüísticas de los textos
especializados?
2) Explique la diferencia entre el propósito de un texto y
la función de éste.
3) Explique los distintos tipos de funciones textuales.
4) ¿Qué son los “textos híbridos”?
5) Describa los rasgos de los textos especializados, no
especializados y “de transición”.
6) ¿Cuáles son las funciones textuales principales de los
textos especializados?
Rasgos generales de los lenguajes de especialidad

1) ¿Qué tres tipos de léxico hay en los lenguajes de
especialidad? Explíquelos.
2) ¿Qué diferencia hay entre los términos técnicos y los
términos subtécnicos o semitécnicos?
3) ¿Qué problemas plantea la flexión de los términos
especializados?
4) ¿En qué casos se emplea el recurso de la
nominalización en los lenguajes de especialidad?
5) Indique fórmulas textuales de expresión de
neutralidad.
53

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Apartado La naturaleza del IPA

El Inglés 1) ¿Qué dos significados fundamentales tiene el
Profesional y término “English for Specific Purposes?
Académico (IPA)
2) ¿Cuáles son las dos grandes divisiones del Inglés
Profesional y Académico?
La estilística del IPA

1) ¿De qué mecanismos lingüísticos se sirven los
lenguajes de especialidad para aportar
impersonalidad a los textos?
2) Explique la diferencia entre la fase prescriptiva y la
descriptiva en la investigación sobre Inglés
Profesional y Académico.
3) Enumere las principales afirmaciones prescriptivas
sobre el IPA.
4) ¿Cuáles son los principales paradigmas que han
influido en el IPA y qué contribución ha hecho cada
uno de ellos?
5) ¿Cuáles son los principios comúnmente aceptados
hoy en día sobre el IPA?
Rasgos distintivos del IPA

1) ¿Cuáles son los rasgos léxico-sintácticos
fundamentales del IPA?
2) Explique la neología léxica y la neología semántica.
3) Explique las condiciones de textualidad.
4) ¿Qué convenciones formales y estilísticas que han de
compartir los textos pertenecientes a una misma
categoría textual?
5) Explique la modalidad discursiva en el IPA.
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ACADÉMICO I
Tema 1:
Specialised texts in English
CUADERNILLO DE
EJERCICIOS

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EJERCICIO 1
1. Vaya al siguiente enlace:

http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Fam/2008/401.html
McCartney v McCartney [2008] EWHC 401 (Fam) (17 March 2008)
2. Lea los párrafos 1 a 47, inclusive.
3. Indique:
• El tipo de emisor y receptor de este texto y la situación
comunicativa en que se emite.
• De qué modo se trata la temática (divulgación, enseñanza, discurso

especializado…).
• Tres rasgos morfosintácticos típicos del inglés especializado que

aparezcan con frecuencia en el texto. Ponga ejemplos del texto.
Para responder a la pregunta, utilice el siguiente apoyo teórico:
Los lenguajes de especialidad se caracterizan por tres tipos de condiciones:
- Pragmáticas: usuarios (interlocutores) y situación socio-comunicativa
- Temáticas: modo de conceptualización y tratamiento que recibe el tema.
- Lingüísticas: rasgos morfosintácticos y textuales.
4. El vocabulario de los textos de especialidad en general puede

ser de tres tipos:

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
• Términos específicos (TE), que se usan sólo en un dominio de

conocimiento, con un significado altamente concreto y un único
referente conceptual.
• Términos no específicos (TNE) de una única disciplina, que son

comunes a varios campos del saber.
• Vocabulario general (VG): palabras de la lengua general que no

pertenecen a ninguna disciplina científica.
De las siguientes palabras del texto, indique cuáles cree que pertenecerían a
una clase u otra:
Término Término no Vocabulario

específico específico general
Respondent
Petitioner
Solicitor
Advocate
Attorney
Hearing
QC
Court
(order for) costs
Mortgage
Chattels
Decree nisi
Divorce
Evidence
Judgment
Case
Witness
Affidavit
Assets
Earnings
Property

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Cross-examination
Income
Compensation
(Bank) statement
(Family) division
5. Indique un término técnico (distinto de los que consten en el

ejercicio anterior) y un término subtécnico del texto, y explique
su significado.
Para responder a la pregunta, utilice el siguiente apoyo teórico:
Los términos (no palabras) de los lenguajes de especialidad pueden ser de dos
tipos:
• Términos especializados o “técnicos”, que son “unidades léxicas (...)

cuyos significados están definidos de forma unívoca dentro de una
teoría” (Cabré Castellví 1993).
• Términos sub-técnicos (“semitécnicos” según Alcaraz Varó 2000:

43), que son unidades léxicas del lenguaje común que han adquirido
uno o varios nuevos significados dentro de un campo del saber.
6. Los textos especializados pueden ser de varios tipos. Indique a

qué tipo cree que pertenece el texto que ha leído, sirviéndose del
siguiente apoyo teórico y justificando su respuesta:
(i) Texto general o no especializado: se da en una interacción social no marcada,

por lo que no se relaciona con un campo profesional concreto.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
(ii) Texto especializado: sería “the kind of language use associated with highly
specialized communication in a wide variety of subject areas” (Asher & Simpson
1994: 2010). Se dividiría en:
a) Lenguaje académico, propio de la comunicación establecida entre un

profesional y una institución o persona relacionada con su profesión que se
considera de prestigio. El grado de conocimiento compartido con el
destinatario es máximo.
b) Lenguaje profesional. El emisor es un experto, y el receptor otro experto o

futuro experto; es por tanto el que usan profesionales de un mismo campo o
de campos afines para comunicarse entre sí. Se da un grado alto de
conocimiento compartido, aunque no es tan especializado como el académico.
A su vez, puede ser:
- biunívoco, típico de la comunicación entre expertos, por lo que el

emisor y el receptor presentan una equiparación de especificidad
discursiva. Se denomina “biunívoco” porque la especificidad
discursiva circula en ambos sentidos. Teresa Cabré denimona a esta
variante “”comunicación entre especialistas” (expert-expert
communication). Tiende a usarse un vocabulario altamente
especializado y los términos se usan de forma precisa. No suelen
encontrarse explicaciones de los términos, a no ser que el especialista
esté redefiniendo un concepto existente o acuñando un término
nuevo.
- unívoco, o texto didáctico, propio de la comunicación entre un

profesional y un estudiante (o “aprendiz” según Cabré Castellví
1993). Dado su carácter pedagógico, se hace un uso alterno de
términos especializados y de términos de divulgación y/o sinónimos
funcionales (“cuasisinónimos”), y se da una mayor presencia de
definiciones, clasificaciones y categorizaciones. En ocasiones se
acerca al discurso de divulgación, pero no se da el mismo grado de
conocimiento compartido; por ende, en este caso la situación
comunicativa es especializada.
(iii) Texto divulgativo (o de transición): típico de una situación comunicativa en la que el

emisor es un experto, semi-experto (por ejemplo, un estudiante) o pseudo-experto (una
persona que se documenta puntualmente en un tema) y el receptor un público general, lego

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
o no especializado. Puesto que no se presupone ningún conocimiento especializado por parte

de los lectores, la densidad de términos especializados suele ser bastante baja y, cuando se
usan, se indica su significado de forma genérica por lo que se peca de imprecisión. Se
generaliza, se utiliza la sinonimia funcional, y se clasifica de forma sencilla y clara. El grado
de conocimiento compartido entre emisor y receptor es mínimo.
7. Indique a cuál de los siguientes tipos cree que pertenece este

texto, justificando su respuesta:
• Textos mediativos: Pueden ser de dos tipos:
- Argumentativos: predomina la persuasión sobre la

información. Su propósito es persuadir al receptor
influyendo en él, y valiéndose para ello de todas las
estrategias que se consideren efectivas. Ejemplo: un
anuncio publicitario.
- Impositivos: imponen al receptor la tesis del emisor, ya

que influyen en su comportamiento y/o ideología de forma
directa, con o sin razonamiento previo. Ejemplo: las leyes.
• Textos expresivos: su propósito es deleitar al receptor. Ejemplos:

literatura, un poema, etc.
• Textos informativos: su propósito es informar mediante la

transmisión de información de forma relativamente neutral. Ejemplo:
un informe de auditoría.
• Textos fáticos: su propósito es mantener la comunicación.

Ejemplo: saludos, interjecciones.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
8. Indique cinco nominalizaciones del texto.
9. Indique ejemplos de mecanismos lingüísticos de

impersonalización en el texto.
Ejemplos: pasivas, sujetos inanimados, uso de la segunda y tercera persona del
plural, uso de estructuras como there + be (there’s a lot to do), etc.
10. Indique un ejemplo de subordinación en el texto y un

ejemplo de oración larga. ¿Se trata de un texto en el que abunde
la subordinación?
11. Indique dos ejemplos de formas verbales no personales en el

texto.
12. Indique cinco ejemplos de elementos léxicos de origen greco-

latino.
13. Indique tres ejemplos de compuestos nominales (palabras

compuestas o noun compounds) e indique cuál sería su back-
formation.
14. Indique el género al que intuitivamente cree que pertenece

este texto.
15. Indique las modalidades discursivas que observa en este

texto, poniendo ejemplos y sirviéndose del siguiente apoyo
teórico sobre tipos de modalidades discursivas:

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
• El discurso descriptivo se sirve de sintagmas nominales largos;

oraciones en presente, presencia de vocabulario de índole descriptiva,
etc.
• En el discurso narrativo los tiempos verbales más frecuentes son:

simple past, present perfect y simple present (con función de
presente histórico). El narrador más frecuente es el omnisciente.
• El discurso expositivo se sirve de diversos recursos:
- Las técnicas de identificación: expresiones de

correspondencia, semejanza, equivalencia y equivalencia
subjetiva, y de contraste (antonimia, antítesis, oxímoron,
dicotomía).
- Las técnicas de inclusión o de pertenencia a una clase:

mediante clasificación; mediante ejemplificación; mediante
escala, y mediante composición (inclusión del todo con la parte
o implicación).
- Las técnicas de exclusión, manifestadas mediante expresiones

como missing, be devoid of, be excluded from, lack, etc.
- Las técnicas de análisis procedimental, que son

fundamentalmente tres: la expresión del origen (arise from,
derive from, etc.); la expresión de la causa y el efecto (be due
to, be result from, etc.) y la expresión del cambio (become,
transform into, etc.).
• El discurso persuasivo intenta influir en la conducta o pensamiento

del receptor por medio del mensaje: subjetividad, matizadores,
connotaciones, etc.).

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
16. En el siguiente fragmento, algunos términos están marcados

en rojo. Indique la forma correcta que se le pide entre corchetes:
Ejemplo:
This final hearing concerns [NOUN: CONCERN] the application by Ms Heather

Mills/Lady McCartney ("the wife") for financial provision [VERB: PROVIDE]
against Sir Paul McCartney ("the husband").
Mr Justice Bennett:
1. This final hearing concerns the application by Ms Heather Mills/Lady

McCartney ("the wife") for financial provision against Sir Paul McCartney ("the
husband").
2. The hearing [VERB:_________] took place over six days between 11 and 18
February 2008. The wife represented [NOUN:_________] herself assisted
[NOUN:_________], with my permission [VERB:_________], by three
Mckenzie Friends, namely her sister, Fiona Mills, Mr David Rosen, a solicitor-
advocate, and Mr Michael Shilub, an American attorney. The husband was
represented [NOUN:_________] by Mr Nicholas Mostyn QC and Mr Timothy
Bishop, instructed [NOUN:_________] by Payne Hicks Beach.
3. The battle lines are set out in the open [ADVERB:_________] offer made by
each party prior to the start of the final hearing. In her letter of 31 January
2008 the wife computes [NOUN:_________] her reasonable
[VERB:_________] needs for herself and Beatrice at £3,250,000 p.a. which
amounts on a Duxbury capitalised basis [NOUN:_________] to £99,480,000.
She seeks a property adjustment order [VERB:_________] in respect of a
property in Beverley Hills called "Heather House" and of a property in New
York State, 11 Pintail. She seeks between £8m and £12.5m for a home in
London, £3m to purchase a property in New York, £500,000 to £750,000 to
purchase [NOUN:_________] an office in Brighton, a transfer to her of a
mortgage in favour of the husband over her sister's (Fiona) Hove property,
transfer of property order re a Southampton property owned
[NOUN:_________] by the husband in which Sonya Mills lives, and relief

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
[VERB:_________] in respect of chattels. Further, the wife asks the court "to
place a significant [NOUN:_________] monetary value on compensation
[VERB:_________] for loss [VERB:_________] of earnings
[VERB:_________], contribution and conduct". She would retain her own
properties at Pean's Wood in Robertsbridge, Sussex and at Angel's Rest in Hove.
Overall her claim [VERB:_________] amounts to about £125m. She also
seeks an order for costs.
4. By letter of 6 February 2008 Messrs Payne Hicks Beach set out the husband's
position. Overall the wife should exit the proceedings [VERB:_________]
with total assets of £15m (after a deduction [VERB:_________] for conduct)
made up as follows. Sonya Mills' home and the mortgage on Fiona's home
should be transferred to the wife at a combined [NOUN:_________] value of
£683,000; Angel's Rest (which has now been valued at £2m); the net value of
Pean's Wood; the value of funds that either the wife has or should have; and a
balancing lump sum provided [NOUN:_________] certain art is returned to
the husband. Further, the husband would meet the reasonable cost
[VERB:_________] of security for the wife and for their child, Beatrice, for 2
years not exceeding £150,000 p.a. For Beatrice, the husband would pay
periodical [NOUN:_________] payments at £35,000 p.a. and for a nanny not
to exceed [ADJECTIVE:_________] £25,000 p.a. Both these figures would be
index-linked. The periodical payments would continue until Beatrice is 17 years
old or completes secondary education, whichever is the later. Further, he will
discharge [NOUN:_________] the school fees, uniform and reasonable extras,
and health [ADJECTIVE:_________] insurance premiums. Proposals were
made as to chattels. There would be no order as to costs.
5. Both parties made it clear that each wants a clean break both under the
Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 (as amended) and under the Inheritance
[VERB:_________] (Provision for Family and Defendants) Act 1975.
6. The barest outline of the background would be that the wife and the husband
met in the spring of 1999, became engaged [NOUN:_________] on 22 July
2001, married [NOUN:_________] on 11 June 2002, separated
[NOUN:_________] on 29 April 2006 and ever since have been engaged in
10

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
protracted matrimonial litigation [VERB:_________]. They have one child,

Beatrice born on 28 October 2003 who is therefore now 4 years old.
7. No decree nisi has yet been pronounced [NOUN:_________], for the

following reasons. On 17 July 2006 the husband filed a petition for divorce on
the grounds of the wife's unreasonable behaviour [VERB:_________]. On 13
October 2006 the wife filed an Answer denying [NOUN:_________] the
husband's allegation [VERB:_________] of unreasonable behaviour and
cross-praying for divorce on the grounds of the husband's unreasonable
behaviour. On 28 February 2007 the suit [VERB:_________], the ancillary
relief proceedings and an application [VERB:_________] by the wife for
maintenance [VERB:_________] pending suit came before me. I shall return
to this hearing later in the judgment [VERB:_________]. Suffice it to say for
the moment that at my prompting the parties agreed to stay their divorce
proceedings and on or after 1 May 2008, by which time would have been
separated for 2 years, to one party presenting a fresh petition for divorce based
on the 2 years separation and to the other consenting [NOUN:_________] to
a divorce. So, at a hearing arranged for 12 May I hope to be able to pronounce a
decree nisi of divorce [VERB:_________].
17. Convierta las siguientes oraciones de pasiva a activa:
W's claim should be determined by reference to the principle of need alone.
We should ____________________________________________
The wife's case cannot be so succinctly summarised.
I cannot ______________________________________________
This is denied by the husband
The husband ___________________________________________
11

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His conduct should be reflected in the award.
The award _____________________________________________
18. Convierta las siguientes oraciones de activa a pasiva:
She thus seeks compensation for the loss of her career opportunity.
Compensation ________________________________________
I shall have to determine certain matters of fact.
Certain matters _______________________________________
I shall also have to examine the relevant and important documents.
The relevant _________________________________________
She has conducted her own case before me with a steely, yet courteous,
determination.
Her own case _________________________________________
19. Explique en sus propias palabras el significado del siguiente

párrafo:
The husband's evidence was, in my judgment, balanced. He expressed himself
moderately though at times with justifiable irritation, if not anger. He was
consistent, accurate and honest.
12

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20. Convierta las siguientes oraciones a estilo indirecto:

The Wife says: ‘My husband’s attitude towards my career was one of
constriction’.
The Wife _________________________________________
The Wife asserted: ‘His assets are worth in excess of £800m and I am entitled
to share in the marital acquest’
The Wife _________________________________________
The Judge thinks: ‘He is, and has been for many years, a world famous musician,
composer and singer.’
The Judge ____________________________________________
Ms Heather Mills/Lady McCartney stated: ‘In early 1993 my trips to Croatia

became less and less frequent, as my modelling career in the UK began to take
off’.
Ms Heather Mills/Lady McCartney ____________________________
Mr. Mostyn QC submitted: ‘(…) fundamentally this is a straightforward case.’
Mr. Mostyn QC _________________________________________
Further, the wife asks the court: ‘Place a significant monetary value on
compensation’
Further, the Wife _______________________________________
The Wife said: ‘I believe I was earning at that time in the region of £200,000
per annum.’
The Wife ____________________________________________
13

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The Wife stated: ‘As mentioned previously, before I met Paul, I was speaking all
over Europe and was considered one of the top ten female public speakers in
Europe.’
The Wife ____________________________________________
20. Busque en un diccionario de sinónimos las palabras

subrayadas y proponga un sinónimo más coloquial:
• She seeks a property adjustment order in respect of a property in
Beverley Hills called "Heather House" and of a property in New York
State, 11 Pintail.
• The battle lines are set out in the open offer made by each party prior
to the start of the final hearing.
• She would retain her own properties at Pean's Wood in Robertsbridge,

Sussex and at Angel's Rest in Hove.
• She thus seeks compensation for the loss of her career opportunity in
that during their cohabitation and subsequent marriage she forewent a
lucrative and successful career.
• Finally, she asserts that throughout their marriage and after their
separation the husband behaved in such a way that it would be
inequitable to disregard and that his conduct should be reflected in the
award.
• But the tax returns do not disclose any bank interest earned or only
very small sums which are not consistent with holding £2m-£3m in a
bank or banks.
• Even allowing for some depletion in the bank balances over an 18

month period from mid 1999 to early 2001, if she was as wealthy as she
made out there would have been no need for this loan or for a loan of
such magnitude.
14

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21. Indique los fragmentos del texto en los que parece que el juez
está haciendo “juicios de valor”, es decir, expresa su opinión
personal sobre alguna de las partes. Indique cómo sabe que el
juez está expresando su opinión.
15

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EJERCICIO 2
1. Lea el siguiente texto, que procede del New York Times.
THE NEW YORK TIMES

Lourdes Segade/Bloomberg News
Updated: Sept. 19, 2012

In Spain, after two decades of dizzying growth, the party is over.
For most of the last decade, Spain kept its fiscal house in strict order, running small deficits or
even surpluses. The country enjoyed a long boom after joining the euro zone, as low interest
rates fueled a surge in construction. The boom, while it lasted, gave Spain the world’s highest
rate of homeownership — with more than 8 of every 10 Spanish households owning the places
they lived.
But it came to an end with the 2008 financial crisis, and the resulting recession sent Spain’s
unemployment rate soaring. Spain has also seen its deficits swell and has been forced to pay
high interest rates as investors worried about its solvency. Given the size of the Spanish
economy and the weakness of its banks, Spain has become the biggest worry facing the
European Union.
Since 2010, Spain has pushed through a series of austerity measures meant to rein in its deficit.
Unhappiness over the economy brought down the center-left government of José Luis
Rodríguez Zapatero, and in November 2011, the conservative Popular Party, led by Mariano
Rajoy, won a parliamentary majority in new elections.
Mr. Rajoy had the benefit of a freshly elected, single-party majority behind him, which his
counterparts in Greece and Italy have lacked. But the country slid into its second recession,
sending deficits and unemployment ever higher, forcing Mr. Rajoy to admit that his
government would miss its deficit reduction targets.
In April 2012, Spain’s unemployment rate reached 24.4 percent, the highest in Europe and an
especially stark figure given that the government had not yet begun to lay off public sector
servants in any significant number.
In May, Bankia, the nation’s largest real estate lender, requested an additional 19 billion euros
in rescue funds from the country, far beyond initial government estimates. In June, (…) Spain
agreed to accept a bailout of up to $125 billion for its troubled banks. Fiscal woes in its largely
autonomous regions have also added to the debt burden and uncertainty facing the central
government, even as they have strengthened separatist groups.
In September, the European Central Bank pledged to buy unlimited amounts of bonds to
lower interest rates for countries like Spain and Italy, who were being pushed toward the fiscal
edge by the markets. Yet Mr. Rajoy, like his Italian counterpart, appeared hesitant to take the
bank up on its offer, fearing a political backlash if the aid came with even tougher fiscal strings
attached.
The Problem of Regional Debt

In January 2012, in an attempt to solve the problem of regional debt, Spain’s central
government moved to shore up the finances of its 17 regional governments — some of which
16

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were having trouble paying their bills — while taking steps to tighten control over their
spending.
Budget Minister Cristóbal Montoro said that the government would create a credit line and
advance about $10 billion to the regions, money they were not scheduled to get until later in
the year.
The regions needed the cash to pay suppliers, many of them small businesses that had not
been paid in months, even years. But at the same time, Mr. Montoro said that Madrid would
also seek new legislation to set penalties for regions that failed to comply with strict budget
targets.
In August 2012, the most economically important region of Spain, Catalonia, asked the
national government for more than €5 billion in emergency financing. The request by
Catalonia followed rescue pleas by the Valencia and Murcia regions. Both said in July that they
would need help from the €18 billion, or $23 billion, fund set up by the Spanish government.
While Catalonia, the home of Barcelona, has traditionally been among Spain’s most
prosperous and industrial regions — accounting for almost a fifth of the country’s economic
output — it had accumulated debt of €42 billion, the highest among Spanish regions. In
addition, Catalonia had suffered credit rating downgrades and had been shut out of the debt
markets.
Spain’s system of autonomous regions was developed in the aftermath of the dictatorship of
Francisco Franco. After years of repression, regions pressed successfully for as much freedom
as possible.
They are generally in charge of administering schools, universities, health and social services,
culture, development and, in some cases, policing. And the central government has had little
ability to interfere.
But in recent years, the regions have been faced with some intractable problems. Education
and health care have been particularly problematic, because those costs have been growing. At
the same time, some main sources of financing — taxes on real estate sales and building
permit fees — have dried up with the collapse of the housing boom.
The Jobless Increasingly Rely on Family

As the effects of years of recession pile up, more and more Spanish families — with
unemployment checks running out and stuck with mortgages they cannot pay — are leaning
hard on their elderly relatives. And there is little relief in sight — employment statistics
released in late July 2012 showed that the jobless rate had risen to a record 25 percent.
Pensions for the elderly are among the few benefits that have not been slashed, though they
have been frozen since 2011. The Spanish are known for their strong family networks, and
most grandparents are eager to help, unwilling to admit to outsiders what is going on, experts
say. But those who work with older people say it has not been easy. Many struggle to feed three
generations now, their homes overcrowded and the tensions of the situation sometimes
turning their lives to misery.
In some cases, families are removing their relatives from nursing homes so they can collect
their pensions. It is a trend that has advocates concerned about whether the younger
generations are going too far, even if grandparents agree to the move or are too infirm to
notice.
A 2012 survey by Simple Lógica, Gallup’s partner in Spain, found a sharp increase in the
number of older people supporting family members. In a telephone survey conducted in
February 2010, 15 percent of adults 65 and older said they supported at least one younger
relative. In the survey conducted 2012, that number had risen to 40 percent. Data compiled by
17

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
an association of private nursing homes, inforesidencias.com, found that in 2009, 76 percent

of its member homes said they had vacancies. In 2011, 98 percent of them did.
Such numbers, experts say, reflect growing desperation in Spain, which has the highest
unemployment rate in the euro zone. According to recent government figures, about 1 in 10
households now has no working adults.
Some experts say they believe that retired people, sharing their pensions and dipping into
their savings, have been the silent heroes of the economic crisis, and that without them Spain
would be seeing far more social unrest.
Accepting a European Bailout for Ailing Banks

On June 9, 2012, responding to increasingly urgent calls from across Europe and the United
States, Spain agreed to accept a bailout for its cash-starved banks as European finance
ministers offered an aid package of up to $125 billion. The decision made Spain the fourth and
largest European country to agree to accept emergency assistance as part of the continuing
debt crisis.
The original plan was for the European bailout fund to provide the money to the Spanish
government, which would then use it to prop up the banks. But Spain objected after markets
responded by driving up the interest rates the government had to pay, in a reflection of the
extra debt it was taking on.
At a summit at the end of the month, European leaders agreed that the bailout funds could
recapitalize banks directly. As a condition, though, the leaders agreed that the euro zone’s
permanent bailout fund, the 500 billion euro European Stability Mechanism, could act only
after a banking supervisory body overseen by the European Central Bank had been set up.
In July, as the markets continued to pummel Spain, European finance ministers announced
that the first, $37 billion installment of the bank rescue package would be disbursed by the end
of the month, with the rest coming by the end of the year. They also agreed to ease Spain’s
deficit targets, although new cuts were needed to meet even the adjusted goals.
In response, Mr. Rajoy released his fourth set of budget measures in seven months, a package
intended to reduce the budget deficit by €65 billion, or $80 billion, over two and a half years.
It included an increase in the sales tax, a measure his government had previously argued
against amid concerns that it would deepen Spain’s recession by stifling consumer spending.
In late August, the Spanish government approved the creation of a so-called bad bank to
absorb the most troubled real estate assets of the country’s financial institutions, helping to
clear the way for Madrid to receive European rescue money for Spain’s banking industry.
The move is meant not only to let Spanish banks eventually begin to receive money from the
€100 billion, or $126 billion, reserve that European finance ministers have approved, but also
to restore market confidence in the country’s banking system.
The changes also give the government’s banking agency, known as the Frob, much greater
powers to revamp rescued banks, as well as to limit the salaries of their top executives. Under
the new rules, senior management as well as board directors of rescued banks will have their
annual salaries capped at €500,000.
In the past two years, some of the directors of collapsed savings banks have walked away with
multimillion-euro compensation packages, adding to the public’s resentment.
Spain has remained in investors’ line of fire over concerns about whether not only the banks,
but the government itself, might soon need rescue money from Europe because of a deepening
recession and the weakening finances of the country’s 17 semiautonomous regions.
18

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ser de tres tipos:
• Términos específicos (TE), que se usan sólo en un dominio de
conocimiento, con un significado altamente concreto y un único
referente conceptual.
• Términos no específicos (TNE) de una única disciplina, que son

comunes a varios campos del saber.
• Vocabulario general (VG): palabras de la lengua general que no

pertenecen a ninguna disciplina científica.
una clase u otra:

específico específico general
Deficit
Surplus
Boom
Crisis
Interest rate
Measures
Investors
Solvency
Recession
Unemployment
Bail out
Rescue
Estimate
Debt
Credit
Output
Taxes
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Mortgages
Figure
Cash
Recapitalize

qué tipo cree que pertenece este texto, sirviéndose del siguiente
apoyo teórico y justificando su respuesta:
(i) Texto general o no especializado: se da en una interacción social no marcada,

por lo que no se relaciona con un campo profesional concreto.
(ii) Texto especializado: sería “the kind of language use associated with highly
specialized communication in a wide variety of subject areas” (Asher & Simpson
1994: 2010). Se dividiría en:
a) Lenguaje académico, propio de la comunicación establecida entre un

profesional y una institución o persona relacionada con su profesión que se
considera de prestigio. El grado de conocimiento compartido con el
destinatario es máximo.
b) Lenguaje profesional. El emisor es un experto, y el receptor otro experto o

futuro experto; es por tanto el que usan profesionales de un mismo campo o
de campos afines para comunicarse entre sí. Se da un grado alto de
conocimiento compartido, aunque no es tan especializado como el académico.
A su vez, puede ser:
- biunívoco, típico de la comunicación entre expertos, por lo que el

emisor y el receptor presentan una equiparación de especificidad
discursiva. Se denomina “biunívoco” porque la especificidad
discursiva circula en ambos sentidos. Teresa Cabré denimona a esta
variante “”comunicación entre especialistas” (expert-expert
communication). Tiende a usarse un vocabulario altamente
especializado y los términos se usan de forma precisa. No suelen
encontrarse explicaciones de los términos, a no ser que el especialista
esté redefiniendo un concepto existente o acuñando un término
nuevo.
20

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- unívoco, o texto didáctico, propio de la comunicación entre un

profesional y un estudiante (o “aprendiz” según Cabré Castellví
1993). Dado su carácter pedagógico, se hace un uso alterno de
términos especializados y de términos de divulgación y/o sinónimos
funcionales (“cuasisinónimos”), y se da una mayor presencia de
definiciones, clasificaciones y categorizaciones. En ocasiones se
acerca al discurso de divulgación, pero no se da el mismo grado de
conocimiento compartido; por ende, en este caso la situación
comunicativa es especializada.
(iii) Texto divulgativo (o de transición): sería típico de una situación comunicativa en la que
el emisor es un experto, semi-experto (por ejemplo, un estudiante) o pseudo-experto (una
persona que se documenta puntualmente en un tema, como un investigador o
documentalista) y el receptor un público general, lego o no especializado. Puesto que no se
presupone ningún conocimiento especializado por parte de los lectores, la densidad de
términos especializados suele ser bastante baja y, cuando se usan, se indica su significado de
forma genérica por lo que se peca de imprecisión. Se generaliza, se utiliza la sinonimia
funcional, y se clasifica de forma sencilla y clara. El grado de conocimiento compartido entre
emisor y receptor es mínimo.

• Textos mediativos: Pueden ser de dos tipos:
- Argumentativos: predomina la persuasión sobre la

información. Su propósito es persuadir al receptor
influyendo en él, y valiéndose para ello de todas las
estrategias que se consideren efectivas. Ejemplo: un
anuncio publicitario.
- Impositivos: imponen al receptor la tesis del emisor, ya

que influyen en su comportamiento y/o ideología de forma
directa, con o sin razonamiento previo. Ejemplo: las leyes.
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• Textos expresivos: su propósito es deleitar al receptor. Ejemplos:

literatura, un poema, etc.
• Textos informativos: su propósito es informar mediante la

transmisión de información de forma relativamente neutral. Ejemplo:
un informe de auditoría.
• Textos fáticos: su propósito es mantener la comunicación.

Ejemplo: saludos, interjecciones.
5. Indique los compuestos nominales del siguiente fragmento del

artículo y haga back-formation, es decir, conviértalos a una
paráfrasis con preposición/conjunción.
Ejemplo: debt market = market for debt
For most of the last decade, Spain kept its fiscal house in strict order, running small
deficits or even surpluses. The country enjoyed a long boom after joining the euro zone,
as low interest rates fueled a surge in construction. The boom, while it lasted, gave
Spain the world’s highest rate of homeownership — with more than 8 of every 10
Spanish households owning the places they lived.
But it came to an end with the 2008 financial crisis, and the resulting recession sent
Spain’s unemployment rate soaring. Spain has also seen its deficits swell and has been
forced to pay high interest rates as investors worried about its solvency. Given the size
of the Spanish economy and the weakness of its banks, Spain has become the biggest
worry facing the European Union.
Since 2010, Spain has pushed through a series of austerity measures meant to rein in
its deficit. Unhappiness over the economy brought down the center-left government of
José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, and in November 2011, the conservative Popular Party,
led by Mariano Rajoy, won a parliamentary majority in new elections.
Mr. Rajoy had the benefit of a freshly elected, single-party majority behind him, which
his counterparts in Greece and Italy have lacked. But the country slid into its second
recession, sending deficits and unemployment ever higher, forcing Mr. Rajoy to admit
that his government would miss its deficit reduction targets.
22

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In April 2012, Spain’s unemployment rate reached 24.4 percent, the highest in Europe
and an especially stark figure given that the government had not yet begun to lay off
public sector servants in any significant number.
In May, Bankia, the nation’s largest real estate lender, requested an additional 19
billion euros in rescue funds from the country, far beyond initial government estimates.
In June, (…) Spain agreed to accept a bailout of up to $125 billion for its troubled
banks. Fiscal woes in its largely autonomous regions have also added to the debt
burden and uncertainty facing the central government, even as they have strengthened
separatist groups.
In September, the European Central Bank pledged to buy unlimited amounts of bonds
to lower interest rates for countries like Spain and Italy, who were being pushed
toward the fiscal edge by the markets. Yet Mr. Rajoy, like his Italian counterpart,
appeared hesitant to take the bank up on its offer, fearing a political backlash if the aid
came with even tougher fiscal strings attached.
government moved to shore up the finances of its 17 regional governments — some of
which were having trouble paying their bills — while taking steps to tighten control
over their spending.
Budget Minister Cristóbal Montoro said that the government would create a credit line
and advance about $10 billion to the regions, money they were not scheduled to get
until later in the year.
The regions needed the cash to pay suppliers, many of them small businesses that had
not been paid in months, even years. But at the same time, Mr. Montoro said that
Madrid would also seek new legislation to set penalties for regions that failed to
comply with strict budget targets.
Catalonia followed rescue pleas by the Valencia and Murcia regions. Both said in July
that they would need help from the €18 billion, or $23 billion, fund set up by the
Spanish government.
6. Ponga ejemplos de mecanismos lingüísticos de persuasión en

el texto, es decir, detecte fragmentos donde se vea que el autor
intenta convencer al lector de su opinión.
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7. Complete el siguiente fragmento con la forma correcta de la

palabra entre paréntesis:
As the effects of years of __________ [recede] pile up, more and more
Spanish families — with unemployment checks running out and stuck with
mortgages they cannot pay — are ______ [lean] hard on their _______[old]
relatives. And there is little relief in sight — ___________ [employ] statistics
released in late July 2012 showed that the jobless rate had _________ [rise]
to a record 25 percent.
Pensions for the elderly are among the few benefits that have not been slashed,
though they have been ________ [freeze] since 2011. The Spanish are known
for their strong family networks, and most grandparents are eager to help,
unwilling to admit to outsiders what is going on, experts say. But those who
work with older people say it has not been easy. Many struggle to feed three
generations now, their homes overcrowded and the tensions of the situation
sometimes turning their lives to misery.
In some cases, families are removing their relatives from nursing homes so they
can collect their pensions. It is a trend that has advocates _______ [concern]
about whether the younger generations are going too far, even if grandparents
agree to the move or are too infirm to notice.
A 2012 survey by Simple Lógica, Gallup’s partner in Spain, ______ [find] a

sharp increase in the number of older people _______ [support] family
members. In a telephone survey conducted in February 2010, 15 percent of
adults 65 and older said they supported at least one younger relative. In the
survey conducted 2012, that number had risen to 40 percent. Data compiled by
an association of private nursing homes, inforesidencias.com, found that in
2009, 76 percent of its member homes said they had ________ [vacant]. In
2011, 98 percent of them did.
Such numbers, experts say, reflect growing desperation in Spain, which has the
highest unemployment rate in the euro zone. According to recent government
figures, about 1 in 10 households now has no _________ [work] adults.
Some experts say they believe that _________ [retire] people, sharing their
pensions and dipping into their savings, have been the ________ [silence]
heroes of the economic crisis, and that without them Spain would be seeing far
more social unrest.
24

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EJERCICIO 3
1. Lea el siguiente texto, que procede de The Guardian.
The Guardian
05/09/2012
http://www.theguardian.com/law/2012/sep/05/garzon-julian-assange-solution-sweden
Garzon: Assange is hoping for a solution to

allow questioning in Sweden
Spanish jurist says it would be wrong for WikiLeaks founder's supporters to lose bail money
Spanish jurist Baltasar Garzón says it would be wrong for Assange's backers to lose
bail money Photograph: Juan Medina/Reuters
Julian Assange's defence team is hoping for a solution to allow the WikiLeaks founder
to be questioned over sexual misconduct allegations facing him in Sweden, without
risking extradition to the US.
"We are trying to find a way to make the obligation of the United Kingdom in terms of
judicial cooperation to hand over Mr Assange … compatible with the fundamental
right of asylum of Julian Assange to diplomatic immunity," said Spanish jurist
Baltasar Garzon, who is coordinating Assange's defence team. Assange remains in the
Ecuadorian embassy in London where he has been since June when Quito granted him
diplomatic asylum.
"The problem is that that depends heavily on the different wills of the governments
involved: Ecuador, UK and Sweden."
Speaking to reporters in Madrid, Garzon said Assange's lawyers were not involved in
any diplomatic talks to break the stand-off between the UK and Ecuador and
dismissed the guarantees given publicly so far.
On Tuesday, the foreign secretary William Hague said Assange would not face
extradition from Sweden to the US if he were to face the death penalty or have his
human rights breached.
"(Assange) would be prepared to go to Sweden today if he received a guarantee that he

won't be subject to an extradition process to the United States over Wikileaks. It is as
simple as that," said Garzon.
25

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
The jurist said he thought it would be wrong for those who had put up bail for Assange
to lose the money they had paid to the UK court.
"They (the backers) are not responsible for a decision by Julian Assange which has
ended up in the recognition of a fundamental right,¨said Garzon. "In no country
should that result in third parties losing their bail. He is protected by the right to
asylum. He continues to be in British territory in the widest sense."
Celebrity backers of Assange – believed to include Jemima Khan, film directors Ken
Loach and Michael Moore, and millionaire publisher Felix Dennis – have already lost
£200,000 in bail money they put up for the WikiLeaks founder.
At a hearing at Westminster magistrates court on Tuesday, district judge Howard

Riddle adjourned a further hearing until October to decide whether nine other backers
should also lose their money, after Assange fled an attempt to extradite him to Sweden
in June.
The Spanish jurist, best-known internationally for his attempt to have former Chilean
dictator Augusto Pinochet extradited from the UK, also said there was no
contradiction between his defence of Assange and his own use of international
extradition agreements in the past.
"I asked for the extradition of Pinochet, who had been investigated and charged with …
genocide, torture, serious breaches of human rights," said Garzon. "Assange is having
a fundamental right breached too — freedom of expression — and that is why he has
been granted political asylum."
Assange's defence team have said the Australian offered to be questioned in Sweden
when the allegations were first made, was given permission by prosecuting lawyers to
leave the country and has subsequently repeatedly offered to be questioned in the UK.
"We are in a position to demonstration that no criminal act has been committed and
the allegations are inconsistent," Garzon said, adding that it was unusual for countries
to use a European Arrest Warrant to bring someone in for questioning when no
charges had been brought.
Garzon said the defence team intended to make an explicit request to the US to say
whether any case was open against Assange or WikiLeaks. "I can tell you that they
won't reply. If they do, terrific – we want to show that the US is hiding what is
happening to Julian Assange."
26

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2. Sin mirar el texto, proporcione la forma adecuada para las

palabras siguientes:
Julian Assange's _______ [defend] team is hoping for a solution to allow the
WikiLeaks founder to be ________ [question] over sexual misconduct
allegations facing him in Sweden, without risking _______ [extradite] to the
US.
"We are trying to find a way to make the obligation of the United Kingdom in
terms of judicial ________ [cooperate] to hand over Mr Assange …
compatible with the fundamental right of asylum of Julian Assange to
diplomatic _________ [immune]," said Spanish jurist Baltasar Garzon.
Assange remains in the Ecuadorian embassy in London where he has been since
June when Quito granted him ___________ [diplomat] asylum.
"The problem is that that depends ________ [heavy] on the different wills of
the governments ________ [involve]: Ecuador, UK and Sweden."
Speaking to reporters in Madrid, Garzon said Assange's lawyers were not

involved in any diplomatic talks to break the stand-off between the UK and
Ecuador and dismissed the guarantees given ________ [public] so far.
3. Convierta las siguientes oraciones a estilo directo:
(…) the foreign secretary William Hague said Assange would not face extradition
from Sweden to the US if he were to face the death penalty or have his human
rights breached.
The foreign secretary _______________________________________
The jurist said he thought it would be wrong for those who had put up bail for
Assange to lose the money they had paid to the UK court.
The jurist __________________________________________
Assange's defence team have said the Australian offered to be questioned in

Sweden when the allegations were first made, was given permission by
prosecuting lawyers to leave the country and has subsequently repeatedly
offered to be questioned in the UK.
Assange's defence team __________________________________
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4. Convierta la siguiente oración a estilo indirecto:
"(Assange) would be prepared to go to Sweden today if he received a guarantee

that he won't be subject to an extradition process to the United States over
Wikileaks. It is as simple as that," said Garzon.
Garzón ___________________________________________
"They (the backers) are not responsible for a decision by Julian Assange which
has ended up in the recognition of a fundamental right, "declared Garzon.
Garzón ___________________________________________
"In no country should that result in third parties losing their bail. He is
protected by the right to asylum. He continues to be in British territory in the
widest sense," stated Garzon.
Garzón ___________________________________________
"We are in a position to demonstrate that no criminal act has been committed
and the allegations are inconsistent," Garzon said.
Garzón ___________________________________________
5. Busque los siguientes términos en un diccionario jurídico y

reformule el párrafo en inglés coloquial:
At a hearing at Westminster magistrates court on Tuesday, district judge

Howard Riddle adjourned a further hearing until October to decide whether nine
other backers should also lose their money, after Assange fled an attempt to
extradite him to Sweden in June.
6. Reformule en inglés coloquial lo que dice Garzón en los

siguientes párrafos:
terms of judicial cooperation to hand over Mr Assange … compatible with the
fundamental right of asylum of Julian Assange to diplomatic immunity," said
Spanish jurist Baltasar Garzon, who is coordinating Assange's defence team.
Garzon said the defence team intended to make an explicit request to the US to
say whether any case was open against Assange or WikiLeaks. "I can tell you
28

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
that they won't reply. If they do, terrific – we want to show that the US is hiding
what is happening to Julian Assange."
7. Convierta las siguientes oraciones a la voz activa. En algunos

casos será necesario forzar la presencia del sujeto:
Julian Assange's defence team is hoping for a solution to allow the WikiLeaks
founder to be questioned over sexual misconduct.
He is protected by the right to asylum.

Sweden.
"We are in a position to demonstration that no criminal act has been committed
8. Explique lo que significan las estructuras subrayadas y ponga

dos ejemplos en inglés de cada una de ellas:
extradition from Sweden to the US if he were to face the death penalty or have
his human rights breached.
The Spanish jurist, best-known internationally for his attempt to have former
Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet extradited from the UK, also said there was
no contradiction between his defence of Assange and his own use of
international extradition agreements in the past.
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EJERCICIO 4 (sin solucionario)
1. Vaya a los siguientes textos:
The case of the missing carbon:

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/missing-
carbon/
Volcanoes reveal lunar eruptions long-lived:

http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2014/10/12/volcanoes-reveal-lunar-
eruptions-long-lived/
Plant biology informs the origin of the Stradivarius:

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/plant-biology-informs-the-origins-of-the-
stradivarius/
Ebola spread shows flaws in protective gear and procedures:

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ebola-spread-shows-flaws-in-protective-
gear-and-procedures/
Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011. Schedule 1:

http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/23/schedule/1
Magistrates’ court: http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/you-and-the-judiciary/going-to-

court/magistrates-court/
Goddard & Anor v R: http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/2012/1756.html
Notice of Rights Entitlement (English version):

http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/police/815449/notice-of-
rights/NOTICES_OF_RIGHTS_ENTITLEMEN.pdf?view=Binary
Sentencing remarks, R.-v-Edwards and Edwards:

http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/judgments/r-v-edwards-and-edwards-sentencing-
remarks/
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Johnson & Johnson Corporate governance:

http://www.investor.jnj.com/governance/corporate-governance.cfm
Annual Report, Pepsico:

http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CCkQFj
AB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pepsico.com%2FAssets%2FDownload%2FPEP_Annu
al_Report_2013.pdf&ei=XqE7VICxJILiaonggKAB&usg=AFQjCNHFq-
VggNK3J47ygSnTy0X-qMzEIQ&bvm=bv.77161500,d.d2s/
Regular Consumption of Sugary Beverages Linked to Increased Genetic Risk of

Obesity: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/09/120921162308.htm
2. Léalos detenidamente.
3. Para cada uno de ellos, indique:

comunicativa en que se emite.
• Dos rasgos morfosintácticos típicos del inglés especializado que
• El vocabulario que más abunda: términos específicos de un campo
del saber, términos comunes a varios campos, o términos generales.
• 2 palabras que hayan pasado del lenguaje general al lenguaje
especializado de que se trate, y a la inversa.
• Indique si se trata de un texto general, especializado (académico o
profesional) o divulgativo y cómo lo sabe.
• Indique si cree que se trata de un texto mediativo (argumentativo o
impositivo), expresivo, informativo o fático y en qué se basa para
decidirlo.
• Proporcione 3 ejemplos de compuestos nominales (noun
compounds).
• Indique la modalidad discursiva.
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SOLUCIONARIO
32

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
EJERCICIO 1
3. Indique:
comunicativa en que se emite. EMISOR: JUEZ. RECEPTOR: LAS
PARTES + EL PÚBLICO EN GENERAL (LAS SENTENCIAS SON
UN DOCUMENTO PÚBLICO). SITUACIÓN: SALA DE LA
FAMILAI, TRIBUNAL SUPERIOR DE JUSTICIA.
• De qué modo se trata la temática (divulgación, enseñanza, discurso

especializado…). SE MEZCLA EL DISCURSO ESPECIALIZADO
(SOBRE TODO EXPRESADO EN LA TERMINOLOGÍA) CON
ALGUNOS FRAGMENTOS MÁS DIVULGATIVOS. ES
IMPORTANTE RECORDAR QUE ESTE TEXTO TIENE DOBLE
DESTINATARIO: LAS PARTES Y SUS ABOGADOS POR UN
LADO Y EL PÚBLICO EN GENERAL POR OTRO.
• Tres rasgos morfosintácticos típicos del inglés especializado que

ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS, ESTRUCTURAS PASIVAS,
ESTRUCTURAS IMPERSONALES, COMPUESTOS NOMINALES,
ETC.

ser de tres tipos: términos específicos, no específicos y
vocabulario general.
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una clase u otra:

específico (TE) específico (TNE) general (VG)
Respondent X
Petitioner X
Solicitor X
Advocate X
Attorney X
Hearing X
QC X
Court X X
(order for) costs X X (costs)
Mortgage X
Chattels X X
Decree nisi X
Divorce X
Evidence X
Judgment X
Case X X
Witness X X X
Affidavit X
Assets X
Earnings X
Property X
Cross-examination X
Income X X
Compensation X
(Bank) statement X
(Family) division X X
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5. Indique un término técnico (distinto de los que consten en el

ejercicio anterior) y un término subtécnico del texto, y explique
su significado.

SERÍA UN TEXTO PROFESIONAL QUE MEZCLA EL

LENGUAJE BIUNÍVOCO CON EL ÚNÍVOCO, PUES EL JUEZ
SE DIRIGE A LOS ABOGADOS DE LAS PARTES PERO
TAMBIÉN A LAS PARTES (LEGOS) Y AL PÚBLICO EN
GENERAL.

texto, justificando su respuesta: ES UN TEXTO
FUNDAMENTALMENTE IMPOSITIVO, PUES EXPRESA UNA
DECISIÓN QUE EN PRINCIPIO SE HA DE ACATAR (O, EN SU
CASO, RECURRIR). DE FORMA SECUNDARIA ES
INFORMATIVO, PUES EXPONE LA INFORMACIÓN QUE
FUNDAMENTA LA DECISIÓN TOMADA.
8. Indique cinco nominalizaciones del texto. MAINTENANCE,

BEHAVIOUR, APPLICATION, PERMISSION, PROVISION, ETC.
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9. Indique ejemplos de mecanismos lingüísticos de

impersonalización en el texto.
Ejemplos: pasivas, sujetos inanimados, uso de la segunda y tercera persona del
plural, uso de estructuras como there + be (there’s a lot to do), etc.
W'S CLAIM SHOULD BE DETERMINED BY REFERENCE TO THE PRINCIPLE OF NEED ALONE.
THE WIFE'S CASE CANNOT BE SO SUCCINCTLY SUMMARISED.
THIS IS DENIED BY THE HUSBAND.
10. Indique dos ejemplos de subordinación en el texto y un

ejemplo de oración larga.
EN ESTE TEXTO HAY MUY POCA SUBORDINACIÓN, CASI TODAS LAS ORACIONES SON
COORDINADAS Y BREVES.
Having watched and listened to her give evidence, having studied the documents, and having given in
her favour every allowance for the enormous strain she must have been under (and in conducting her
own case) I am driven to the conclusion that much of her evidence, both written and oral, was not just
inconsistent and inaccurate but also less than candid.
Between 1993 and 1999 when I met Paul my income spiralled for example in 1997 I had a modelling
contract for £750,000; I wrote, with a ghost writer, a best selling autobiography called Out on a Limb
and in the year prior to marrying Paul I earned $1,000,000 for 14 days work.
The next matter to be decided is whether the wife and the husband began cohabitating in March 2000
or, as the husband asserts, their committed relationship began upon marriage.
11. Indique dos ejemplos de formas verbales no personales en el

texto. HAVING WATCHED, IN CONDUCTING, BEST SELLING,
STRONG WILLED PERSONALITY, ETC.
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12. Indique cinco ejemplos de elementos léxicos de origen greco-

latino. COHABITATION, CITATION, MONETARY,
EDUCATION, MATRIMONIAL, ETC.
13. Indique tres ejemplos de compuestos nominales (palabras

compuestas o noun compounds) e indique cuál sería su back-
formation.
TAX RETURN: RETURN OF TAX
BANK INTEREST: INTEREST OF THE BANK
BANK BALANCES: BALANCE FROM THE BANK
HOLIDAY HOUSE: HOUSE FOR HOLIDAYS
SAPPHIRA AND DIAMOND ENGAGEMENT RING A RING

FOR ENGAGEMENT MADE OF SAPPHIRE AND DIAMOND
TRAVEL AGENT: AGENT FOR TRAVELLING
14. Indique el género al que intuitivamente cree que pertenece

este texto. JUDGMENT (SENTENCIA)
15. Indique las modalidades discursivas que observa en este

texto, poniendo ejemplos y sirviéndose del siguiente apoyo
teórico sobre tipos de modalidades discursivas: EL TEXTO ES
SOBRE TODO NARRATIVO (PUESTO QUE RELATA HECHOS
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SUCEDIDOS EN EL PASADO), PERO TAMBIÉN EXPOSITIVO,

DESCRIPTIVO Y ALGO DE PERSUASIVO
16. En el siguiente fragmento, algunos términos están marcados

en rojo. Indique la forma correcta que se le pide entre corchetes:
Ejemplo:
This final hearing concerns [NOUN: CONCERN] the application by Ms Heather

Mills/Lady McCartney ("the wife") for financial provision [VERB: PROVIDE]
against Sir Paul McCartney ("the husband").
Mr Justice Bennett:
8. This final hearing concerns the application by Ms Heather Mills/Lady

McCartney ("the wife") for financial provision against Sir Paul McCartney ("the
husband").
9. The hearing [VERB: HEAR] took place over six days between 11 and 18
February 2008. The wife represented [NOUN: REPRESENTATION herself
assisted [NOUN: ASSISTANCE], with my permission [VERB: PERMIT], by
three Mckenzie Friends, namely her sister, Fiona Mills, Mr David Rosen, a
solicitor-advocate, and Mr Michael Shilub, an American attorney. The husband
was represented [NOUN: REPRESENTATION] by Mr Nicholas Mostyn QC and
Mr Timothy Bishop, instructed [NOUN: INSTRUCTION] by Payne Hicks Beach.
10. The battle lines are set out in the open [ADVERB: OPENLY offer made by each
party prior to the start of the final hearing. In her letter of 31 January 2008 the
wife computes [NOUN: COMPUTATION] her reasonable [VERB: REASON]
needs for herself and Beatrice at £3,250,000 p.a. which amounts on a Duxbury
capitalised basis [NOUN: BASIS] to £99,480,000. She seeks a property
adjustment order [VERB: ORDER] in respect of a property in Beverley Hills
called "Heather House" and of a property in New York State, 11 Pintail. She
seeks between £8m and £12.5m for a home in London, £3m to purchase a
property in New York, £500,000 to £750,000 to purchase [NOUN:
PURCHASE] an office in Brighton, a transfer to her of a mortgage in favour of
the husband over her sister's (Fiona) Hove property, transfer of property order
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re a Southampton property owned [NOUN: OWNNERSHIP] by the husband in

which Sonya Mills lives, and relief [VERB: RELIEVE] in respect of chattels.
Further, the wife asks the court "to place a significant [NOUN: SIGNIFICANCE]
monetary value on compensation [VERB: COMPENSATE] for loss [VERB:
LOSE] of earnings [VERB: EARN], contribution and conduct". She would retain
her own properties at Pean's Wood in Robertsbridge, Sussex and at Angel's Rest
in Hove. Overall her claim [VERB: CLAIM] amounts to about £125m. She also
seeks an order for costs.
11. By letter of 6 February 2008 Messrs Payne Hicks Beach set out the husband's
position. Overall the wife should exit the proceedings [VERB: PROCEED] with
total assets of £15m (after a deduction [VERB: DEDUCT] for conduct) made up
as follows. Sonya Mills' home and the mortgage on Fiona's home should be
transferred to the wife at a combined [NOUN: COMBINATION] value of
£683,000; Angel's Rest (which has now been valued at £2m); the net value of
Pean's Wood; the value of funds that either the wife has or should have; and a
balancing lump sum provided [NOUN: PROVISION] certain art is returned to
the husband. Further, the husband would meet the reasonable cost [VERB:
COST] of security for the wife and for their child, Beatrice, for 2 years not
exceeding £150,000 p.a. For Beatrice, the husband would pay periodical
[NOUN: PERIODICITY] payments at £35,000 p.a. and for a nanny not to
exceed [ADJECTIVE: EXCESSIVE] £25,000 p.a. Both these figures would be
index-linked. The periodical payments would continue until Beatrice is 17 years
old or completes secondary education, whichever is the later. Further, he will
discharge [NOUN: DISCHARGE] the school fees, uniform and reasonable
extras, and health [ADJECTIVE: HEALTHY] insurance premiums. Proposals
were made as to chattels. There would be no order as to costs.
12. Both parties made it clear that each wants a clean break both under the
Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 (as amended) and under the Inheritance [VERB:
INHERIT] (Provision for Family and Defendants) Act 1975.
13. The barest outline of the background would be that the wife and the husband
met in the spring of 1999, became engaged [NOUN: ENGAGEMENT] on 22
July 2001, married [NOUN: MARRIAGE] on 11 June 2002, separated [NOUN:
SEPARATION] on 29 April 2006 and ever since have been engaged in
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protracted matrimonial litigation [VERB: LITIGATE]. They have one child,

Beatrice born on 28 October 2003 who is therefore now 4 years old.
14. No decree nisi has yet been pronounced [NOUN: PRONOUNCEMENT], for the
following reasons. On 17 July 2006 the husband filed a petition for divorce on
the grounds of the wife's unreasonable behaviour [VERB: BEHAVE]. On 13
October 2006 the wife filed an Answer denying [NOUN: DENIAL] the
husband's allegation [VERB: ALLEGE] of unreasonable behaviour and cross-
praying for divorce on the grounds of the husband's unreasonable behaviour.
On 28 February 2007 the suit [VERB: SUE], the ancillary relief proceedings and
an application [VERB: APPLY] by the wife for maintenance [VERB:
MAINTAIN] pending suit came before me. I shall return to this hearing later in
the judgment [VERB: JUDGE]. Suffice it to say for the moment that at my
prompting the parties agreed to stay their divorce proceedings and on or after 1
May 2008, by which time would have been separated for 2 years, to one party
presenting a fresh petition for divorce based on the 2 years separation and to
the other consenting [NOUN: CONSENT] to a divorce. So, at a hearing
arranged for 12 May I hope to be able to pronounce a decree nisi of divorce
[VERB: DIVORCE].
17. Convierta las siguientes oraciones de pasiva a activa:
W's claim should be determined by reference to the principle of need alone.
We should DETERMINE W´S CLAIM BY REFERENCE…
The wife's case cannot be so succinctly summarised.
I cannot SUMMARISE THE WIFE’S CASE SO SUCCINTLY
This is denied by the husband
The husband DENIES THIS
His conduct should be reflected in the award.
The award SHOULD REFLECT HIS CONDUCT
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18. Convierta las siguientes oraciones de activa a pasiva:
She thus seeks compensation for the loss of her career opportunity.
Compensation IS SOUGHT (BY HER) FOR THE…
I shall have to determine certain matters of fact.
Certain matters of fact SHALL HAVE TO BE DETERMINED (BY ME)
I shall also have to examine the relevant and important documents.
The relevant AND IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS WILL/SHALL (less frequent)

ALSO HAVE TO BE EXAMINED (BY ME)
She has conducted her own case before me with a steely, yet courteous,
determination.
Her own case HAS BEEN CONDUCTED BY HER BEFORE ME …
19. Explique en sus propias palabras el significado del siguiente

párrafo:
The husband's evidence was, in my judgment, balanced. He expressed himself
moderately though at times with justifiable irritation, if not anger. He was
consistent, accurate and honest.
[Respuesta abierta]

The Wife says: ‘My husband’s attitude towards my career was one of
constriction’.
The Wife SAYS/SAID THAT HER HUSBAND’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS HER

CAREER IS/WAS ONE OF CONSTRICTION
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The Wife asserted: ‘His assets are worth in excess of £800m and I am entitled
to share in the marital acquest’
The Wife ASSERTED THAT HIS ASSETS WERE WORTH IN EXCESS OF

£800m AND THAT SHE WAS ENTITLED TO SHARE…
The Judge thinks: ‘He is, and has been for many years, a world famous musician,
composer and singer.’
The Judge THINKS/THOUGHT THAT HE IS/WAS, AND HAS BEEN/HAD

BEEN FOR MANY YEARS, A WORLD FAMOUS MUSICIAN, COMPOSER
AND SINGER.
Ms Heather Mills/Lady McCartney stated: ‘In early 1993 my trips to Croatia

became less and less frequent, as my modelling career in the UK began to take
off’.
Ms Heather Mills/Lady McCartney STATED THAT IN EARLY 2993 HER

TRIPS TO CROATION BECAME LESS AND LESS FREQUENT AS HER …
Mr. Mostyn QC submitted: ‘(…) fundamentally this is a straightforward case.’
Mr. Mostyn QC SUBMITTED THAT FUNDAMENTALLY THIS WAS A

TRAIGHTFORWARD CASE
Further, the wife asks the court: ‘Place a significant monetary value on
compensation’
Further, the Wife ASKS/ASKED THE COURT TO PLACE A …
The Wife said: ‘I believe I was earning at that time in the region of £200,000
per annum.’
The Wife SAID THAT SHE BELIEVED SHE WAS EARNING AT THAT
TIME…
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The Wife stated: ‘As mentioned previously, before I met Paul, I was speaking all
over Europe and was considered one of the top ten female public speakers in
Europe.’
The Wife STATED THAT (…) BEFORE SHE HAD MET PAUL, SHE WAS
SPEAKING ALL OVER EUROPE AND WAS CONSIDERED …
20. Busque en un diccionario de sinónimos las palabras

subrayadas y proponga un sinónimo más coloquial:
• She seeks a property adjustment order in respect of a property in
Beverley Hills called "Heather House" and of a property in New York
State, 11 Pintail. ASKS FOR/BEGS/PETITIONS / FOR
• The battle lines are set out in the open offer made by each party prior
to the start of the final hearing. BEFORE
• She would retain her own properties at Pean's Wood in Robertsbridge,

Sussex and at Angel's Rest in Hove. HOLD, KEEP, MAINTAIN
• She thus seeks compensation for the loss of her career opportunity in
that during their cohabitation and subsequent marriage she forewent a
lucrative and successful career. LATER
• Finally, she asserts that throughout their marriage and after their
separation the husband behaved in such a way that it would be
inequitable to disregard and that his conduct should be reflected in the
award. SAYS/CONTENDS/CLAIMS/DECLARES;
PARTIAL/UNFAIR/UNJUST; DISMISS/IGNORE/NEGLECT
• But the tax returns do not disclose any bank interest earned or only
very small sums which are not consistent with holding £2m-£3m in a
bank or banks. SHOW/DISCOVER/REVEAL
• Even allowing for some depletion in the bank balances over an 18

month period from mid 1999 to early 2001, if she was as wealthy as she
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made out there would have been no need for this loan or for a loan of
such magnitude. DECREASE/DIMINUTION,
LESSENING/REDUCTION; RICH; EXTENT/AMOUNT/DIMENSION
21. Indique los fragmentos del texto en los que parece que el juez
está haciendo “juicios de valor”, es decir, expresa su opinión
personal sobre alguna de las partes. Indique cómo sabe que el
juez está expresando su opinión.
14. The wife is a strong willed and determined personality. She has shown great fortitude in the
face of, and overcoming, her disability. I refer to the loss of her left leg below the knee. As I
shall show she is a kindly person and is devoted to her charitable causes. She has conducted
her own case before me with a steely, yet courteous, determination.
15. The husband's evidence was, in my judgment, balanced. He expressed himself moderately
though at times with justifiable irritation, if not anger. He was consistent, accurate and honest.
16. But I regret to have to say I cannot say the same about the wife's evidence. Having watched
and listened to her give evidence, having studied the documents, and having given in her
favour every allowance for the enormous strain she must have been under (and in conducting
her own case) I am driven to the conclusion that much of her evidence, both written and oral,
was not just inconsistent and inaccurate but also less than candid. Overall she was a less than
impressive witness.
LA EXPRESIÓN DE LA OPINIÓN PERSONAL SE MANIFIESTA EN PRIMER LUGAR EN EL USO DE

ADJETIVOS, ESPECIALMENTE DE ADJETIVOS DESCRIPTIVOS DEL CARÁCTER CON UN
COMPONENTE DE SUBJETIVIDAD O CONNOTATIVO, PUES EN GENERAL LOS JUECES, SALVO
QUE REFLEJEN LA VALORACIÓN PSICOLÓGICA DE UN PERITO, NO DESCRIBEN LOS RASGOS
DE CARÁCTER DE UNA DE LAS PARTES (STRONG WILLED, DETERMINED, KINDLY, DEVOTED,
STEELY, CORTEOUS, CONSISTENT,, ACCURATE, HONEST, INCONSISTENT, INACCURATE,
LESS THAN CANDID, LESS THAN IMPRESSIVE…)
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EJERCICIO 2
1. Lea el texto indicado.

ser de tres tipos: términos específicos, no específicos y
vocabulario general.
una clase u otra:

específico (TE) específico (TNE) general (VG)
Deficit X
Surplus X
Boom X
Crisis X
Interest rate X
Measures X
Investors X
Solvency X
Recession X
Unemployment X X
Bail out X
Rescue X
Estimate X
Debt X
Credit X
Output X
Taxes X
Mortgages X
Figure X
Cash X
Recapitalize X
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SE TRATARÍA DE UN TEXTO DIVULGATIVO, QUE AUNQUE CONTIENE VOCABULARIO TÉCNICO,
PRESENTA TAMBIÉN RASGOS DE COLOQUIALIDAD.

SE TRATA DE UN TEXTO INFORMATIVO, AUNQUE CON ALGO DE PERSUASIÓN CUANDO
EXPRESA LA OPINIÓN SOBRE LOS PROBLEMAS ECEONÓMICOS.
5. Indique los compuestos nominales del siguiente fragmento del

artículo y haga back-formation, es decir, conviértalos a una
paráfrasis con preposición/conjunción.
Ejemplo: debt market = market for debt
For most of the last decade, Spain kept its fiscal house in strict order, running small deficits or
even surpluses. The country enjoyed a long boom after joining the euro zone, as low interest
rates fueled a surge in construction. The boom, while it lasted, gave Spain the world’s highest
rate of homeownership — with more than 8 of every 10 Spanish households owning the places
they lived.
But it came to an end with the 2008 financial crisis, and the resulting recession sent Spain’s
unemployment rate soaring. Spain has also seen its deficits swell and has been forced to pay
high interest rates as investors worried about its solvency. Given the size of the Spanish
economy and the weakness of its banks, Spain has become the biggest worry facing the
European Union.
Since 2010, Spain has pushed through a series of austerity measures meant to rein in its deficit.
Unhappiness over the economy brought down the center-left government of José Luis
Rodríguez Zapatero, and in November 2011, the conservative Popular Party, led by Mariano
Rajoy, won a parliamentary majority in new elections.
Mr. Rajoy had the benefit of a freshly elected, single-party majority behind him, which his
counterparts in Greece and Italy have lacked. But the country slid into its second recession,
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sending deficits and unemployment ever higher, forcing Mr. Rajoy to admit that his
government would miss its deficit reduction targets.
In April 2012, Spain’s unemployment rate reached 24.4 percent, the highest in Europe and an
especially stark figure given that the government had not yet begun to lay off public sector
servants in any significant number.
In May, Bankia, the nation’s largest real estate lender, requested an additional 19 billion euros
in rescue funds from the country, far beyond initial government estimates. In June, (…) Spain
agreed to accept a bailout of up to $125 billion for its troubled banks. Fiscal woes in its largely
autonomous regions have also added to the debt burden and uncertainty facing the central
government, even as they have strengthened separatist groups.
In September, the European Central Bank pledged to buy unlimited amounts of bonds to
lower interest rates for countries like Spain and Italy, who were being pushed toward the fiscal
edge by the markets. Yet Mr. Rajoy, like his Italian counterpart, appeared hesitant to take the
bank up on its offer, fearing a political backlash if the aid came with even tougher fiscal strings
attached.
government moved to shore up the finances of its 17 regional governments — some of which
were having trouble paying their bills — while taking steps to tighten control over their
spending.
Budget Minister Cristóbal Montoro said that the government would create a credit line and
advance about $10 billion to the regions, money they were not scheduled to get until later in
the year.
The regions needed the cash to pay suppliers, many of them small businesses that had not
been paid in months, even years. But at the same time, Mr. Montoro said that Madrid would
also seek new legislation to set penalties for regions that failed to comply with strict budget
targets.
Catalonia followed rescue pleas by the Valencia and Murcia regions. Both said in July that they
would need help from the €18 billion, or $23 billion, fund set up by the Spanish government.
dizzying growth: growth that is dizzying
euro zone: zone of the euro
interest rates: rates of interest
homeownership: ownership of homes
households: ESTE ES UN CASO DE LEXICALIZACIÓN DE UN COMPUESTO NOMINAL.

CUANDO LOS COMPUESTOS NOMINALES SE LEXICALIZAN, SE CONVIERTEN EN UNA
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UNIDAD SEMÁNTICA Y EN OCASIONES ES DIFÍCIL DESGLOSAR SUS ELEMENTOS DE

FORMA QUE TENGA SENTIDO, PUES SE ASIMILAN COMO UNA ÚNICA UNIDAD
SEMÁNTICA, NO COMO UNA UNIDAD COMPUESTA POR DISTINTOS ELEMENTOS. POR
EJEMPLO, “HEADMASTER” (MASTER WHO IS THE HEAD), LAMPPOST (POST WITH A
LAMP), BEDROOM (ROOM WITH A BED)
resulting recession: recession that has resulted
unemployment rate: rate of unemployment
austerity measures: measures of austerity
center-left government: government which is at the center-left
freshly elected, single-party majority: majority of a single party which has been freshly elected
deficit reduction targets: targets of reduction of deficit
public sector servants: servants to the public sector
real estate lender: lender for real estates
rescue funds: funds for the rescue
government estimates: estimates by the government
bailout: COMPUESTO LEXICALIZADO NO DESGLOSABLE
debt burden: burden of debt
backlash: COMPUESTO LEXICALIZADO NO DESGLOSABLE
credit line: line of credit
budget targets: targets of budget
emergency financing: financing in an emergency
rescue pleas: pleas for rescue
6. Ponga ejemplos de mecanismos lingüísticos de persuasión en

el texto, es decir, detecte fragmentos donde se vea que el autor
intenta convencer al lector de su opinión.
EL GRADO DE ARGUMENTACIÓN ES ESCASO PERO MUY SUTIL, MANIFESTÁNDOSE SOBRE
TODO EN EL TÍTULO, EN LA ELECCIÓN DE ALGÚN TÉRMINO (POR EJEMPLO, “WOES”, “WALK
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AWAY”) Y EN EL MODO EN QUE DA POR SENTADOS ALGUNOS ASPECTOS SIN EXPLICAR LAS
AFIMACIONES QUE HACE.
7. Complete el siguiente fragmento con la forma correcta de la

palabra entre paréntesis:
As the effects of years of RECESSION [recede] pile up, more and more Spanish
families — with unemployment checks running out and stuck with mortgages
they cannot pay — are LEANING [lean] hard on their ELDERLY [old] relatives.
And there is little relief in sight — EMPLOYMENT [employ] statistics released
in late July 2012 showed that the jobless rate had RISEN [rise] to a record 25
percent.
Pensions for the elderly are among the few benefits that have not been slashed,
though they have been FROZEN [freeze] since 2011. The Spanish are known for
their strong family networks, and most grandparents are eager to help,
unwilling to admit to outsiders what is going on, experts say. But those who
work with older people say it has not been easy. Many struggle to feed three
generations now, their homes overcrowded and the tensions of the situation
sometimes turning their lives to misery.
In some cases, families are removing their relatives from nursing homes so they
can collect their pensions. It is a trend that has advocates CONCERNED
[concern] about whether the younger generations are going too far, even if
grandparents agree to the move or are too infirm to notice.
A 2012 survey by Simple Lógica, Gallup’s partner in Spain, FOUND [find] a

sharp increase in the number of older people SUPPORTING [support] family
members. In a telephone survey conducted in February 2010, 15 percent of
adults 65 and older said they supported at least one younger relative. In the
survey conducted 2012, that number had risen to 40 percent. Data compiled by
an association of private nursing homes, inforesidencias.com, found that in
2009, 76 percent of its member homes said they had VACANCIES [vacant]. In
2011, 98 percent of them did.
Such numbers, experts say, reflect growing desperation in Spain, which has the
highest unemployment rate in the euro zone. According to recent government
figures, about 1 in 10 households now has no WORKING [work] adults.
Some experts say they believe that RETIRED [retire] people, sharing their
pensions and dipping into their savings, have been the SILENT [silence] heroes
of the economic crisis, and that without them Spain would be seeing far more
social unrest.
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EJERCICIO 3
1. Lea el texto indicado:
2. Sin mirar el texto, proporcione la forma adecuada para las

palabras siguientes:
Julian Assange's DEFENCE [defend] team is hoping for a solution to allow the
WikiLeaks founder to be QUESTIONED [question] over sexual misconduct
allegations facing him in Sweden, without risking EXTRADITION [extradite] to
the US.
terms of judicial COOPERATION [cooperate] to hand over Mr Assange …
compatible with the fundamental right of asylum of Julian Assange to
diplomatic IMMUNITY [immune]," said Spanish jurist Baltasar Garzon.
Assange remains in the Ecuadorian embassy in London where he has been since
June when Quito granted him DIPLOMATIC [diplomat] asylum.
"The problem is that that depends HEAVILY [heavy] on the different wills of
the governments INVOLVED [involve]: Ecuador, UK and Sweden."
Speaking to reporters in Madrid, Garzon said Assange's lawyers were not

involved in any diplomatic talks to break the stand-off between the UK and
Ecuador and dismissed the guarantees given PUBLICLY [public] so far.
3. Convierta las siguientes oraciones a estilo directo:
(…) the foreign secretary William Hague said Assange would not face extradition
from Sweden to the US if he were to face the death penalty or have his human
rights breached.
The foreign secretary SAID: ‘ASSANGE WILL NOT FACE EXTRADITION

FROM SWEDEN TO THE US IF HE IS TO FACE… OR HAVE HIS HUMAN
RIGHTS BREACHED’
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The jurist said he thought it would be wrong for those who had put up bail for
Assange to lose the money they had paid to the UK court.
The jurist SAID: ‘I THINK IT WOULD BE WRONG FOR THOSE WHO HAVE
PUT UP BAIL FOR ASSANGE TO LOSE THE MONEY THEY HAVE PAID TO
THE UK COURT’

Sweden when the allegations were first made, was given permission by
prosecuting lawyers to leave the country and has subsequently repeatedly
offered to be questioned in the UK.
Assange's defence team HAVE SAID: ‘THE AUSTRALIAN OFFERED TO BE

QUESTIONED IN SWEDEN WHEN THE ALLEGATIONS WERE FIRST MADE,
WAS GIVEN PERMISSION BY PROSECUTING LAWYERS TO LEAVE THE
COUNTRY AND HAS SUBSEQUENTLY REPEATEDLY OFFERED TO BE
QUESTIONED IN THE UK.’
"(Assange) would be prepared to go to Sweden today if he received a guarantee

that he won't be subject to an extradition process to the United States over
Wikileaks. It is as simple as that," said Garzon.
Garzón SAID ASSANGE WOULD BE PREPARED TO GO TO SWEDEN TODAY

IF HE RECEIVED A GUARANTEE THAT HE WON'T BE SUBJECT TO AN
EXTRADITION PROCESS TO THE UNITED STATES OVER WIKILEAKS. IT
IS AS SIMPLE AS THAT.
"They (the backers) are not responsible for a decision by Julian Assange which
has ended up in the recognition of a fundamental right, "declared Garzon.
Garzón SAID THAT THEY ARE/WERE NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR A DECISION

BY JULIAN ASSANGE WHICH HAS ENDED UP IN THE RECOGNITION OF A
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT.
"In no country should that result in third parties losing their bail. He is
protected by the right to asylum. He continues to be in British territory in the
widest sense," stated Garzon.
Garzón STATED THAT IN NO COUNTRY SHOULD THAT RESULT IN THIRD

PARTIES LOSING THEIR BAIL. HE SAID THAT HE IS PROTECTED BY THE
RIGHT TO ASYLUM. HE ALSO SAID THAT HE CONTINUES TO BE IN
BRITISH TERRITORY IN THE WIDEST SENSE.
51

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"We are in a position to demonstration that no criminal act has been committed
Garzón SAID THAT THEY ARE IN A POSITION TO DEMONSTRATE THAT

NO CRIMINAL ACT HAS BEEN COMMITTED AND THAT THE
ALLEGATIONS ARE INCONSISTENT.
5. Busque los siguientes términos en un diccionario jurídico y

reformule el párrafo en inglés coloquial:
At a hearing at Westminster magistrates court on Tuesday, district judge

Howard Riddle adjourned a further hearing until October to decide whether nine
other backers should also lose their money, after Assange fled an attempt to
extradite him to Sweden in June.
At an AUDIENCE at Westminster magistrates court on Tuesday, district judge

Howard Riddle DEFERRED/DELAYED/POSTPONED ANOTHER/A SECOND
hearing until October to decide whether nine other backers should also lose their
money, after Assange ESCAPED an attempt to SEND him to Sweden in June
6. Reformule en inglés coloquial lo que dice Garzón en los

siguientes párrafos: (respuesta abierta)
terms of judicial cooperation to hand over Mr Assange … compatible with the
fundamental right of asylum of Julian Assange to diplomatic immunity," said
Spanish jurist Baltasar Garzon, who is coordinating Assange's defence team.
Garzon said the defence team intended to make an explicit request to the US to
say whether any case was open against Assange or WikiLeaks. "I can tell you
that they won't reply. If they do, terrific – we want to show that the US is hiding
what is happening to Julian Assange."
7. Convierta las siguientes oraciones a la voz activa:
Julian Assange's defence team is hoping for a solution to allow the WikiLeaks
founder to be questioned over sexual misconduct.
JULIAN ASSANGE'S DEFENCE TEAM IS HOPING FOR A SOLUTION TO

ALLOW THE QUESTIONING OF THE WIKILEAKS OVER SEXUAL
MISCONDUCT. /// THAT (SOMEONE) QUESTIONS THE WIKILEAKS
FOUNDER…
52

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He is protected by the right to asylum.
THE RIGHT TO ASYLUM PROTECTS HIM.

Sweden.
ASSANGE'S DEFENCE TEAM HAVE SAID THE AUSTRALIAN OFFERED

(SOMEONE) TO QUESTION HIM IN SWEDEN.
"We are in a position to demonstrate that no criminal act has been committed
"WE ARE IN A POSITION TO DEMONSTRATE THAT (NOBODY) HAS

COMMITTED A CRIMINAL ACT AND THAT THE ALLEGATIONS ARE
INCONSISTENT," GARZON SAID.
8. Explique lo que significan las estructuras subrayadas y ponga

dos ejemplos en inglés de cada una de ellas:
extradition from Sweden to the US if he were to face the death penalty or have
his human rights breached.
The Spanish jurist, best-known internationally for his attempt to have former
Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet extradited from the UK, also said there was
no contradiction between his defence of Assange and his own use of
international extradition agreements in the past.
Ver los siguientes enlaces:

TO BE TO + VERB
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learni
tv103.shtml
http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/future_ways_to_form.php
TO HAVE SOMETHING DONE:
http://es.stgeorges.com/uso-causativo-de-have-to-have-get-something-
done/
http://www.englishtenses.com/to_have_something_done_and_to_have_sb
_do_sth
http://www.english4all.pro.br/intermhavegetdone.htm
53

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EJERCICIO 4 (sin solucionario)
54

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PRUEBA DE AUTOEVALUACIÓN. TEMA 1

1. Indique la opción incorrecta. Los lenguajes de especialidad:
a. Son un tipo de lenguaje utilizado en la comunicación especializada.
b. Son un conjunto de conocimientos morfológicos, léxicos, sintácticos
y textuales que conforman el conjunto de recursos expresivos y
comunicativos que necesitan los especialistas en una materia para
desenvolverse de forma adecuada en el contexto profesional de una
especialidad.
c. Deben entenderse como un continuo con diferentes niveles de
abstracción, que va desde el que utilizan los especialistas cuando se
comunican entre sí en un contexto profesional altamente
especializado, hasta el que se emplea para la divulgación (de la
ciencia, la tecnología, la economía, etc.).
d. Tienen como única función la informativa.
2. El propósito de los textos expresivos es:

a. Influir en el receptor.
b. Informar mediante la transmisión de información de forma neutra.
c. Mantener la comunicación.
d. Deleitar al receptor.
3. Los lenguajes de especialidad pueden considerarse tipos mixtos a

medio camino entre:
a. Los lenguajes artificiales y las lenguas naturales.
b. Los lenguajes artificiales y las lenguas específicas.
c. El IPA (Inglés Profesional y Académico) y las lenguas naturales.
d. El IPA (Inglés Profesional y Académico) y las lenguas artificiales.
4. El lenguaje de especialidad es un subconjunto del lenguaje general,

caracterizado por tres tipos de condiciones:
a. Léxicas, morfológicas y sintácticas.
b. Pragmáticas, cognitivas y lingüísticas.
c. Léxicas, morfológicas y semánticas.
d. Pragmáticas, léxicas y semánticas.
5. Indique cuál de las siguientes NO es una condición de textualidad del

IPA:
a. Coherencia.
b. Intertextualidad.
c. Cohesión.
d. Claridad.

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SOLUCIONARIO
1. d
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. d

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RUBÉN PAREJA PINILLA domingo, 1 de noviembre de 2015
IPA 1
Specialised Texts in English

- Lenguaje de especialidad: se utiliza para designar el tipo de lenguaje utilizado en la
comunicación especializada, es decir, el lenguaje específico que usan algunos
profesionales y especialistas para los términos, conceptos y los conocimientos de una
determinada área de conocimientos. EQUIVALE A: Language for Special or Specific
Purposes (LSP). Definida por la variación lingüística.
- Lengua general segúnn Sager: the language used for everyday non-specialist
communication among a speech community.
- Cabré propone 2 ejes para definir lenguaje de especialidad: primero el EJE HORIZONTAL
se refiere a la temática y la perspectiva, y el EJE VERTICAL a la intención y el nivel de
especialización.
- Lengua de especialidad según Marimón Llorca y Santamaría Pérez, está constituida por
un conjunto de conocimientos morfológicos, léxicos, sintácticos y textuales que
conforman el conjunto de recursos expresivos y comunicativos que necesitan los
especialistas para desenvolverse de forma adecuada en el contexto profesional de una
especialidad.
- Sager et al. afirman que el lenguaje de especialidad es un sistema semiótica completo,
semiautónomo y basado en el lenguaje general, que se diferencia en función de factores
de índole prágmatica.
- Variación lingüística: hace referencia a los cambios que experimenta una lengua en
función del usuario (variación geográfica, temporal, social, idiolectal, etc, es decir
dialectos), o en función del uso (campo, tenor y modo, es decir, registros).
- Relación de lenguaje de especialidad y lenguaje general: 
1.- El lenguaje general es sinónimo de la variante estándar, y todos los lenguajes de
especialidad se consideran “elements of general language”.  
2.- El lenguaje general es un subconjunto de los lenguajes de especialidad.  
3.- Los lenguajes de especialidad y el lenguaje general son dos fenómenos iguales
pero de naturaleza diferente. 
4.- No existe el lenguaje general, ya que cada uso es especifico a cada situación.
Este enfoque implica que todas las variedades de la lengua es un LSP.
- Los lenguajes específicos y la lengua general se diferencian en características
pragmáticas o extra-lingüísticas. Lehrberger considera que hay 6 factores para definir un
lenguaje de especialidad: la temática específica, las restricciones léxicas, sintáticas, y
semánticas; las reglas gramaticales anómalas, la alta frecuencia de aparición en
determinas construcciones; la estructura textual y el uso de símbolos específicos.
- Postura actual: el lenguaje de especialidad es un subconjunto del lenguaje general, se
define por tres variables: 
1.- La temática (campo o field) es especializada si no forma parte del conocimiento
general de los hablantes de una lengua. 
2.- Los usuarios: va desde los especialistas hasta el público en general. 

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3.- La situación comunicativa: es una situación marcada, en situaciones muy
codificadas y convencionalizadas.
- Según Cabré Castellví, el lenguaje de especialidad sería un subconjunto de lenguaje
general por tres condiciones: 
1.- Condiciones pragmáticas: los usuarios y la situación socio-comunicativa.  
2.- Condiciones cognitivas: se refieren a la temática, a su modo de
conceptualización, así como al tratamiento que ésta recibe.  
3.- Condiciones lingüísticas: no se refieren exclusivamente a los aspectos
gramaticales, sino que incluyen aspectos como la organización, distribución y
presentación de textos en géneros y tipos textuales, sus convenciones discursivas, etc.
- Terms: the items which are characterized by special reference within a discipline are the
terms of that discipline.
- Terminology: which function in general reference over a variety of sublanguages are
simply called “words” and their totality the “vocabulary”.
- Términos específicos: (technical terms or subject-specific terms): significado altamente
concreto, usados solo en un dominio de conocimiento.
- Términos no-específicos: (nontechnical terms or non subject-specific terms): términos que
son comunes a varias disciplinas.
- Vocabulario-léxico general: unidades léxicas que no pertenecen a ninguna disciplina
científica.
- Terminologización: es cuando se produce un transvase de términos de la lengua común a
los lenguajes especializados. También puede producirse el transvase de unidades de una
lengua de especialidad a otra, en ocasiones con cambio de significado.
- Tipos de transvase según AHMAD et al. :
• LESP —> LG: un término de un lenguaje de especialidad extiende su uso a la
lengua general.
• LG —> LESP: una unidad léxica de la lengua general se incorpora a un lenguaje

de especialidad.
• LESP1 —> LESP2: un lenguaje de especialidad adopta un término perteneciente

a otro lenguaje de especialidad.
- Texto especializado según Cabré Castellví serían unos conjuntos de unidades de
información estructuradas lingüísticamente cuya principal característica semántica es su
precisión, siempre en relación a un esquema conceptual preestablecido y reconocido por
los expertos.
- Tipologías de textos especializados: enciclopedias, libros de referencia general técnica,
trabajos de referencia, libros introductores, trabajos de referencia práctica en áreas
tecnológicas, material de publicidad especializada en publicaciones, artículos
especializados, instrucciones de instalación y mantenimiento, libros de texto académicos,
informes de investigación, e informes estándar y patentes.
- Hay 3 tipos de textos especializados y divulgativos:

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• Texto general o no especializado: se da en una interacción social no marcada, por
lo que no se relaciona con un campo profesional concreto.
• Texto especializado: sería el tipo de uso de la lengua asociado con la

comunicación especializada en una amplia variedad de áreas de materias. Se
divide en lenguaje académico (propio de la comunicación establecida entre un
profesional y una institución, sería el registro más elevado) y profesional (sería
aquel en el que el emisor es un espero y el receptor otro futuro experto y éste se
divide en bidireccional o unidireccional).
• bidireccional: típico de la comunicación entre expertos (emisor y receptor

son iguales).
• unidireccional: texto didáctico, propio de la comunicación entre un

profesional y un estudiante.
• Texto divulgativo: sería típico de una situación comunicativa en el que el emisor es

un experto, semi-experto, o pseudo-experto y el receptor es un público general,
profano o no especializado.
- Funciones de los textos especializados: se distingue entre PROPÓSITO y FUNCIÓN.
• Propósito: hace referencia a la intención que el emisor quiere que tenga el texto, o
el objetivo que quiere que este cumpla.
• Función: independientemente del propósito que el emisor deseara que tuviera el

texto, la función sería el papel que finalmente desempeña ese texto en una
sociedad determinada.
- Funciones textuales:
• Función mediativa: trata de influir en el receptor, reflejaría la función apelativa del
lenguaje, es decir, persuadir: mediante la función argumentativa o persuasiva, o
incluso impositiva.
• Función expositiva: comunican información de forma relativamente aséptica,

predomina la transmisión de contenidos.
• Función expresiva: transmiten una información de manera emotiva/artística, tratan

de producir un efecto determinado en el receptor.
• Función fática o de contacto: trata de mantener la comunicación establecida entre

emisor y receptor.
- Tipos de textos:
• Textos mediativos: tratan de lograr una reacción determinada en el receptor; hay
dos tipos: argumentativos (interpretación de la información - propósito, persuadir)
e impositivos (imponen la tesis del emisor al receptor).
• Textos expresivos: propósito es deleitar al receptor.

• Textos informativos: propósito es informar mediante la transmisión de información
neutral.
• Textos fáticos: propósito es mantener la comunicación.

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• Textos híbridos: combinan varias funciones “expositivo-argumentativos”,
“argumentativo-estéticos”, etc.
RASGOS GENERALES DE LOS LENGUAJES DE ESPECIALIDAD:
- Léxico: puede ser de tres tipos:
• Léxico común o general: aparece en cualquier texto.
• Términos especializados o técnicos: los significados están definidos de forma
unívoca dentro de una teoría.
• Términos sub-técnicos: semitécnico o con vocabulario interdisciplinario. Son

unidades léxicas del lenguaje común que han adquirido uno o varios nuevos
significados dentro del campo del saber. Tienen un significado dinámico o
dependiente del contexto.
• Los términos se diferencian de las unidades léxicas del lenguaje general en que
los términos son monosémicos, mientras que las unidades léxicas son
polisémicas, ambiguas y transportan connotaciones, etc.
• Unidades sintagmáticas: combinaciones primordialmente fijas (SIDA: síndrome de

inmunodeficiencia adquirida).
• Lenguajes artificiales: utilización de símbolos semióticos alternativos, como las

siglas, los símbolos especializados como los lenguajes de programación, símbolos
de química, etc. Son establecidos por los gobiernos.
• Nominalizaciones: alta proporción de sustantivos creados a partir de verbos. Se

emplean normalmente para la formación de términos técnicos, desarrollo de
conceptos técnicos y científicos abstractos, el establecimiento de las relaciones de
causa y efecto entre sucesos, medición, comparación y ordenamiento, y la
cualificación y modificación de las descripciones y las explicaciones.
• Univocidad y denotación: se establecía que los lenguajes de especialidad tienden

a la monosemia, pero es posible que existiera la sinonimia que se emplea con
gran asiduidad en los lenguajes profesionales.
• Impersonalización: se logra a través de diversos mecanismos textuales como: el

uso de la construcción pasivo-perifrástica, el empleo de verbos y oraciones
impersonales, el uso de pasivas reflejas, el uso de sujetos inanimados, que
oculten la participación, el uso de la segunda y tercera del plural, y los verbos
“haber”, “ser”, y “hacer”. Se intenta transmitir información de forma neutral y
objetiva.
• Sintaxis: se intuye complejidad sintáctica, ejemplo: en los textos jurídicos

presentan un grado de complejidad sintáctica muy elevado.
• Formas verbales no personales: utilización de infinitivos, gerundios y participios en

la construcción absoluta o concertada.
• Funciones textuales: recurren a fórmulas textuales como la descripción, la

definición, la clasificación, la enumeración, el razonamiento, la argumentación, etc.
Defienden la función persuasiva.

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• Mecanismos referenciales extratextuales: mecanismos metatextuales de índole
semiótica (gráficos, tablas, figuras, imágenes, etc).
INGLÉS PROFESIONAL Y ACADÉMICO (IPA).
- División del IPA: English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English for Professional Purposes
(EPP), English for Occupational Purposes (EOP).
- Naturaleza del IPA: English for Specific Purposes significa la docencia ( es decir, los
cursos que se imparten sobre el inglés y sus especialidades) y el inglés que se usa en
situaciones comunicativas marcadas.
• Según Henry Widdowson, el lenguaje específico sirve para un fin específico.

• Según MACKAY y PALMER y HUTCHINSON y WATERS, el inglés para fines
específicos responde a la enseñanza de la lengua inglesa con fines utilitarios o
instrumentales.
- English for Academic Purposes EAP: se ocupa de las estrategias comunicativas de la
lengua inglesa, necesarias para realizar enseñanzas regladas dentro de una institución.
- English for Occupational Purposes EOP: se ocupa de satisfacer las necesidades de la
lengua inglesa de los profesiones. Especialmente, para los que están preparándose, los
que están desarrollando una actividad, o los que hacen cursos de reciclaje.
LA ESTILÍSTICA DEL IPA.
FASE PRESCRIPTIVA
- Son característicos de la etapa de los estudios en los que se estudian los siguientes
factores:
• Los factores determinantes de la especialidad de un texto son el grado de

especialización de su léxico y sintaxis atípica.
• Todos los textos de especialidad tienen una función informativa.

• En los textos de especialidad no se dan los recursos retóricos.
• Los textos de especialidad se caracterizan por su despersonalización pues
recurren a mecanismos gramaticales que expresan neutralidad o impersonalidad.
• Los textos de especialidad son denotativos, la connotación está ausente. Ausencia

de ambigüedad, polisemia o sinonimia.
• La gramática empleada por los textos de especialidad es clara, correcta y sencilla.

• Los textos de especialidad se caracterizan por su concisión, o ausencia de
redundancia.
EL IMPACTO DE OTROS PARADIGMAS
- Las aportaciones de algunos campos al estudio del IPA fueron:
• La lingüística sistémico-funcional y la pragmática: se centran en el sistema, no en
la estructura. Lenguaje—> sería un proceso social frente a la antigua concepción
de éste como un conjunto de reglas gramaticales.

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- Hay dos aspectos de la pragmática que han tenido un impacto directo en el
IPA: el análisis de la comunicación entendida como lenguaje de acción, y el
empleo del material auténtico.
• La lingüística cognitiva: 3 contribuciones: afirmación de que la estructura

lingüística depende de la conceptualización, el enfoque basado en el uso (no se
puede separar la función cognitiva de la comunicativa), y la concepción
enciclopédica de la semántica (ya que un diccionario no sería más que un
repertorio limitado de significados).
• Los estudios de traducción: 2 aportaciones: la afirmación de que el componente

gramatical no puede codificar todo el significado, y el que el depender el
significado de las unidades lingüísticas concretas, éste es inherente a una lengua
y a una cultura determinadas.
• La lingüística del texto y el análisis del discurso: la primera ha logrado que se

estudien y clasifiquen los textos profesionales y académicos en sus aspectos
formales y funcionales; y el análisis del discurso ha aportado el estudio de los
rasgos característicos de la comunicación oral en inglés en los ámbitos
profesionales.
FASE DESCRIPTIVA:
- Cambios fundamentales: visión funcional del lenguaje, inclusión del componente oral, el
uso del material auténtico, la relevancia del contexto comunicativo, el análisis de datos
cuantificados y el estudio de elementos textuales o discursivos superiores a la oración,
etc.
- Avances en la caracterización del IPA:
• División consolidada del inglés profesional y el académico.
• Importancia del concepto GÉNERO, que traerá clasificación en géneros,
subgéneros y tipos textuales.
• Focalización de los rasgos supraoracionales, no está limitado a su léxico o

gramática.
• Ampliación de competencias para la docencia del IPA.

• Focalización en las necesidades del destinatario y en la situación META.
• Integración metodológica del IFE en el aprendizaje del inglés como lengua
extranjera.
- Principios de los lenguajes de especialidad:

• La sinonimia y la polisemia existen en los lenguajes de especialidad que no están
exentos de ambigüedad.
• El lenguaje figurado existe en los lenguajes de especialidad.

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• Existen rasgos que los lenguajes de especialidad comparten con el lenguaje
coloquial - repetición léxica o elipsis.
• Se reconoce que no tienen una sintaxis más sencilla.

• Se estudia el lenguaje no verbal.
• Se analizan datos estadísticos sobre los aspectos supraoracionales (textualidad,
macroestructura y superestructura, modalidades discursivas, etc).
• Se estudia el papel comunicativo que desempeñan sistemas semióticos, como

elementos de referencia metatextual.
RASGOS DISTINTIVOS DEL IPA
- RASGOS LÉXICO-SINTÁCTICOS: a high density of nominal groups, usually heavily
modified, a large number of non-finite verb forms and extensive use of the passive.
Podrían aparecer IDIOMS, TAG QUESTIONS, etc.
• Monosemia/polisemia: relación unívoca.

• Abundancia del léxico de origen greco-latino - cierta transparencia interlingüística.
• Neología: léxica (de forma- carácter morfológico, consiste en creación de nuevas
unidades léxicas) y semántica (de sentido - incluyen préstamos y calcos,
metáforas, y falsos amigos).
• Neología léxica:
- Derivación: intervienen una base léxica y unos afijos (sufijos, prefijos,
afijos).
- Composición: creación de palabras compuestas por dos bases léxicas
(ejemplo, bookshop —book—shop—).
- Conversión: una misma palabra puede tener varias categorías gramaticales
( to face, a face).
- Cruce o fusión: composición mediante palabras mutiladas (brunch =
breakfast y lunch, etc).
- Condensación: formas abreviadas que provienen de siglas, acrónimos,
abreviaturas, etc.
• Neología semántica:
- Uso de metáforas: proyección de un campo conceptual a otro.
- Falsos amigos: términos cognados, es decir, palabras cuyos significantes
son similares por tener el mismo origen, pero cuyos significados se ha
alejado en el desarrollo histórico (ejemplo to realize o actual, etc).
• Rasgos sintácticos:
- Pasivización: al hablar de datos se emplea la pasiva. Al eliminar el agente
se da mayor énfasis.

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- Estructuras oracionales sencillas: uso más habitual de coordinación y
yuxtaposición en el lenguaje de especialidad, sin embargo, en los textos
jurídicos suele abundar la subordinación.
- Oraciones de relativo reducidas: omisión de pronombre relativo y
sustitución de la forma finita en una forma no finita como gerundio -ing.
- Sintagmas nominales muy largos: logran máxima eficiencia comunicativa y
precisión.
- Cláusulas no finitas: el infinitivo se emplea como complemento de
adjetivos, sustantivos y verbos. El participio aparece como adjetivo, las
formas con ING pueden ser sustantivos, aparecer tras preposiciones o
como adjetivos.
- Nominalización: transformación que reduce una oración a un sustantivo.
RASGOS TEXTUALES Y PRAGMÁTICOS:
El análisis del discurso se centra en el estudio de los rasgos característicos de la
comunicación oral en inglés propia de los lenguajes de especialidad.
La semiótica investiga los géneros y el uso del material metatextual no verbal.
La pragmática se ocupa de los rasgos del uso de los lenguajes de especialidad, entre ellos
la cortesía verbal, relación emisor-receptor, la intencionalidad, etc.
• Condiciones de textualidad: principios reguladores de la comunicación textual y las

condiciones de la textualidad:
- Intencionalidad: es la finalidad o propósito del hecho comunicativo. (mediante
pasivización, nominalización, modalidad o adverbios de opinión).
- Aceptabilidad: grado de tolerancia hacia el texto por parte del receptor. Debe
adecuarse a las convenciones de su género.
- Situacionalidad: los textos han de adecuarse a una situación comunicativa
marcada.
- Informatividad: grado de especialización que muestre el texto, el tipo, y el
género al que pertenezca.
- Intertextualidad: Determina la validez de un texto en función de su relación con
textos ya conocidos, se centra en aspectos de género.
- Coherencia: grado de conformidad a un tipo textual y género específicos. Se
centra en aspectos como la retórica de la definición, la clasificación, las
instrucciones, etc.
- Cohesión: trabazón morfosintática del texto, manifestación lingüística de la
coherencia en la organización de elementos lingüísticos.
• Género y tipo textual: convenciones formales y estilísticas - comparten: una misma

función comunicativa, un esquema organizativo similar, una modalidad discursiva
semejante, un nivel léxico-sintáctico análogo y unas convenciones socio-pragmáticas.

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• Modalidad discursiva: la narración caracteriza la acción y los acontecimientos, la
descripción crea una imagen mental mediante una representación verbal y el diálogo
es el intercambio de información entre los interlocutores.
- Discurso descriptivo: sintagmas nominales largos, oraciones en presente, etc.
- Discurso narrativo: tiempos verbales: simple past, present perfect and simple
present - función de presente histórico: narrador omnisciente.
- Discurso expositivo: técnicas de identificación, semejanza, equivalencia y
contraste (antonimia, antítesis, etc), y técnicas de inclusión o clase mediante la
escala y la composición. Además las técnicas de la exclusión mediante diversas
expresiones como MISSING, BE DEVOID OF, etc. Y las técnicas de análisis
procedimental como la expresión del origen, la expresión de causa y efecto y la
expresión del cambio.
• El discurso persuasivo: intenta influir en la conducta o pensamiento del receptor por

medio del mensaje.
• La persuasión hace uso de todos los recursos verbales y no verbales. Modalidades

más frecuentes en el IPA son: el descriptivo, el expositivo, el persuasivo y el narrativo.
• Macroestructura: puede ser primaria o secundaria; la primaria consiste en secciones de

artículo académico, título, palabras clave, etc. La secundaria está compuesta por
movimientos o moves - orientación uniforme.
• Tópicos y tematización: el tópico es la unidad sintáctico-semántica sobre la que se da o

se pide nueva información - tematización ( entonación, uso de pasivas, oraciones
truncadas o inversión sintáctica.
• Modalidad: los modofóricos nos indican la actitud del emisor de un texto o enunciado
respecto de lo que emite con relación a la verdad (modalidad epistémica), la obligación
(modalidad deóntica), el permiso (modalidad bulética) y la conveniencia (modalidad
alética).
• Cortesía verbal: es un fenómeno pragmático orientado a favorecer las relaciones

sociales entre los interlocutores y que está integrado por un conjunto de estrategias
verbales, entre las que se eligen las más adecuadas a la situación comunicativa y el
acto de habla en cuestión.
• Paralingüísticos, kinésica y proxémica: se da un importante anisomorfismo cultura: la

cultura anglosajona prefiere dejar un espacio o distancia física entre el interlocutor,
distancia que considera parte de su propia individualidad. Cuando se “viola” ese
espacio, el “agredido” lo entiende como una intromisión de su privacidad.

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INTRUCCIONES DE ESTUDIO DEL MATERIAL
- Common law vs. civil law & sources: saber las diferencias generales
entre common law systems y civil law systems. Saber el vocabulario de
la presentación.
- Differences in legal systems: conocer las diferencias fundamentales

entre el ordenamiento jurídico anglosajón y el español. Saber el
vocabulario de la presentación.
- An introduction to civil proceedings: saber el vocabulario de la

presentación.
- An introduction to criminal proceedings: saber el vocabulario de la

presentación.
- An introduction to the US legal system: estar familiarizado con el

funcionamiento básico del ordenamiento jurídico estadounidense. Saber
el vocabulario y expresiones subrayados en el texto.
- Plain English principles of clear writing: conocer los 19 principios y leer

los ejemplos.

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CIVIL
PROCEEDINGS IN
ENGLAND &
WALES
Inglés Profesional y Académico Civil proceedings

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Civil justice systems in the UK

Distinct jurisdictions:
England and Wales;
Scotland; Northern
Ireland.
Separate legal
systems, laws, courts,
prosecution services,
central authorities.
Inglés Profesional y Académico 2

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VOCABULARY

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Parties
• Parties to the suit:
Claimant (formerly plaintiff): injured
party. “Petitioner” in divorce proceedings
and some company law proceedings.
Appeal stage: appellant.
Defendant (adversary) // “Respondent” in

divorce proceedings and some company
law proceedings. Appeal stage:
respondent.
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Vocabulary
• “ACTION”: term used at the initial stage (e.g.
‘cause of action’, ‘right of action’, ‘no cause of
action’).
• “CASE”: term used beyond the initial stage (e.g.

‘the case at issue’, ‘the instant case’, ‘as in the
present case’; ‘there is no case to answer’.
• “CASE” and “LAWSUIT”: both normally

connote a civil case.

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WRONGS, TORTS &

REMEDIES

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Disputes
• Most disputes concern:
• Breach of contract
• Tort (wrongful act independent of a contract)
• Property rights
• Successions or contentious probates
• Industrial or intellectual property

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Torts
• There are several types of tort (non-contractual

civil wrong) including:
wrongs against the person only (e.g.
defamation of character, libel);
wrongs against property only (e.g. trespass);
wrongs which may be against people or
property (e.g. negligence or nuisance).

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Wrongs
• Civil courts hear cases brought by persons
who claim to have suffered some wrong,
harm or injury:
• Personal injury
• Loss of or damage to property
• Damage to reputation
• Damage to rights (infringement of rights)

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Remedies
• Claimant seeks a remedy:
 Damages. Usual remedy.
 Relief (e.g., exemption from a charge, duty or
liability).
 Account of profit(s) (assessment of profit obtained 

commercial and industrial property cases).

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CIVIL PROCEDURE RULES

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Civil Procedure Rules 1998

Measures:
1. Simplification of legal language (plain English).
2. Use of Information Technology (IT). (Not explained
here)
3. Case management. Procedural judges  strict
control of times (stages) and procedure. (Not
explained here)
4. Unification of procedure. (Not explained here)
5. Tracking (allocation of a case to a track).

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(1) Simplification of legal language
- Plaintiff  “Claimant”.
- Pleadings  “Statements of case/claim”. Careful with “particulars
of claim” (where claimant sets out details of the case; escrito de
pretensiones in Spanish).
- Affidavit  “Statement of truth”.
- Writ of summons  “claim form”.
- Leave  “Permission” (“with the permission of the court”).
- Discovery  “Disclosure”.

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(5) Tracking
Allocation of case: depends on the amount involved (amount in
dispute), the type of claim and the judge’s view of complexity of
issues involved.
Tracks:
- The small claims track (ordinary claims,
there is an amount limit for the value of the case,
simple procedural rules).
- The fast track (higher amount limit).
- The multi-track (still higher amount limit,
more complex cases).
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ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE
RESOLUTION (ADR)

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Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
(1) Mediation
A process for resolving disagreements in which
an impartial third party (the mediator) helps
people in dispute to find a mutually acceptable
resolution.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXXCIqHFfV0&fe
ature=related

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Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
(2) Arbitration
• Dispute resolution in which a neutral third party
(arbitrator) renders a decision after a hearing.
• Arbitration awards (not ‘judgments’) ARE binding
decisions.
• In commercial disputes and consumer claims.

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THE TRIAL

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The trial or hearing

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• Examination of witnesses:

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• Examination of witnesses:
 Direct examination or examination-in-
chief. (No leading questions  questions
that “lead” the witness into an answer or that
take information for granted).
 Cross examination.
 Re-examination.

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THE JUDGMENT

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The judgment
(1) Judgment for the claimant (plaintiff).
(2) Judgment for the defendant.
English law does not ‘condemn’ or ‘absolve’ defendant

 there is no question in civil matters of guilt or
innocence.
Damages or any other remedy NOT SEEN as a

punishment on the defendant but rather as his/her duty
to compensate, relieve or redress claimant for wrong
suffered.
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CRIMINAL
PROCEEDINGS IN
ENGLAND &
WALES
Inglés Profesional y Académico Criminal proceedings

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Criminal Justice systems in the UK

Distinct jurisdictions:
England and Wales;
Scotland; Northern
Ireland.
Separate legal
systems, laws, courts,
prosecution services,
central authorities.
Criminal proceedings 2
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Useful terms
• Suspect (not yet subject of formal criminal
proceedings).
• Defendant (person who has been charged or

summoned).
• Offender (person who has admitted guilt or has

been found guilty).
Criminal proceedings Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

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Useful terms
• To plead guilty/not guilty. Declararse
culpable/inocente.
• Verdict. Veredicto.
• To be found guilty/not guilty. Declarar a
alguien culpable/inocente.
• To be convicted/acquitted. Ser
condenado/absuelto.
• To be sentenced. Ser condenado.
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The basics
• CRIME/OFFENCE: “commission of an act forbidden by law
or omission of a duty commanded by law”
• CRIME/OFFENCE: • CIVIL WRONG/TORT:

Criminal proceedings Civil proceedings
(the CPS, at the request (the injured party brings
of police, prosecutes the an action to claim e.g. for
suspect or accused) damages)
The Crown Claimant

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Major features of criminal proceedings

UK – Common Law Continental Law
Accusatorial procedure Inquisitorial procedure
• Examining magistrate.
•Adversarial British law: judge
 Important role:
takes no part in • Interviews witnesses.
investigation/litigation, only: • Examines evidence in
• applies the law; advance.
• decides the contest;
• sees that justice is done.
•2 sides:
Counsel for the defence
Counsel for the prosecution
•Jury (verdict).
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Major features of criminal proceedings

• Criminal law NOT organised into a “code”: extremely
diffuse arrangement of statutes and statutory
instruments constantly updated.
• No longer distinction by name between serious and

minor or relatively minor crimes. All crimes referred to
as “offences”, but distinction seen in sentences
imposed.
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Investigation and prosecution of crimes

Prosecution of crime NOT the responsibility of courts
or the judiciary:
- No examining magistrate (juez instructor), no continental-style
inquisitorial procedure.
- It is the police who investigate criminal offences and bring

charges in the name of the Crown.
- Once a suspected person is charged with a criminal offence the

case is taken over by the CPS (which works with the police in
preparing the case), which conducts the prosecution.
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CRIMINAL
PROCEEDINGS
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Criminal proceedings: Offences

• Types of offence
1. Summary offences (lesser crimes, e.g. motoring
offences). “Petty offences” in American English.
2. Indictable offences (serious or very serious
crimes). “Felonies” in American English.
3. Offences triable either way (‘either way
offences’: intermediate offences). E.g. theft.
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CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS
& COURTS
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A typical trial: Magistrates’ Court
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A typical courtroom: Crown Court
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Criminal proceedings: Final/Closing speech
• The jury must be satisfied “beyond a reasonable

doubt” (“so that you are really sure”):
• Yes (conviction) -> judge will pass sentence.

• No (acquittal).
• I’m not sure (acquittal) [in dubio pro reo]
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SENTENCE
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Conviction and sentence
• Sentence: decision for judge (penalty

imposed).
• Prosecutor’s role: to draw court’s

attention to any aggravating or mitigating
factors, etc.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE U.S. LEGAL SYSTEM

“De acuerdo con su constitución, los Estados Unidos de América son una nación formada
por un estado federal (federal government) y por cincuenta estados federados (state
government). El sistema jurídico-político norteamericano es, por tanto, un sistema federal
en el que existen dos niveles de soberanía (sovereignty) o de poder político compartido: el
federal y de cada uno de los cincuenta estados federados. Esta dualidad en el ordenamiento
político norteamericano ha generado estructuras de poder político paralelas en el seno de
cada uno de los tres poderes del Estado (branches of government): el legislativo (the
legislative 1), el ejecutivo (the executive)y el judicial (the judiciary). El poder legislativo
federal reside en el Congreso de los Estados Unidos, y el de cada uno de los estados, en sus
respectivas asambleas legislativas (legislatures); el poder ejecutivo de los Estados Unidos
lo ostenta (is held by) el Presidente de los Estados Unidos, y en los estados, cada uno de
sus gobernadores. Existe una judicatura federal (US Courts) y cincuenta judicaturas
estatales (State courts) (…). Además, cada uno de los estados tiene su propia Constitución
estatal.”
[Fuente: adaptado de Alcaraz Varó, E.; Campos Pardillos, M.A. y Miguélez, C. (2006, 3ª ed.), El inglés
jurídico norteamericano. Ariel, págs. 12-13]
Lea la siguiente información sobre el ordenamiento

jurídico de EEUU. Este material se reproduce previa
concesión del permiso legal.
Preste especial atención a las expresiones o términos
subrayados y trate de aprenderlos, pues son muy
frecuentes en inglés jurídico. Si le son desconocidos,
busque su significado.
Fuente: adaptado de http://www.uscourts.gov/Home.aspx
Introduction
The judicial system in the United States is unique insofar as it is actually made up of two
different court systems: the federal court system and the state court systems. While each
court system is responsible for hearing certain types of cases, neither is completely
independent of the other, and the systems often interact.
Overview of Key Concepts

• The Constitution created a government structure known as federalism, which
requires the sharing of power between the federal government and the governments
of each of the 50 states.
• Under federalism, there are two types of court systems—federal and state. Federal
courts have jurisdiction over issues mentioned or implied in the Constitution. The
1
En inglés británico, legislature.

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state courts have jurisdiction over matters not mentioned in the Constitution and
those not specifically denied to the states by the Constitution.
• The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allows the federal courts to become
involved in cases arising in state courts.
• The Constitution established three branches of government - the legislative,
executive, and judicial. Courts are the judicial branch. Courts have the authority to
interpret the law based on the Constitution without pressure from the other two
branches.
• Federal courts have the power of judicial review. This means they can review acts of
Congress and actions of the President to ensure that they are permitted by the
Constitution. If they are not, the Supreme Court of the United States declares such
acts or actions unconstitutional, and they do not have the force of law.
• The federal courts hear both civil and criminal cases. Civil cases involve disputes
between private individuals, such as contract disputes. Criminal cases
involve offenses2 against the whole community or society, such as murder. Courts
follow different procedures in civil and criminal cases.
• Within the federal and state court systems, there are two levels—trial courts and
appellate courts. Trial courts, called U.S. District Courts, are courts of original
jurisdiction. They are the first courts to hear either a civil or criminal case. There are
94 U.S. District Courts in the United States—at least one U.S. District Court in every
state. Some larger states, such as California and Texas, have as many as four.
• If parties are not satisfied with the decision of a trial court, they may ask
an appellate court, called a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, to review the trial court
decision. There are 13 U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals in the United States, and most
of these courts cover a geographical area that encompasses several states. Usually, a
three-judge panel sits on a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
• If parties are not satisfied with the decision of the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals,
they may appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. The Supreme Court
selects the cases it will hear. The Supreme Court is the final interpreter of the U.S.
Constitution because it is the highest court in the land.
• The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. It consists of nine judges,
called justices, and is presided over by the Chief Justice. The Court usually hears
appeals from the U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals and, if a federal question has been
raised, from the various state courts. Unlike the U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals, the
U.S. Supreme Court has "discretionary jurisdiction," meaning that it decides which
cases it will hear. In fact, it usually decides to hear fewer than 150 of the some 7,000
cases that it is asked to review each year.
• When a jury is present in either a criminal or civil trial, it decides the facts of the
case and the judge determines the law. When a jury is not present, the judge is
both the trier of fact and the determiner of law. In the federal court system, civil
juries usually consist of six persons; criminal juries consist of 12. Criminal juries
must deliver a unanimous verdict in order to convict. They must find the defendant
guilty "beyond a reasonable doubt." In order to find someone liable in a civil case, a
civil jury must base its decision only on a "preponderance of the evidence"—
meaning that one party's story seems more true than not.
2
In British English, “offences”.

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Are There Two Court Systems in the United States?

The U.S. Constitution created a governmental structure for the United States known as federalism.
Federalism refers to a sharing of powers between the national government and the state
governments. The Constitution gives certain powers to the federal government and reserves the
rest for the states. Therefore, while the Constitution states that the federal government is supreme
with regard to those powers expressly or implicitly delegated to it, the states remain supreme
in matters reserved to them. This supremacy of each government in its own sphere is known
as separate sovereignty, meaning each government is sovereign in its own right.
For example, since the Constitution gives Congress sole authority to make uniform laws concerning
bankruptcies, a state court would lack jurisdiction in this matter. Likewise, since the Constitution
does not give the federal government authority in most matters concerning the regulation of the
family, a federal court would lack jurisdiction in a divorce case.
FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM
The term federal court can actually refer to one of two types of courts. The first type of court is
what is known as an Article III court. These courts get their name from the fact that they derive
their power from Article III of the Constitution. These courts include (1) the U.S. District Courts,
(2) the U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeal, and (3) the U.S. Supreme Court. They also include two special
courts: (a) the U.S. Court of Claims and (b) the U.S. Court of International Trade. These courts are
special because, unlike the other courts, they are not courts of general jurisdiction. Courts of
general jurisdiction can hear almost any case. All judges of Article III courts are appointed by the
President of the United States with the advice and consent of the Senate and hold office during
good behavior.
1. U.S. Court of Claims: This court sits in Washington, D.C., and handles cases
involving suits against the government.
2. U.S. Court of International Trade: This court sits in New York and handles cases
involving tariffs and international trade disputes.
The second type of court also is established by Congress. These courts are (1) magistrate courts, (2)
bankruptcy courts, (3) the U.S. Court of Military Appeals, (4) the U.S. Tax Court, and (5) the U.S.
Court of Veterans' Appeals. The judges of these courts are appointed by the President with the
advice and consent of the Senate. They hold office for a set number of years, usually about 15.
Magistrate and bankruptcy courts are attached to each U.S. District Court. The U.S. Court of
Military Appeals, U.S. Tax Court, and U.S. Court of Veterans' Appeals are called Article I or
legislative courts.
1. Magistrate judges: These judges handle certain criminal and civil matters, often with
the consent of the parties.
2. Bankruptcy courts: These courts handle cases arising under the Bankruptcy Code.
3. U.S. Court of Military Appeals: This court is the final appellate court for cases arising
under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
4. U.S. Tax Court: This court handles cases arising over alleged tax deficiencies.
5. U.S. Court of Veterans' Appeals: This court handles certain cases arising from the
denial of veterans' benefits.
U.S. District Courts
There are 94 U.S. District Courts in the United States. Every state has at least one district court,
and some large states, such as California, have as many as four. Each district court has between 2
and 28 judges. The U.S. District Courts are trial courts, or courts of original jurisdiction. This
means that most federal cases begin here. U.S. District Courts hear both civil and criminal cases. In

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many cases, the judge determines issues of law, while the jury (or judge sitting without a
jury) determines findings of fact.
U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeal
There are 13 U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeal in the United States. These courts are divided into 12
regional circuits and sit in various cities throughout the country. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the
Federal Circuit (the 13th Court) sits in Washington. With the exception of criminal cases in which
a defendant is found not guilty, any party who is dissatisfied with the judgment of a U.S. District
Court (or the findings of certain administrative agencies) may appeal to the U.S. Circuit Court of
Appeal in his/her geographical district. These courts will examine the trial record for only mistakes
of law; the facts have already been determined by the U.S. District Court. Therefore, the court
usually will neither review the facts of the case nor take any additional evidence. When hearing
cases, these courts usually sit in panels of three judges.
U.S. Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of the United States sits at the apex of the federal court system. It is made up of
nine judges, known as justices, and is presided over by the Chief Justice. It sits in Washington, D.C.
Parties who are not satisfied with the decision of a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeal (or, in rare cases, of
a U.S. District Court) or a state supreme court can petition the U.S. Supreme Court to hear their
case. This is done mainly by a legal procedure known as a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari (cert.).
The Court decides whether to accept such cases. Each year, the Court accepts between 100 and 150
of the some 7,000 cases it is asked to hear for argument. The cases typically fit within general
criteria for oral arguments. Four justices must agree to hear the case (grant cert). While primarily
an appellate court, the Court does have original jurisdiction over cases involving ambassadors and
two or more states.
STATE COURT SYSTEM
No two state court systems are exactly alike. Nevertheless, there are sufficient similarities to
provide an example of what a typical state court system looks like. Most state court systems are
made up of (1) two sets of trial courts: (a) trial courts of limited jurisdiction (probate, family, traffic,
etc.) and (b) trial courts of general jurisdiction (main trial-level courts); (2) intermediate appellate
courts (in many, but not all, states); and (3) the highest state courts (called by various names).
Unlike federal judges, most state court judges are not appointed for life but are either elected or
appointed (or a combination of both) for a certain number of years.
Trial Courts of Limited Jurisdiction
Trial courts of limited jurisdiction are courts that deal with only specific types of cases. They are
often located in/near the county courthouse and are usually presided over by a single judge.
A judge sitting without a jury hears most of the cases heard by these courts. Some examples of trial
courts of limited jurisdiction include:
1. Probate court: This court handles matters concerning administering the estate of a person
who has died (decedent). It sees that the provisions of a will are carried out or sees that a
decedent's property is distributed according to state law if he/she died intestate (without a
will).
2. Family court: This court handles matters concerning adoption, annulments, divorce,
alimony, custody, child support, etc.
3. Traffic court: This court usually handles minor violations of traffic laws.
4. Juvenile court: This court usually handles cases involving delinquent children under a
certain age, for example, 18 or 21.

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5. Small claims court: This court usually handles suits between private persons of a relatively
low dollar amount, for example, less than $5,000.
6. Municipal court: This court usually handles cases involving offenses against city ordinances.
Trial Courts of General Jurisdiction
Trial courts of general jurisdiction are the main trial courts in the state system. They hear cases
outside the jurisdiction of the trial courts of limited jurisdiction. These involve both civil and
criminal cases. One judge (often sitting with a jury) usually hears them. In such cases, the judge
decides issues of law, while the jury decides issues of fact. A record of the proceeding is made and
may be used on appeal. These courts are called by a variety of names, including (1) circuit courts,
(2) superior courts, (3) courts of common pleas, (4) and even, in New York, supreme courts. In
certain cases, these courts can hear appeals from trial courts of limited jurisdiction.
Intermediate Appellate Courts
Many, but not all, states have intermediate appellate courts between the trial courts of general
jurisdiction and the highest court in the state. Any party, except in a case where a defendant in a
criminal trial has been found not guilty, who is not satisfied with the judgment of a state trial court
may appeal the matter to an appropriate intermediate appellate court. Such appeals are usually a
matter of right (meaning the court must hear them). However, these courts address only
alleged procedural mistakes and errors of law made by the trial court. They will usually
neither review the facts of the case, which have been established during the trial, nor accept
additional evidence. These courts usually sit in panels of two or three judges.
Highest State Courts
All states have some sort of highest court. While they are usually referred to as supreme courts,
some, such as the highest court in Maryland, are known as courts of appeal. In states with
intermediate appellate courts, the highest state courts usually have discretionary review as
to whether to accept a case. In states without intermediate appellate courts, appeals may usually be
taken to the highest state court as a matter of right. Like the intermediate appellate courts, appeals
taken usually allege a mistake of law and not fact. In addition, many state supreme courts have
original jurisdiction in certain matters. For example, the highest courts in several states have
original jurisdiction over controversies regarding elections and the reapportionment of legislative
districts. These courts often sit in panels of three, five, seven, or nine judges/justices.
COMPARING FEDERAL AND STATE COURTS
The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the land in the United States. It creates a federal
system of government in which power is shared between the federal government and the state
governments. Due to federalism, both the federal government and each of the state governments
have their own court systems.

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The Federal Court System The State Court System

STRUCTURE
• Article III of the Constitution invests the judicial • The Constitution and laws of each state establish
power of the United States in the federal court system. the state courts. A court of last resort, often known as a
Article III, Section 1 specifically creates the U.S. Supreme Supreme Court, is usually the highest court. Some states
Court and gives Congress the authority to create the lower also have an intermediate Court of Appeals. Below these
federal courts. appeals courts are the state trial courts. Some are referred
to as Circuit or District Courts.
• Congress has used this power to establish the 13 • States also usually have courts that handle specific
U.S. Courts of Appeals, the 94 U.S. District Courts, the U.S. legal matters, e.g., probate court (wills and estates); juvenile
Court of Claims, and the U.S. Court of International Trade. court; family court; etc.
U.S. Bankruptcy Courts handle bankruptcy cases.
Magistrate Judges handle some District Court matters.
• Parties dissatisfied with a decision of a U.S. • Parties dissatisfied with the decision of the trial
District Court, the U.S. Court of Claims, and/or the U.S. court may take their case to the intermediate Court of
Court of International Trade may appeal to a U.S. Court of Appeals.
Appeals.
• A party may ask the U.S. Supreme Court to review • Parties have the option to ask the highest state
a decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals, but the Supreme court to hear the case.
Court usually is under no obligation to do so. The U.S.
Supreme Court is the final arbiter of federal constitutional
questions.
• Only certain cases are eligible for review by the

U.S. Supreme Court.
SELECTION OF JUDGES
The Constitution states that federal judges are to be State court judges are selected in a variety of ways,
nominated by the President and confirmed by the including
Senate.
• election,
They hold office during good behavior, typically, for life.
Through Congressional impeachment proceedings, federal • appointment for a given number of years,
judges may be removed from office for misbehavior. • appointment for life, and
• combinations of these methods, e.g., appointment
followed by election.
TYPES OF CASES HEARD
• Cases that deal with the constitutionality of a law; • Most criminal cases, probate (involving wills and
estates).
• Cases involving the laws and treaties of the U.S.;
• Ambassadors and public ministers;
• Most contract cases, tort cases (personal injuries),
family law (marriages, divorces, adoptions), etc.
• Disputes between two or more states; State courts are the final arbiters of state laws and
• Admiralty law, and constitutions. Their interpretation of federal law or the U.S.
Constitution may be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
• Bankruptcy. The Supreme Court may choose to hear or not to hear such
cases.
ARTICLE I COURTS
Congress has created several Article I or legislative
courts that do not have full judicial power. Judicial
power is the authority to be the final decider in all questions
of Constitutional law, all questions of federal law and to
hear claims at the core of habeas corpus issues.
• Article I courts are U.S. Court of Veterans'
Appeals, the U.S. Court of Military Appeals, and the U.S.
Tax Court.

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JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS
The jurisdiction of the federal courts is spelled out in Article III, Section 2, of the United States
Constitution. Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction because they can hear only two main
types of cases:
1. Diversity of Citizenship
Federal courts can have jurisdiction over a case of a civil nature in which parties are residents of
different states and the amount in question exceeds the amount set by federal law (currently
$75,000). The federal courts are often required to apply state law when dealing with these cases
since the issues concern matters of state law. The fact that the parties are from different states and
that the amount in question is high enough is what manages to get such cases into federal court.
2. Federal Question
Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases that arise under the U.S. Constitution, the laws of the
United States, and the treaties made under the authority of the United States. These issues are the
sole prerogative of the federal courts and include the following types of cases:
a) Suits between states. Cases in which two or more states are a party.
b) Cases involving ambassadors and other high-ranking public figures.
c) Federal crimes. Crimes defined by or mentioned in the U.S. Constitution or those defined
and/or punished by federal statute. Such crimes include treason against the United States,
piracy, counterfeiting, crimes against the law of nations, and crimes relating to the federal
government's authority to regulate interstate commerce. However, most crimes are state
matters.
d) Bankruptcy. The statutory procedure, usually triggered by insolvency, by which a person is
relieved of most debts and undergoes a judicially supervised reorganization or liquidation
for the benefit of the person's creditors.
e) Patent, copyright, and trademark cases
(1) Patent. The exclusive right to make, use, or sell an invention for a specified period
(usually 17 years), granted by the federal government to the inventor if the device or
process is novel, useful, and non-obvious.
(2) Copyright. The body of law relating to a property right in an original work of
authorship (such as a literary, musical, artistic, photographic, or film work) fixed in any
tangible medium of expression, giving the holder the exclusive right to reproduce, adapt,
distribute, perform, and display the work.
(3) Trademark. A word, phrase, logo, or other graphic symbol used by a manufacturer
or seller to distinguish its product or products from those of others.
f) Admiralty. The system of jurisprudence that has grown out of the practice of admiralty
courts: courts that exercise jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts, injuries, and
offenses.
g) Antitrust. The body of law designed to protect trade and commerce from restraining
monopolies, price fixing, and price discrimination.
h) Securities and banking regulation. The body of law protecting the public by regulating the
registration, offering, and trading of securities and the regulation of banking practices.
i) Other cases specified by federal statute. Any other cases specified by an applicable federal
statute.

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In addition, the federal courts have jurisdiction over several other types of cases arising from acts
of Congress. For example, the courts have jurisdiction in a wide variety of (1) civil rights, (2) labor
relations, and (3) environmental cases. While these laws provide a "floor" for the states, they do not
provide a "ceiling." If states regulate more extensively in these areas than the federal government,
then state courts also will have jurisdiction in these areas.
JURISDICTION OF THE STATE COURTS
The jurisdiction of the state courts extends to basically any type of case that does not fall within the
exclusive jurisdiction of the federal courts. State courts are common-law courts. This means that
they not only have the authority to apply or interpret the law, but they often have the authority to
create law if it does not yet exist by act of the legislature to create an equitable remedy to a specific
legal problem. Examples of cases within the jurisdiction of the state courts usually include the
following:
1. Cases involving the state constitution. Cases involving the interpretation of a state
constitution.
2. State criminal offenses. Crimes defined and/or punished by the state constitution or
applicable state statute. Most crimes are state criminal offenses. They include offenses such
as murder, theft, breaking and entering, and destruction of property.
3. Tort and personal injury law. Civil wrongs for which a remedy may be obtained, usually in
the form of damages; a breach of duty that the law imposes on everyone in the same
relation to one another as those involved in a given transaction.
4. Contract law. Agreements between two or more parties creating obligations that are
either enforceable or otherwise recognized as law.
5. Probate. The judicial process by which a testamentary document is established to be a valid
will, the proving of a will to the satisfaction of a court, the distribution of a decedent's assets
according to the provisions of the will, or the process whereby a decedent's assets are
distributed according to state law should the decedent have died intestate.
6. Family. The body of law dealing with marriage, divorce, adoption, child custody and
support, and domestic-relations issues.
7. Sale of goods. The law concerning the sale of goods (moveable objects) involved in
commerce (especially with regards to the Uniform Commercial Code).
8. Corporations and business organization. The law concerning, among other things, the
establishment, dissolution, and asset distribution of corporations, partnerships, limited
partnerships, limited liability companies, etc.
9. Election issues. The law concerning voter registration, voting in general, legislative
reapportionment, etc.
10. Municipal/zoning ordinances. The law involving municipal ordinances, including zoning
ordinances that set aside certain areas for residential, commercial, industrial, or other
development.
11. Traffic regulation. A prescribed rule of conduct for traffic; a rule intended to promote the
orderly and safe flow of traffic.
12. Real property. Land and anything growing on, attached to, or erected on it, excluding
anything that may be severed without injury to the land.

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AREAS OF CONCURRENT JURISDICTION FOR FEDERAL AND STATE COURTS
In addition to areas in which the states have regulated on a matter more extensively than the
federal government, state courts have concurrent jurisdiction with federal courts concerning the
following points of law:
1. Diversity of Citizenship. In civil cases involving citizens of two or more states in which the
dollar amount in question exceeds $75,000, a state court may hear the case if the defendant
in the case does not petition to have the case removed to federal court. Furthermore, if a
civil case involves two or more citizens of different states but the amount in question does
not exceed $75,000, the case must be heard by a state court.
2. Federal Question: Any state court may interpret the U.S. Constitution, federal statute,
treaty, etc., if the applicable Constitutional provision, statute, or treaty has direct bearing on
a case brought in state court under a state law. However, by interpreting the U.S.
Constitution, federal statute, or treaty, the state is subjecting itself to federal review. This
means that after a state supreme court has acted on a case, the U.S. Supreme Court may
review it. In such instances, the U.S. Supreme Court is concerned only with reviewing the
state court's interpretation of the applicable federal Constitutional provision, statute, or
treaty. It does not review any matters of law that are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
state courts.
Una vez haya leído este material, vaya a la página web que se indica
a continuación y lea el material (no examinable):
http://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/get-informed/federal-court-basics.aspx
Para aquellos alumnos que deseen profundizar en el ordenamiento

jurídico norteamericano y las peculiaridades de su lenguaje,
recomendamos leer (como material no examinable):
Alcaraz Varó, E.; Campos Pardillos, M.A. y Miguélez, C. (2006, 3ª ed.), El inglés
jurídico norteamericano. Ariel.
Además, resultan muy útiles las siguientes páginas

http://tenant.net/Court/Legsystm/uslawsum.html
http://litigation.findlaw.com/legal-system/introduction-to-the-u-s-legal-system.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States
http://people.howstuffworks.com/judicial-system.htm
http://law.duke.edu/lib/researchguides/usleg

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COMMON LAW SYSTEMS VS. CIVIL

LAW SYSTEMS
THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH LAW
COMMON LAW SYSTEMS VS. CIVIL LAW Inglés Profesional y

SYSTEMS. SOURCES OF ENGLISH
Downloaded by Elena LAW
Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru) Académico
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Law systems
(Source: Wikipedia. Author: Javitomad. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_%28legal_system%29)
2
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Common law systems

(Source: Wikimedia. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Common_law_world.png#file)
3
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Common law systems vs. civil law systems
List of country legal systems:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cou
ntry_legal_systems#Civil_law_and_co
mmon_law
4
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Common law systems

- Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and/or
tribunals. It is very pragmatic: the law can be developed on a case-by-case
basis and it is not necessary to wait for Parliament to pass an Act.
- Court decisions are considered law (case law) and have the same force as any
law passed by Parliament (statutory law). Law passed by Parliament
- Leading cases set a precedent which is binding (=obligatory): the precedent

binds future decision on the principle of stare decisis (similar cases should be
decided in such a way they reach similar results  it would be unfair to treat
similar facts differently on different occasions.
- Decisions by appelate courts are binding on lower courts and on future

decisions of the same appellate court, but decisions of lower courts are
persuasive authority. Not binding
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law
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Civil law systems

- Civil law systems are also called “code” systems or “codified”
systems. They “write” (=“codify”) law) and apply it.
- There is generally a written constitution as well as specific codes

(e.g., civil code, criminal code, commercial code, etc.).
- There is little scope for case law (in practice judges tend to follow
previous judicial decisions of the higher courts).
- Constitutional and administrative courts can annul laws and

regulations.
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_%28legal_system%29
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The sources of English law

1. COMMON LAW (custom + case law).
2. EQUITY: formerly administered by the Lord Chancellor. Based on

basic principles of fairness and justice.
3. STATUTE LAW: law passed by Parliament (acts/statutes;

statutory instruments or SIs).
4. EU LEGISLATION + INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS (must

be formally incorporated into English law before courts are
obliged to apply them; e.g. European Convention on Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms –ECHR-, 1950  Human
Rights Act 1998).
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COMMON LAW
8
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Common law
• THERE IS NO STATUTE MAKING MURDER
ILLEGAL. It is a common law crime, so there is no
written Act of Parliament making murder illegal.
• Common law, however, can be amended by

Parliament.
 Example: murder carries a mandatory life sentence today, but
previously allowed the death penalty.
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STATUTE LAW
10
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Statute law
Also “enacted law”
• Written laws or legislation passed by Parliament.
• Types:
 (1) Acts of Parliament (statutes)
 (2) Delegated legislation (Statutory Instruments or
SIs: ministerial orders, regulations, rules, local bye-
laws, etc.). Approx.3,000 each year.
• On the increase the last few years.

11
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Statute law
• Legislation since devolution (“the moving
of power or responsibility from a central
government to a local government”) forms
several separate entities:
United Kingdom legislation: applies to the
whole UK.
Scottish legislation.
Welsh legislation (Statutory Instruments only).
Northern Irish legislation.
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Statute law
STAGES OF AN ACT:
draft (bill)  bill  act / statute
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CASE LAW
14
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Case law
Body of law created by judges’

decisions on individual cases.
Also called “judge-made law”
15
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Case law
• CONTINENTAL SYSTEM: judges apply the law.
• ENGLISH SYSTEM: judges apply the law BUT

also make the law.
- Judges apply their KNOWLEDGE OF LEGAL

PRECEDENT to the facts before them (+ statute
law, of course).
16
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Legal systems:
Spain vs.
England & Wales
Inglés Profesional y Académico IPA

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JURISDICTIONS
SPAIN:
Commercial (mercantile)
law is starting to be
considered a jurisdiction in
itself.
Civil, criminal, administrative,

industrial (labour/employment).
ENGLAND & WALES:

Civil and criminal.
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SPAIN:
Inquisitorial procedure (judges take part
in the investigation:
investigating/examining judges).
Crown
ENGLAND & WALES: Prosecution

Service
Accusatorial procedure. Judges DO

NOT become involved in investigation
of the crime (police + CPS).
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SPAIN:
Small percentage of cases dealt
with by Justices of the Peace
(JPs, who are lay). Do not have a law
degree
ENGLAND & WALES:

95% of all criminal cases dealt
with by magistrates.
UNPAID and LAY.
4
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SPAIN:
Single court system.
Passed by Parliament
They are traditional and have
ENGLAND & WALES: existed for some time.
Twofold court system: courts and

tribunals (Asylum and
Immigration; Employment; Lands;
Transport, etc.).
5
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SPAIN: Judge-made law
Case law not a source of law: only complementary source

(“persuasive authority”).
Section 1.1. Civil Code, sources of law: (statute) law,
custom & general principles of law (+Treaties of the EU,
International treaties of which Spain is a signatory country,
Constitution)
ENGLAND & WALES:

Case law is a major source of law. Judicial precedents are
binding: obligatory character.
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SPAIN:
Common law is not a source
of law.
ENGLAND & WALES:

Common law is a major source
of law.
7
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SPAIN:
Codified law: civil & penal codes,
amongst others.
ENGLAND & WALES:

No codes (civil or criminal).
8
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SPAIN:
Written constitution.
ENGLAND & WALES:
Unwritten constitution (but
documents that are regarded as
such: Magna Carta 1215, Bill of
Rights 1689, etc.).
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SPAIN:
No Spanish court is final court of
appeal for ex-colonies.
ENGLAND & WALES:

Judicial Committee of Privy Council is
final court of appeal for UK Overseas
Territories, Crown Dependencies and
Commonwealth countries.
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SPAIN:
Career judiciary: competitive
examination (with a few exceptions).
ENGLAND & WALES:

No career judiciary  judges selected
from solicitors or barristers who have
gained experience & the respect of their
colleagues (standing). Judges are or
have been practising solicitors or
barristers.
11
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SPAIN:
“Magistrados” are higher-rank
(senior) judges.
ENGLAND & WALES:

Magistrates are lay and unpaid.
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RUBÉN PAREJA PINILLA sábado, 21 de noviembre de 2015
IPA 1
The Legal system

- Common law: is a law developed by judges through decisions of courts and/or tribunals. It is
not necessary to wait for Parliament to pass an ACT.
- Court decisions: are considered law (case law) and have the same force as any law passed
by Parliament (statutory law).
- Statutory Law: law passed by Parliament.
- Precedent: binds future decision on the principle of stare decisis (similar cases should be
decided in such a way they reach similar results).
- Decisions by appelate courts are binding on lower courts and on future decisions of the same
appellate court, but decisions of lower courts are persuasive authority (NOT BINDING).
- Civil law systems are also called CODE system or CODIFIED system.
• There is generally a written constitution as well as specific codes such as civil code,
criminal code, etc.
• There is little scope for case law.

• Constitutional and administrative courts can annul laws and regulations.
- COMMON LAW: custom + case law
• There is no statute making murder illegal. It is a common law crime.
• Can be amended by Parliament.
- EQUITY: administered by Lord Chancellor. Based on basic principles of fairness and justice.
- STATUTE LAW: law passed by Parliament (acts/statutes, etc).
• Enacted law
• Written laws or legislation passed by Parliament such as: acts of parliament (statutes),
delegated legislation [ministerial orders, regulations, rules, etc]).
• On the increase the last few years.

• Legislation since devolution: the moving of power or responsibility from a central
government to a local government) there is several separate entities:
- United Kingdom legislation: whole UK.
- Scottish legislation.
- Welsh legislation.
- Northern Irish legislation.
• Stages of an act: draft —> bill —> act / statute
- EU LEGISLATION + INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS: must be formally incorporated into
English law before courts are obliged to apply them.

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- CASE LAW: body of law created by judges’ decisions on individual cases. Also called judge-
made law.
• Continental system: judges apply the law.

• English system: judges apply the law but also make the law.
• Judges apply their KNOWLEDGE OF LEGAL PRECEDENT to the facts before them.
LEGAL SYSTEMS: SPAIN vs ENGLAND & WALES.
SPAIN JURISDICTIONS ENGLAND AND WALES JURISDICTIONS
- Civil, criminal, administrative, industrial (labour/ - Civil and criminal.

employment) and commercial (mercantile) law is - Accusatorial procedure: Judges DO NOT
starting to be considered a jurisdiction in itself. became involved in investigation of the crime
- Inquisitorial procedure (judges take part in the (police + Crown Prosecution Service).
investigation: investigating / examining judges). - 95% of all criminal cases dealt with by
- Small percentage of cases dealt with by Justices magistrates. Unpaid and lay.
of the Peace. - Twofold court system: courts (are traditional and
- Single court system. have existed for some time) and tribunals
- Case law (judge-made law) only complementary (passed by Parliament, Asylum and Immigration,
source (persuasive authority). Civil code, Employment, Lands, Transport, etc).
sources of law, Treaties of the EU, International - Case law is a major source of law. Judicial
treaties of which Spain is a signatory country, precedents are binding: obligatory character.
Constitution). - Common law is a major source of law.
- Common law is not a source of law. - No codes (civil or criminal)
- Codified law: civil & penal codes, amongst - Unwritten constitution (but documents that are
others. regarded as such: Magna Carta 1215, Bill of
- Written constitution. Right 1689, etc).
- No Spanish court is final court of appeal for ex- - Judicial Committee of Privy Council is final court
colonies. of appeal for UK Overseas Territories, Crown
- Career judiciary: competitive examination ( with Dependencies and Commonwealth countries.
a few exceptions). - No career judiciary —> judges selected from
- Magistrados are higher-rank (senior) judges. solicitors or barristers who have gained
experience & the respect of their colleagues
(standing). Judges are or have been practising
solicitors or barristers.
- Magistrates are lay and unpaid.
CIVIL PROCEEDINGS IN ENGLAND AND WALES

- Jurisdictions: England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland.
- Separate legal systems, laws, courts, prosecution services, central authorities.
PARTIES
- Claimant: formerly plaintiff: injured party. Petitioner in divorce proceedings. Appeal stage:
appellant.
- Defendant: adversary // Respondent in divorce proceedings. Appeal stage: respondent.
- Action: term used at the initial stage. ex: cause of action, no cause of action, etc.

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- Case: term used beyond the initial stage: ex: the case at issue, there is no case to answer,
etc.
- Case and Lawsuit: connote a civil case.
DISPUTES:
- Concern: breach of contract, tort (wrongful act independent of a contact), property rights,
successions or contentious probates, and industrial or intellectual property.
TORTS:
- There are several types of tort (non-contractual civil wrong) including: wrongs against the
person only (defamation, etc); wrongs against property only (trespass); wrongs which may be
against people or property (negligence).
WRONGS:
- Civil courts hear cases brought by persons who claim to have suffered some wrong, harm or
injury: personal injury, loss of or damage to property, damage to reputation, damage to rights
(infringement of rights).
REMEDIES:
- Claimant seeks a remedy: damages - usual remedy, relief, account of profit (assessment of
profit obtained commercial and industrial property cases).
CIVIL PROCEDURE RULES 1998.
- Measures: Simplification of legal language (plain English); use of information technology; case
management (procedural judges —>strict control of times and procedure); unification of
procedure and tracking (allocation of a case to a track).
- Tracking: allocation of case: depends on the amount involved (amount in dispute), the type of
claim and the judge’s view of complexity of issues involved.
• Small claims track (ordinary claims); the fast track (higher amount limit); the multi-track
(still higher amount limit, more complex cases).
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION (ADR)
- Mediation: a process for resolving disagreements in which an impartial third party (the
mediator) helps people in dispute to find a mutually acceptable resolution.
- Arbitration: Dispute resolution in which a neutral third party (arbitrator) renders a decision after
a hearing. Arbitrary awards are binding decisions. In commercial disputes and consumer
claims.
THE TRIAL OR HEARING:
- Examination of witnesses: direct examination or examination-in chief; cross examination or re-
examination.
THE JUDGEMENT:
- Judgement for the claimant (plaintiff)
- Judgement for the defendant.
- English law does not condemn or absolve defendant —> there is no question in civil matters
of guilt or innocence.

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- Damages or any other remedy not seen as a punishment on the defendant but rather as his/
her duty to compensate, relieve or redress claimant for wrong suffered.
CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
- Suspect: not yet subject of formal criminal proceedings.
- Defendant: person who has been charged or summoned.
- Offender: person who has admitted guilt or has been found guilty.
- To plead guilty/not guilty: Declararse culpable / inocente
- Verdict: Veredicto
- To be found guilty / not guilty: Declarar a alguien culpable / inocente.
- To be convicted / acquitted: Ser condenado / absuelto
- To be sentenced: ser condenado.
- CRIME / OFFENCE: commission of an act forbidden by law or omission of a duty commanded
by law. —> Criminal proceedings: the Crown Police Service (CPS) prosecutes the suspect or
accused.
- CIVIL WRONG / TORT: civil proceedings -> the injured party brings an action to claim for
damages.
UK COMMON LAW CONTINENTAL LAW
Accusatorial procedure Inquisitorial procedure

- Adversarial British Law: judge takes no part in - Examining magistrate.
investigation / litigation, only: applies the law, - Important role: interviews witnesses and
decides the contest, sees that justice is done. examines evidence in advance.
- Two sides: counsel for the defense or counsel
for the prosecution.
- Jury (verdict).
- Criminal law not organised into a code: extremely diffuse arrangement of statutes and
statutory.
- No longer distinction by name between serious and minor or relatively minor crimes: all crimes
referred to as offences, but distinction seen in sentences imposed.
- Prosecution of crime not the responsibility of courts or the judiciary: no examining magistrate,
no continental-style inquisitorial procedure; it is the police who investigate criminal offences
and bring charges in the name of the Crown; one a suspecte person is charged with a criminal
offence the case is taken over by CPS which conducts the prosecution.
CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS:
OFFENCES:
- Types of offence:
• Summary offences (lesser crimes) - petty offences in American English.
• Indictable offences: serious or very serious crimes - felonies in American English.
• Offences triable either way: either way offences: intermediate offences.

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FINAL AND CLOSING SPEECH:
- The jury must be satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt: SO THAT YOU ARE REALLY SURE:
• Yes (conviction) —> judge will pass sentence.
• No (acquittal).
• I’m not sure (acquittal) [in dubio pro reo].
CONVICTION AND SENTENCE:
- Sentence: decision for judge (penalty imposed).
- Prosecutor’s role: to draw court’s attention to any aggravating or mitigating factors, etc.
U.S. LEGAL SYSTEM
- The Constitution created a government structure known as federalism.
- Under federalism, there are two types of court systems- federal and state.
• Federal courts have jurisdiction over issues mentioned or implied in the Constitution.
• State courts have jurisdiction over matters not mention in the Constitution.
- The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allows the federal courts to become involved in
cases arising in state courts.
- The Constitution established three branches of government: the legislative, executive and
judicial. Courts have the authority to interpret the law based on the Constitution.
- Federal courts have the power of judicial review. Reviewing acts of Congress and actions of
the President to ensure that they are permitted by the Constitution.
- The federal courts hear both civil and criminal cases. Civil cases involve disputes between
private individuals. Criminal cases involve offenses against the whole community or society.
- U.S. District Courts are courts of original jurisdiction.
- If parties are not satisfied with the decision of a trial court, they may ask an appellate court,
called a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
- If parties are not satisfied with the decision of the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, they may
appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States.
- The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. It consists of nine judges, called
justices, and is presided over by the Chief Justice.
- When a jury is present in either a criminal or civil trial, it decides the facts of the case and the
judge determines the law. When a jury is not present, the judge is both the trier of fact and the
determiner of law.
ARE THERE TWO COURT SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES?

No, the Constitution gives certain powers to the federal government and reserves the rest for the
states.

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FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM:
- The term federal court can actually refer to one of two of courts. The first type of court is what
is known as an Article III court:
• U.S. Court of Claims: this court sits in Washington and handles cases involving suits
against the government.
• U.S. Court of International Trade: this court sis in New York and handle cases involving
tariffs and international trade disputes.
- The second type of court also is established by Congress:
• Magistrate judges:handle certain criminal and civil matters, often with the consent of
the parties.
• Bankruptcy courts: handle cases arising under the Bankruptcy Code.

• U.S. Court of Military Appeals: is the final appellate court for cases arising under the
Uniform Code of Military Justice.
• U.S. Tax Court: handles cases arising over alleged tax deficiencies.
• U.S. Court of Veterans’ Appeals: handles certain cases arising from the denial of
veterans’ benefits.
- U.S. District Courts: there are 94 U.S. District Courts in the United States. Each district court
has between 2 and 28 judges.
- U.S. District Courts of Appeal: there are 13 U.S Circuit Courts of Appeal in the United
States. These courts are divided into 12 regional circuits and sit in various sites throughout the
country. The U.S Court of Appeal for the Federal Circuit (the 13th court) sits in Washington.
- U.S. Supreme Court: sits at the apex of the federal court system. It’s made up of nine judges,
known as justices, and is presided over by the Chief Justice. It sits in Washington.
- STATE Court System: No two state court systems are exactly alike. two sets of trial courts, a
trial courts of limited jurisdiction and trial courts of general jurisdiction; intermediate appellate
courts and the highest state courts.
- TRIAL COURTS OF LIMITED JURISDICTION: are courts that deal with only specific types of
cases. They are usually presided over by a single judge. A judge sitting without a jury hears
most of the cases heard by these courts. Types:
• Probate court: handles matters concerning administering the estate of a person who
has died (decedent).
• Family court: handles matters concerning adoption, annulments, divorce, alimony,

custody, etc.
• Traffic court: handles minor violation of traffic laws.

• Juvenile court: handles cases involving delinquent children under a certain age.
• Small claims court: handles suits between private persons of a relatively low dollar
amount, etc.
• Municipal court: handles cases involving offenses against city ordinances.

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- TRIAL COURTS OF GENERAL JURISDICTION: are the main trial courts in the states. They
hear cases outside the jurisdiction of the trial courts of limited jurisdiction. Variety names:
circuit courts, superior courts, courts of common pleas, and in New York: supreme courts.
- INTERMEDIATE APPELLATE COURTS: states have intermediate appellate courts between
the trials courts of general jurisdiction and the highest court in the state. These courts address
only alleged procedural mistakes and errors of law. They will usually neither review the facts of
the case. These courts usually sit in panels of two or three judges.
- HIGHEST STATE COURTS: usually have discretionary review as to whether to accept a
case. The highest courts in several states have original jurisdiction over controversies
regarding elections and the reapportionment of legislative districts. These courts often sit in
panels of three, five, seven or nine judges/justices.
- FEDERAL AND STATE COURTS: Due to federalism, both federal government and each of
the state governments have their own court systems.
- JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS: are courts of limited jurisdiction because they
can hear only two main types of cases:
• Diversity of Citizenship: Federal courts can have jurisdiction over a case of a civil
nature in which parties are residents of different states and the amount in question
exceeds the amount set by federal law.
• Federal Question: Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases that arise under the U.S.
Constitution, the laws of the United States, and the treaties made under the authority
of the United States. Types:
- Suits between states.
- Cases involving ambassadors and other high-ranking public figures.
- Federal crimes.
- Bankruptcy.
- Patent, copyright and trademark cases.
- Admiralty.
- Antitrust
- Securities and banking regulation, and other cases specifies by federal
statute.
- JURISDICTION OF THE STATE COURTS: extends to basically any type of case that does
not fall within the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal courts. State courts are common-law
courts. INTERPRET LAW —> HAVE THE AUTHORITY TO CREATE LAW —> EQUITABLE
REMEDY. Types of cases:
• Cases involving the state constitution, state criminal offences, tort and personal
injury law, contract law, probate, family, sale of goods, corporations and business
organization, election, issues, municipal and zoning ordinances, traffic regulation
and real property.
- AREAS OF CONCURRENT JURISDICTION FOR FEDERAL AND STATE COURTS: Federal
and State courts have concurrent jurisdiction with federal courts concerning the following
points of law:

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• Diversity of Citizenship: in civil cases of two or more states in which the dollar amount
in question exceeds $75,000, a state court may hear the case if the defendant in the
case does not petition to have the case removed to federal court.
• Federal Question: Any state court may interpret the U.S. Constitution, federal statute,
treaty, etc, if the applicable Constitutional provision, statute or treaty has direct bearing
on a case brought in state court under a state law. By interpreting the U.S.
Constitution, federal statute, or treaty, the state is subjecting itself to federal review.
This means that after a state supreme court has acted on a case, the U.S. Supreme
Court may review it.
- PLAIN OF CLEAR WRITING:
• Write in the active voice, which eliminates confusion by forcing you to name the actor
in a sentence.
• Avoid ambiguity with modifiers.

• Avoid indefinite pronouns used as references if there is ambiguity.
• Avoid grouping together two or more prepositional phrases.
• Use “must” instead of “shall”. To impose a legal obligation, use “must”, to predict future
action, use “will”.
• Be direct by using the imperative mood, thus avoiding the passive.

• Use the present tense to refer to regulations in force.
• Write positively rather than negatively.
• Avoid split infinitives, which offend many readers.
• Use the singular noun rather than the plural noun.
• Be consistent: don’t use different words to denote the same thing. Using a synonym
rather than repeating the precise term just confuses the reader.
• Use parallel structures.

• Use simple words. Government writing should be dignified, but not pompous.
• Omit needless words. Don’t use compound prepositions and other wordy expressions
when the same meaning.
• Avoid redundancies: don’t use “couplets” word pairs where the meaning of one
includes the oder.
• Avoid noun compounding (noun sandwiches).

• Don’t use gender-specific terminology, avoid the gender-specific job title.
• Write short sentences. Readable sentences are simple, active, affirmative, and
declarative.
• Use short paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a single, unified and topic.

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INGLÉS PROFESIONAL
Y ACADÉMICO:
TEXTOS JURÍDICOS Y
ECONÓMICO-
COMERCIALES
Tema 3:
Legal English
(El inglés jurídico)

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ÍNDICE
1.2. El derecho 5
1.3. El lenguaje jurídico 7
1.3.1. Introducción 7
1.3.2. Rasgos del inglés jurídico 9
1.3.3. Los textos jurídicos 25
1.4. Conclusión 30

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1.1. INTRODUCCIÓN
De todos los lenguajes de especialidad en inglés, el más difícil y el que suele resultar más
inaccesible es el lenguaje jurídico, puesto que presenta una serie de rasgos que difieren
considerablemente de los rasgos que presenta el inglés general e incluso del resto de
lenguajes de especialidad, como son la elevada presencia de arcaísmos, la frecuencia del
subjuntivo, las oraciones largas y complejas (mayor grado de subordinación), etc. Por ello,
este tema profundiza en los rasgos distintivos del inglés jurídico, como las nominalizaciones,
la densidad léxica, la subordinación, el subjuntivo, la posmodificación, las construcciones
gerundivas, la discontinuidad sintáctica, la impersonalidad, el hipérbaton, etc., para
finalmente observar la presencia y frecuencia de dichos rasgos en textos reales. Se introducen
los conceptos de Plain English y legalese, así como los tipos de vocabulario jurídico en inglés.
1.2. EL DERECHO
El Derecho (cf. Moreno Catena et al. 1993) se entiende como un conjunto de

normas positivas, es decir, creadas por el hombre, que regulan en un momento
determinado una sociedad. Según el DRAE, el derecho es el "conjunto de principios y
normas, expresivos de una idea de justicia y de orden, que regulan las relaciones
humanas en toda sociedad y cuya observancia puede ser impuesta de manera
coactiva". Frente a este concepto del Derecho como un compendio de normas
(sistemas llamados "de derecho civil") se encuentra la concepción anglosajona del
Derecho como un reflejo del comportamiento y de las decisiones que se toman en los
tribunales, basados en el precedente judicial, y que sustituye y/o complementa al
derecho escrito. Este tipo de sistemas se denominan "de derecho común" (common
law).
El Derecho en general se puede clasificar en Derecho público (Public Law) y
Derecho privado (Private Law). El Derecho Público trata de las relaciones entre los
ciudadanos y el estado (de hecho, en cualquier relación de Derecho Público aparecerá
el Estado o alguno de los instrumentos que realizan la acción del Estado, como la

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Administración pública o el Ministerio Fiscal), y tiene muchas ramas, según las

relaciones humanas que regule:
• Derecho Constitucional (Constitutional Law), o relaciones entre los ciudadanos y
la constitución. En el Reino Unido, sin embargo, no hay Constitución escrita 1.
• Derecho Administrativo (Administrative Law), o normas concernientes a los
órganos e institutos de la administración pública en sus relaciones con los
ciudadanos o entre sí.
• Derecho Penal (Criminal Law), que consiste en la represión o castigo de los
crímenes o delitos mediante la imposición de penas. Es decir, que una sociedad
reprime el comportamiento que considera punible.
• Derecho Procesal (Procedural Law, Rules of the court, Law of Procedure), que
rige los procedimientos que deben seguirse en los procesos. Se clasifica dentro
del Derecho Público por su filosofía básica, pero tiene dos vertientes: civil y
penal.
El Derecho Privado, que entiende de los derechos y obligaciones de los ciudadanos

en sus relaciones recíprocas, se suele identificar con el Derecho Civil (Civil Law), o
conjunto de normas reguladoras de los aspectos más fundamentales de la vida
humana.
Otra división frecuente del Derecho es la que se hace entre derecho sustantivo y
adjetivo:
• Derecho Sustantivo (Substantive Law): rige los derechos, deberes y obligaciones
de los ciudadanos. Sería fundamentalmente civil y penal.
• Derecho Adjetivo (Adjective/Adjectival Law): rige los procedimientos que se han
de acatar en la administración de justicia, es decir, equivaldría al Derecho
Procesal.
El lenguaje jurídico y el administrativo son sumamente complejos y difíciles, no

sólo para los estudiantes de una lengua extranjera, sino también para los nativos. De
hecho, de todos los lenguajes de especialidad, es el único que tiene tantas
peculiaridades que es difícil entenderlo si no se conocen éstas. El lenguaje jurídico,
por su conservadurismo, ha mantenido un carácter relativamente críptico que
obstaculiza el acceso a personas legas, no ya sólo en la materia, sino en lo que
1
Pero hay una serie de documentos que se consideran un compendio de los principios
constitucionales: Magna Carta, Bill of Rights, etc.

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respecta a dichos rasgos específicos. Como afirman Crystal y Davy (1969:194), “the
complexities of legal English are so unlike normal discourse that they are not easily
generated, even by experts. It is a form of language which is about as far removed as
possible from informal spontaneous conversation”.
Según Borja Albí (2000:11), “el lenguaje legal es extremadamente conservador
frente al carácter dinámico de otros tecnolectos, en los que los continuos y rápidos
avances tecnológicos obligan a crear nuevas palabras y formas de expresión para
denominar los nuevos conceptos en las lenguas de especialidad”. Es precisamente la
pervivencia de arcaísmos 2 léxicos y sintácticos la que dificulta enormemente la
accesibilidad del lenguaje jurídico para el público en general. Veamos un ejemplo que
cita Pasquau Liaño (1996: 9) de un fragmento jurídico “expresado con sencillez y
corrección” pero difícil de entender para las personas que no estén acostumbradas a
trabajar con estos textos:
“Establecido el usufructo universal a favor del cónyuge supérstite y acaecida la
preterición no intencional de un heredero forzoso, la legítima de éste se ve
perjudicada por el legado universal y vitalicio a favor de la viuda, de donde procede
anular la institución de heredero hecha por el testador a favor de dos herederos
forzosos (hijos matrimoniales), reducir por inoficioso el legado a favor del cónyuge
y abrir la sucesión intestada del haber hereditario restante”.
1.3. EL LENGUAJE JURÍDICO
1.3.1. INTRODUCCIÓN
Una forma de aproximarse al lenguaje jurídico es considerarlo el código de un

grupo restringido que distingue a sus poseedores, les permite comunicarse entre sí y
evita que los legos en este tipo de lenguaje puedan descodificar los mensajes. Algunos
autores consideran que, a diferencia de otros registros, el objeto del lenguaje jurídico
2
“Término léxico o un elemento gramatical utilizado en el pasado en la mayor parte del dominio del
español pero que actualmente ha desaparecido del habla cotidiana de la mayoría de hablantes, y sólo
es usado en ciertos contextos, en ciertas variantes aisladas, y que aunque en general es entendido por
los hablantes no tiene un uso amplio en la mayoría de variedades de la lengua” (Wikipedia,
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arca%C3%ADsmo).

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es la transmisión de información de forma que lo comprendan sólo aquellos que ya

conocen este lenguaje. Según Crystal y Davy (1969:194) esta opacidad en parte se
debe a la búsqueda de precisión, objetivo que se pone por encima de la elegancia
lingüística (Crystal y Davy 1969:194):
“Legal writers, pushed into oddity by their attempts to be unambiguous, are pulled
as it were in the same direction by the knowledge that since their productions are
for the benefit of someone as familiar with the jargon as themselves, they have no
need to bother too much about the simpler needs of a general public”.
Se ha hablado frecuentemente de la incomprensibilidad del lenguaje jurídico,

hasta tal punto que los diccionarios recogen el término legalese, término cuyo
significado, según el diccionario Merriam-Webster (http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/legalese) es “the specialised language of the legal
profession”, pero que ha adquirido connotaciones negativas, pues hace referencia a
un lenguaje jurídico críptico. Berk-Seligson (1990: 14-15) define legalese (también
llamado lawspeak) como “that register of English that is used by lawyers and judges
specifically for legal proceedings and is usually too complicated for the lay person to
comprehend”. También se utiliza el término officialese3 para la jerga burocrática
empleada por la Administración (Alcaraz Varó et al. 2001:91).
Frente al carácter críptico del legalese, hay muchos que defienden la “adaptación”
del lenguaje jurídico más complejo a la lengua inglesa estándar, y que han encontrado
una defensa de sus pretensiones en el nacimiento del movimiento denominado Plain
English Campaign (www.plainenglish.co.uk) o Plain English Movement, iniciado
según afirman muchos por David Mellinkoff, que trata de que la terminología,
fraseología y sintaxis utilizadas por el mundo del derecho y las administraciones
públicas sean accesibles al ciudadano. La Plain English Campaign ha sido adoptada
por bastantes organismos públicos, que redactan sus propios documentos sobre cómo
redactar textos de naturaleza jurídica o administrativa en Plain English, y entre las
recomendaciones más usuales se encuentran las siguientes (ver
http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/write/legal-docs/):
3
"Officialese is characterized by a preference for wordy, long sentences; a preference for complex
words, code words or buzzwords over simple, traditional ones; a preference for vagueness over
directness and a preference for passive over active voice" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officialese).

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- utilizar formas verbales activas y evitar las pasivas, que omiten el agente de la
acción y son más difíciles de comprender;
- hacer uso de oraciones simples, respetando el orden sujeto-verbo-objeto;
- evitar las acumulaciones léxicas innecesarias;
- evitar los eufemismos;
- evitar los pronombres indefinidos como referentes;
- huir de la jerga jurídica;
- evitar los arcaísmos y latinismos;
- evitar las perífrasis verbales, etc.
En España el Consejo de Ministros aprobó el 30 de diciembre de 2009 la creación
de la Comisión de Modernización del Lenguaje Jurídico 4, que tras dos años de
investigación emitió diversas recomendaciones y estudios de campo. El 21 de
diciembre de 2011 se firmó un convenio marco para promover la claridad del lenguaje
jurídico.
Sin embargo, muchos juristas defienden el carácter “cerrado” del lenguaje jurídico
con tres argumentos (Alcaraz Varó 1994:73): (i) las garantías jurídicas que ofrece su
carácter “distintivo”; (ii) su propio dinamismo, que va modernizando y adaptando sus
rasgos a las necesidades de cada momento histórico; (iii) la existencia de un lenguaje
divulgativo, que se encarga de hacer comprender a las personas legas lo más
intrincado del lenguaje jurídico.
1.3.2. RASGOS DEL INGLÉS JURÍDICO
A continuación veremos algunos de los rasgos fundamentales del inglés jurídico.
Tipos de léxico
El primer estudio detallado sobre el léxico jurídico fue el de Mellinkoff (1963), que
dividió el vocabulario de este ámbito en cinco categorías:
4
http://www.fundeu.es/noticia/modernizacion-del-lenguaje-juridico-6735/;
https://www.administraciondejusticia.gob.es/paj/publico/ciudadano/informacion_institucional/moderniza
cion/modernizacion_lenguaje_juridico

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(i) términos de la lengua general con un significado especial;

(ii) arcaísmos y expresiones formales;
(iii) palabras y expresiones latinas y francesas que no existen en el vocabulario
general;
(iv) términos de especialidad;
(v) jerga profesional.
A fin de observar las características que distinguen al léxico jurídico, nosotros
hemos combinado las clasificaciones realizadas por Mellinkoff (1963), Berk-Seligson
(1990:15), Ortega Arjonilla et al. (1996a:27-30) y Alcaraz Varó (1994:74-78):
(i) terminología técnica (distraint, adjourn, litigation, indemnity, endowment,
condonation, alimony, collusion, bribery, eviction, default);
(ii) terminología cuyo significado cambia respecto del que tiene en la lengua
general al aparecer en un contexto jurídico. Serían los denominados
“términos subtécnicos” o “semitécnicos”. Algunos ejemplos son: action
como “proceso/demanda”; hand como “firma”; service como
“notificación”; bring como “interponer” o “instar” (bring an action) ,
find como “fallar” o “declarar” (find someone guilty), etc. Son
frecuentes los adjetivos del lenguaje general con un uso específicamente
jurídico (absolute 5, qualified 6, constructive 7, etc.).
(iii) palabras y/o expresiones tomadas de otras lenguas con su forma original o
adaptadas. Los términos procedentes del latín pueden ser de tres clases:
(1) préstamos, es decir, palabras o expresiones latinas que no han
cambiado su forma original (fieri facias, prima facie, bona fide, mens
rea, causa mortis, ratio decidendi, etc.); (2) palabras de origen latino
adaptadas al inglés (abscond, impugn, insolvent, etc.); (3), calcos
procedentes del latín, por ejemplo goods and chattels (bona et catalla),
have and hold (habendum et tenendum), law merchant (lex
mercatoria), last will (ultima voluntas), burden of proof (onus
5
Definitivo, categórico, firme, incondicional. Ejemplo: absolute bequest (legado incondicional).
6
Condicional, limitado, con salvedades. Ejemplo: qualified opinion (dictamen restrictivo).
7
Inferido, sobreentendido, virtual. Ejemplo: constructive dismissal (despido inferido).
10

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probandi), etc. En cuanto a las palabras procedentes del francés,

existen las que se han tomado íntegramente (fait accompli, “hecho
consumado”; force majeure, “fuerza mayor”, etc.), las que se han
calcado (sous peine de: bajo pena de, en inglés under penalty of; in
bench: de forma colegiada, del francés en banc, etc.) y las que se han
adaptado; en este último caso, destacan especialmente las del mundo
naviero terminadas en –age, como salvage (salvamento), towage
(remolque), demurrage (demora), anchorage (derechos de anclaje),
etc., o muchas otras de uso habitual en el mundo jurídico, como on
parole (libertad condicional bajo palabra), autrefois acquit/autrefois
convict (res iudicata, cosa ya juzgada), etc.
(iv) arcaísmos y expresiones formales: whilst, showeth, witnesseth, etc.
Abundancia de locuciones preposicionales complejas

En el inglés jurídico se da un tipo de locuciones muy típicas de este lenguaje: las
locuciones preposicionales complejas, compuestas en su mayoría por preposición +
sustantivo + preposición (P+N+P, cf. Borja Albí 2007: 138). Son lo que Bhatia
(1993:107-108) denomina, siguiendo a Quirk et al (1972: 302), complex prepositional
phrases. Veamos algunos ejemplos:
Locución preposicional Preposición equivalente
in pursuance of according to
by virtue of by
for the purpose of to/for
in the event of if
for the reason that because
subsequent to after
in respect of for/to/under
11

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Locución preposicional Traducción
Having regard to Habida cuenta de, visto
In pursuance of En virtud de
In accordance with De conformidad con
Veamos algunos ejemplos reales:
• Each Party shall adopt such legislative or other measures as may be

necessary to ensure proper management of frozen or seized property in
accordance with Articles 4 and 5 of this Convention.
• Information published in pursuance of Section 4(1)(b) of the Right to

Information Act 2005.
• Section 37. Compensation for disability subsequent to physical impairment.
Presencia de dobletes
En inglés jurídico aparecen los denominados “dobletes”, que Borja Albí (2007:
136) denomina “expresiones binómicas” (couplets o binomial expressions para
Bhatia 1993:108) y “tripletes” (triplets o multinomial expressions para Bhatia
1993:108). Las multinomial expressions según Bhatia (1993:108) son “a sequence of
two or more words or phrases belonging to the same grammatical category having
some semantic relationship and joined by some syntactic device such as ‘and’ or ‘or’”.
Entre otros ejemplos, el autor cita los siguientes: act or omission, advice and
consent, wholly and exclusively, etc. Como vemos, suele aparecer una palabra de
origen anglosajón con otra de raíz latina cuyo significado es muy próximo cuando no
exacto.
Veamos algunos ejemplos:
- (last) will and testament - aid and abet
- null and void - all and sundry
- each and every - cease and desist
- have and hold - good and chattels
12

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Tripletes
- give, devise and bequeath
- cancel, annul and set aside
- rest, residue and remainder 8
Abundancia de preposiciones (o adverbios) sufijados

La mayoría de estos elementos se pueden sustituir por equivalentes más sencillos,
pero son arcaísmos muy frecuentes en inglés jurídico. Para Crystal y Davy (1969:207-
208), se trata de “an adverbial word or place to which a preposition-like word has
been suffixed”. Veamos algunos de elllos (Borja Albí 2007: 140-143)
Grupo preposicional Preposición equivalente
herein En el/la presente; que aquí se menciona
hereby Por el/la presente
hereinafter En lo sucesivo, a continuación
hereinbefore Más arriba, anteriormente
hereto Al/a la presente
herewith Anexo, adjunto, que se acompaña
hereof Del presente
heretofore Hasta ahora, anteriormente
thereafter Posteriormente
hereupon Sobre esto, por consiguiente
8
Otros ejemplos (cf. Alcaraz Varó 1994:76; Borja Albí 2000:56; Ortega Arjonilla et al. 1996a:31) son
los siguientes: false and untrue; made and signed; right and proper; mind and memory; all and
singular; alter and change; fair and equitable; form, manner and method; hold, possess and enjoy;
general, vague and indefinite, etc.
13

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Veamos algunos ejemplos reales:
• Legislative guides for the implementation of the United Nations Convention

against transnational organized crime and the protocol thereto.
• This lease will be valid from one year from this date and will be renewed
yearly thereafter.
• (…) it is thereupon ordered and adjudged…
• The member States of the Council of Europe and the other Signatories
hereto.
Formalismo
El formalismo del lenguaje jurídico se manifiesta lingüísticamente de varias
maneras, algunas de las cuales ya hemos visto, como la presencia de latinismos, de
arcaísmos, de locuciones preposicionales, o de preposiciones o adverbios sufijados,
así como la elección de terminología de registro elevado: append en lugar de attach;
deem en vez de consider; desist por stop; expedite en lugar de hasten; initiate o
commence en vez de begin o start; inquire en lugar de ask; necessitate en vez de
require, detain en lugar de hold; conceal por hide, etc. (cf. Garner 1987). A nivel
sintáctico este formalismo se observa en la rigidez de las estructuras y la enorme
longitud de algunas oraciones.
Densidad léxica
La concentración de términos “léxicos” (es decir, vocablos semánticamente
independientes, por ejemplo, sustantivos, verbos, adjetivos, etc.) es tal, que la
sensación que se tiene al leer cierto tipo de textos es que hay “demasiadas palabras”
concentradas en muy poco espacio. El resultado es un texto que se caracteriza por su
opacidad.
Veamos dos ejemplos donde hay mucha concentración léxica:
- (…) the concealment or disguise of the true nature, source, location, disposition,
movement, rights with respect to, or ownership of, property.
- (5) Money laundering and terrorist financing are frequently carried out in an
international context. Measures adopted solely at national or even Community level,
without taking account of international coordination and cooperation, would have very
limited effects. The measures adopted by the Community in this field should therefore be
consistent with other action undertaken in other international fora. The Community
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action should continue to take particular account of the Recommendations of the

Financial Action Task Force (hereinafter referred to as the FATF), which constitutes the
foremost international body active in the fight against money laundering and terrorist
financing.
Tendencia a la univocidad 9
El vocabulario especializado es fundamentalmente denotativo, no connotativo, y
monorreferencial. En un lenguaje especializado, como el inglés jurídico, se espera que
los términos no sean polisémicos (es decir, que a un significante –palabra- le
corresponda un solo significado) y que haya pocas sinonimias,. Sin embargo, no se
puede afirmar (como se solía hacer tradicionalmente) que el lenguaje jurídico se
caracterice de forma absoluta por la univocidad o la monorreferencialidad, pues en él
existen tanto la sinonimia como la polisemia 10 (cf. Alcaraz Varó 1994:84-85).
Como ejemplos de sinonimia en inglés jurídico, podemos citar, annul, que tiene
sinónimos (parciales) como abolish, override, set aside, quash, etc. Sanction, al igual
que su parónima española “sancionar”, es polisémica, con los significados de
“castigar” y “dar la aprobación”; issue hace referencia tanto a la “descendencia” como
a una “cuestión relevante” o “motivo de litigio”; provision significa “suministro,
abastecimiento, provisión” o “disposición” (de una ley, etc); consideration significa
“examen, análisis, consideración” y “prestación contractual”, etc.
Frecuencia de nominalizaciones
Se trata de un rasgo común a casi todos los lenguajes de especialidad. La
nominalización es una transformación que reduce una oración completa a un
sustantivo. Mediante este proceso, se incluye una gran cantidad de información léxica
en el grupo nominal, logrando textos más compactos. Las nominalizaciones, por lo
tanto, son importantes porque permiten resumir en pocas palabras fenómenos muy
complejos. Además, permiten la omisión del agente. En inglés suele llevarse a cabo
mediante una conversión de verbo a nombre (to study – a study) o una derivación (-
ism, -tion, -ure, etc).
9
Univocidad: Cualidad o propiedad de ser unívoco, de poseer un sólo significado o ser utilizado siempre con un
sólo y único significado.
10
La prueba más evidente es que en 1999 se publicó un diccionario de sinónimos jurídicos que en el 2013 iba ya
por la 5ª edición: Burton’s Legal Thesaurus, de Simon y Schuster.
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Las nominalizaciones son muy típicas del inglés jurídico, donde abundan. Además,
se suelen postmodificar los grupos nominales en busca de mayor precisión expresiva
y para evitar posibles ambigüedades, aunque sea a costa de consideraciones
estilísticas, como el siguiente caso (ejemplo tomado de Crystal y Davy 1969, cit. en
Borja Albí 2000:38): “on the payment to the Owner of the total amount of any
instalments then remaining unpaid of the rent hereinbefore reserved and agreed to
be paid and the further sum of ten shillings (...)”.
Presencia de postmodificación
Esta se da en un doble sentido (cf. Alcaraz Varó 1994; Borja Albí 2007: 127):
(1) para evitar ambigüedades se altera el orden lógico de los complementos
(hipérbaton 11). Por ejemplo, the payment of the rent to the owner, que sería el
orden habitual, en un texto jurídico se convertiría en the payment to the owner
of the rent, ya que se hace hincapié en el destinatario de la acción, no en el
objeto en sí (cf. Crystal y Davy 1969:204);
(2) se insertan cláusulas no finitas como postmodificadoras de elementos
nominales, por ejemplo, any instalment then remaining unpaid (cf. Crystal y
Davy 1969:205 y 206).
Sin embargo, el hecho de que la posmodificación sea frecuente en inglés jurídico
(Borja Albí 2007: 127) no quiere decir que no se emplee la premodificación.
Uso de such como determinante

Se trata ésta de una característica típica del inglés jurídico, ya que la partícula such
no va acompañada del artículo indefinido. Veamos un ejemplo:
Each Party shall adopt such legislative and other measures as may be necessary to enable
it to confiscate instrumentalities and proceeds or property the value of which corresponds
to such proceeds.
To fulfil this requirement, it should be left to those institutions and persons whether they
make use of public records of beneficial owners, ask their clients for relevant data or
obtain the information otherwise, taking into account the fact that the extent of such
customer due diligence measures relates to the risk of money laundering and terrorist
11
Esta presencia de hipérbaton hace que incluso se llegue a separar el sujeto del verbo o el nombre
de su complemento: a right, without demand or notice or any kind, to declare (...).
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financing, which depends on the type of customer, business relationship, product or

transaction.
Frecuencia de construcciones gerundivas

Se emplean con frecuencia construcciones gerundivas (lo que sucede también en
español), por ejemplo being of sound and disposing mind and memory (estando en
pleno uso de sus facultades mentales), having regard to the proposal from the
Commission o being duly sworn (bajo juramento).
Uso especial de la conjunción that

El discurso jurídico se caracteriza por hacer un uso muy peculiar de la conjunción
that, uso que en realidad sintetiza una oración entera, ya que se emplea con el
significado de “referido al hecho de que” o “en el/la que se afirma que”. Veamos algún
ejemplo, el primero de ellos de Alcaraz Varó (1994:79):
The Employment Appeal Tribunal so held when dismissing an appeal by the employee,
Mr S. Barlow, from an industrial tribunal's decision that it had no jurisdiction to hear his
claim for arrears of bonus allegedly withheld by his employers, AJ Whittle T/A Micro
Management.
(…) in Microsoft v. Motorola by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals. Motorola lost its appeal
of the district court's decision that it can't enforce currently the German permanent
injunction it won against Microsoft for infringing Motorola's patents.
Samsung says it will appeal against US court ruling that it must pay Apple more than
$1bn in damages.
Abundancia de la repetición léxica

En inglés jurídico es una de las formas habituales de trabazón morfosintáctica o
cohesión, en lugar de utilizarse otros mecanismos de referencia (Borja Albí 2007:
138), y se debe a la preocupación por ser preciso y evitar cualquier posible
ambigüedad; de hecho, dicen Crystal y Davy (1969:202) que éste es el principal
motivo de que se eviten mecanismos anafóricos alternativos (como por ejemplo los
pronombres).
El inglés soporta la repetición léxica mucho más que el español, donde se
considera un estilo pobre. Crystal y Davy (1969:202) afirman humorísticamente que
en el lenguaje jurídico, de repetición léxica “there is a good deal”. Alcaraz Varó
(1994:81) proporciona el siguiente ejemplo:
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The SEC has reinforced the insider trading restrictions with promulgation of Rule 14e-3 of
the SEC, an independent provision prohibiting insider trading in connection with tender
offers. Congress has further reinforced these trading restriction by providing the SEC with
the power to seek a treble penalty under the Insider Trading Sanctions Act of 1984
(ITSA). This legislation empowers the SEC to base enforcement actions on any recognized
theory of insider trading restriction.
La frecuencia de la repetición léxica como mecanismo de referencia hace que el uso

de pronombres sea más escaso, como afirman Crystal y Davy (1969): “(...) legal
English is in fact notable for the extreme scarcity, even within sentence structure, of
the pronoun reference and anaphora which are used so extensively in most other
varieties”. Según Borja Albí (2000:52-53), es muy llamativa “la escasa frecuencia con
que aparece el pronombre it”; las partículas it y this provocan la búsqueda de falsos
antecedentes, por lo que suele preferirse la repetición léxica o bien formas jurídicas
específicas de anáfora (the aforesaid, the aforementioned, etc.). Así, it y this se
reservan para hacer referencia a la acción que describe el sintagma verbal,
remontándose por ello a toda una cláusula, no a un único sustantivo.
Escasez de conectores
Se emplean oraciones unidas sin conectores o marcadores que puedan guiar u
orientar la interpretación del lector. En ocasiones las oraciones están yuxtapuestas, lo
cual produce un estilo cortante. Veamos el ejemplo que cita Alcaraz Varó (1994:80):
On July 9 the ship was struck by a missile which caused a fire. She was almost fully laden
with crude oil owned by the National Iranian Oil Co (NIOC). The explosion blew a large
hole in the ship's side. Burning oil flowed out of the ship.
La principal consecuencia de esta escasez de conectores es la enorme

concentración léxica de los textos jurídicos (que ya hemos mencionado
anteriormente), lo que hace especialmente ardua su lectura e interpretación. Los
pocos conectores que se emplean son, sin embargo, específicos de los textos jurídicos,
y por lo general de carácter formal: notwithstanding, subject to, provided, etc.
Oraciones largas y complejas (subordinación)

Algunos géneros jurídicos se sirven de oraciones cuya longitud es extremadamente
infrecuente en textos de carácter general, y que derivan en una gran complejidad.
Crystal y Davy (1969:201) afirman al respecto: “(...) the sentences tend to be
extremely long. It is a characteristic legal habit to conflate, by means of an array of
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subordinating devices, sections of language which would elsewhere be much more

likely to appear as separate sentences”.
Bhatia (1994) llevó a cabo un estudio sintáctico de un texto jurídico (una ley
relativa al impuesto sobre la renta) y su análisis estadístico halló que la extensión
media de las oraciones era de 271 palabras por frase, frente a las 27,3 que había
obtenido un estudio previo (de Barber) sobre textos científico-técnicos; Hiltunen
(1984) obtuvo una media de 79,25 (la oración más larga tenía 740 palabras). Veamos
varios ejemplos (el primero es de Alcaraz Varó y el segundo de Borja Albí):
A CLAIM for bonus due under a contract of employment is a County Court matter and
does not come within the industrial tribunal’s jurisdiction to hear complaints of unlawful
deduction from wages, unless it raises issues relating to deduction from a gross sum
documented or admitted by the employer and payable on a periodical pay day
THIS INDENTURE made the ninth day of May 1987 BETWEEN ----- of ----, of the one
part and ---- of ----, of the other part, WITNESSETH that in consideration of the sum of --
-- now paid to ---- by ---- (the receipt of which the said ---- hereby acknowledges) he the
said ---- DOTH HEREBY ASSIGN unto the said ----, his executor and administrators and
assigns ALL AND SINGULAR the several chattels and things specifically described in the
schedule hereto annexed by way of security for the payment of the sum of ---- and interest
thereon at the rate of seven percent per annum AND the said ---- doth further agree and
declare that he will duly pay to the said ---- the principal sum aforesaid together with the
interest then due by equal yearly payments of one hundred pounds on the ninth day of
May of each year.
Each Party may, at the time of signature or when depositing its instrument of ratification,
acceptance, approval or accession, by a declaration addressed to the Secretary General of
the Council of Europe, declare that paragraph 1 of this article applies.
Muchas de estas oraciones extensas son el resultado de una subordinación

múltiple (cf. Borja Albí 2000:48-52, Gustafsson 1975:13, Charrow y Charrow
1979:1327-1328, Danet 1980:60, Hiltunen 1984, etc.). La consecuencia de esta
subordinación múltiple es un aumento de la complejidad y dificultad estructural y
conceptual. Los patrones de subordinación pueden ser: antes de la cláusula principal,
dentro de ella o tras ella; pueden darse en las tres posiciones, y además puede haber
más de una cláusula en cada posición. Borja Albí cita un ejemplo de subordinación
compleja (2000:51):
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Where on testing that a motor vehicle under section 53 of this Act it appears to an
authorised examiner that there is a defect in the vehicle by reason that the vehicle does
not comply with a construction and use requirement applicable to the vehicle he may
whether or not the requirement is one mentioned in subsection (1) of that section and
whether or not proceedings are instituted for a breach of the requirements give notice in
writing to the person who is the owner of the vehicle specifying the defect and the
requirement in question (...)
Según el estudio de Hiltunen (1984, cit. en Borja Albí 2000:51), en el lenguaje

jurídico predominan las subordinadas finitas relativas o adverbiales, así como las no
finitas con participio y las subordinadas situadas después del verbo principal. Las
estructuras que más dificultades de comprensión parecen causar son las
subordinadas situadas antes de la cláusula principal con niveles profundos de
dependencia. Por otro lado, las cláusulas se intentan insertar inmediatamente al lado
de la palabra a la que califican, en lugar de en el sitio idóneo gramaticalmente, lo que
a menudo produce un estilo pesado (cf. Borja Albí 2000:52).
Empleo de la discontinuidad sintáctica

El término lo emplea Bhatia (1993:11-112) para hacer referencia a la inserción de
oraciones que restringen el significado de la cláusula principal (qualifications) y que,
de estar mal situadas, pueden producir ambigüedad.
Citamos aquí un ejemplo que reproduce Bhatia (1993:112; la cursiva es del
original):
A secure tenant has the right –
- if the dwelling-house is a house, to acquire the freehold of the dwelling-house;
- if the dwelling-house is a flat, to be granted a long lease of the dwelling-house.
Veamos otro ejemplo procedente de Council of Europe Convention on

Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime and on
the Financing of Terrorism:
Article 37 – Content of request
1 Any request for co-operation under this chapter shall specify:
a the authority making the request and the authority carrying out the
investigations or proceedings;
b the object of and the reason for the request;
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c the matters, including the relevant facts (such as date, place and
circumstances of theoffence to which the investigations or proceedings relate, except in
the case of a request for notification;
d in so far as the co-operation involves coercive action:
i the text of the statutory provisions or, where this is not possible,
a statement of the relevant law applicable; and
ii an indication that the measure sought or any other measures

having similar effects could be taken in the territory of the requesting Party under its own
law;
e where necessary and in so far as possible:
i details of the person or persons concerned, including name,

date and place of birth, nationality and location, and, in the case of a legal person, its seat;
and
ii the property in relation to which co-operation is sought, its

location, its connection with the person or persons concerned, any connection with the
offence, as well as any available information about other persons, interests in the
property; and
f any particular procedure the requesting Party wishes to be followed.
Puntuación escasa o inadecuada

En la mayoría de los casos, esta “despreocupación” por la puntuación se debe a que
las cuestiones estilísticas se consideran secundarias, y se da prioridad absoluta al
contenido. Por ello, es especialmente importante no dejarse guiar únicamente por la
puntuación a la hora de interpretar los textos jurídicos, ya que en ocasiones dicha
puntuación está ausente o es incorrecta.
Afirma Mellinkoff lo siguiente (1963):
“(...) the law does not concern itself with punctuation because (it was said) from
antiquity the statutes and other legal dosuments were not punctuated. The
practical result for later generations of lawyers and legal scriveners was an
indifference to punctuation and an addition to the long sentence”
Estructuras pasivas frecuentes y en ocasiones complejas

Estas estructuras abundan en textos donde lo que interesa es el resultado de la
acción, no los agentes, es decir, donde se fomenta la impersonalidad, como por
ejemplo acuerdos y contratos. Veamos un par de ejemplos, el primero de ellos citado
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por Alcaraz Varó (1994:82), y el segundo con la interposición de un adverbio entre las
formas verbales:
The case was clear authority for the proposition that regard must be had to the
particular circumstances in which the rent payments were made.
The soundness, integrity and stability of credit and financial institutions and
confidence in the financial system as a whole could be seriously jeopardised by the
efforts of criminals and their associates either to disguise the origin of criminal
proceeds or to channel lawful or unlawful money for terrorist purposes
El empleo de adverbios como conectores en posición inicial

Se trata de un rasgo muy típico del discurso jurídico; destacan por su frecuencia
whereas, provided that, where, etc.
Veamos dos ejemplos:
Where the lack of supervision or control by a natural person referred to in
paragraph 1 has made possible the commission of the criminal offences, (…)
Whereas the preservation, protection and improvement of the quality of the

environment, including the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and
flora, are an essential objective of general interest pursued by the Community, as
stated in Article 130r of the Treaty.
Impersonalidad
Se potencia a través de la pasiva sin agente, el uso de sujetos inanimados (the law
establishes…), la frecuencia de las formas no personales, las oraciones impersonales,
etc.
Tendencia a evitar el uso de la partícula negativa not

Se da una abundante presencia de partículas o expresiones negativas que evitan el
uso directo de la partícula not: destaca el uso de never, unless, except, fail to y
términos que contienen el prefijo negativo un-. Esto dificulta la comprensión, pues es
más fácil de comprender una negación directa que una negación indirecta. Ejemplos:
For these species, Member States shall prohibit the keeping, transport and sale or
exchange, and offering for sale or exchange, of specimens taken from the wild,
except for those taken legally before this Directive is implemented.
In exceptional cases where the Commission finds that a national list as referred to
in Article 4 (1) fails to mention a site hosting a priority natural habitat type or
priority species which, on the basis of relevant and reliable scientific information, it
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considers to be essential for the maintenance of that priority natural habitat type or
for the survival of that priority species, a bilateral consultation procedure shall be
initiated between that Member State and the Commission for the purpose of
comparing the scientific data used by each.
Whereas the consumer in the first place may require the seller to repair the goods
or to replace them unless those remedies are impossible or disproportionate.
A remedy shall be deemed to be disproportionate if it imposes costs on the seller

which, in comparison with the alternative remedy, are unreasonable (…)
Separación de preposiciones y sus complementos

Aunque esto es un rasgo propio también del inglés coloquial, en inglés jurídico la
dificultad reside precisamente en la longitud de las oraciones y sintagmas, que
provoca que en ocasiones la preposición y su complemento estén muy lejanos y se
pierda la referencia. Además, es frecuente que se den dos preposiciones distintas a la
vez.
Estos elementos suponen un problema considerable a la hora de ser traducidos,
pues existen lenguas, como el español, que no permiten separar la preposición de sus
complementos y que por tanto exigen un cambio de orden en la oración.
Veamos algunos ejemplos:
- Council Decision 2007/845/JHA of 6 December 2007 concerning cooperation
between Asset Recovery Offices of the Member States in the field of tracing and
identification of proceeds from, or other property related to, crime.
- Protocol against the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms, their

parts and components and ammunition.
- (…) the concealment or disguise of the true nature, source, location, disposition,
movement, rights with respect to, or ownership of, property.
- The requesting Party shall also provide without delays all complementary
information requested by the requested Party and which is necessary for the
implementation of and the follow up to the provisional measures.
Presencia del subjuntivo

El subjuntivo en inglés prácticamente ha desaparecido del inglés cotidiano, donde
sólo se emplea ya en registros muy formales y en ciertas expresiones hechas 12. El
12
God save the Queen, God help you, So be it, God bless you, Heaven forbid.
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subjuntivo en inglés se forma con el sujeto + infinitivo sin la partícula “to”, de la

siguiente forma:
It’s essential that you be here on time.
I demanded that he apologise.
What do you suggest we do?
El inglés coloquial ha ido reemplazando esta construcción formal por diversas

opciones, como el verbo en presente y/o pasado, o la partícula “should”:
It’s essential that you are here on time.
I demanded that he apologised.
What do you suggest we should do?
El subjuntivo se utiliza, tanto en registros muy formales como en inglés jurídico,

en los siguientes casos 13:
1. Después de verbos como ask, advise, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest, urge.
2. Después de adjetivos como important, essential, crucial, advisable, urgent, crucial:
- ‘It is important that he be here at nine’
- ‘It is essential/imperative/vital that she hands in the report’
- ‘It is crucial that measures be taken’
- ‘It is urgent that the regulation apply to all cases’
- ‘It is a good/bad idea that the case be heard again’
3. Después de sustantivos, en expresiones como las siguientes:
- ‘There is also the recommendation that the Council meet every week’
- ‘There is the necessity that finance be found urgently’
El uso más complejo del subjuntivo es cuando se añade una negación, una
estructura pasiva o un tiempo continuo, como podemos observar en los siguientes
ejemplos:
13
Algunos otros casos más excepcionales, son los siguientes: “The present subjunctive is occasionally
found in clauses expressing a condition, such as If I be found guilty... (more common is am or should
be). This usage is mostly old-fashioned or excessively formal, although it is found in some common
fixed expressions such as if need be. Perhaps somewhat more common is the use after whether in the
sense of "no matter whether": Whether they be friend or foe, we shall give them shelter. Analogous uses
are occasionally found after other conjunctions, such as unless (and possibly until), whoever,
wherever, etc.: I shall not do it unless I be instructed; Whoever he be, he shall not go unpunished.”
Fuente: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_subjunctive
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It is important that she be waiting for the boss when he comes.
He insisted that Mary not be there.
They recommended that he be hired for the job
Frecuencia de oraciones condicionales con inversión

Existe en inglés una estructura condicional con ausencia de la partícula “if” que se
forma mediante un tipo de inversión denominado “subject-operator inversion”. Suele
darse con had, pero también es frecuente con should o were. Veamos algunos
ejemplos del inglés general:
- Had she known about it, she wouldn’t have gone.
- Should you need more details, do not hesitate to contact us.
- Were I in your place, I would take the opportunity.
Algunos ejemplos en inglés jurídico serían los siguientes, tomados de legislación de

la Unión Europea:
- Each Party may provide that the only prerequisite is that the conduct would have
constituted a predicate offence had it occurred domestically.
- The Court approached the EU law claim on the basis that EU Treaty principles
would provide a basis for the claim as long as the contract was one which would
have been subject to one or other Directive had it not been a concession.
1.3.3. LOS TEXTOS JURÍDICOS
Las peculiaridades léxicas, sintácticas y textuales del discurso jurídico son fruto de
la función y uso social de los textos legales, y responden a factores pragmáticos,
semióticos y comunicativos.
Como consecuencia de la escasa correferencia (escasez de pronombres, etc.), en
determinados documentos legales el texto está muy poco cohesionado, hasta el punto
de que llega a parecer, según Berk-Seligson (1990:17) “lists of sentences strung
together”.
Otro rasgo específico es la rigidez que presentan determinados textos jurídicos en

su estructuración, presentación y distribución. Ciertos textos jurídicos y muchos
textos administrativos tienen una estructura y formato particulares; esta estructura y
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distribución se manifiesta principalmente en forma de convenciones tipográficas:

mayúsculas, formato de párrafos, tipo de letra, sangrado, numeración, viñetas, etc.
(cf. Borja Albí 2000:24-28). Por lo general, esta organización obedece a la necesidad
de reflejar la secuenciación del contenido del texto. Respecto a las mayúsculas, en
algunos casos específicos pueden aparecer palabras enteras en mayúsculas, como por
ejemplo el caso de las marcas comerciales (para distinguirlas de los nombres de las
empresas), etc. Otros términos llevan la primera letra en mayúscula como forma de
“dignificación” (cf. Crystal y Davy 1969:199).
En los textos legales predominan los elementos directivos (también llamados

“imperativos”, “impositivos”, “instructivos” o “conativos”) como las leyes o
sentencias, los declarativos como los testamentos y los comisivos como los contratos.
Cualquier acto de comunicación que se enmarque en un contexto jurídico suele tener
una función predominante y otras secundarias, por lo que son textos
multifuncionales con un foco funcional principal (cf. Hatim y Mason 1990 y 1997).
Así pues, aunque muchos textos son instructivos, presentan a su vez la función
expositiva (por ejemplo, en los antecedentes de hecho), la argumentativa (en los
textos sobre interpretación de la doctrina), etc.
El registro de los textos jurídicos suele ser muy formal, con mucha presencia de
terminología y fraseología especializadas. Esto provoca mucho distanciamiento, falta
de espontaneidad o naturalidad e impersonalidad y en ocasiones los textos tienen un
carácter ceremonial muy marcado, por lo que, una vez más, se demuestra su carácter
de discurso muy restringido.
En lo que afecta al modo, el lenguaje jurídico tiende a ser escrito, precisamente por
su carácter conservador; incluso los actos orales, como las declaraciones, los juicios,
etc. se registran por escrito mediante la taquigrafía.
La clasificación de los tipos de textos jurídicos que ofrecen Ortega Arjonilla et al.
(1996b:85-96) se basa en una división temática, de la siguiente forma:
- Derecho público: derecho administrativo (pliego de cargos y descargos,

alegaciones, actas, contratos administrativos, etc.), derecho constitucional (leyes
orgánicas, constitución, etc.), derecho financiero y tributario (impresos
tributarios, título de deuda pública, etc.), derecho penal, derecho procesal (escrito
de interposición de demanda, cédula de emplazamiento, etc.), derecho
26

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
internacional público (tratados, actos jurídicos de las organizaciones

internacionales, etc.).
- Derecho privado: derecho civil (contratos, testamentos, actas notariales, etc.),

derecho del trabajo (convenios colectivos, contratos de trabajo, documentos de la
Seguridad Social, etc.), derecho mercantil (contratos mercantiles, escrituras de
fundación de sociedades, etc.), derecho internacional privado (documentos de
derecho civil y mercantil en los que exista un elemento de extranjería), derecho
canónico, derecho eclesiástico (convenio regulador de la nulidad, escritura
pública de reconocimiento de hijos, etc.).
Borja Albí (2000:85-133) presenta la siguiente clasificación, en función de diversos

factores, como la situación discursiva, los participantes en el acto de comunicación, el
tono y la finalidad del discurso: (1) textos normativos; (2) textos judiciales; (3)
jurisprudencia; (4) obras de referencia; (5) textos doctrinales; (6) textos de aplicación
del derecho.
(1) TEXTOS NORMATIVOS
Entre los textos normativos se encuentran las disposiciones legislativas: leyes,

decretos, reglamentos, órdenes, etc., cuya función es regular el orden social.
(2) TEXTOS JUDICIALES
Serían todos aquellos que regulan las relaciones entre particulares o

administración y los órganos judiciales: autos, exhortos, citaciones, sentencias,
etc. Son los emitidos por los órganos específicos en su ejercicio de la potestad
jurisdiccional 14 (administración de la justicia). Los textos judiciales más
comunes se pueden clasificar de la siguiente forma (cf. Borja Albí 2000):
14
Los órdenes jurisdiccionales constituyen una división del Poder Judicial basada estrictamente en
motivos de carácter jurídico sustantivo. La LOPJ (Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial), en su art.9º,
establece los siguientes (Borja Albí 2000): (1) orden jurisdiccional civil: lo relevante es el carácter
privado, no público, de las relaciones entre las partes; (2) orden jurisdiccional penal: le compete el
conocimiento de las causas y juicios criminales, a excepción de los atribuídos a la Jurisdicción militar.
Conoce, pues, de aquellos delitos y faltas que contempla el Código Penal; (3) orden jurisdiccional
contencioso-administrativo: conoce de las pretensiones que se deduzcan en relación con los actos de
la Administración Pública sujetos al Derecho administrativo y con las disposiciones reglamentarias; (4)
orden Jurisdiccional social: se le atribuyen los actos relativos al Derecho laboral, incluyendo entre
éstos las reclamaciones en materia de Seguridad Social y de responsabilidad del Estado derivada de la
legislación laboral.
27

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- Documentos de las partes de un litigio: por ejemplo, demanda, denuncia,

alegaciones, etc.
- Documentos de jueces y magistrados: por ejemplo, sentencias, providencias,
autos, suplicatorios, mandamientos, notificación, citación, etc.
(3) JURISPRUDENCIA
Se podría decir que el papel que desempeña la jurisprudencia (case law) es la

diferencia principal entre el derecho anglosajón y el español. Aunque el Código
Civil en su artículo 1.6 reconoce la jurisprudencia como fuente de derecho, en
España en la práctica se trata de una fuente secundaria o aclaratoria (sólo se
recurre a ella en caso de problemas en la aplicación del derecho escrito), ya que
la principal es el derecho codificado. Sin embargo, en el Reino Unido es una de
las fuentes principales de derecho, junto con la Equity 15 (equidad).
En inglés también se denomina “Derecho Judicial”, “Derecho de los Casos” o
“Derecho Casuístico” (Case Law o Judge-Made Law). Las decisiones tomadas
por la Magistratura (The Judiciary/The Bench), es decir, por jueces y
magistrados, conforman un precedente (precedent) que es vinculante (binding)
(Alcaraz 1994).
(4) OBRAS DE REFERENCIA
En este apartado cabe incluir todo el material de consulta. Diccionarios

(monolingües, bilingües, multilingües y enciclopédicos), formularios,
enciclopedias, repertorios profesionales, recopilaciones de leyes, etc.
Los formularios son compendios de modelos de textos de los que se han
eliminado los datos personales para que sirvan de ejemplo en la redacción de
documentos similares.
(5) TEXTOS DOCTRINALES
Son básicamente los manuales, libros de texto, tesis doctorales, trabajos de

investigación, artículos de publicaciones especializadas, etc.
15
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_(legal_concept).
28

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(6) TEXTOS DE APLICACIÓN DEL DERECHO (INSTRUMENTOS

LEGALES)
Incluye todos los documentos legales, públicos y privados: documentos

notariales, contratos, dictámenes jurídicos, expedientes, pólizas de seguros,
testamentos, etc. Se trata del grupo más numeroso de textos, pues “más de las
tres cuartas partes de la práctica jurídica tratan de asuntos que no corresponden
a los tribunales” (Borja Albí 2000:126). Los instrumentos legales son
documentos formales escritos que expresan un acto jurídico o un acuerdo entre
partes (testamento, contrato, etc.). No forman parte del proceso judicial, aunque
se puedan utilizar en ellos.
La cantidad de textos es tan ingente, que se podrían hacer varias clasificaciones:
documentos públicos y privados; documentos de derecho civil (capitulaciones
matrimoniales, contrato de hipoteca, testamento, etc.), administrativo (permiso
de obras, licencia de actividad, etc.), procesal, laboral, etc. Un documento
privado es “aquel en el que sólo han tenido intervención los particulares
interesados o con testigos, pero sin la presencia de un notario o de un
funcionario competente” (Borja Albí 2000:127); los requisitos legales para este
tipo de documentos varían en función del documento de que se trate. En España
se consideran documentos públicos “los autorizados por un notario o empleado
público competente, con las solemnidades requeridas por la ley” (Borja Albí
2000:128), por ejemplo las escrituras públicas; los documentos expedidos por
funcionarios públicos autorizados; los libros de actas, estatutos, y reglamentos
de sociedades; las partidas o certificaciones de nacimiento, matrimonio o
defunción, etc.
En el sistema jurídico anglosajón no existe diferencia formal entre documentos
públicos y privados, que no está institucionalizada, aunque sí se da en la
práctica.
29

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1.4. CONCLUSIÓN
A lo largo de este capítulo hemos analizado la naturaleza y rasgos principales del

inglés jurídico, entre ellos la sintaxis compleja, el uso del subjuntivo, las
preposiciones sufijadas, los grupos preposicionales complejos, etc.
Es fundamental recordar, que estos rasgos son generales, es decir, que

experimentarán variación en función del género jurídico de que se trate, bien sea
respecto a su frecuencia o incluso respecto a su aparición en un género concreto.
En este apartado incluimos un listado de la terminología más importante de este

tema. Es esencial que los alumnos sepan definir todos estos conceptos.
- Derecho público
- Derecho privado
- Derecho constitucional
- Derecho administrativo
- Derecho penal
- Derecho procesal
- Derecho civil
- Arcaísmo
- Legalese
- Officialese
- Plain English Campaign/Movement
- Comisión de Modernización del Lenguaje Jurídico
- Lingüística forense
- Locuciones preposicionales complejas
- Dobletes
30

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- Tripletes
- Preposiciones sufijadas
- Densidad léxica
- Eufemismos
- Univocidad
- Nominalización
- Formas mutiladas
- Postmodificación
- Construcciones gerundivas
- Subordinación
- Discontinuidad sintáctica
- Hipérbaton
- Subjuntivo
- Correferencialidad
- Textos normativos
- Textos judiciales
- Jurisprudencia
- Textos doctrinales
- Instrumentos legales
1.6. ALGUNAS CUESTIONES FUNDAMENTALES
En este apartado incluimos un listado de algunas de las principales cuestiones que han de
recordar los alumnos por cada apartado tras haber estudiado este tema. Este listado no es
completo, sino meramemnte orientativo.
31

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
1) Derecho público y derecho privado.

2) Derecho sustantivo y adjetivo.
3) Legalese.
4) Plain English.
1) Tipos de léxico del inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
2) Términos subtécnicos (o semitécnicos) en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
3) Tipos de términos procedentes del latín en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
4) Tipos de términos procedentes del francés en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
5) Locuciones preposicionales complejas en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
6) Dobletes y tripletes en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
7) Preposiciones sufijadas en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
8) ¿Cómo se manifiesta el formalismo en inglés jurídico?
9) Univocidad y sinonimia en inglés jurídico.
10) Relación entre modificación y postmodificación en inglés jurídico.
11) La partícula Such en inglés jurídico.
12) Construcciones gerundivas en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
13) Uso peculiar de la conjunción that en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
14) La repetición léxica en el inglés jurídico.
15) Consecuencias de la escasez de conectores en inglés jurídico.
16) La subordinación en inglés jurídico.
17) La puntuación en inglés jurídico.
18) La pasiva y la impersonalidad en inglés jurídico.
19) Mecanismos lingüísticos que permiten evitar el uso de not en inglés jurídico.
20) Separación entre la preposición y sus complementos en inglés jurídico?
21) El subjuntivo en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
22) Oraciones condicionales con inversión en inglés jurídico. Ejemplos.
23) Rasgos textuales del inglés jurídico.
24) Aspectos relativos a los géneros en inglés jurídico.
25) Tipos de textos jurídicos según Borja Albí. Ejemplos.
32

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PLAIN ENGLISH
Principles of clear writing

National Archives and Records Administration
Office of the Federal Register
http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/write/legal-docs/
1. Write in the active voice, which eliminates confusion by forcing you to name
the actor in a sentence.
2. Avoid ambiguity with modifiers:
Don’t say: John saw Jane driving down the street.

Say: John, while driving down the street, saw Jane.
3. Avoid indefinite pronouns used as references if there is ambiguity. If a

pronoun could refer to more than one person or object in a sentence, repeat
the name of the individual or object:
Don’t say: After the Administrator appoints an Assistant, he or she

shall supervise the ...
Say: After the Administrator appoints an Assistant, the Assistant shall
supervise the ...
4. Avoid grouping together two or more prepositional phrases, which make the
sentence ambiguous:
Don’t say: Each subscriber to a newspaper in New York.

Say: Each newspaper subscriber who lives in New York.
5. Use “must” instead of “shall”:
imposes an obligation to act, but may be confused with prediction of

shall
future action
will predicts future action
must imposes obligation, indicates a necessity to act
should infers obligation, but not absolute necessity
may indicates discretion to act
may not indicates a prohibition
To impose a legal obligation, use “must”; to predict future action, use “will”.
6. Be direct by using the imperative mood, thus avoiding the passive
Don’t say: All copies must be signed.

Say: Sign all copies.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
7. Use the present tense to refer to regulations in force:
Don’t say: The fine for driving without a license shall be 200 euros.
Say: The fine for driving without a license is 200 euros.
8. Write positively rather than negatively:
Don’t say: The Governor may not appoint persons other than those
qualified by the Personnel Management Agency.
Say: The Governor must appoint a person qualified by the Personnel
Management Agency.
Don’t say: A demonstration project will not be approved unless all

application requirements are met.
Say: A demonstration project will be approved only if the applcant
meets all requirements.
9. Avoid split infinitives, which offend many readers:
Don’t say: Be sure to promptly reply to the invitation.

Say: Be sure to reply promptly to the invitation / Be sure to reply to
the invitation promptly.
10. Use the singular noun rather than the plural noun: you will avoid the
problems of whether the rule applies separately to each member of a class or
jointly to the class as a whole:
Don’t say: The guard will issue security badges to the employees who
work in Building D and Building E.
Say: The guard will issue a security badge to each employee who
works in Building D and each employee who works in Building E;
OR The guard will issue a security badge to each employee who
works in both Building D and Building E.
11. Be consistent: don’t use different words to denote the same thing. Using a
synonym rather than repeating the precise term just confuses the reader.
Don’t say: Each motor vehicle owner must register his or her car with
the Automobile Division of the Metropolitan Police Department.
Say: Each automobile owner must register his or her car with the
Automobile Division of the Metropolitan Police Department.
12. Use parallel structures:
Don’t say:
The Duties of the Executive Secretary of the Administrative Committee
are:
- To take minutes of all the meetings;
- The Executive Secretary answers all the correspondence; and
- Writing of monthly reports.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Say:
The Duties of the Executive Secretary of the Administrative Committee
are:
- To take minutes of all the meetings;
- To answer all the correspondence; and
- To write the monthly reports.
13. Use simple words. Government writing should be dignified, but not
pompous. Make writing simple and direct so that it can be understood:
DON'T SAY SAY
construct, fabricate make
initiate, commence begin
terminate end
utilize use
substantial portion large part
afforded an opportunity allow
14. Omit needless words. Don’t use compound prepositions and other wordy
expressions when the same meaning can be conveyed with one or two words:
DON'T SAY SAY
because of the fact that since (because)
call your attention to the fact

remind you
that
for the period of for
in many cases often
in many instances sometimes
in the nature of like
the fact that he had not

his failure
succeeded
the question as to whether whether
15. Avoid redundancies: don’t use “couplets” (word pairs) where the meaning
of one includes the other. Try to avoid the following:
any and all
authorize and direct
cease and desist
each and every

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
full and complete
order and direct
means and includes
necessary and desirable
16. Avoid noun compounding (“noun sandwiches”)
Don’t say: Underground mine worker safety protection procedures

development.
Say: Development of underground procedures for the protection of the
safety of mine workers.
17. Don’t use gender-specific terminology; avoid the gender-specific job title:
DON'T SAY SAY
Crewman Crew member
Draftsman Drafter
Enlisted
Enlisted men
personnel
Fireman Firefighter
Foreman Supervisor
Manhours Hours worked
Personnel,
Manpower
workforce
18. Write short sentences. Readable sentences are simple, active, affirmative
and declarative. The Federal Register of the USA recommends an average of
about 15 words a sentence. Long, run-on sentences are a basic weakness in
legal documents. If several conditions or subordinate provisions must be met
before a rule applies, use a list. Make lists clear and logical in structure; when
listing, use the following rules:
• Use parallel structures (see above).

• List each item so that it makes a complete thought when read with the
introductory text.
• If the introductory language for the list is a complete sentence --
- end the introduction with a colon; and
- make each item in the list a separate sentence.
• If the introductory language for the list is an incomplete sentence --
- end the introduction with a dash;
- end each item in the list except the last item with a semicolon;

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
- after the semicolon in the next-to-last item in the list, write

"and" or "or" as appropriate; and
- end the last item in the list with a period.
19. Use short paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a single, unified
topic.
EXAMPLES OF LEGALESE VS. PLAIN ENGLISH
DON’T SAY SAY

give consideration to consider
is applicable to applies
make payment pay
give recognition to recognize
is concerned with concerns
accorded given
afforded given
attain the age of… become … years old
at the time when
by means of by
cease stop
commence begin, start
complete finish
conceal hide
contiguous to next to
deem consider
during such time as / during while
the course of
effectuate / endeavour carry out, try
enter into contract with contract with
enumerate count
equitable fair
evince show
expedite hasten, speed up
expend spend
expiration end
feasible possible
for the duration of during
for the reason that because
forthwith immediately

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
hereafter after this … takes effect

heretofore before this … takes effect
implement carry out
possess have
preserve keep
prior earlier
prior to before
proceed go, go ahead
procure obtain, get
purchase buy
pursuant to under
remainder rest
require need
retain keep
specified named
subsequent to after
sufficient number of enough
summon send for, call
until such time as until
utilize, employ use
within or without Spain inside or outside of Spain
indicate show
inform tell
in lieu of instead of, in place of
in order to to
inquire ask
institute begin, start
interrogate question
in the event that if
manner way
modify change
necessitate require
obligate bind, compel
obtain get
on and after July 1 after June 30

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
ACADÉMICO I: TEXTOS JURÍDICOS
Y ECONÓMICO-COMERCIALES
Temas 2 Y 3:
- The legal system of the UK and the USA vs.
the continental law system
- Legal English
DOSSIER DE
TEXTOS Y
EJERCICIOS

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
EXERCISES
1. Vocabulary. Give the appropriate term/expression for each
definition.
a) Body of principles and rules of law passed by Parliament:
b) Law concerning the private rights of individuals:
c) Law concerned with the punishment of offenders:
d) Law derived from custom and from precedent rather than from written, codified
statutes:
e) Each of the parts of a court, depending on its jurisdiction:
f) Previous case or legal decision, taken as a guide for future cases:
g) To become approved by a legislature or body empowered to sanction or reject:
h) To establish by legal and authoritative act; specifically: to make a bill into law:
i) The judges of a country, seen as a group:
j) Illegal act:
k) Decision by a judge in civil proceedings:
l) Punishment imposed on a person after a criminal trial:
m) Area and matters over which a court has legal authority:
n) Court order requiring someone to appear in court on a certain day to give

evidence:

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
2. Practising doublets: complete the following blanks with one of the

suggested words.
confessed every proper null disposing

desist exclusive testament knowledge memory
a) The criteria for determining whether or not a person is fit and ____________
should be established in conformity with national law.
b) NOW, THEREFORE, for and in consideration of the mutual covenants and

agreements herein contained and other good and valuable consideration, the
receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged and ______________,
the parties hereto hereby agree as follows (…)
c) Any amendment to a protocol applicable between two partner countries of the

pan-Euro-Mediterranean zone implies identical amendments to each and
_______________ protocol applicable within the zone.
d) If the FTC concludes that is has reason(s) to believe Section 5 has been violated,
it may resolve the matter by seeking an administrative cease and
_____________________ order prohibiting the challenged practices or by filing
a complaint in a federal district court, which if successful could result in a federal
court order to same effect.
e) I, Elvis A. Presley, a resident and citizen of Shelby County, Tennessee, being of

sound and ___________ mind and __________, do hereby make, publish and
declare this instrument to be my last will and __________, hereby revoking any
and all wills and codicils by me at any time heretofore made.
f) By the agreement, the First Respondent appointed the Second Petitioner as his
sole and ______________ agent inter alia to manage and market the services
and day to day affairs of the First Respondent in respect of media,
advertisement and related activities.
g) Any provisions contrary to the principle of equal treatment which are included in
collective agreements, individual contracts of employment, internal rules of
undertakings or in rules governing the independent occupations and professions
shall be, or may be declared, _______________ and void or may be amended.
h) I certify that, to the best of my ___________ and belief, this is a full, true and
correct report.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
3. Practising nominalisations: provide the correct noun. A clue is

given in brackets.
Council Regulation (EC) No 2252/2004 of 13 December 2004 on standards for security features and
biometrics in passports and travel documents issued by Member States
Whereas:
(1) The European Council of Thessaloniki, on 19 and 20 June 2003, confirmed that a
coherent approach is needed in the European Union on biometric identifiers or
biometric data for documents for third country nationals, European Union citizens’
passports and information systems (VIS and SIS II).
(2) Minimum security standards for passports were introduced by a ____________

[resolve] of the representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting
within the Council, on 17 October 2000 [3]. It is now appropriate to upgrade this
Resolution by a Community measure in order to achieve enhanced harmonised security
standards for passports and travel documents to protect against __________ [falsify].
(3) The ____________ [harmonise] of security features and the __________

[integrate] of biometric identifiers is an important step towards the use of new
elements in the perspective of future developments at European level, which render
the travel document more secure and establish a more reliable link between the holder
and the passport and the travel document as an important ___________ [contribute]
to ensuring that it is protected against fraudulent use. The ______________ [specify,
plural form] of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), and in particular
those set out in Document 9303, should be taken into account.
(4) This Regulation is limited to the harmonisation of the security features including
biometric identifiers for the passports and travel documents of the Member States. The
_____________ [design] of the authorities and bodies authorised to have access to
the data contained in the storage medium of documents is a matter of national
_____________ [legislate], subject to any relevant _______________ [provide, plural
form] of Community law, European Union law or international agreements.

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4. Practising prepositions: provide the appropriate preposition in the

gaps.
for, of, by, at, in, under, against, on, to, with
Education Act 2011

141F Restrictions _______________ reporting alleged offences by teachers
(1) This section applies where a person who is employed or engaged as a teacher at
a school is the subject __________ an allegation falling within subsection (2).
(2) An allegation falls within this subsection if—
(a) it is an allegation that the person is or may be guilty __________ a relevant
criminal offence, and
(b) it is made ____________ or on behalf of a registered pupil ____________ the
school.
(3) No matter relating ____________________ the person is to be included
_____________ any publication if it is likely to lead members of the public to
identify the person as the teacher who is the subject ___________ the allegation.
(4) Any person may make an application __________ a magistrates' court for an
order dispensing _____________ the restrictions imposed by subsection (3).
(5) The court may make an order dispensing with the restrictions, _________ the
extent specified ________ the order, if it is satisfied that it is in the interests of
justice to do so, having regard _________ the welfare of—
(a) the person who is the subject _________ the allegation, and
(b) the victim _________ the offence _______ which the allegation relates.
(6) The power _________ subsection (5) may be exercised by a single justice.
(7) In the case ___________ a decision to make or refuse to make an order under
subsection (5), a person mentioned _________ subsection (8) may, in accordance
_____________ Criminal Procedure Rules—
(a) appeal __________ the Crown Court ___________ the decision, or
(b) appear or be represented ___________ the hearing of such an appeal.
(8) The persons referred ____________ in subsection (7) are—
(a) a person who was a party _________ the proceedings on the application
__________ the order;
(b) any other person with the leave of the Crown Court.
(9) On an appeal under subsection (7), the Crown Court may—
(a) make such order as is necessary to give effect to its determination of the
appeal, and
(b) make such incidental or consequential orders as appear to it to be just.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
5. Practising word building: fill in the gaps with the correct form of the
word in brackets.
1. This Regulation shall be ___________ (bind) in its _______(entire) and directly

__________ (apply) in the Member States in accordance with the Treaty ________
(establish) the European Community
2. There is room for further …….…………… (act) on the part of the European Union to
ensure full ………..……… (implement) and respect of the Convention standards.
3. The ………..…… (procedure) rights of suspected or accused persons are particularly

important in order to safeguard the right to a fair ……………… (try).
4. The 2004 Hague Programme states that further realization of mutual ………………………
(recognize) as the cornerstone of judicial cooperation implies the …………………………
(develop) of equivalent standards of procedural rights in criminal proceedings.
5. A lot of progress has been made in the area of judicial and police cooperation on
measures that facilitate …………………..……… (prosecute). It is now time to take action to
improve the balance between these measures and the ………………………… (protect) of
procedural rights of the individual.
6. Any new EU ………………………… (legislate) acts in this field should be consistent with
the minimum standards set out by the Convention, as interpreted by the European
Court of Human Rights.
7. A suspected or accused person should receive ……………….…… (inform) about the

nature and cause of the ………………….…… (accuse) against him or her. A person who has
been charged should be entitled, at the appropriate time, to the information necessary
for the …………….…… (prepare) of his or her ………………… (defend).
6. Practising passive structures: provide passive structures for the

following sentences:
1. The European Union needs a coherent approach on biometric identifiers.

2. A Resolution of the representatives of the Governments of the Member States
introduced minimum security standards for passports.
3. The arresting officer informed the suspect of his rights.
4. Member States should provide suspects or defendants with free legal assistance.
5. The magistrate reminded the defendant of his right to a retrial or an appeal.
6. The appeal court may reverse the original decision.
7. The court will re-examine the evidence.
8. Member States must apply the provisions of this Framework Decision.

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7. Put in the correct preposition:
witness ______________ the prosecution:

witness ______________ the defence:
judgment _______________ [in favour of] the claimant:
judgment _______________ [contrary to] the defendant:
8. Complete the table with the missing word categories. Use only the
legal sense of the word:
VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE
accuse
acquit
act
adjourn
admit
allegation
amend
appeal
apply
assist
authorise
bind -----
caution
certify
charge
claim/claimant
consent

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VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE
convicted
defend
deprive
detained
disclosed
dismissed
enact
enforce
execution
infringe
informed
issue
judge
legislation/legislature
----- liable
notification
offend
plead -----
prosecute
provide
reported/reporting
request

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VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE
sentence
serve
sign
sue -----
suspect
testimonial
transfer
trial -----
9. Learning vocabulary: give the appropriate term/expression for each

definition.
1. A person who commits a crime is a(n) __________
2. When a police officer warns someone that s/he will be charged with a crime and
that what s/he says may be used in evidence, s/he ______ the suspect.
3. Legal punishment given by a court to a convicted person:
4. When an accused person says that he or she was somewhere else when an act
was committed you say s/he has a(n) ____________
5. Decision returned by a jury:
6. Act of setting a person free because s/he has been found not guilty:
7. Finding that a person accused of a crime is guilty:
8. Formal questioning in court:
9. A defendant’s reply to a charge put to him:
10.When you are representing the defendant in court you say that you are
_____________ the defendant.
11.A decision that has to be followed is called a ______________ decision.
12.When there’s more than one judge sitting together they sit in ___________.
13.When a case is heard with no public it is heard _________________.
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14.When a case is heard with public it is heard _________________.
15.A lawyer who is in active service is called a _____________________ lawyer.
16.A legal term to say “intentionally” is ________________________
17.When a court supports the decision of a lower court: to _____________
18.When a court does not support the decision of a lower court: to

______________
19.The opposite of a minor crime is a __________________ crime.
20.Another way of saying “temporary measures” is ____________________

measures.
21.The delivery of court documents is called the ___________________.
22.When an Act starts to be applied it ___________ into ____________.
23.SIs (Statutory Instruments) have the same standing as Acts, that is they have
_________ of law.
24.When judges have to give the reasons for their decision it is called a
__________________ judgment.
25.If someone is “accused” of three offences s/he is __________________ with

those offences.
10. Give the “plain English” equivalent for each of the following Latin
expressions.
1. A PRIORI
2. AD HOC
3. AFFIDAVIT
4. ALIAS
5. ALIBI
6. BONA FIDE
7. DE FACTO
8. DE IURE
9. HABEAS CORPUS
10. IN ABSENTIA
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11. IN CAMERA
12. IN FLAGRANTE DELICTO
13. INTER ALIA
14. IPSO FACTO
15. PER SE
16. PRIMA FACIE
17. STATUS QUO
18. VICEVERSA
11. Inversion
Inversion can be used instead of certain kinds of if-clause:
Had I known it before…

Should you need any help…
Were my team to lose…
In inversion, the verb phrase or the operator comes before the subject.
Verbs that are not modals or to be/to have carry the operator before the verb, as in a
question. Compare the following:
Only once did I go to the opera…

At no time did they break the rules…
Not until August did they decide that
Only then will they start to react…
Practise inversion with the following examples:
a. We cannot accept animals under any circumstances. (Under no circumstances)
b. John had never felt so upset. (Never)
c. If I had known that she likes fish, I would have bought some. (Had…)
d. There are no circumstances under which audience members may consume alcohol.
(Under no circumstances)
e. The gang didn't know the police had them under surveillance. (Little)
f. If I had known my lessons better, I wouldn’t have failed the exam. (Had)
g. If she were rich, she would buy a new house. (Were)
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Now do the same with legal English examples:
a. He is hardly aware of his rights. (Hardly)
b. The arresting officer must on no account violate the suspect’s rights. (On no
account)
c. The State has rarely provided legal aid. (Rarely)
d. There has seldom been so much protest against a Commission proposal. (Seldom)
e. The British will never support the creation of a European Public Prosecutor. (Never)
f. He little realizes the importance of the evidence. (Little)
12. The subjunctive in English
1. It is used after verbs such as ‘ask’, ‘advise’, ‘command’, ‘demand’, ‘insist’,

‘propose’, ‘recommend’, ‘request’, ‘suggest’, ‘urge’ (ALSO ‘SHOULD).
2. It is used in fixed expressions: God save the Queen
(May) God help you
So be it
3. It is used in sentences such as: ‘It is important that’
‘It is essential/imperative/vital that’
‘It is crucial that’
‘It is urgent that’
‘It is a good/bad idea that’
CONTINUOUS: It is important that she be waiting for the boss when he comes.
NEGATIVE: He insisted that Mary not be there.
PASSIVE: They recommended that he be hired for the job
EXAMPLES:
- The police challenged the order that he be surrendered.
- This empowers competent authorities to order that bank records be made
available.
- Any State may communicate a declaration that it reserves the right to order
that requests be accompanied by a translation.
- It is required that requests for compensation be authorised by a judge.
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Exercise on the subjunctive
1. He demanded that ___________________________ (SHE, GIVE) the statement

to him.
2. They insisted that _________________________ (HE, MAKE) the skeleton

argument.
3. The prosecutor suggested that __________________ (EXHIBIT ONE, MAKE

AVAILABLE) to the jury.
4. Counsel recommended that ______________________ (ANSWERS, KEEP) short

and simple when giving evidence.
5. The parties proposed that ______________________ (AN AGREEMENT,

REACH) as soon as practicable.
6. It was requested that ___________________ (THE CLAIMANT, BE) present in

the hearing.
7. It is essential that _____________________________ (THE DEFENDANT, BE)

available at all times.
8. The UN requested that _____________________________ (THE

GOVERNMENT, CHANGE) its policy.
9. The Council recommended that _______________ (THE MINISTER, RESIGN).
10.It is crucial that _______________ (A CAR, BE WAITING) for the President

when the meeting is over.
11.The Council of the European Union recommends that ______________ (ACT,

ADOPT)
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13. Listening exercise.
European Investigation Order

Oral Answers to Questions
27 July 2010
1:47-1:55 pm
Go to:
http://www.parliamentlive.tv/Main/Player.aspx?meetingId=6498
Move the cursor in the recording until you reach 1:47 or “Playing 13:21:35”
(right below the screen) until “Playing 13:55:50”. Listen to the recording.
Now fill in the blanks:
Thank you, Mr. ________. With ____________, Mr ___________, I would like to

make a ___________ on the _______ directive for a European investigation order, and
the Government's decision to _____ _____ that draft directive.
As people have become more _________, so too has crime, and that has _________
consequences for our ability to bring criminals to __________. To deal with ______
________, countries enter into mutual legal _____________ -or MLA-agreements.
These agreements provide a ____________ through which states can obtain
____________ from overseas. MLA has therefore been an important __________ in
the fight against international crime and terrorism. It’s been crucial in a high number of
___________ cases. For example, Hussein Osman, one of the _________ terrorists
from the 21/7 attacks five years ago, might not have been _________ had it not been for
evidence ________ through MLA.
But MLA has not been without its ___________. The process is ______________ and
confusing for the police and _____________, and it is too often too slow, taking in some
cases many months to obtain ____________ evidence. Indeed, in one
_________________ case the evidence arrived in the UK after the _____________
had been completed. The European investigation order therefore seeks to
_____________ these problems by simplifying the system, with a ____________
request form and providing formal ____________ for the _______________ and
execution of requests.
Mr. Speaker, the Government has decided to opt into the EIO because it offers practical
help for the British ___________ and prosecutors, and we are determined to do
everything we can to help them cut crime and __________ justice. And that is what the
police say this will do. We wrote to every ACPO __________ about the EIO, and not one
said that we should not opt in. ACPO themselves replied, and I quote:
"the EIO is a simpler __________ than those already in existence and, provided that it is
used _____________ and for appropriate ___________, we welcome attempts to
simplify and ___________ mutual legal assistance."
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14. Listening exercise: a long text.
Julian Assange loses his bid against extradition.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eg26o5cD3c
Listen to the video and answer the questions:
1. What country would Julian Assange be extradited to?
2. What was Mr. Assange’s claim before the District Judge?
3. What is the reaction by Mr. Assange’s lawyers to the decision of the court?
4. What are the charges against Mr. Assange?
5. Where did the alleged offence(s) take place?
6. His lawyers argue that extraditing Mr. Assange to Sweden

would___________________________ his human rights.
7. District Judge Howard Riddle __________________ (that) extradition was

legal and that there is no reason why Mr. Assange wouldn’t get a
________________________________________.
8. What did the Judge say about the likelihood that things said about Mr.
Assange would interfere with the courts of justice in Sweden?
9. How is Mr. Assange’s reaction to the court’s decision described?
10.What will be the next step for Mr. Assange?
11.While Mr. Assange prepares to go to the High Court, he is on _______.
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15. Multiple choice, Exercise I
Choose the correct option for each of the following:

(Source: Council Regulation (EC) No 1206/2001 of 28 May 2001 on cooperation between the courts of the
Member States in the taking of evidence in civil or commercial matters)
1. Regulation (EC) No 1393/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13

November 2007 on the ______________ in the Member States of judicial and
extrajudicial documents.
a. delivery b. giving c. transport d. service
2. This Regulation should not apply to service of a document on the party’s authorised
representative in the Member State where the proceedings are taking place __________
of the place of residence of that party.
a. regardless b. with no regard c. with no consideration d. independent
3. Security in transmission requires that the document to be transmitted _________

accompanied by a standard form, to be completed in the official language or one of the
official languages of the place.
a. will be b. be c. to be d. is
4. The service of a document should be _________ as soon as possible, and in any event
within one month of receipt by the receiving agency.
a. effectuated b. given c. effected d. made
5. To secure the effectiveness of this Regulation, the possibility of refusing service of

documents should be confined ________ exceptional situations.
a. to b. at c. for d. within
6. This rule should also apply to the _________ service once the addressee has exercised
his right of refusal.
a. later b. posterior c. latter d. subsequent
7. The expiry of this period should not imply that the request be returned to the
transmitting agency where it is clear that service is __________ within a reasonable
period.
a. feasible b. practicable c. available d. effectible
8. Where according to the law of a Member State a document has to be served within a
particular period, the date to be taken into ___________ with respect to the applicant
should be that determined by the law of that Member State.
a. the account b. accounting c. account d. considering
9. In accordance with the principle of proportionality, as set out in that Article, this
Regulation does not go __________ what is necessary in order to achieve those
objectives.
a. after b. furthermore c. beyond d. more beyond
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10. It shall not extend in particular to revenue, customs or administrative matters or to

_________ of the State for actions or omissions in the exercise of state authority (acta
iure imperii).
a. responsibility b. liability c. accountability d. answerability
11. Each Member State shall designate the public officers, authorities or other persons,
__________ referred to as "transmitting agencies", competent for the transmission of
judicial or extrajudicial documents to be served in another Member State.
a. hereinwith b. herewith c. hereafterin d. hereinafter
12. The designation shall have effect for a period of five years and may be __________ at
five-year intervals.
a. renewed b. renovated c. reactivated d. redesignated
13. The transmission of documents, requests, confirmations, receipts, certificates and any
other papers between transmitting agencies and receiving agencies may be carried out by
any appropriate means, provided that the content of the document received is
___________.
a. truthful b. truth c. true d. veritable
14. The applicant shall bear any costs of translation prior _______ the transmission of the
document.
a. off b. for c. of d. to
15. ___________ receipt of a document, a receiving agency shall, as soon as possible and
in any event within seven days of receipt, send a receipt to the transmitting agency.
a. at b. on c. in d. to
16. If the request for service is manifestly outside the scope of this Regulation or if non-
compliance with the formal conditions required makes service impossible, the request and
the documents transmitted shall be returned, on receipt, to the transmitting agency,
together with the __________ of return.
a. noticing b. notifying c. notification d. notice
17. If it has not been possible to effect service within one month of receipt, the receiving
agency shall continue to take all necessary steps to effect the service of the document, unless
indicated ___________ by the transmitting agency.
a. otherwise b. differently c. otherhow d. another
18. The receiving agency shall inform the addressee, using the standard form set out in
Annex II, that he may refuse to accept the document to be served at the time of service or by
returning the document to the receiving agency ____________ one week.
a. in b. within c. between d. amongst
19. If the addressee has refused to accept the document pursuant to paragraph 1, the service
of the document can be __________ through the service on the addressee.
a. realised b. solutioned c. remedied d. answered
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20. Where according to the law of a Member State, a document has to be served within a
particular period, the date to be taken into account ________ respect to the applicant
shall be the date of the service of the initial document.
a. for b. towards c. to d. with
21. The certificate shall be _________ in the official language or one of the official
languages of the Member State of origin or in another language which the Member State of
origin has indicated that it can accept.
a. completioned b. completed c. fulfilled d. filed
22. The service of judicial documents coming from a Member State shall not give rise to any
payment or __________ of taxes or costs for services rendered by the Member State
addressed.
a. reimbursement b. devolution c. return d. allowance
23. Costs occasioned by __________ to a judicial officer or to a person competent under

the law of the Member State addressed shall correspond to a single fixed fee laid down by
that Member State.
a. resort b. recourse c. coming d. attending
24. The request and document must be returned __________ receipt.

a. on b. at c. in d. from
25. If the addressee has __________ to accept the document pursuant to paragraph 1, the
service of the document can be remedied through the service on the addressee in
accordance with the provisions of this Regulation of the document.
a. denied b. declined c. refused d. neglected
26. Without prejudice to Article 8, the date of service of a document pursuant to Article 7
shall be the date _________ which it is served in accordance with the law of the Member
State addressed.
a. in b. on c. at d. to
27. The service of judicial documents coming from a Member State shall not give rise to any
payment or reimbursement of taxes or costs ________ services rendered by the Member
State addressed.
a. of b. on c. for d. towards
28. Where a ____________ of summons or an equivalent document has had to be

transmitted to another Member State for the purpose of service under the provisions of this
Regulation and the defendant has not appeared, judgment shall not be given.
a. writing b. writ c. written d. writt
29. When a writ of summons or an equivalent document has had to be transmitted to

another Member State for the purpose of service under the provisions of this Regulation
and a judgment has been entered against a defendant who has not appeared, the judge shall
have the power to relieve the defendant from the effects of the __________ of the time for
appeal from the judgment.
a. termination b. caducity c. expiration d. expiry
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30. The transmitting agency should be able to specify a time ____________ in the
standard form after which service is no longer required.
a. limit b. limitation c. expiry d. deadline
16. Multiple choice, Exercise II
Choose the correct option for each of the following:

(Council Regulation (EC) No 1206/2001 of 28 May 2001 on cooperation between the courts of
the Member States in the taking of evidence in civil or commercial matters)
1. Where a court requests to take __________ directly in another Member State, it shall
submit a request to the central body or the competent authority.
a. proof b. evidences c. evidence d. declaration
2. Each Member State shall draw up a list of the courts competent for the ________ of
taking of evidence according to this Regulation.
a. performance b. carry-out c. realization d. achievement
3. The request and all documents accompanying the request shall be exempted ______
authentication or any equivalent formality
a. for b. from c. of d. to
4. Requests and communications pursuant _______ this Regulation shall be transmitted

by the swiftest possible means, which the requested Member State has indicated it can
accept.
a. of b. from c. towards d. to
5. Within seven days of receipt of the request, the requested competent court shall send a(n)
__________ of receipt to the requesting court.
a. admission b. acknowledgment c. confirmation d. acceptance
6. Where the execution of a request made using form A in the Annex, which complies with
the conditions laid down in Article 5, does not fall within the jurisdiction of the court to
which it was transmitted, the __________ shall forward the request to the competent
court of its Member State.
a. later b. last c. latter d. last one
7. The requested Court shall acknowledge receipt of the deposit or advance without delay,
_______ within 10 days of receipt of the deposit or the advance.
a. to the latest b. at the latest c. in the latest d. on the latest
8. The requested court shall execute the request in accordance ________ the law of its
Member State.
a. with b. to c. on d. onto
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9. The requested court shall comply _________ such a requirement unless this procedure
is incompatible with the law of the Member State of the requested court.
a. at b. to c. on d. with
10. The requested court shall notify the requesting court, _______ the time when, and the
place where, the proceedings will take place.
a. from b. to c. of d. with
11. Where necessary, _____ executing a request the requested court shall apply the
appropriate coercive measures in the instances and to the extent as are provided for by the
law of the Member State of the requested court.
a. in b. at c. towards d. onto
12. A request for the hearing of a person shall not be executed when the person concerned
claims the right to ________ to give evidence or to be prohibited from giving evidence.
a. deny b. neglect c. refuse d. decline
13. The execution of a request may be refused only if the execution of the request under the
law of the Member State of the requested court does not fall _________ the functions of
the judiciary.
a. in b. at c. within d. between
14. Execution may not be refused by the requested court solely on the ground that under the
law of its Member State a court of that Member State has exclusive ________ the subject
matter of the action.
a. jurisdiction of b. jurisdiction over c. competence over d. discretion on
15. If execution of the request is refused on one of the _______ referred to in paragraph 2,
the requested court shall notify the requesting court thereof within 60 days of receipt of the
request.
a. grounds b. foundation c. bases d. causes
16. The grounds for the delay shall be given as well as the _________ time that the
requested court expects it will need to execute the request.
a. calculated b. computed c. budgeted d. estimated
17. Where the direct taking of evidence implies that a person shall be ________, the
requesting court shall inform that person that the performance shall take place on a
voluntary basis.
a. seen b. heard c. listened d. appeared
18. The central body or the competent authority may refuse direct taking of evidence only if
the direct taking of evidence requested is contrary ______ fundamental principles of law in
its Member State.
a. to b. against c. towards d. for
19. Without prejudice _______ the conditions laid down in accordance with paragraph 4,
the requesting court shall execute the request in accordance with the law of its Member
State.
a. of b. in c. to d. against
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20. If it is compatible _______ the law of the Member State of the requesting court,
representatives of the requesting court have the right to be present in the performance of
the taking of evidence by the requested court.
a. for b. towards c. to d. with
21. The execution of the request, in accordance with Article 10, shall not give _______ to a
claim for any reimbursement of taxes or costs.
a. arise b. rise c. raise d. risen
22. The duty for the parties to _______ these fees or costs shall be governed by the law of
the Member State of the requesting court.
a. bear b. carry c. relay d. bring
23. In all other cases, a deposit or advance shall not be a condition ______ the execution of
a request.
a. for b. of c. to d. with
24. This Regulation shall not preclude Member States _______ maintaining or concluding
agreements or arrangements between two or more of them to further facilitate the taking of
evidence.
a. for b. of c. to d. from
25. So as to ensure the utmost clarity and legal _______ the request for the performance of
taking of evidence must be transmitted on a form to be completed in the language of the
Member State of the requested court or in another language accepted by that State.
a. warrant b. certitude c. certainty d. security
26. The parties and, if any, their representatives, should be able to be present at the
performance of the taking of evidence, if that is provided for by the law of the MS of the
requesting court, in order to be able to follow the ____________.
a. proceedings b. procedures c. processes d. proceeds
27. This Regulation should prevail _____ the provisions applying to its field of application,
contained in international conventions concluded by Member States.
a. on top of b. above c. over d. beyond
28. Each MS shall designate a central body responsible for ______, in exceptional cases, at
the request of a requesting court, a request to the competent court.
a. forwarding b. resending c. directing d. advancing
29. The request shall contain the nature and _________ of the case and a brief statement
of the facts.
a. issue b. subject matter c. content d. topic
30. The request shall contain any requirement that the __________ is to be carried out
under oath or affirmation in lieu thereof, and any special form to be used.
a. interrogation b. declaration c. examination d. asking
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TEXTS
1. The judge’s role in civil cases
(From http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/about-the-judiciary/the-judiciary-in-detail/jurisdictions/civil-
jurisdiction)
Choose the appropriate term for the blanks:

Civil cases involve hearings in open court which the public may attend; hearings in
the judge's private room from which the public are excluded; and matters decided by
the judge in private but on the basis of the papers alone, without any ________ by
the parties or their legal representatives.
a) assistances b) showings c) appearances d) attendances
Before _________ a civil case the judge reads the relevant case papers and
becomes familiar with their details.
a) enjudging b) sentencing c) trying d) adjourning
The vast majority of civil cases tried in court do not have a jury -libel and slander
trials are the main exception- and the judge (i) __________ them on his own,
deciding them by finding facts, applying the relevant law to them - and there may be
considerable argument about what that law actually is -and then giving a (ii)
____________ judgment.
(i) a) audits b) hears c) audiences d) listens
(ii)a) reasoned b) groundedc) justified d) motivated
Judges also play an active role in managing civil cases once they have started,
helping to ensure they proceed as quickly and efficiently as possible. This includes:
• encouraging the parties to co-operate with each other in the conduct of the
case;
• helping the parties to ____________ the case;
• encouraging the parties to use an alternative dispute resolution procedure if
appropriate and;
• controlling the progress of the case.
a) agree b) resolve c) settle d) accord
Occasionally, the parties will have agreed the relevant facts and it will not be
necessary for the judge to hear any live (i) ____________. The issues may concern
the law to be applied or the terms of the judgment to be given. But more often than
not, written and live evidence will be given by the parties and their witnesses and the
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live witnesses may be (ii)_____________.
(i) a) evidences b) proofs c) proof d) evidence

(ii)a) cross-asked b) cross-examined c) cross-questioned d) cross-
interrogated
The judge ensures that all parties involved are given the opportunity to have their
case presented and considered as fully and fairly as possible. During the case the
judge will ask questions on any point he feels requires clarification, or which he feels
is relevant. The judge also decides on matters of (i) ______________ which may
arise during a hearing.
a) proceedings b) procedure c) process d) course
Once the judge has heard the evidence from all parties involved and any (i)
___________ they wish to put forward, he delivers his (ii)_______________.
This may be immediately, or if the case is complicated, the (ii) ___________ may
be given at a later date.
(i) a) interventions b) comments c) submissions d) remarks

(ii) a) judgment b) sentence c) finding d) ruling
Civil judges do have the power to punish parties if, for example, they are in (i)
___________ of court but, generally, civil cases do not involve the imposition of
any punishment on anyone. The (ii) ___________ -the person who has brought
the case to court- will have asked for some form of relief against the defendant. This
will more often than not be (iii) ____________ to compensate them for the losses
they say have suffered as a result of the defendant's actions. Then, if the judge
decides that the claimant is (iv)__________ to damages, he will have to go on to
decide the amount. Or the claimant may have asked for an (v) __________ -for
example, to forbid the defendant from making excessive noise by playing the drums
in the flat upstairs in the early hours of the morning, or a declaration -an order
specifying the precise boundary between two properties about which the parties had
never been able to agree. The task of the judge to is to decide on what is the
appropriate (vi) __________, if any, and on the precise terms of it.
(i) a) scorn b) disdain c) despise d) contempt

(ii) a) claimant b) complainant c) plaintiff d) petitioner
(iii)a) damages b) harms c) losses d) hurts
(iv) a) liable b) entitled c) empowered d) likely
(v) a) mandate b) injunction c) ruling d) admonition
(vi) a) solution b) countermeasure c) remedy d) sentence
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And then, when the judgment in the case has been (i) ______________ and the
result is known, the judge must (ii) _____________ with the cost of the case -like
the (iii) ___________ of lawyers (if they have been involved), the court (iii)
_____________ paid out by the parties, the (iii) _____________ of (iv)
_____________ witnesses, the (v)__________ that may be allowed to litigants
who have acted in person (without lawyers), and the (vi) ___________ lost and
travelling and other expenses incurred by the parties and their witnesses in getting
to and from court and in preparing for the case. Whilst the general rule is that the
unsuccessful party will have to pay the successful party's (vii)___________, the
judge has a wide (viii) _______________ to depart from this rule. The judge's
decision on this part of the case will be highly crucial to the parties. He may decide,
for example, that the unsuccessful party should pay only a proportion of the
successful party's costs or that each party should (ix) ______________ bear their
own costs.
(i) a) read b) called c) delivered d) dictated

(ii) a) deal b) treat c) allocate d) cover
(iii)a) payments b) fees c) salaries d) wages
(iv) a) experienced b) expert c) expertise d) specialist
(v) a) expenditure b) coverages c) allowances d) diets
(vi) a) remuneration b) returns c) stipends d) earnings
(vii) a) expenses b) costs c) rate d) charges
(viii) a) discretion b) jurisdiction c) consideration d) judgment
(ix) a) put up with b) support c) bear d) carry
Answer the following questions:

1. Are there jury trials in civil cases?
2. Find out what a reasoned judgment is and explain it in English. Are
judgments reasoned in Spain? Try and find the answer in the Spanish
Constitution.
3. Describe in your own words in what ways judges can have an active role
in civil cases.
4. Is evidence usually heard in court?
5. Can judges ask questions during hearings?
6. When are judgments given?
7. Can civil judges impose punishments on the losing party?
8. What are the most frequent types of judgments in civil cases?
9. What do costs include?
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Look up and learn these words and expressions (NO KEY PROVIDED):
court to try a case

in open court libel
slander to hear a case
to settle a case Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR)
parties witness
cross-examination procedure
to hear evidence to give / deliver judgment
to give evidence to put forward a submission
contempt of court to bring a case to court
claimant defendant
relief damages
to be entitled to injunction
order remedy
costs lawyer fees
court fees expert witness
Litigant in person discretion
2. Magistrates’ role in court
Magistrates hear less serious criminal cases including motoring offences, commit
serious cases such as rape and murder to the higher courts, consider bail
applications, deal with fine enforcement and grant search warrant and right of entry
applications. They may also consider cases where people have not paid their council
tax, their vehicle excise licence or TV licences.
All magistrates sit in adult criminal courts as panels of three, mixed in gender, age,
ethnicity etc whenever possible to bring a broad experience of life to the bench. All
three have equal decision making powers but only one, the chairman will speak in
court and preside over the proceedings. The two magistrates sitting either side are
referred to as wingers.
Most of the cases are brought to court by the Crown Prosecution Service but there
are other agencies that prosecute more unusual cases such as RSPCA, Environment
Agency, Department of Work and Pensions, English Nature etc.
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Where a defendant pleads not guilty a trial will be held where the magistrates listen
to, and sometimes see, evidence presented by both the prosecution and defence,
decide on agreed facts and facts in dispute, decide which evidence they believe is the
truth and consider whether the case has been proved beyond reasonable doubt.
Having found someone guilty or when someone has pleaded guilty, the magistrates
proceed to sentence using a structured decision making process and sentencing
guidelines which set out the expected penalty for typical offences. They will also take
note of case law and any practice directions from the higher courts and are advised
in court by a legally qualified adviser.
Magistrates undergo basic training before they sit in court for the first time, have
mentors for their first two years and are fully appraised. Training and appraisal are
continuous throughout every magistrate's career to keep abreast of new legislation,
new sentencing policy and new developments.

1. What types of cases do magistrates hear?
2. What sort of things can magistrates do?
3. Do magistrates sit alone?
4. Find out what the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is.
5. What are the names for the two parties in a criminal case?
6. Find out what Sentencing Guidelines are.
7. What is case law? Explain in your own words.
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serious criminal case motoring offences

commit a case to a higher court rape
murder bail
enforcement fine
search warrant to sit in court
panel bench
chairman proceedings
plead guilty / not guilty prosecution
defence facts in dispute
to prove evidence beyond a reasonable doubt
to be found guilty penalty
training appraisal
3. The judge’s role in a Crown Court criminal case
Before the criminal trial starts the judges familiarise themselves with the details of
the case by reading the relevant case papers. These include the indictment which sets
out the charges on which the defendant is to be tried, witness statements, exhibits
and documentation on applications to be made by any party concerning the
admissibility of evidence in the trial.
The judge supervises the selection and swearing in of the jury, giving the jurors a
direction about their special place in the trial in deciding the facts and warning them
not to discuss the case with anyone else.
Once the trial has commenced the judge ensures that all parties involved are given
the opportunity for their case to be presented and considered as fully and fairly as
possible. The judge plays an active role during the trial, controlling the way the case
is conducted in accordance with relevant law and practice. As the case progresses the
judge makes notes of the evidence and decides on legal issues, for example, whether
evidence is admissible.
Once all evidence in the case has been heard the judge's summing up takes place.
The judge sets out for the jury the law on each of the charges made and what the
prosecution must prove to make the jury sure of the case. At this stage the judge
refers to notes made during the course of the trial and reminds the jury of the key
points of the case, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each side's
argument. The judge then gives directions about the duties of the jury before they
retire to the jury deliberation room to consider the verdict.
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If the jury find the defendant guilty then the judge will decide on an appropriate
sentence. The sentence will be influenced by a number of factors: principally the
circumstances of the case, the impact that the crime has had on the victim and
relevant law, especially guideline cases from the Court of Appeal. The judge will
equally take into account the mitigation and any reports and references on the
defendant. Only once the judge has considered all of these factors will the
appropriate sentence or punishment be pronounced.

1. Explain what an indictment is
2. Find out how juries are selected and sworn in.
3. How do judges play an active role during criminal trials?
4. Why do you think the jury cannot decide on legal issues?
5. Find out and explain what a summing-up is.
6. Where do juries retire to decide?
7. Who passes sentence: judges or juries?
8. What sort of factors do judges take into consideration to decide on the
sentence?
indictment charges
witness statement exhibit
admissibility to be tried on charges
to swear in the jury to hear evidence
summing up a trial commences
directions deliberations
jury retire to a room
defendant to find guilty / not guilty
to decide on a sentence Court of Appeal
mitigation sentence
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4. Sentencing remarks. (i) Read the text and highlight any

emotional language. (ii) Summarise the text in your own
words (no key provided for this).
R -v- Thomas William Palmer
Reading Crown Court – 20 March 2007
Thomas William Palmer, the jury have found you guilty of the murders of Steven Bayliss and Nuttabut
Meechao “Twood” Nadauld. Steven was 16, Twood a month short of his 15th birthday. They had done no harm
to you or anyone else. They were boys with the whole of their lives before them – dearly loved by their families
and popular with their friends. All this was wiped out in a matter of minutes on 11th September 2005 when
you killed them both in a savage and brutal attack. I have read in full the very moving victim impact
statements made by Steven’s mother and the partner of Twood’s mother. Putting it in short, the two families’
lives have been shattered. The effect of what you have done will continue for decades to come.
The penalty for murder is fixed by law. You will go to custody for life.
I am required by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 to determine if and when the provisions regarding release
from prison should apply to you. In my judgment they do apply and I must now determine the period that you
must serve before the Parole Board will be entitled to consider your release.
Since you have committed two murders, the appropriate starting point is 30 years. I do not consider that this
murder involved a substantial degree of pre-meditation or planning or any other matter listed under
paragraph 4(2) of schedule 21 to the Act. I also do not find any aggravating features within the meaning of
paragraph 10.
Turning to mitigating factors under paragraph 11, I find on the balance of probabilities that the killings were
not premeditated. The most likely explanation is a sudden and lethal explosion of anger, though what caused
it remains something of a mystery.
I also find, having heard the evidence of the three medical experts, that you were suffering from mental
disorder, namely an anxiety state, which to a limited extent lowers what would otherwise be your degree of
culpability, even though it was insufficient to establish the defence of diminished responsibility. But the
evidence of Dr Joseph, which the jury have clearly accepted, was that if this anxiety state was not apparent to
your friends and family it cannot have been very serious, and I therefore regard it as being of relatively minor
importance in fixing the minimum term.
Most importantly, you were only aged 18 when you committed the offences. I bear in mind that had you been a
year younger the starting point under the statute would have been 12 years, although the actual minimum
term would have been longer than that.
Taking all these factors into account, I conclude that the appropriate minimum period that you must serve is
20 years from the date of the killings and your arrest. From that term must be deducted the period that you
have spent on remand in custody namely 555 days. The minimum period from today will therefore be 18 years
175 days.
I emphasise that this is a minimum term. It is no necessary indication of how long you actually will serve
because it is only after that time that the Parole Board will be entitled to consider your release. It is obvious in
the light of these horrific killings that you are a very dangerous young man. It is only when the Parole Board is
satisfied that you need no longer be kept in custody for the protection of the public that it will be able to direct
your release.
Thus this period of 20 years from the offences represents the very minimum that you will serve. If you are ever
released it will be on terms that you are on licence for the rest of your life and liable to be recalled to prison at
any time if your licence is revoked either on the recommendation of the Parole Board or if it is thought
expedient in the public interest by the Secretary of State.
Mr Justice Bean Crown Court at Reading
20 March 2007.
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5. A judgment. (i) Summarise pars.1-5. (ii) Explain the

meaning of the words highlighted in red. (iii) Learn the
words/expressions in blue. (iv) Say your opinion about what
is stated in par.5.
IN THE SUPREME COURT OF JUDICATURE
COURT OF APPEAL (CIVIL DIVISION)
ON APPEAL FROM THE HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE
CHANCERY DIVISION
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
MR JUSTICE PETER SMITH
[2006] EWHC 719 (Ch)
Royal Courts of Justice

Strand, London, WC2A 2LL
28th March 2007
B e f o r e:
LORD JUSTICE MUMMERY
LORD JUSTICE RIX
and
LORD JUSTICE LLOYD
____________________
Between:
(1) MICHAEL BAIGENT Claimants

(2) RICHARD LEIGH Appellants
- and -
Defendant
THE RANDOM HOUSE GROUP LIMITED
Respondent
____________________
(Transcript of the Handed Down Judgment of

WordWave International Ltd
A Merrill Communications Company
190 Fleet Street, London EC4A 2AG
Tel No: 020 7421 4040 Fax No: 020 7831 8838
Official Shorthand Writers to the Court)
____________________
Jonathan Rayner James Q.C. and Andrew Norris
(instructed by Orchard Brayton Graham LLP) for the Appellants
John Baldwin Q.C. and James Abrahams
(instructed by Arnold & Porter (UK) LLP) for the Respondent
Hearing dates: 16 - 19 January 2007
____________________
HTML VERSION OF JUDGMENT. Crown Copyright ©
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Lord Justice Lloyd:
Introduction
1. The Claimants are two of the three authors of a book published in 1982, The Holy Blood and
the Holy Grail (HBHG). The Defendant is the publisher in the UK of a book written by Dan
Brown, the Da Vinci Code (DVC), first published in 2003. The Claimants' contention is that,
in writing DVC, Mr Brown infringed their copyright by copying a substantial part of HBHG in
the course of writing six chapters of DVC. The case came to trial over 11 days in February
and March 2006 before Mr Justice Peter Smith. In his judgment, delivered on 7 April 2006,
he dismissed the claim: [2006] EWHC 719 (Ch). He also refused permission to appeal, but
on the Claimants' application to the Court of Appeal, I granted permission to appeal on 13
June 2006.
2. It is not in dispute that HBHG is an original literary work in which copyright subsists, nor that
the Claimants are two of the joint holders of the copyright. No point arises from the failure of
the third, Mr Lincoln, to join them in bringing the proceedings. By virtue of section 16 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, it is an infringement of the Claimants' copyright for
another person, without their licence, to copy HBHG or any substantial part of it, directly or
indirectly. The Claimants' case is that Mr Brown derived the majority of six chapters of DVC
from HBHG, that in so doing he copied part of HBHG, and that what he copied was a
substantial part of HBHG.
3. The judge appears to have held that the six chapters were largely derived from HBHG, but
he rejected the claim of copying. Not surprisingly after a lengthy trial, his judgment is long,
running to some 70 pages. Remarkably, he delivered it less than three weeks after the end
of the hearing. As was noted at the time, he was prompted by the extensive use in DVC of
codes, and no doubt by his own interest in such things, to incorporate a coded message in
his judgment, on which nothing turns. The judgment is not easy to read or to understand. It
might have been preferable for him to have allowed himself more time for the preparation,
checking and revision of the judgment.
4. The claim for breach of copyright is in some respects unusual, but it has to be tested by
reference to the same principles as would be relevant in a more conventional case. If
material is found in a later work which is also in an earlier copyright work, and it is shown
that the author of the later work had access to the earlier work, an inference of copying is
raised. Then it has to be considered whether there was in fact any copying, in relation to
which the later author may say that he obtained the material from his own unaided efforts or
from a different source. If it is found that any of the material common to both works was
copied from the earlier work, then the question arises whether what was copied was a
substantial part of the earlier work.
5. If the copyright work in question is a literary work, the allegation will normally be that part of
the text of the earlier work was copied, exactly or with some modification, in the creation of
the later work. In the present case that is not what is alleged as the basis for the claim in
copyright infringement. What is said to have been copied is a theme of the copyright work.
Copyright does not subsist in ideas; it protects the expression of ideas, not the ideas
themselves. No clear principle is or could be laid down in the cases in order to tell whether
what is sought to be protected is on the ideas side of the dividing line, or on the expression
side.
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6. Newspaper articles
New York Times. November 7, 2011
Doctor Is Guilty in Michael Jackson’s Death
Pool photo by Al Seib
More than two years after Michael Jackson's death, a Los Angeles jury convicted Dr. Conrad Murray of
involuntary manslaughter.
By JENNIFER MEDINA
LOS ANGELES — Michael Jackson, among the most famous performers in pop
music history, spent his final days in a sleep-deprived haze of medication and misery
until finally succumbing to a fatal dose of potent drugs provided by the private
physician he had hired to act as his personal pharmaceutical dispensary, a jury
decided on Monday.
The physician, Dr. Conrad Murray, was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter
nearly two and a half years after Jackson’s shocking death at age 50. The verdict
came after nearly 50 witnesses, 22 days of testimony and less than two days of
deliberation by a jury of seven men and five women. The trial had focused primarily
on whether Dr. Murray was guilty of abdicating his duty or of acting with reckless
criminal negligence, directly causing his patient’s death.
Dr. Murray, 58, faces up to four years in prison and the loss of his medical license.
He sat stoically as the verdict was read and did not react as he was led out of the
courtroom in handcuffs. Judge Michael Pastor ruled that he should be held without
bail until his sentencing, set for Nov. 29.
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Jackson, who had become a star as a child in Gary, Ind., singing with his siblings in
the Jackson 5, grew into one of the best-known performers in the world. Though
increasingly eccentric in his later years, often living on a secluded California estate
he called Neverland, Jackson always had a fervent core of fans and, despite scandals,
his lavish lifestyle and persistent money woes, always seemed just a comeback away
from a return to the top.
Hundreds of fans showed their devotion by gathering outside the downtown
courthouse throughout the trial — many of them sporting Jackson’s signature single
white glove. On Monday, they chanted “Justice, justice” and spent hours after the
verdict dancing to his hits, from “Beat It” to “I Want You Back.” Huge crowds had
also gathered outside the California court where Jackson was tried, and acquitted, on
child molesting charges in 2005.
The singer’s parents, Joe and Katherine Jackson, and siblings La Toya, Jermaine and
Randy were in the courtroom for the verdict. The family left the courthouse without
speaking to the hordes of reporters gathered outside, simply saying they were “very
happy” with the verdict and flashing a thumb.
Dr. Murray, a Houston cardiologist, was paid $150,000 a month to work as
Jackson’s personal physician as he rehearsed in Los Angeles for “This Is It,” a series
of 50 sold-out concerts in London that he needed to pay off hundreds of millions of
dollars in mounting debts.
Testimony showed that Dr. Murray had stayed with Jackson at least six nights a
week and was regularly asked — and sometimes begged — by the insomniac singer to
give him drugs powerful enough to put him to sleep. Jackson, Dr. Murray told the
authorities, was especially eager to be administered propofol, a surgical anesthetic
that put him to sleep when other powerful sedatives could not. Testimony indicated
that propofol, in conjunction with other drugs in the singer’s system, had played the
key role in his death on June 25, 2009.
Prosecutors tried to paint Dr. Murray as a money-hungry physician who would do
things no reputable doctor would do — including improperly and recklessly
administering an anesthetic normally given only in a hospital. The full retinue of
drugs given to Jackson while he was under Dr. Murray’s care was so beyond normal
practice, prosecutors said, that it amounted to a “pharmaceutical experiment.”
For its part, the defense tried to portray Jackson as a man so desperate to make his
comeback concerts a success that he was willing to take wild chances and grew
terrified that he would not be able to perform to his own exacting standards without
more rest and less stress.
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The morning Jackson died, Dr. Murray told investigators during a recording played
in State Superior Court here, the singer told him, “Just make me sleep; it doesn’t
matter what happens.”
When Jackson died, he was more than $400 million in debt, but since his death, his
estate has prospered, generating more than $310 million and paying off most of his
debts.
The estate has struck several lucrative deals, including a movie, video games, a new
recording contract and two productions by Cirque du Soleil.
Shortly after Jackson’s death, Dr. Murray told investigators that the pop star would
routinely plead with him to administer more propofol, calling it his “milk.” The
defense argued that Jackson gave himself the fatal dose of the drug. The Los Angeles
County coroner ruled that Jackson’s death was caused by “acute propofol
intoxication,” in combination with two other drugs in his system.
Two days after Jackson’s death, Dr. Murray told investigators that he had been using
propofol almost nightly for two months to help the singer sleep.
In their closing arguments, prosecutors repeatedly invoked Jackson’s three children
to a jury that included nine parents, saying that the singer wanted to perform, in
part, so that they could see their father on stage. David Walgren, the deputy district
attorney in charge of the case, described the frantic moments after Dr. Murray
realized that Jackson was not responsive and as the pop star’s children watched him
lie lifeless on his bed.
Prosecutors sought to show that Dr. Murray veered significantly from acceptable
medical practice at nearly every turn: by administering the propofol, not having
proper monitoring equipment and failing to call 911 right away, among other things.
They said Dr. Murray had not kept any records of administering propofol but had
taken time to record Jackson’s voice on his iPhone.
He did not tell the paramedics who arrived at Jackson’s home about the propofol,
which prosecutors said showed that he knew he was responsible for the singer’s
death. Just one day before the trial ended, Dr. Murray decided he would not testify.
Steve Cooley, the Los Angeles County district attorney, said that he hoped the trial
would send a message to other “unscrupulous, corrupt” doctors who help fuel
patients’ reliance on powerful drugs.
“In Los Angeles we see many examples of high-profile people losing their lives
because of their addiction to prescribed medication,” Mr. Cooley said. “To the extent
that someone dies as a result of their playing the role of Dr. Feelgood, they will be
held accountable.”
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Mr. Cooley said that he doubted that Dr. Murray would serve a full four-year
sentence because of the state’s chronically overcrowded prisons.
In one of the most dramatic moments in the trial, prosecutors played the iPhone
recording Dr. Murray made of Jackson toward the end of his life and the court heard
the singer rambling about his dream of building the world’s largest children’s
hospital.
“I’m going to do that for them,” Jackson is heard saying in slurred speech. “That will
be remembered more than my performances. My performances will be up there
helping my children and always be my dream. I love them. I love them because I
didn’t have a childhood. I had no childhood. I feel their pain.”
When his voice trailed off, Dr. Murray waited several seconds before asking, “You
O.K.?”
After several more seconds, Jackson answered, “I am asleep.”
1. Make a list of legal terms in the text and explain their meaning.
2. Summarise in your own words what is happening in the following

paragraphs:
3. What is the meaning of ‘child molesting’? This expression is called

‘euphemism’. Find out what that means and give 2 examples.
4. Summarise the Jackson case in your own words, using legal terms.
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The Guardian. Thursday 2 June 2011
Cameras in court: trial by boredom?

TV should be allowed to show trials. But broadcasters, and viewers, will only be
interested in the high-profile cases
David Banks
The OJ Simpson trial had television audiences rapt worldwide. But TV companies in the UK will find most
domestic trials too dull to make appealing to viewers. Photograph: Sam Mircovich/AP
The director of public prosecution's call to allow cameras into the courtroom is to be
welcomed if it will have the effect of re-engaging the public in the judicial process.
Open justice should not mean that the media are allowed into court but have one
hand tied behind their backs, able to report words, but not images.
And as Gavin Millar pointed out earlier this week, it is odd that we can see on TV our
MPs debating court cases, but we can see no footage of the cases themselves.
However, those rushing to welcome Keir Starmer's words – and Sky has been very
vocal in pushing the case for greater openness – should just pause to contemplate
the challenge they face if this is allowed.
While the OJ Simpson trial has been cited as an example of the over-dramatisation
of TV court coverage, one can find much less drama closer to home.
The experiment in Scotland of allowing cameras into court amply demonstrated the
judicial system's capacity for extreme dullness.
Any court reporter who has sat on the press bench waiting for a trial to go ahead will
tell you that court reporting can often be long periods of boredom, interspersed with
periods of high excitement. The court reporter distills out the boredom and presents
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just the drama. For TV to do the same will require editing of heroic speed and
proportion.
There is little doubt that there is a need for better and more comprehensive coverage
of the courts. The regional media, for whom it was once one of the three Cs that filled
their pages – court, crime and council – have pulled out of the courts, leaving a
vacuum in coverage. They often cite changes in reader demands, but one suspects it
has more to do with cuts in staff and expenditure that regional news groups have
been making in recent years, than a genuine lack of public interest in court
proceedings.
While Starmer says that most solicitors are in favour of the move, I wonder if so
many in the court system itself will be so enthusiastic.
When a couple of years ago I was one of the very few journalists at a debate on
opening up the family courts (Joshua Rozenberg, Bob Satchwell of the Society of
Editors and Radio 4's Sanchia Berg were the only others) the lawyers, social workers
and judges were queuing up to accuse the media of sensationalism. We were, they
said, not interested in the day-to-day, we would only be there for the high-profile
cases.
The fact is they were probably right.
The broadcasters will not provide the level of coverage that the regional newspapers
once did. They simply do not have the resources to staff and then edit footage from
all the crown courts and magistrates courts in the country, never mind the civil
courts.
They will not cover the 90%-plus of criminal business dealt with by magistrates
courts; the legions of petty acquisitive criminals motivated by a need to buy drugs.
They will cherry-pick the big cases, just as they always have done.
This is not an argument not to allow the cameras in. It is not claimed that local
newspapers produced perfect comprehensive coverage of the courts – but some of
them got close. Some regional papers gave, and still give, a very good idea of just
what goes on in the judicial system.
Allowing in TV cameras will no doubt make some of the higher courts more open in
some of the most newsworthy cases. Whether it gives viewers an accurate view of the
judicial system in action is another matter entirely.
The DPP on cameras in court:

0:15:25 – 0:22:30
http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b011jv83
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1. Find out who the Director of Public Prosecution (DPP) is.
2. What is the equivalent term for the DPP your country?
3. Who is the DPP in your country?
4. Search the internet and find out the difference between the DPP
and the Attorney General in England & Wales.
5. Find their names.
6. Discuss with partners the meaning of the expressions / words

highlighted in red in the text (NO KEY PROVIDED).
7. Say your opinion about letting cameras in court. Have you ever
seen a real trial on tv? Why / why not? (NO KEY PROVIDED)
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Reading comprehension.
Friday February 10 2012. The Times
Read this article and then answer the questions on the following page.
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- Explain in English the meaning of the terms below and find on the
internet 3 examples of use of each (in any form: suspend, suspension,
suspended, etc.).
2. wire taps
3. suspend
4. panel
5. unanimously
6. disciplinary hearing
7. allegedly
8. charges
9. bribe
10. appeal
11. verdict
12. retrospective prosecutions
- Explain in English the meaning of the following expressions from the

text:
1. witch-hunt
2. chasing headlines instead of justice
3. orchestrated by
4. overstepping his authority
5. wrongdoing
6. spring to fame
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ADDITIONAL TEXTS
I. Before reading the articles below, choose the correct option:
1. Martinez successfully ______ Sunday Mirror publisher Mirror Group

Newspapers in 2008 over an online article about his relationship with the singer
Kylie Minogue.
a) demanded b) sued c) charged d) prosecuted
2. The British publisher took its fight to Europe’s highest court and argued that a
French judge did not have the _________ to adjudicate on English-language
articles published on a UK website.
a) faculty b) capacity c) power d) ability
3. However, the European court of justice on Tuesday _______ against MGN.

a) ruled b) judged c) ordered d) sentenced
4. In a landmark ____________ for online publishing, the court said that

European publishers can be sued anywhere in the EU for articles published on the
internet.
a) sentence b) order c) injunction d) judgment
5. The ruling in Luxembourg follows the 2008 privacy action ________ in France
by Martinez against MGN.
a) sued b) brought c) pleaded d) prosecuted
6. MGN and Associated Newspapers were __________ to pay €4,500 (£3,920) in

damages for each article published.
a) commanded b) ordered c) forced d) charged
7. However, the case went to the ECJ for a jurisdiction ruling after MGN argued that
the French courts did not have the power to _________ judgment on articles
published on the Sunday Mirror website
a) pass b) dictate c) write d) order
8. "In its judgment delivered today, the court ________ that the placing online of
content on an internet website is to be distinguished from the regional distribution
of printed matter by reason of the fact that it can be consulted instantly by an
indefinite number of internet users worldwide."
a) understands b) affirms c) announces d) holds
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II. Now read the following texts:
European Court of Justice’s decision reinforces law under which UK

online publishers can be sued in any EU Member State
(by Josh Halliday)
The publisher of the Sunday Mirror has lost its bid to overturn a privacy action
brought in the French courts by the actor Olivier Martinez.
Martinez successfully sued Sunday Mirror publisher Mirror Group Newspapers
in 2008 over an online article about his relationship with the pop star Kylie
Minogue. The British publisher took its fight to Europe’s highest court and argued
that a French judge did not have the power to adjudicate on English-language
articles published on a UK website.
However, the European court of justice on Tuesday ruled against MGN. In a
landmark judgment for online publishing, the court said that European publishers
can be sued anywhere in the EU for articles published on the internet.
Victims of intrusive online material will now be able to sue in their country of
residence, as opposed to the EU member state of the publisher.
The ECJ said that claimants can choose to launch the legal action in their
country of residence, or the country where they have their “centre of interests”.
However, it added that under the EU e-commerce directive, which governs all
online services, the publisher of an internet article should not be subject to “stricter
requirements” relating to “personality rights” than they would face in their own
country if taken to court in another member state.
The ruling in Luxembourg follows the 2008 privacy action brought in France by
Martinez against MGN. Martinez won damages against MGN and Associated
Newspapers after he successfully claimed that Sunday Mirror.co.uk and Mail Online
stories about his relationship with Minogue negatively affected his reputation in
France.
Martinez took legal action in France because the articles could be read by
internet users in the country. MGN and Associated Newspapers were ordered to pay
€4,500 (£3,920) in damages for each article published.
However, the case went to the ECJ for a jurisdiction ruling after MGN argued
that the French courts did not have the power to pass judgment on articles published
on the Sunday Mirror website, as it is hosted in the UK and the article was in
English, while Martinez lives in the US.
The ECJ said that online material is likely to “increase the seriousness” of
infringing content because it can be read in any EU country.
“In its judgment delivered today, the court holds that the placing online of
content on an internet website is to be distinguished from the regional distribution
of printed matter by reason of the fact that it can be consulted instantly by an
indefinite number of internet users worldwide”, the ECJ ruling said.
43

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“Thus, universal distribution, firstly, is liable to increase the seriousness of the

infringements of personality rights and, secondly, makes it extremely difficult to
locate the places in which the damage resulting from those infringements has
occurred.”
The ECJ said that a person can sue in the country “where the victim has his
centre of interests” or their place of residence.
Victims can also sue in any EU member state the online article has been accessed
by readers and in the state where the publisher is based “in respect of all the damage
caused”, the ECJ said.
(The Guardian, 25 October 2011)
B. Online action bid lost by Sunday Mirror
The Sunday Mirror today lost its bid to stop a high-profile French actor bringing a
privacy legal action in his own country over an article which appeared on the paper's
website.
EU judges ruled that Olivier Martinez, whose well-documented relationships
include current girlfriend Halle Berry, could seek redress wherever he wished in the
EU: in France or in the UK in respect of all alleged damage caused across Europe, or
in the courts of each member state where the online story was accessible.
If he went to each country, the national courts could only award compensation, if
any, in respect of damage to the individual caused in its own jurisdiction.
Mirror Group Newspapers (MGN) had gone to court in France to oppose the
actor's action over a Sunday Mirror website article in February 2008 under the
headline Kylie Minogue is Back with Olivier Martinez.
The English-language text contained details of a meeting between the Australian
singer and Martinez, who began legal action against MGN claiming interference with
his private life and infringement of his right to his image.
Lawyers for MGN said the French court did not have international jurisdiction
because there was an insufficiently close connecting factor between the placing
online of the information in the UK and the alleged damage in French territory.
But the EU judges ruled today that the placing of content on an internet website
is different from "the regional distribution of printed matter" because the online
material "can be consulted instantly by an indefinite number of internet users
worldwide."
The judgment said: "Thus, universal distribution, firstly, is liable to increase the
seriousness of the infringements of personality rights and, secondly, makes it
extremely difficult to locate the places in which the damage resulting from those
infringements has occurred."
In those circumstances, said the judges, the court best placed to assess the
potential impact on an individual's "personality rights" might be the court where the
44

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individual has his "centre of interests" or "habitual residence".

The judgment said: "The Court of Justice designates that court as having
jurisdiction in respect of all damage caused within the territory of the EU."
But the judges went on: "The court points out, however, that, in place of an
action for liability in respect of all of the damage, the victim may always bring an
action before the courts of each member state in the territory of which the online
content is or has been accessible.
"In that case, in the same way as damage caused by printed matter, those courts
have jurisdiction to deal with cases only in relation to damage which occurred within
the territory of the state in which they are situated. Similarly, the person whose
rights have been infringed may also bring an action, in respect of all of the damage
caused, before the courts of the member state in which the publisher of the online
content is established."
The case was referred to the European court by the Paris Regional Court which
asked whether EU rules stating that people are sued in their country of residence in
civil and commercial cases also applies to "infringements of personality rights
committed by means of content placed online on an internet website".
The judgment said: "Victims of infringements of personality rights by means of
the internet may bring actions before the courts of the member state in which they
reside in respect of all of the damage caused.
"However, the operator of an internet website covered by the (EU) e-commerce
directive cannot be made subject, in that state, to stricter requirements than those
provided for by the law of the member state in which it is established."
(The Independent, 25 October 2011)
C. Superinjunctions: expensive, tiring and now more useless than ever
Jeremy Clarkson has abandoned his injunction. And Olivier Martinez’s

libel victory against the Sunday Mirror in France underlines the
pointlessness of national jurisdictions trying to gag globalised media
(by Peter Preston)
They’re expensive, exhausting and they stress you out. Thus Jeremy Clarkson
abandons a superinjunction that he says brought him nothing but grief. And reason
number one (advanced in an interview with the Mail): “Most importantly, they don’t
work. You take out an injunction against somebody or some organisation and
immediately news of that injunction and the people involved and the story behind it
is in a legal-free world on Twitter and the internet. It’s pointless.”
45

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Which is where last week’s European Court of Justice victory by the actor Olivier
Martinez against the Sunday Mirror comes in. So now you can sue in France for
something written online in the UK. So take the next logical step – on injunctions,
libel, privacy, and the whole digital extravaganza. What’s the point of one law in one
country any longer? Where’s the will to have one umbrella of media law to stop it
raining writs all over the world?
(The Observer, 30 October 2011)
1. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

a. Olivier Martinez sued MGN in France.
b. The French actor brought an action over a Sunday Mirror online article.
c. Olivier Martinez lost because the action was brought in France, and the
article was published in the UK.
d. Martinez claimed that the online publication infringed his right to his image.
e. MGN (The Sunday Mirror) claimed that the French court did not have
jurisdiction to deal with the case.
f. The ECJ held that, indeed, the damage was caused in the UK, not in France.
g. Therefore, Olivier Martinez had to pay €4,500 (£3,920) in damages for the
trouble caused.
h. An internet website, according to the ECJ, involves universal distribution of
content, and is therefore liable to increase the seriousness of the damage.
i. Jeremy Clarkson is of the opinion that national jurisdictions can
successfully deal with abuses by the media.
j. A person can sue in the country where he/she has his/her centre of interests
or place of residence, as well as in any EU member state the online article
has been accessed by readers.
k. A person cannot sue in the state where the publisher is based.
2. Replace the words in italics with synonyms or near-synonyms in the texts:

a. Plaintiffs can start proceedings in their country of residence.
b. Martinez sued in France because the articles could be read by internet users
in the country.
c. A French judge does not have the power to decide on articles published in
the UK.
d. A person can start the legal action in his/her country of residence.
e. The court asserts that internet websites are different from the printed press
as to their effects.
f. National courts can only award compensation in respect of damage to the
individual caused in their own jurisdiction.
g. Martinez began legal action against MGN.
h. The court best placed to evaluate the potential impact on an individual’s
personality rights is the court where the individual has his/her residence.
i. National courts have jurisdiction to deal with cases only in relation to
damage which took place within the territory in which they are placed.
j. The case was sent to the European Court by the Paris Regional Court.
46

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k. Victims of violations of personality rights may bring actions before the

courts of the member state in which they reside.
l. Injunctions can be very tiring, and this is why they should be given up.
m. Martinez’s victory shows the uselessness of national jurisdictions trying to
gag globalised media.
3. Explain the following terms:

a. landmark judgment e. injunction
b. seek redress f. writ
c. damages g. take out an injunction against
d. overturn somebody
4. Complete the following sentences:

a. Martinez began …………………………………………………………………..…………………..
b. The French actor claimed………………………………………………………………………...
c. The European Court of Justice ruled …………………………………….…………………..
d. The placing of content on an internet website is …………………………….…….…....
e. Universal distribution is liable to……………………………………………………………...
f. The victim may bring an action before the courts ………………………………………..
g. Victims of infringements of personality rights may be entitled to ………………...
5. Rephrase the following in your own words, trying to use legal vocabulary:
a. The European court of justice's decision reinforces law under which UK online
publishers can be sued in any EU member state.
b. The British publisher took its fight to Europe's highest court and argued that a
French judge did not have the power to adjudicate on English-language articles
published on a UK website.
c. The ECJ said that claimants can choose to launch the legal action in their country
of residence, or the country where they have their "centre of interests".
d. (…) the publisher of an internet article should not be subject to "stricter
requirements" relating to "personality rights" than they would face in their own
country if taken to court in another member state.
e. MGN argued that the French courts did not have the power to pass judgment on
articles published on the Sunday Mirror website, as it is hosted in the UK and the
article was in English.
f. (…) the court holds that the placing online of content on an internet website is to
be distinguished from the regional distribution of printed matter by reason of the
fact that it can be consulted instantly by an indefinite number of internet users
worldwide.
g. Victims can also sue in any EU member state the online article has been accessed
by readers (…).
47

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6. Fill in the blanks with the requested form of the following words from the text:
NOUN VERB NOUN VERB NOUN VERB

decision residence argue
sue claimant infringe
action requirement distinguish
judge ruling consult
adjudicate claim access
judgment order locate
7. Find synonyms or near-synonyms for the following:

a) to sue:
b) to pass judgment:
c) to infringe:
d) to rule against:
e) decision:
f) action:
8. Fill in the blanks with the correct preposition:
about, against (2), by (2), for (2), from, in (3), of (3),

on (5), over, to (5), with
a. Martinez successfully sued Sunday Mirror publisher Mirror Group Newspapers in

2008 _________ an online article about his relationship ______ the pop star
Kylie Minogue.
b. The British publisher took its fight ______ Europe's highest court and argued that
a French judge did not have the power to adjudicate on English-language articles
published _______ a UK website.
c. (…) the court said that European publishers can be sued anywhere in the EU
_____ articles published ______ the internet.
d. Victims ____ intrusive online material may now sue ______ their country of
residence, as opposed ___ the EU member state of the publisher.
e. However, it added that under the EU e-commerce directive, which governs all
online services, the publisher of an internet article should not be subject _______
"stricter requirements" relating _______ "personality rights" than they would
face in their own country.
f. The ruling in Luxembourg follows the 2008 privacy action brought _______
France by Martinez _________ MGN.
g. Martinez won damages __________ MGN and Associated Newspapers after he
successfully claimed that SundayMirror.co.uk and Mail Online stories ________
his relationship with Minogue negatively affected his reputation in France.
h. MGN and Associated Newspapers were ordered to pay €4,500 (£3,920) _______
damages _____ each article published.
48

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i. However, the case went to the ECJ for a jurisdiction ruling after MGN argued
that the French courts did not have the power to pass judgment _______ articles
published ______ the Sunday Mirror website.
j. (…) the court holds that the placing online of content ______ an internet website
is to be distinguished _______ the regional distribution of printed matter by
reason of the fact that it can be consulted instantly _______ an indefinite number
of internet users worldwide.
k. (…) universal distribution, firstly, is liable ______ increase the seriousness of the
infringements ________ personality rights.
l. Victims can also sue in any EU member state the online article has been accessed
_______ readers and in the state where the publisher is based "in respect
______ all the damage caused", the ECJ said.
III. Turn the following into active structures:
1. The online material can be consulted instantly by an indefinite number of users.

2. The articles could be read by internet users in the country.
3. MGN and Associated Newspapers were ordered to pay €4,500 in damages for each
article published.
4. The online article has been accessed by readers.
5. Compensation was awarded by the national court.
6. European publishers can be sued anywhere in the EU.
IV. Fill in the gaps with a suitable modal verb:
1. The victim ……… bring an action before the courts of each member state in the territory
of which the content is or has been accessible.
2. The operator of an internet website ……… be made subject to stricter requirements than
those provided for by the law of the member state in which it is established.
3. The national courts ……… award compensation in respect of damage to the individual
caused in its own jurisdiction.
4. The court best placed to assess the damage ……… be the court where the individual has
his/her centre of interests or habitual residence.
5. The online material ……… be consulted by an indefinite number of internet users.
6. Injunctions ……… be very expensive.
7. Online publishers ……… infringe a person’s right to privacy.
8. Claimants ……… choose to launch the legal action in their country of residence.
9. The publisher of an internet article ……… be subject to stricter requirements than they
would face in their own country.
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V. Put the verbs in brackets in the right tense:
1. If online publishers ……… (infringe) personality rights, they can be sued anywhere in the
EU.
2. If the journalists ……… (know) they would pay damages, they ……… (not publish) the
article.
3. Martinez ……… (not win) if the article ……… (not appear) on the paper’s website.
4. Victims will not be able to sue in their country of residence, as opposed to the EU
member state of the publisher, unless the intrusive or defamatory material ………
(appear) online.
5. Jeremy Clarkson ……… (not abandon) the injunction if it ……… (not be) so exhausting.
VI. Turn the following into active or passive structures, as appropriate:
1. A privacy action has been brought in the French courts by Olivier Martinez.
Olivier Martinez _________________________________
2. Martinez successfully sued Sunday Mirror publisher MGN Newspapers in 2008.
Sunday Mirror _________________________________________
3. The ruling in Luxembourg follows the 2008 privacy action brought in France by
Martinez against MGN.
The ruling in Luxembourg follows the 2008 privacy action Martinez ______
4. Martinez took legal action in France.
Legal action ____________________________________________
5. The Sunday Mirror website is hosted in the UK.
The UK _______________________________________________
VII. Turn the following into direct speech:
1. The court said that European publishers can be sued anywhere in the EU for articles
published on the internet.
The court said: __________________________________________
2. The ECJ said that claimants can choose to launch the legal action in their country of
residence.
The ECJ said: __________________________________________
3. MGN argued that the French courts did not have the power to pass judgment on articles
published on the Sunday Mirror website.
MGN argued: __________________________________________
4. The court holds that the placing online of content on an internet website is to be
distinguished from the regional distribution of printed matter.
The court holds: ________________________________________
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ACADÉMICO I: TEXTOS
JURÍDICOS Y ECONÓMICO-
COMERCIALES
Temas 2 Y 3:
- The legal system of the UK and the USA
vs. the continental law system
- Legal English
SOLUCIONARIO.
DOSSIER DE
TEXTOS Y
EJERCICIOS

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EXERCISES
1. Vocabulary. Give the appropriate term/expression for each
definition.
a) Body of principles and rules of law contained in written codes: STATUTE

LAW
b) Law concerning the private rights of individuals: CIVIL LAW
c) Law concerned with the punishment of offenders: CRIMINAL LAW
d) Law derived from custom and from precedent rather than from written,
codified statutes: COMMON LAW
e) Each of the parts of a court, depending on its jurisdiction: DIVISION
f) Previous case or legal decision, taken as a guide for future cases:

PRECEDENT
g) To become approved by a legislature or body empowered to sanction or

reject: PASS
h) To establish by legal and authoritative act; specifically: to make a bill into

law: ENACT
i) The judges of a country, seen as a group: THE JUDICIARY, THE BENCH
j) Illegal act: OFFENCE, CRIME
k) Decision by a judge in civil proceedings: JUDGMENT
l) Punishment imposed on a person after a criminal trial: SENTENCE
m) Area and matters over which a court has legal authority: JURISDICTION
n) Court order requiring someone to appear in court on a certain day to give

evidence: SUMMONS

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2. Practising doublets: complete the following blanks with one

of the suggested words.
confessed every proper null disposing

desist exclusive testament knowledge memory
a) The criteria for determining whether or not a person is fit and PROPER
should be established in conformity with national law.
b) NOW, THEREFORE, for and in consideration of the mutual covenants and

agreements herein contained and other good and valuable consideration,
the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged and
CONFESSED, the parties hereto hereby agree as follows (…)
c) Any amendment to a protocol applicable between two partner countries of

the pan-Euro-Mediterranean zone implies identical amendments to each
and EVERY protocol applicable within the zone.
d) If the FTC concludes that is has reason(s) to believe Section 5 has been
violated, it may resolve the matter by seeking an administrative cease and
DESIST order prohibiting the challenged practices or by filing a complaint
in a federal district court, which if successful could result in a federal court
order to same effect.
e) I, Elvis A. Presley, a resident and citizen of Shelby County, Tennessee,

being of sound and DISPOSING mind and MEMORY, do hereby make,
publish and declare this instrument to be my last will and TESTAMENT,
hereby revoking any and all wills and codicils by me at any time heretofore
made.
f) By the agreement, the First Respondent appointed the Second Petitioner

as his sole and EXCLUSIVE agent inter alia to manage and market the
services and day to day affairs of the First Respondent in respect of media,
advertisement and related activities.
g) Any provisions contrary to the principle of equal treatment which are

included in collective agreements, individual contracts of employment,
internal rules of undertakings or in rules governing the independent
occupations and professions shall be, or may be declared, NULL and void
or may be amended.
h) I certify that, to the best of my KNOWLEDGE and belief, this is a full, true
and correct report.

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3. Practising nominalisations: provide the correct noun. A clue

is given in brackets.
Council Regulation (EC) No 2252/2004 of 13 December 2004 on standards for security features
and biometrics in passports and travel documents issued by Member States
Whereas:
(1) The European Council of Thessaloniki, on 19 and 20 June 2003, confirmed

that a coherent approach is needed in the European Union on biometric
identifiers or biometric data for documents for third country nationals, European
Union citizens’ passports and information systems (VIS and SIS II).
(2) Minimum security standards for passports were introduced by a RESOLUTION

[resolve] of the representatives of the Governments of the Member States,
meeting within the Council, on 17 October 2000 [3]. It is now appropriate to
upgrade this Resolution by a Community measure in order to achieve enhanced
harmonised security standards for passports and travel documents to protect
against FALSIFICATION [falsify].
(3) The HARMONISATION [harmonise] of security features and the

INTEGRATION [integrate] of biometric identifiers is an important step towards
the use of new elements in the perspective of future developments at European
level, which render the travel document more secure and establish a more
reliable link between the holder and the passport and the travel document as an
important CONTRIBUTION [contribute] to ensuring that it is protected against
fraudulent use. The SPECIFICATIONS [specify, plural form] of the International
Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), and in particular those set out in Document
9303, should be taken into account.
(4) This Regulation is limited to the harmonisation of the security features

including biometric identifiers for the passports and travel documents of the
Member States. The DESIGNATION [designate] of the authorities and bodies
authorised to have access to the data contained in the storage medium of
documents is a matter of national LEGISLATION [legislate], subject to any
relevant PROVISIONS [provide, plural form] of Community law, European Union
law or international agreements.

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4. Practising prepositions: provide the appropriate preposition

in the gaps.
for, of, by, at, in, under, against, on, to, with
Education Act 2011

141F Restrictions ON reporting alleged offences by teachers
(1) This section applies where a person who is employed or engaged as a
teacher at a school is the subject OF an allegation falling within subsection (2).
(2) An allegation falls within this subsection if—
(a) it is an allegation that the person is or may be guilty OF a relevant
criminal offence, and
(b) it is made BY or on behalf of a registered pupil AT the school.
(3) No matter relating TO the person is to be included IN any publication if it is
likely to lead members of the public to identify the person as the teacher who
is the subject OF the allegation.
(4) Any person may make an application TO a magistrates' court for an order
dispensing WITH the restrictions imposed by subsection (3).
(5) The court may make an order dispensing with the restrictions, TO the
extent specified IN the order, if it is satisfied that it is in the interests of justice
to do so, having regard TO the welfare of—
(a) the person who is the subject OF the allegation, and
(b) the victim OF the offence TO which the allegation relates.
(6) The power UNDER subsection (5) may be exercised by a single justice.
(7) In the case OF a decision to make or refuse to make an order under
subsection (5), a person mentioned IN subsection (8) may, in accordance
WITH Criminal Procedure Rules—
(a) appeal TO the Crown Court AGAINST the decision, or
(b) appear or be represented AT the hearing of such an appeal.
(8) The persons referred TO in subsection (7) are—
(a) a person who was a party TO the proceedings on the application FOR
the order;
(b) any other person with the leave of the Crown Court.
(9) On an appeal under subsection (7), the Crown Court may—
(a) make such order as is necessary to give effect to its determination of
the appeal, and
(b) make such incidental or consequential orders as appear to it to be just.

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5. Practising word building: fill in the gaps with the correct

form of the word in brackets.
1. This Regulation shall be BINDING (bind) in its ENTIRETY (entire) and directly
APPLICABLE (apply) in the Member States in accordance with the Treaty
ESTABLISHING (establish) the European Community.
2. There is room for further ACTION (act) on the part of the European Union to
ensure full IMPLEMENTATION (implement) and respect of the Convention
standards.
3. The PROCEDURAL (procedure) rights of suspected or accused persons are

particularly important in order to safeguard the right to a fair TRIAL (try).
4. The 2004 Hague Programme states that further realization of mutual

RECOGNITION (recognize) as the cornerstone of judicial cooperation implies the
DEVELOPMENT (develop) of equivalent standards of procedural rights in criminal
proceedings.
5. A lot of progress has been made in the area of judicial and police cooperation
on measures that facilitate PROSECUTION (prosecute). It is now time to take
action to improve the balance between these measures and the PROTECTION
(protect) of procedural rights of the individual.
6. Any new EU LEGISLATIVE (legislate) acts in this field should be consistent with
the minimum standards set out by the Convention, as interpreted by the
European Court of Human Rights.
7. A suspected or accused person should receive INFORMATION (inform) about

the nature and cause of the ACCUSATION (accuse) against him or her. A person
who has been charged should be entitled, at the appropriate time, to the
information necessary for the PREPARATION (prepare) of his or her DEFENCE
(defend).
6. Practising passive structures: provide passive structures for

the following sentences:
1. The European Union needs a coherent approach on biometric identifiers. A

COHERENT APPROACH ON BIOMETRIC IDENTIFIERS IS NEEDED IN THE EU.
2. A Resolution of the representatives of the Governments of the Member States
introduced minimum security standards for passports. MINIMUM SECURITY
STANDARDS FOR PASSPORTS WERE INTRODUCED BY A RESOLUTION OF …
3. The arresting officer informed the suspect of his rights. THE SUSPECT WAS
INFORMED OF HIS RIGHTS BY THE ARRESTING OFFICER.
4. Member States should provide suspects or defendants with free legal
assistance. SUSPECTS OR DEFENDANTS SHOULD BE PROVIDED WITH FREE
LEGAL ASSISTANCE BY MEMBER STATES

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5. The magistrate reminded the defendant of his right to a retrial or an appeal.

THE DEFENDANT WAS REMINDED BY THE MAGISTRATE OF HIS RIGHT TO A
RETRIAL OR AN APPEAL.
6. The appeal court may reverse the original decision. THE ORIGINAL DECISION
MAY BE REVERSED BY THE APPEAL COURT.
7. The court will re-examine the evidence. THE EVIDENCE WILL BE RE-
EXAMINED BY THE COURT.
8. Member States must apply the provisions of this Framework Decision. THE
PROVISIONS OF THIS FRAMEWROK DECISION MUST BE APPLIED BY MEMBER
STATES.
7. Put in the correct preposition:
witness FOR the prosecution:

witness FOR the defence:
judgment FOR [in favour of] the claimant:
judgment AGAINST [contrary to] the defendant:
8. Complete the table with the missing word categories. Use

only the legal sense of the word:
VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE
accuse accusation accused (also noun)
acquit acquittal acquitted
act action/act actionable
adjourn adjournment adjourned
admit admission/admissibility admissible
allege allegation alleged
amend amendment amended
appeal appeal/appellant appellate/appealed
apply application/applicant applied/applicable
assist assistance/assistant assisting
authorise authorisation authorised
bind ----- binding

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VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE
caution caution cautionary
certify certificate/certification certified/certifying
charge charge charged/chargeable
claim claim/claimant claimed
consent consent consented
convict conviction/convict convicted
defend defence/defendant defended
deprive deprivation deprived
detain detention/detainment/det detained

ainee
disclose disclosure disclosed
dismiss dismissal dismissed
enact enactment enacted
enforce enforcement enforceable/enforced
execute execution executed/executable
infringe Infringement/infraction infringed
inform information informed
issue issue/issuance issuing/issued
judge judgment (also judged

judgement)/judge
legislate legislation/legislature legislated/legislative
----- liability liable
notify notification notifiable/notified
offend offence/offender offensive/offending

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VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE
plead plea/pleading -----
prosecute prosecutor/prosecution prosecuting/prosecuted
provide provision provisional
report report reported/reporting
request request requested/requesting
sentence sentence sentencing/sentenced
serve service serving/serviced/service

able
sign signature signatory/signed
sue suit -----
suspect suspect/suspicion suspicious
testify testimony testimonial
transfer transfer transferred
try trial -----
9. Learning vocabulary: give the appropriate term/expression

for each definition.
1. A person who commits a crime is a(n) OFFENDER.
2. When a police officer warns someone that s/he will be charged with a
crime and that what s/he says may be used in evidence, s/he CAUTIONS
the suspect.
3. Legal punishment given by a court to a convicted person: SENTENCE.
4. When an accused person says that he or she was somewhere else when an
act was committed you say s/he has a(n) ALIBI.
5. Decision returned by a jury: VERDICT.
6. Act of setting a person free because s/he has been found not guilty:
ACQUITTAL.

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7. Finding that a person accused of a crime is guilty: CONVICTION.
8. Formal questioning in court: EXAMINATION.
9. A defendant’s reply to a charge put to him: PLEA.
10.When you are representing the defendant in court you say that you are
FOR the defendant.
11.A decision that has to be followed is called a BINDING decision.
12.When there’s more than one judge sitting together they sit in BENCH/IN A
PANEL/EN BANC.
13.When a case is heard with no public it is heard IN CHAMBERS/IN

CAMERA/IN PRIVATE/IN CLOSED COURT.
14.When a case is heard with public it is heard IN OPEN COURT/IN CURIA.
15.A lawyer who is in active service is called a PRACTISING lawyer.
16.A legal term to say “intentionally” is WILFULLY.
17.When a court supports the decision of a lower court: to UPHOLD.
18.When a court does not support the decision of a lower court: to

REVERSE/OVERTURN.
19.The opposite of a minor crime is a SERIOUS crime.
20.Another way of saying “temporary measures” is PROVISIONAL measures.
21.The delivery of court documents is called the SERVICE.
22.When an Act starts to be applied it ENTERS into FORCE.
23.SIs (Statutory Instruments) have the same standing as Acts, that is they
have FORCE of law.
24.When judges have to give the reasons for their decision it is called a
REASONED judgment.
25.If someone is “accused” of three offences s/he is CHARGED with those

offences.
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10. Give the “plain English” equivalent for each of the following
Latin expressions.
1) A PRIORI (from what comes before, from the former; before seeing
the facts)
2) AD HOC (to this; for this purpose)
3) AFFIDAVIT (sworn statement)
4) ALIAS (otherwise known as; common name)
5) ALIBI (elsewhere)
6) BONA FIDE (in good faith)
7) DE FACTO (in fact)
8) DE IURE/JURE (by right, by law)
9) HABEAS CORPUS (produce/bring forth the body)
10) IN ABSENTIA (in the absence of)
11) IN CAMERA (in closed court, in chambers, in private)
12) IN FLAGRANTE DELICTO (in blazing offence/in the act of committing

an offence)
13) INTER ALIA (among other things)
14) IPSO FACTO (by that very fact/by the fact itself)
15) PER SE (by itself)
16) PRIMA FACIE (at first sight, on the face of it)
17) STATUS QUO (current state of affairs)
18) VICEVERSA (the other way (a)round)
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11. Inversion
Inversion can be used instead of certain kinds of if-clause:
Had I known it before…

Should you need any help…
Were my team to lose…
In inversion, the verb phrase or the operator comes before the subject.
Verbs that are not modals or to be/to have carry the operator before the verb, as
in a question. Compare the following:
Only once did I go to the opera…

At no time did they break the rules…
Not until August did they decide that
Only then will they start to react…
Do inversion with the following examples:
a. We cannot accept animals under any circumstances. (Under no circumstances)
UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES CAN WE ACCEPT…
b. John had never felt so upset. (Never)
NEVER HAD JOHN FELT…
c. If I had known that she likes fish, I would have bought some. (Had…)
HAD I KNOWN THAT SHE LIKES FISH…
d. There are no circumstances under which audience members may consume

alcohol. (Under no circumstances)
UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES MAY AUDIENCE MEMBERS …
e. The gang didn't know the police had them under surveillance. (Little)
LITTLE DID THE GANG KNOW THAT…
f. If I had known my lessons better, I wouldn’t have failed the exam. (Had)
HAD I KNOWN MY LESSONS BETTER…
g. If she were rich, she would buy a new house. (Were)
WERE SHE RICH, SHE WOULD…
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Now do the same with legal English examples:
a. He is hardly aware of his rights. (Hardly)
HARDLY IS HE AWARE OF HIS RIGHTS
b. The arresting officer must on no account violate the suspect’s rights. (On no
account)
ON NO ACCOUNT MUST THE ARRESTING OFFICE VIOLATE…
c. The State has rarely provided legal aid. (Rarely)
RARELY HAS THE STATE PROVIDED…
d. There has seldom been so much protest against a Commission proposal.

(Seldom)
SELDOM HAS THERE BEEN SO MUCH PROTEST…
e. The British will never support the creation of a European Public Prosecutor.
(Never)
NEVER WILL THE BRITISH SUPPORT THE CREATION…
f. He little realizes the importance of the evidence. (Little)
LITTLE DOES HE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE…
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12. The subjunctive in English
1. It is used after verbs such as ‘ask’, ‘advise’, ‘command’, ‘demand’, ‘insist’,

‘propose’, ‘recommend’, ‘request’, ‘suggest’, ‘urge’ (ALSO ‘SHOULD).
2. It is used in fixed expressions: God save the Queen
(May) God help you
So be it
3. It is used in sentences such as: ‘It is important that’
‘It is essential/imperative/vital that’
‘It is crucial that’
‘It is urgent that’
‘It is a good/bad idea that’
CONTINUOUS: It is important that she be waiting for the boss when he

comes.
NEGATIVE: He insisted that Mary not be there.
PASSIVE: They recommended that he be hired for the job
EXAMPLES:
- The police challenged the order that he be surrendered.

- This empowers competent authorities to order that bank records be
made available.
- Any State may communicate a declaration that it reserves the right to
order that requests be accompanied by a translation.
- It is required that requests for compensation be authorised by a judge.
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Exercise on the subjunctive
1. He demanded THAT SHE GIVE (SHE, GIVE) the statement to him.
2. They insisted THAT HE MAKE (HE, MAKE) the skeleton argument.
3. The prosecutor suggested THAT EXHIBIT ONE BE MADE AVAILABLE

(EXHIBIT ONE, MAKE AVAILABLE) to the jury.
4. Counsel recommended THAT ANSWERS BE KEPT (ANSWERS, KEEP) short

and simple when giving evidence.
5. The parties proposed THAT AN AGREEMENT BE REACHED (AN

AGREEMENT, REACH) as soon as practicable.
6. It was requested THAT THE CLAIMANT BE (THE CLAIMANT, BE) present in

the hearing.
7. It is essential THAT THE DEFENDANT BE (THE DEFENDANT, BE) available

at all times.
8. The UN requested THAT THE GOVERNMENT CHANGE (THE

GOVERNMENT, CHANGE) its policy.
9. The Council recommended THAT THE MINISTER RESIGN (THE MINISTER,

RESIGN).
10.It is crucial THAT A CAR BE WAITING (A CAR, BE WAITING) for the

President when the meeting is over.
11.The Council of the European Union recommends THAT THE ACT BE

ADOPTED (ACT, ADOPT)
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13. Listening exercise.
European Investigation Order

Oral Answers to Questions
27 July 2010
1:47-1:55 pm
Go to:
http://www.parliamentlive.tv/Main/Player.aspx?meetingId=6498
Move the cursor in the recording until you reach 1:47 or “Playing
13:21:35” (right below the screen) until “Playing 13:55:50”. Listen to the
recording.
Now fill in the blanks:
Thank you, Mr. SPEAKER. With PERMISSION, Mr SPEAKER, I would like to make a
STATEMENT on the DRAFT directive for a European investigation order, and the
Government's decision to OPT INTO that draft directive.
As people have become more MOBILE, so too has crime, and that has SERIOUS
consequences for our ability to bring criminals to JUSTICE. To deal with CROSS-
BORDER CRIME, countries enter into mutual legal ASSISTANCE -or MLA-
agreements. These agreements provide a FRAMEWORK through which states can
obtain EVIDENCE from overseas. MLA has therefore been an important TOOL in the
fight against international crime and terrorism. It’s been crucial in a high number of
HIGH-PROFILE cases. For example, Hussein Osman, one of the FAILED terrorists
from the 21/7 attacks five years ago, might not have been CONVICTED had it not
been for evidence OBTAINED through MLA.
But MLA has not been without its FAULTS. The process is FRAGMENTED and
confusing for the police and PROSECUTORS, and it is too often too slow, taking in
some cases many months to obtain VITAL evidence. Indeed, in one DRUG
TRAFFICKING case the evidence arrived in the UK after the TRIAL had been
completed. The European investigation order therefore seeks to ADDRESS these
problems by simplifying the system, with a STANDARDISED request form and
providing formal DEADLINES for the RECOGNITION and execution of requests.
Mr. Speaker, the Government has decided to opt into the EIO because it offers
practical help for the British POLICE and prosecutors, and we are determined to do
everything we can to help them cut crime and DELIVER justice. And that is what the
police say this will do. We wrote to every ACPO FORCE about the EIO, and not one
said that we should not opt in. ACPO themselves replied, and I quote:
"the EIO is a simpler INSTRUMENT than those already in existence and, provided
that it is used SENSIBLY and for appropriate OFFENCES, we welcome attempts to
simplify and EXPEDITE mutual legal assistance."
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14. Listening exercise: a long text.
Julian Assange loses his bid against extradition.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eg26o5cD3c
Listen to the video and answer the questions:
1) What country would Julian Assange be extradited to? SWEDEN
2) What was Mr. Assange’s claim before the District Judge? HE IS

PUBLIC ENEMY NO. 1 / THERE IS POLITICAL MOTIVATION BEHIND HIS
CASE
3) What is the reaction by Mr. Assange’s lawyers to the decision of the

court? THEY ARE GOING TO (ASK FOR PERMISSION TO) APPEAL
4) What are the charges against Mr. Assange? RAPE/SEXUAL ASSAULT
5) Where did the alleged offence(s) take place? STOCKHOLM
6) His lawyers argue that extraditing Mr. Assange to Sweden would

BREACH his human rights.
7) District Judge Howard Riddle RULED (that) extradition was legal and
that there was no reason why Mr. Assange wouldn’t get a FAIR TRIAL.
8) What did the Judge say about the likelihood that things said about Mr.
Assange would interfere with the courts of justice in Sweden? IT IS HIGHLY
UNLIKELY THAT ANYTHING HE SAID WOULD INTERFERE.
9) How is Mr. Assange’s reaction to the court’s decision described?

IMPASSIVE, CALM
10) What does Mr. Assange say about the merits of the allegations? What
does he mean by that? NO CONSIDERATION WAS TAKEN AS TO THE
MERITS.
11) What will be the next step for Mr. Assange? TO APPEAL
12) While Mr. Assange prepares to go to the High Court, he is on BAIL.
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15. Multiple choice, Exercise I. Answer key.
1. d; 2. a; 3. b; 4. c; 5. a; 6. d; 7. a; 8. c; 9. c; 10. b; 11. d; 12. a; 13. c; 14. d;

15. b; 16. d; 17. a; 18. b; 19. c; 20. d; 21. b; 22. a; 23. b; 24. a; 25. c; 26. b;
27. c; 28. b; 29. d; 30. a
16. Multiple choice, Exercise II. Answer key.
1. c; 2. a; 3. b; 4. d; 5. b; 6. c; 7. b; 8. a; 9. d; 10. c; 11. a; 12. c; 13. c; 14. b;

15. a; 16. d; 17. b; 18. a; 19. c; 20. d; 21. b; 22. a; 23. a; 24. d; 25. c; 26. a;
27. c; 28. a; 29. b; 30. c
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TEXTS
1. The judge’s role in civil cases
Choose the appropriate term for the blanks:
Civil cases involve hearings in open court which the public may attend;
hearings in the judge's private room from which the public are excluded; and
matters decided by the judge in private but on the basis of the papers alone,
without any ________ by the parties or their legal representatives.
a) assistances b) showings c) appearances d) attendances
Before _________ a civil case the judge reads the relevant case papers and
becomes familiar with their details.
a) enjudging b) sentencing c) trying d) adjourning
The vast majority of civil cases tried in court do not have a jury -libel and
slander trials are the main exception- and the judge (i) __________ them on
his own, deciding them by finding facts, applying the relevant law to them -
and there may be considerable argument about what that law actually is -and
then giving a (ii) ____________ judgment.
(i) a) audits b) hears c) audiences d) listens

(ii)a) reasoned b) groundedc) justified d) motivated
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Judges also play an active role in managing civil cases once they have started,
helping to ensure they proceed as quickly and efficiently as possible. This
includes:
• encouraging the parties to co-operate with each other in the conduct of

the case;
• helping the parties to ____________ the case;
• encouraging the parties to use an alternative dispute resolution
procedure if appropriate and;
• controlling the progress of the case.
a) agree b) resolve c) settle d) accord
Occasionally, the parties will have agreed the relevant facts and it will not be
necessary for the judge to hear any live (i) ____________. The issues may
concern the law to be applied or the terms of the judgment to be given. But
more often than not, written and live evidence will be given by the parties and
their witnesses and the live witnesses may be (ii)_____________.
(i) a) evidences b) proofs c) proof d) evidence

(ii)a) cross-asked b) cross-examined c) cross-questioned
d) cross-interrogated
The judge ensures that all parties involved are given the opportunity to have
their case presented and considered as fully and fairly as possible. During the
case the judge will ask questions on any point he feels requires clarification, or
which he feels is relevant. The judge also decides on matters of (i)
______________ which may arise during a hearing.
a) proceedings b) procedure c) process d) course
Once the judge has heard the evidence from all parties involved and any (i)
___________ they wish to put forward, he delivers his
(ii)_______________. This may be immediately, or if the case is
complicated, the (ii) ___________ may be given at a later date.
(i) a) interventions b) comments c) submissions d) remarks

(ii) a) judgment b) sentence c) finding d) ruling
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Civil judges do have the power to punish parties if, for example, they are in (i)
___________ of court but, generally, civil cases do not involve the
imposition of any punishment on anyone. The (ii) ___________ -the person
who has brought the case to court- will have asked for some form of relief
against the defendant. This will more often than not be (iii) ____________
to compensate them for the losses they say have suffered as a result of the
defendant's actions. Then, if the judge decides that the claimant is
(iv)__________ to damages, he will have to go on to decide the amount. Or
the claimant may have asked for an (v) __________ -for example, to forbid
the defendant from making excessive noise by playing the drums in the flat
upstairs in the early hours of the morning, or a declaration -an order specifying
the precise boundary between two properties about which the parties had
never been able to agree. The task of the judge to is to decide on what is the
appropriate (vi) __________, if any, and on the precise terms of it.
(i) a) scorn b) disdain c) despise d) contempt

(ii) a) claimant b) complainant c) plaintiff d) petitioner
(iii)a) damages b) harms c) losses d) hurts
(iv) a) liable b) entitled c) empowered d) likely
(v) a) mandate b) injunction c) ruling d) admonition
(vi) a) solution b) countermeasure c) remedy d) sentence
And then, when the judgment in the case has been (i) ______________ and
the result is known, the judge must (ii) _____________ with the cost of the
case -like the (iii) ___________ of lawyers (if they have been involved), the
court (iii) _____________ paid out by the parties, the (iii)
_____________ of (iv) _____________ witnesses, the (v)__________
that may be allowed to litigants who have acted in person (without lawyers),
and the (vi) ___________ lost and travelling and other expenses incurred by
the parties and their witnesses in getting to and from court and in preparing
for the case. Whilst the general rule is that the unsuccessful party will have to
pay the successful party's (vii)___________, the judge has a wide (viii)
_______________ to depart from this rule. The judge's decision on this
part of the case will be highly crucial to the parties. He may decide, for
example, that the unsuccessful party should pay only a proportion of the
successful party's costs or that each party should (ix) ______________ bear
their own costs.
(i) a) read b) called c) delivered d) dictated

(ii) a) deal b) treat c) allocate d) cover
(iii)a) payments b) fees c) salaries d) wages
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(iv) a) experienced b) expert c) expertise d) specialist

(v) a) expenditure b) coverages c) allowances d) diets
(vi) a) remuneration b) returns c) stipends d) earnings
(vii) a) expenses b) costs c) rate d) charges
(viii) a) discretion b) jurisdiction c) consideration d)
judgment
(ix) a) put up with b) support c) bear d) carry

1. Are there jury trials in civil cases? Libel and slander trials
2. Find out what a reasoned judgment is and explain it in English.
Are judgments reasoned in Spain? Try and find the answer in the
Spanish Constitution. Article 120.3
3. Describe in your own words in what ways judges can have an
active role in civil cases.
4. Is evidence usually heard in court? Yes
5. Can judges ask questions during hearings? Yes
6. Can civil judges impose punishments on the losing party? Yes
7. What are the most frequent types of judgments in civil cases?
Damages, injunctions, declarations, orders…
8. What do costs include? Fees of lawyers, court fees, fees of expert
witnesses, allowances, loss of earnings.
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Look up and learn these words and expressions (NO KEY

PROVIDED):
court to try a case

in open court libel
slander to hear a case
to settle a case Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR)
parties witness
cross-examination procedure
to hear evidence to give / deliver judgment
to give evidence to put forward a submission
contempt of court to bring a case to court
claimant defendant
relief damages
to be entitled to injunction
order remedy
costs lawyer fees
court fees expert witness
Litigant in person discretion
2. Magistrates’ role in court
Magistrates hear less serious criminal cases including motoring offences,

commit serious cases such as rape and murder to the higher courts, consider
bail applications, deal with fine enforcement and grant search warrant and
right of entry applications. They may also consider cases where people have
not paid their council tax, their vehicle excise licence or TV licences.
All magistrates sit in adult criminal courts as panels of three, mixed in gender,
age, ethnicity etc whenever possible to bring a broad experience of life to the
bench. All three have equal decision making powers but only one, the
chairman will speak in court and preside over the proceedings. The two
magistrates sitting either side are referred to as wingers.
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Most of the cases are brought to court by the Crown Prosecution Service but
there are other agencies that prosecute more unusual cases such as RSPCA,
Environment Agency, Department of Work and Pensions, English Nature etc.
Where a defendant pleads not guilty a trial will be held where the magistrates
listen to, and sometimes see, evidence presented by both the prosecution and
defence, decide on agreed facts and facts in dispute, decide which evidence
they believe is the truth and consider whether the case has been proved beyond
reasonable doubt.
Having found someone guilty or when someone has pleaded guilty, the
magistrates proceed to sentence using a structured decision making process
and sentencing guidelines which set out the expected penalty for typical
offences. They will also take note of case law and any practice directions from
the higher courts and are advised in court by a legally qualified adviser.
Magistrates undergo basic training before they sit in court for the first time,
have mentors for their first two years and are fully appraised. Training and
appraisal are continuous throughout every magistrate's career to keep abreast
of new legislation, new sentencing policy and new developments.

1. What types of cases do magistrates hear? Less serious criminal
cases.
2. What sort of things can magistrates do? They hear less serious
criminal cases, commit serious cases to the higher courts, consider
bail applications, deal with fine enforcement and grant search
warrant and right of entry applications. They may also consider
cases where people have not paid their council tax, their vehicle
excise licence or TV licences.
3. Do magistrates sit alone? They sit in panels of three.
4. Find out what the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is.
http://www.cps.gov.uk/
5. What are the names for the two parties in a criminal case?
Prosecution and defence.
6. Find out what Sentencing Guidelines are.
http://sentencingcouncil.judiciary.gov.uk/sentencing-
guidelines.htm
7. What is case law? Explain in your own words. Law based on the
doctrine of precedent. Judge-made law.
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PROVIDED):
serious criminal case motoring offences

commit a case to a higher court rape
murder bail
enforcement fine
search warrant to sit in court
panel bench
chairman proceedings
plead guilty / not guilty prosecution
defence facts in dispute
to prove evidence beyond a reasonable doubt
to be found guilty penalty
training appraisal
3. The judge’s role in a Crown Court criminal case
Before the criminal trial starts the judges familiarise themselves with the
details of the case by reading the relevant case papers. These include the
indictment which sets out the charges on which the defendant is to be tried,
witness statements, exhibits and documentation on applications to be made by
any party concerning the admissibility of evidence in the trial.
The judge supervises the selection and swearing in of the jury, giving the jurors
a direction about their special place in the trial in deciding the facts and
warning them not to discuss the case with anyone else.
Once the trial has commenced the judge ensures that all parties involved are
given the opportunity for their case to be presented and considered as fully and
fairly as possible. The judge plays an active role during the trial, controlling the
way the case is conducted in accordance with relevant law and practice. As the
case progresses the judge makes notes of the evidence and decides on legal
issues, for example, whether evidence is admissible.
Once all evidence in the case has been heard the judge's summing up takes
place. The judge sets out for the jury the law on each of the charges made and
what the prosecution must prove to make the jury sure of the case. At this
stage the judge refers to notes made during the course of the trial and reminds
the jury of the key points of the case, highlighting the strengths and
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weaknesses of each side's argument. The judge then gives directions about the
duties of the jury before they retire to the jury deliberation room to consider
the verdict.
If the jury find the defendant guilty then the judge will decide on an
appropriate sentence. The sentence will be influenced by a number of factors:
principally the circumstances of the case, the impact that the crime has had on
the victim and relevant law, especially guideline cases from the Court of
Appeal. The judge will equally take into account the mitigation and any reports
and references on the defendant. Only once the judge has considered all of
these factors will the appropriate sentence or punishment be pronounced.

1. Explain what an indictment is. Written accusation (charges)
against someone.
2. Find out how juries are selected and sworn in.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juries_in_England_and_Wales;
https://www.gov.uk/jury-service/overview;
3. How do judges play an active role during criminal trials?
Controlling the way the case is conducted
4. Why do you think the jury cannot decide on legal issues? That is
for the judge to do, juries are lay.
5. Find out and explain what a summing-up is.
http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/Resources/JCO/Documents/Trainin
g/benchbook_criminal_2010.pdf; http://legal-
dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/summing+up
6. Where do juries retire to decide? Jury Deliberation Room.
7. Who passes sentence: judges or juries? Judges
8. What sort of factors do judges take into consideration to decide on
the sentence? The circumstances of the case, the impact that the
crime has had on the victim and relevant law, especially guideline
cases from the Court of Appeal. The judge will equally take into
account the mitigation and any reports and references on the
defendant.
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PROVIDED):
Indictment charges
witness statement exhibit
Admissibility to be tried on charges
to swear in the jury to hear evidence
summing up a trial commences
directions deliberations
jury retire to a room
defendant to find guilty / not guilty
to decide on a sentence Court of Appeal
mitigation sentence
4. Sentencing remarks. (i) Read the text and highlight

any emotional language. (ii) Summarise the text in your
own words (no key provided for this).
Read the following to have an idea of what “sentencing remarks” are:
http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/?s=sentencing+remarks
http://www.courts.sa.gov.au/SentencingRemarks/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/8992509/Stephen-Lawrence-Mr-Justice-
Treacys-sentencing-remarks-in-full.html
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/10946230/Rolf-Harris-Judges-sentencing-
remarks-in-full.html
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R -v- Thomas William Palmer

Reading Crown Court – 20 March 2007
Thomas William Palmer, the jury have found you guilty of the murders of Steven Bayliss and Nuttabut
Meechao “Twood” Nadauld. Steven was 16, Twood a month short of his 15th birthday. They had done
no harm to you or anyone else. They were boys with the whole of their lives before them – dearly loved
by their families and popular with their friends. All this was wiped out in a matter of minutes on 11th
September 2005 when you killed them both in a savage and brutal attack. I have read in full the very
moving victim impact statements made by Steven’s mother and the partner of Twood’s mother.
Putting it in short, the two families’ lives have been shattered. The effect of what you have done will
continue for decades to come.
The penalty for murder is fixed by law. You will go to custody for life.
I am required by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 to determine if and when the provisions regarding
release from prison should apply to you. In my judgment they do apply and I must now determine the
period that you must serve before the Parole Board will be entitled to consider your release.
Since you have committed two murders, the appropriate starting point is 30 years. I do not consider
that this murder involved a substantial degree of pre-meditation or planning or any other matter listed
under paragraph 4(2) of schedule 21 to the Act. I also do not find any aggravating features within the
meaning of paragraph 10.
Turning to mitigating factors under paragraph 11, I find on the balance of probabilities that the killings
were not premeditated. The most likely explanation is a sudden and lethal explosion of anger, though
what caused it remains something of a mystery.
I also find, having heard the evidence of the three medical experts, that you were suffering from mental
disorder, namely an anxiety state, which to a limited extent lowers what would otherwise be your
degree of culpability, even though it was insufficient to establish the defence of diminished
responsibility. But the evidence of Dr Joseph, which the jury have clearly accepted, was that if this
anxiety state was not apparent to your friends and family it cannot have been very serious, and I
therefore regard it as being of relatively minor importance in fixing the minimum term.
Most importantly, you were only aged 18 when you committed the offences. I bear in mind that had
you been a year younger the starting point under the statute would have been 12 years, although the
actual minimum term would have been longer than that.
Taking all these factors into account, I conclude that the appropriate minimum period that you must
serve is 20 years from the date of the killings and your arrest. From that term must be deducted the
period that you have spent on remand in custody namely 555 days. The minimum period from today
will therefore be 18 years 175 days.
I emphasise that this is a minimum term. It is no necessary indication of how long you actually will
serve because it is only after that time that the Parole Board will be entitled to consider your release. It
is obvious in the light of these horrific killings that you are a very dangerous young man. It is only
when the Parole Board is satisfied that you need no longer be kept in custody for the protection of the
public that it will be able to direct your release.
Thus this period of 20 years from the offences represents the very minimum that you will serve. If you
are ever released it will be on terms that you are on licence for the rest of your life and liable to be
recalled to prison at any time if your licence is revoked either on the recommendation of the Parole
Board or if it is thought expedient in the public interest by the Secretary of State.
Mr Justice Bean Crown Court at Reading
20 March 2007.
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5. A judgment. (i) Summarise pars.1-5. (ii) Explain the

meaning of the words highlighted in red. (iii) Learn the
words/expressions in blue. (iv) Say your opinion about
what is stated in par.5.
IN THE SUPREME COURT OF JUDICATURE
COURT OF APPEAL (CIVIL DIVISION)
ON APPEAL FROM THE HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE
CHANCERY DIVISION (EACH OF THE SECTIONS)
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
MR JUSTICE PETER SMITH
[2006] EWHC 719 (Ch)
Royal Courts of Justice

Strand, London, WC2A 2LL
28th March 2007
B e f o r e:
LORD JUSTICE MUMMERY
LORD JUSTICE RIX
and
LORD JUSTICE LLOYD
____________________
Between:
(1) MICHAEL BAIGENT Claimants
(2) RICHARD LEIGH Appellants
- and -
Defendant
THE RANDOM HOUSE GROUP LIMITED Respondent
____________________
(Transcript of the Handed Down Judgment of

WordWave International Ltd
A Merrill Communications Company
190 Fleet Street, London EC4A 2AG
Tel No: 020 7421 4040 Fax No: 020 7831 8838
Official Shorthand Writers to the Court)
____________________
Jonathan Rayner James Q.C. (QUEEN’S COUNSEL) and Andrew Norris
(instructed by HIRED BY Orchard Brayton Graham LLP) for the Appellants
John Baldwin Q.C. and James Abrahams
(instructed by Arnold & Porter (UK) LLP) for the Respondent
Hearing dates: 16 - 19 January 2007
____________________
HTML VERSION OF JUDGMENT. Crown Copyright ©
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Lord Justice Lloyd:
Introduction
1. The Claimants are two of the three authors of a book published in 1982, The Holy
Blood and the Holy Grail (HBHG). The Defendant is the publisher in the UK of a book
written by Dan Brown, the Da Vinci Code (DVC), first published in 2003. The
Claimants' contention (ALLEGATION) is that, in writing DVC, Mr Brown infringed
(BREACHED) their copyright by copying a substantial part of HBHG in the course of
writing six chapters of DVC. The case came to trial over 11 days in February and
March 2006 before Mr Justice Peter Smith. In his judgment, delivered on 7 April 2006,
he dismissed the claim ([2006] EWHC 719 (Ch). He also refused permission to
appeal (DIDN’T GIVE PERMISSION TO ASK A HIGHER COURT TO REVIEW THE
DECISION), but on the Claimants' application to the Court of Appeal, I granted
permission to appeal on 13 June 2006.
2. It is not in dispute that HBHG is an original literary work in which copyright subsists,
nor that the Claimants are two of the joint holders of the copyright. No point arises
from (IT IS NOT OF LEGAL CONSEQUENCE) the failure of the third, Mr Lincoln, to
join them in bringing the proceedings. By virtue of section 16 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, it is an infringement of the Claimants' copyright for
another person, without their licence, to copy HBHG or any substantial part of it,
directly or indirectly. The Claimants' case is that (THEY ALLEGE) Mr Brown derived
the majority of six chapters of DVC from HBHG, that in so doing he copied part of
HBHG, and that what he copied was a substantial part of HBHG.
3. The judge appears to have held that the six chapters were largely derived from
HBHG, but he rejected the claim of copying. Not surprisingly after a lengthy trial, his
judgment is long, running to some 70 pages. Remarkably, he delivered it less than
three weeks after the end of the hearing. As was noted at the time, he was prompted
by the extensive use in DVC of codes, and no doubt by his own interest in such
things, to incorporate a coded message in his judgment, on which nothing turns. The
judgment is not easy to read or to understand. It might have been preferable for him
to have allowed himself more time for the preparation, checking and revision of the
judgment.
4. The claim for breach of copyright is in some respects unusual, but it has to be tested
by reference to the same principles as would be relevant in a more conventional
case. If material is found in a later work which is also in an earlier copyright work, and
it is shown that the author of the later work had access to the earlier work, an
inference of copying is raised. Then it has to be considered whether there was in fact
any copying, in relation to which the later author may say that he obtained the
material from his own unaided efforts or from a different source. If it is found that any
of the material common to both works was copied from the earlier work, then the
question arises whether what was copied was a substantial part of the earlier work.
5. If the copyright work in question is a literary work, the allegation will normally be that
part of the text of the earlier work was copied, exactly or with some modification, in
the creation of the later work. In the present case that is not what is alleged as the
basis for the claim in copyright infringement. What is said to have been copied is a
theme of the copyright work. Copyright does not subsist in ideas; it protects the
expression of ideas, not the ideas themselves. No clear principle is or could be laid
down in the cases in order to tell whether what is sought to be protected is on the
ideas side of the dividing line, or on the expression side.
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6. Newspaper articles
New York Times. November 7, 2011
Doctor Is Guilty in Michael Jackson’s Death
Pool photo by Al Seib
More than two years after Michael Jackson's death, a Los Angeles jury convicted Dr. Conrad Murray of
involuntary manslaughter.
By JENNIFER MEDINA
LOS ANGELES — Michael Jackson, among the most famous performers in pop
music history, spent his final days in a sleep-deprived haze of medication and
misery until finally succumbing to a fatal dose of potent drugs provided by the
private physician he had hired to act as his personal pharmaceutical
dispensary, a jury decided on Monday.
The physician, Dr. Conrad Murray, was found guilty of involuntary

manslaughter nearly two and a half years after Jackson’s shocking death at age
50. The verdict came after nearly 50 witnesses, 22 days of testimony and less
than two days of deliberation by a jury of seven men and five women. The trial
had focused primarily on whether Dr. Murray was guilty of abdicating his duty
or of acting with reckless criminal negligence, directly causing his patient’s
death.
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Dr. Murray, 58, faces up to four years in prison and the loss of his medical
license. He sat stoically as the verdict was read and did not react as he was led
out of the courtroom in handcuffs. Judge Michael Pastor ruled that he should
be held without bail until his sentencing, set for Nov. 29.
Jackson, who had become a star as a child in Gary, Ind., singing with his
siblings in the Jackson 5, grew into one of the best-known performers in the
world. Though increasingly eccentric in his later years, often living on a
secluded California estate he called Neverland, Jackson always had a fervent
core of fans and, despite scandals, his lavish lifestyle and persistent money
woes, always seemed just a comeback away from a return to the top.
Hundreds of fans showed their devotion by gathering outside the downtown

courthouse throughout the trial — many of them sporting Jackson’s signature
single white glove. On Monday, they chanted “Justice, justice” and spent hours
after the verdict dancing to his hits, from “Beat It” to “I Want You Back.” Huge
crowds had also gathered outside the California court where Jackson was tried,
and acquitted, on child molesting charges in 2005.
The singer’s parents, Joe and Katherine Jackson, and siblings La Toya,
Jermaine and Randy were in the courtroom for the verdict. The family left the
courthouse without speaking to the hordes of reporters gathered outside,
simply saying they were “very happy” with the verdict and flashing a thumb.
Dr. Murray, a Houston cardiologist, was paid $150,000 a month to work as

Jackson’s personal physician as he rehearsed in Los Angeles for “This Is It,” a
series of 50 sold-out concerts in London that he needed to pay off hundreds of
millions of dollars in mounting debts.
Testimony showed that Dr. Murray had stayed with Jackson at least six nights
a week and was regularly asked — and sometimes begged — by the insomniac
singer to give him drugs powerful enough to put him to sleep. Jackson, Dr.
Murray told the authorities, was especially eager to be administered propofol,
a surgical anesthetic that put him to sleep when other powerful sedatives could
not. Testimony indicated that propofol, in conjunction with other drugs in the
singer’s system, had played the key role in his death on June 25, 2009.
Prosecutors tried to paint Dr. Murray as a money-hungry physician who would

do things no reputable doctor would do — including improperly and recklessly
administering an anesthetic normally given only in a hospital. The full retinue
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of drugs given to Jackson while he was under Dr. Murray’s care was so beyond
normal practice, prosecutors said, that it amounted to a “pharmaceutical
experiment.”
For its part, the defense tried to portray Jackson as a man so desperate to
make his comeback concerts a success that he was willing to take wild chances
and grew terrified that he would not be able to perform to his own exacting
standards without more rest and less stress.
The morning Jackson died, Dr. Murray told investigators during a recording
played in State Superior Court here, the singer told him, “Just make me sleep;
it doesn’t matter what happens.”
When Jackson died, he was more than $400 million in debt, but since his
death, his estate has prospered, generating more than $310 million and paying
off most of his debts.
The estate has struck several lucrative deals, including a movie, video games, a
new recording contract and two productions by Cirque du Soleil.
Shortly after Jackson’s death, Dr. Murray told investigators that the pop star
would routinely plead with him to administer more propofol, calling it his
“milk.” The defense argued that Jackson gave himself the fatal dose of the
drug. The Los Angeles County coroner ruled that Jackson’s death was caused
by “acute propofol intoxication,” in combination with two other drugs in his
system.
Two days after Jackson’s death, Dr. Murray told investigators that he had been
using propofol almost nightly for two months to help the singer sleep.
In their closing arguments, prosecutors repeatedly invoked Jackson’s three

children to a jury that included nine parents, saying that the singer wanted to
perform, in part, so that they could see their father on stage. David Walgren,
the deputy district attorney in charge of the case, described the frantic
moments after Dr. Murray realized that Jackson was not responsive and as the
pop star’s children watched him lie lifeless on his bed.
Prosecutors sought to show that Dr. Murray veered significantly from

acceptable medical practice at nearly every turn: by administering the
propofol, not having proper monitoring equipment and failing to call 911 right
away, among other things. They said Dr. Murray had not kept any records of
33

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
administering propofol but had taken time to record Jackson’s voice on his
iPhone.
He did not tell the paramedics who arrived at Jackson’s home about the
propofol, which prosecutors said showed that he knew he was responsible for
the singer’s death. Just one day before the trial ended, Dr. Murray decided he
would not testify.
Steve Cooley, the Los Angeles County district attorney, said that he hoped the
trial would send a message to other “unscrupulous, corrupt” doctors who help
fuel patients’ reliance on powerful drugs.
“In Los Angeles we see many examples of high-profile people losing their lives
because of their addiction to prescribed medication,” Mr. Cooley said. “To the
extent that someone dies as a result of their playing the role of Dr. Feelgood,
they will be held accountable.”
Mr. Cooley said that he doubted that Dr. Murray would serve a full four-year
sentence because of the state’s chronically overcrowded prisons.
In one of the most dramatic moments in the trial, prosecutors played the
iPhone recording Dr. Murray made of Jackson toward the end of his life and
the court heard the singer rambling about his dream of building the world’s
largest children’s hospital.
“I’m going to do that for them,” Jackson is heard saying in slurred speech.
“That will be remembered more than my performances. My performances will
be up there helping my children and always be my dream. I love them. I love
them because I didn’t have a childhood. I had no childhood. I feel their pain.”
When his voice trailed off, Dr. Murray waited several seconds before asking,
“You O.K.?”
After several more seconds, Jackson answered, “I am asleep.”
34

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1. Make a list of legal terms in the text (HIGHLIGHTED IN RED)

and explain their meaning (NO KEY IS PROVIDED FOR THE
EXPLANATION).
2. Summarise in your own words what is happening in the

following paragraphs (NO KEY PROVIDED):
3. What is the meaning of ‘child molesting’? This expression is

called ‘euphemism’. Find out what it means and give two
examples: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemism
4. Summarise the Jackson case in your own words, using legal

terms (NO KEY IS PROVIDED).
35

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The Guardian. Thursday 2 June 2011
Cameras in court: trial by boredom?

TV should be allowed to show trials. But broadcasters, and viewers, will only be
interested in the high-profile cases
David Banks
The OJ Simpson trial had television audiences rapt worldwide. But TV companies in the UK will find
most domestic trials too dull to make appealing to viewers. Photograph: Sam Mircovich/AP
The director of public prosecution's call to allow cameras into the courtroom is
to be welcomed if it will have the effect of re-engaging the public in the judicial
process.
Open justice should not mean that the media are allowed into court but have
one hand tied behind their backs, able to report words, but not images.
And as Gavin Millar pointed out earlier this week, it is odd that we can see on
TV our MPs debating court cases, but we can see no footage of the cases
themselves.
However, those rushing to welcome Keir Starmer's words – and Sky has been
very vocal in pushing the case for greater openness – should just pause to
contemplate the challenge they face if this is allowed.
While the OJ Simpson trial has been cited as an example of the over-
dramatisation of TV court coverage, one can find much less drama closer to
home.
The experiment in Scotland of allowing cameras into court amply
demonstrated the judicial system's capacity for extreme dullness.
36

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Any court reporter who has sat on the press bench waiting for a trial to go
ahead will tell you that court reporting can often be long periods of boredom,
interspersed with periods of high excitement. The court reporter distills out the
boredom and presents just the drama. For TV to do the same will require
editing of heroic speed and proportion.
There is little doubt that there is a need for better and more comprehensive
coverage of the courts. The regional media, for whom it was once one of the
three Cs that filled their pages – court, crime and council – have pulled out of
the courts, leaving a vacuum in coverage. They often cite changes in reader
demands, but one suspects it has more to do with cuts in staff and expenditure
that regional news groups have been making in recent years, than a genuine
lack of public interest in court proceedings.
While Starmer says that most solicitors are in favour of the move, I wonder if
so many in the court system itself will be so enthusiastic.
When a couple of years ago I was one of the very few journalists at a debate on
opening up the family courts (Joshua Rozenberg, Bob Satchwell of the Society
of Editors and Radio 4's Sanchia Berg were the only others) the lawyers, social
workers and judges were queuing up to accuse the media of sensationalism.
We were, they said, not interested in the day-to-day, we would only be there
for the high-profile cases.
The fact is they were probably right.
The broadcasters will not provide the level of coverage that the regional
newspapers once did. They simply do not have the resources to staff and then
edit footage from all the crown courts and magistrates courts in the country,
never mind the civil courts.
They will not cover the 90%-plus of criminal business dealt with by
magistrates courts; the legions of petty acquisitive criminals motivated by a
need to buy drugs.
They will cherry-pick the big cases, just as they always have done.
This is not an argument not to allow the cameras in. It is not claimed that local
newspapers produced perfect comprehensive coverage of the courts – but
some of them got close. Some regional papers gave, and still give, a very good
idea of just what goes on in the judicial system.
Allowing in TV cameras will no doubt make some of the higher courts more
open in some of the most newsworthy cases. Whether it gives viewers an
accurate view of the judicial system in action is another matter entirely.
The DPP on cameras in court:

0:15:25 – 0:22:30
http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b011jv83
37

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1. Find out who the Director of Public Prosecution (DPP)

currently is in the UK. http://www.cps.gov.uk/about/dpp.html
2. What is the equivalent term for the DPP your country? “Fiscal
General” in Spain.
3. Who is the DPP in your country? See

https://www.fiscal.es/fiscal/publico/ciudadano/el_ministerio
_fiscal/organizacion_ministerio_fiscal/fiscal_general_estado
/!ut/p/a1/04_Sj9CPykssy0xPLMnMz0vMAfGjzOI9HT0cDT2D
DbzcfSzcDBzdPYOdTD08jINdjYAKIoEKDHAARwNC-
sP1o_ApsQgygSrAY0VBboRBpqOiIgD-
HNNY/dl5/d5/L2dJQSEvUUt3QS80SmlFL1o2X0lBSEExSVM
wSkdMOEYwQUdJU0I1SEgzTzQ1/
4. Search the internet and find out the difference between the
DPP and the Attorney General in England & Wales. See
https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/attorney-
generals-office and http://www.cps.gov.uk/about/dpp.html
5. Find the names of the DPP and the Attorney General for
England & Wales. Alison Saunders (DPP) and Jeremy Wright
(AG)
6. Discuss with partners the meaning of the expressions / words

highlighted in red in the text (NO KEY PROVIDED).
7. Say your opinion about letting cameras in court. Have you

ever seen a real trial on tv? Why / why not? (NO KEY
PROVIDED)
38

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Reading comprehension.
Friday February 10 2012. The Times
Read this article and then answer the questions on the following
page.
39

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- Explain in English the meaning of the terms below and find on

the internet 3 examples of use of each (in any form: suspend,
suspension, suspended, etc.).
2. wire taps: TO INTERCEPT A TELEPHONE TO GET INFORMATION
3. suspend: TO DEBAR FROM A PRIVILEGE, OFFICE OR FUNCTION
4. panel: BENCH
5. unanimously: ALL IN AGREEMENT
6. disciplinary hearing: A HEARING TO
7. allegedly: SUPPOSEDLY
8. charges: ACCUSATIONS
9. bribe: MONEY OR FAVOUR GIVEN OR PROMISED IN EXCHANGE FOR

SOMETHING
10. appeal: TO ASK A HIGHER COURT TO REVIEW A DECISION
11. verdict: DECISION BY A JURY, BUT ALSO USED TO REFER IN

GENERAL TERMS TO A DECISION BY JUDGES
12. retrospective prosecutions: PREVIOUS CASES AGAINST

SOMEONE
- Explain in English the meaning of the following expressions from

the text:
1. witch-hunt: THEY TRY TO ACCUSE MANY PEOPLE OF CERTAIN

THINGS
2. chasing headlines instead of justice: HE LIKES TO BE ON THE PRESS
AND CARES MORE ABOUT FAME THAN ABOUT JUSTICE
3. orchestrated by: DESIGNED BY (NEGATIVE CONNOTATIONS)
4. overstepping his authority: GOING BEYOND THE LIMITS OF HIS
AUTHORITY
5. wrongdoing: ACTING IN AN ILLEGAL WAY
6. spring to fame: START TO BE FAMOUS
40

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ADDITIONAL TEXTS
ANSWER KEY
I.1b; 2c; 3a; 4d; 5b; 6b; 7a; 8d.
II.
1. a. True; b. True; c. False; d. True; e. True; f. False; g. False; h. True; i. False;
j. True; k. False.
2. a. claimants; b. took legal action; c. adjudicate; d. launch; e. holds; f.

damages; g. started/launched/brought; h. asses; i. occurred, situated; j.
referred; k. infringements; l. abandoned; m. pointlessness.
3. a. landmark judgment: a judgment that is notable and often cited because

it significantly changes, consolidates, updates or effectively summarizes the
law on a particular topic; a decision that establishes a new precedent; b.
seek redress: look for, or try to get a remedy, reparation, restitution,
amends, compensation; c. damages: compensation; d. overturn: annul, lift,
repeal, revoke, reverse; e. injunction: a court order whereby a party is
required to do or to refrain from doing certain acts; f. writ: a legal
document issued by a court; g. take out an injunction against somebody:
obtain a court order against somebody, or summon somebody to appear in
court for an injunction.
4. a. legal action against MGN; b. interference with his private life and
infringement of his right to his image; c. against MGN; d. different from the
regional distribution of printed matter; e. increase the seriousness of the
infringements of personality rights; f. of the member state where they have
their centre of interests or habitual residence; g. compensation/damages.
5. No key provided; individual answers.
6. decide; suit; act; judge; adjudication; judge; reside; claim; require; rule;
claim; order, argument; infringement; distinction; consultation; access;
location.
7. (a) To sue: to bring proceedings against someone; to file someone; to

commence proceedings; to institute proceedings; to bring a lawsuit against
someone; to bring an action against someone; to take proceedings; to issue
proceedings; (b) to pass judgment: to deliver judgment; to issue judgment;
to hand down a judgment, to render a judgment, to rule on something; (c)
to infringe: to violate, to break, to contravene, to disregard; (d) to rule
against: to find against; (e) decision: ruling, finding, judgment,
41

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
adjudication; (f) action: proceedings, suit, lawsuit, claim. More general:

issue, matter, case. More formal: litigation.
8. a. over, with; b. to, on; c. for, on; d. of, in, to; e. to, to; f. in, against; g.
against, about; h. in, for; i. on, on; j. on, from, by; k. to,of; l. by, of
III. 1. An indefinite number of users can consult the online material instantly.
2. Internet users in the country could read the articles. 3. The court ordered
MGN and associated newspapers to pay €4,500 in damages for each article
published. 4. Readers have accessed the online article. 5. The national court
awarded compensation. 6. People/Victims can sue European publishers
anywhere in the EU.
IV. 1. may; 2. cannot; 3. can/could; 4. might/may; 5. can; 6. can; 7. must not;

8. can; 9. should.
V. 1. infringe; 2. had known, wouldn’t have published; 3. wouldn’t have won,

had not appeared; 4. appears; 5. wouldn’t have abandoned, hadn’t been.
VI. 1. The actor Olivier Martinez has brought a privacy action in the French
courts. 2. Sunday Mirror publisher Mirror Group Newspapers was successfully
sued by Martinez in 2008. 3. The ruling in Luxembourg follows the 2008
privacy action Martinez had brought in France against MGN. 4. Legal action
was taken by Martinez in France. 5. The UK hosts The Sunday Mirror website.
VII. 1. The court said: “European publishers can be sued anywhere in the EU
for articles published on the internet.” 2. The ECJ said: “claimants can choose
to launch the legal action in their country of residence.” 3. MGN argued: “the
French courts do not have the power to pass judgment on articles published on
the Sunday Mirror website.” 4. The court holds: “the placing online of content
on an internet website is to be distinguished from the regional distribution of
printed matter.”
42

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PRUEBA DE AUTOEVALUACIÓN.
1. Señale la opción que NO es correcta. El lenguaje jurídico:

a) Utiliza terminología greco-latina.
b) Usa oraciones simples, respetando siempre el orden sujeto-verbo-objeto.
c) Utiliza gran cantidad de perífrasis verbales.
d) Emplea arcaísmos.
2. ¿Cuál es el equivalente de “indictable offence” en inglés americano?

a) Summary offence.
b) Felony.
c) Misdemeanor.
d) Petty offence.
3. ¿Qué término se utiliza actualmente en el Reino Unido para "plaintiff" en

civil?
a) Defendant.
b) Respondent.
c) Claimant.
d) Prosecutor.
4. Elija la estructura pasiva correcta para la siguiente oración en activa: “The

arresting officer informed the suspect of his rights”.
a) The suspect was to be informed of his rights by the arresting officer
b) The arresting officer was informed to the suspect of his rights
c) The suspect had informed the suspect of his rights
d) The suspect was informed of his rights by the arresting officer
6. Elija el término adecuado para la siguiente definición: “Law derived from

custom and from precedent rather than from written, codified statutes.”
a) Common law.
b) Civil law.
c) Statute law.
d) Criminal law.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
SOLUCIONARIO
1. b
2. b
3. c
4. d
5. a

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Rubén Pareja Pinilla

lunes, 23 de noviembre de 2015
IPA 1
Legal English (El Inglés Jurídico).

- Derecho: se entiende como un conjunto de normas positivas, creadas por el hombre,
que regulan en un momento determinada sociedad. También conjunto de principios y
normas, expresivos de una idea de justicia y de orden, que regulan las relaciones
humanas en toda sociedad y cuya observancia puede ser impuesta de manera
coactiva.
- Derecho Público: trata las relaciones entre los ciudadanos y el estado. Tiene diversas
ramas:
• Derecho Constitucional: relaciones entre los ciudadanos y la constitución. En

Reino Unido, no hay Constitución escrita.
• Derecho Administrativo: normas concernientes a los órganos e institutos de la

administración pública en relación con los ciudadanos o entre sí.
• Derecho Penal: consiste en la represión o castigo de los crímenes o delitos

mediante la imposición de penas.
• Derecho Procesal: rige los procedimientos que deben seguirse en los proceso.
Tiene dos vertientes la civil y la penal.
- Derecho Privado: entiende los derechos y las obligaciones de los ciudadanos en sus
relaciones recíprocas, se suele identificar con el Derecho Civil o conjunto de normas
reguladoras de los aspectos más fundamentales de la vida humana.
- Derecho Sustantivo: rige los derechos, deberes y obligaciones de los ciudadanos.
Sería CIVIL Y PENAL.
- Derecho Adjetivo: rige los procedimientos que se han de acatar en la administración
pública. Sería DERECHO PROCESAL.
- El lenguaje jurídico y el administrativo son sumamente complejos y difíciles, se
entiende como un lenguaje críptico (por su conservadurismo) que obstaculiza el
acceso a personas legas.
- Según Borja Albí, el lenguaje legal es extremadamente conservador frente al carácter
dinámico de otros tecnolectos. Hay mucha pervivencia de arcaísmos léxicos y
sintácticos que dificulta enormemente la accesibilidad del lenguaje jurídico para el
público en general.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

EL LENGUAJE JURÍDICO:
INTRODUCCIÓN:
- Es considerado, el código de un grupo restringido que distingue a sus poseedores, y
les permite comunicarse entre sí y evita que los legos puedan descodificar los
mensajes.
- Según Crystal y Davy, el lenguaje jurídico: legal writers, pushed into oddity by their
attempts to be unambiguous…
- Según Merriam Webster es: the specialised language of the legal profession.
- Berk-Seligson define LEGALESE (también LAWSPEAK) como “that register of
English that is used by lawyers and judges specifically for legal proceedings and is
usually too complicated for the lay person to comprehend.
- OFFICIALESE: jerga burocrática empleada por la Administración.
- PLAIN ENGLISH COMPLAIN: movimiento generado para que el lenguaje jurídico
utilice un lenguaje más general, un lenguaje en estilo más sencillo, sus
recomendaciones son:
• utilizar formas verbales activas y evitar las pasivas, que omiten el agente de la
acción y son más difíciles de comprender;
• hacer uso de oraciones simples, respetando el orden sujeto-verbo-objeto;

• evitar acumulaciones léxicas innecesarias;
• evitar los eufemismos;
• evitar los pronombres indefinidos como referentes;
• huir de la jerga jurídica;
• evitar los arcaísmos y latinismos;
• evitar las perífrasis verbales, etc.
- En España el Consejo de Ministros aprobó en el año 2009 la creación de una
Comisión de Modernización del Lenguaje Jurídico, aunque los juristas defienden su
carácter cerrado con 3 argumentos: 1/ las garantías jurídicas que ofrece su carácter
distintivo, 2/ su propio dinamismo, que va modernizando y adaptando sus rasgos a las
necesidades de cada momento histórico, 3/ la existencia de un lenguaje divulgativo,
que se encarga de hacer comprender a las personas legas lo más intrincado del
lenguaje jurídico.

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RASGOS DEL INGÉS JURÍDICO:
TIPO LÉXICO:
- Primer estudio de Mellinkoff, dividió el vocabulario en 5 categorías:
• términos de la lengua general con su significado especial, arcaísmos y
expresiones formales; palabras y expresiones latinas y francesas que no
existen en el vocabulario general; términos de especialidad; y jerga
profesional.
- A través de las clasificaciones de Mellinkoff, Berk-Seligson, Ortega Arjonilla y Alcaraz
Varó, podemos establecer las siguientes:
• terminología técnica (distraint, adjourn, etc);

• terminología cuyo significado cambia respecto del que tiene en la lenguaje
general (action como proceso o demanda; hand como firma, service como
notificación, etc);
• palabras y/o expresiones tomadas de otras lenguas con su forma original o

adaptadas. Los términos procedentes del latín pueden ser de tres clases: (1)
préstamos, palabras que no han cambiado de su forma original como fieri
facias, prima facie, bona fide, etc; (2) palabras de origen latino adaptadas al
ingles como abscond, impugn, insolvent, etc; (3) calcos procedentes del latín
como goods and chattels (bona et catalla), have and hold (habendum et
tenendum), etc.
• En cuanto a palabras francesas, las que se han tomado íntegramente como

fait accompli “hecho consumado”; las que se han calcado como sous peine
de “bajo pena de” en inglés como “under penalty of”, etc; y las que se han
adaptado como salvage (salvamento), towage (remolque), etc.
• Arcaísmos y expresiones formales: whilst, showeth, witnesseth, etc.

ABUNDANCIA DE LOCUCIONES PREPOSICIONALES COMPLEJAS:
- Locuciones preposicionales complejas, están compuestas por PREPOSICIÓN +
SUSTANTIVO + PREPOSICIÓN. Son lo que denomina Quirk et al: complex
prepositional phrases.
• Ejemplos: in pursuance of sería according to; by virtue of sería by; for the
reason that sería because, etc.

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PROCEDENCIA DE DOBLETES:
- Borja Albí las denomina como expresiones binómicas, (couplets o binomial
expressions para Bathia ) y tripletes (triplets o multinomial expressions para Bathia).
- Multinominal expressions según Bathia son “ a sequence of two or more words or
phrases belonging to the same grammatical category having some semantic
relationship and joined by some syntactic devise such as “and” or “or”.
• Ejemplos: last will and testamente, aid and abet, etc.

• Tripletes: give, devise and bequeath, etc.
ABUNDANCIA DE PREPOSICIONES O ADVERBIOS SUFIJADOS:
- Arcaísmos muy frecuentes en inglés jurídico, se trata de “an adverbial word or place
to which preposition-like word has been suffixed”.
• Ejemplos: herein sería en el/la presente; hereby sería por el/la presente; hereto
sería al/ a la presente; herewith sería anexo, adjunto que se acompaña, etc.
FORMALISMO:
- Se manifiesta lingüísticamente a través de latinismos, de arcaísmos, de locuciones

preposicionales, de preposiciones o adverbios sufijados, así como terminología de
registro elevado como: append en lugar de attach; deem en vez de consider; desist
por stop, etc.
DENSIDAD LÉXICA:
- Concentración de términos léxicos como sustantivos, verbos, adjetivos, que das la

sensación de que sobran palabras. El resultado es un texto caracterizado por su
opacidad.
TENDENCIA A LA UNIVOCIDAD:
- Es un vocabulario especializado, fundamentalmente denotativo, no connotativo y
monoreferencial. No pueden ser polisémicos, y que tengan pocas sinonimias.
Aunque, bien es cierto, que no se puede caracterizar de univocidad, pues puede
contener tanto sinonimia como polisemia.
FRECUENCIA DE NOMINALIZACIONES:
- La nominalización es una transformación que reduce una oración completa a un
sustantivo. Se incluye una gran cantidad de información léxica en el grupo nominal,
logrando textos más compactos, permiten además la omisión del agente. En inglés
suele llevarse a cabo mediante una conversión de verbo a nombre como TO STUDY
STUDY, o una derivación en (-ism, -tion, -ure, etc). En inglés es muy típico.

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PRESENCIA DE POSTMODIFICACIÓN:
- Se da para evitar ambigüedades, se altera el orden lógico de los complementos.
- Y se insertan cláusulas no finitas como postmodificadoras de elementos nominales.
USO DE SUCH COMO DETERMINANTES.
- Se trata ésta de una característica típica del inglés jurídico, ya que la partícula such
no va acompañada del artículo indefinido.
FRECUENCIA DE CONSTRUCCIONES GERUNDIVAS.

- Empleo frecuente de construcciones de gerundio como “being of sound and disposing
mind and memory”.
USO ESPECIAL DE LA CONJUNCIÓN THAT.

- En inglés jurídico, se emplea para sintetizar una frase entera, tendría aquí el
significado de “referido al hecho de que” o “en el / la que se afirma que”.
ABUNDANCIA DE LA REPETICIÓN LÉXICA.

- En inglés jurídico, es una de las formas habituales de trabazón morfosintáctica o
cohesión, se quiere ser muy preciso y se evitan los mecanismos anafóricos
alternativos como los pronombres.
ESCASEZ DE CONECTORES:
- Se emplean oraciones unidas sin conectores o marcadores que puedan guiar u
orientar la interpretación del lector.
- La principal consecuencia de la escasez de conectores es la enorme concentración

léxica de los textos jurídicos. Los pocos que se utilizan son específicos de los textos
jurídicos, como NOTWITHSTANDING.
ORACIONES LARGAS Y COMPLEJAS (SUBORDINACIÓN).

- Se sirven de oraciones cuya longitud es extremadamente infrecuente en textos de
carácter general y que derivan en una gran complejidad.
- Según Crystal y Davy afirman: the sentences tend to be extremely long. It is a
characteristic legal habit to conflate, by means of an array of subordinating devices,
sections of language which would elsewhere be much more likely to appear as
separate sentences.
- Muchas de las oraciones extensas son el resultado de una subordinación múltiple. La

consecuencia principal de la subordinación múltiple es un aumento de la complejidad
y dificultad estructural y conceptual.

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- Según Hiltunen en el lenguaje jurídico predominan las subordinadas finitas relativas o

adverbiales, así como las no finitas con participio y las subordinadas situadas
después del verbo principal.
EMPLEO DE DISCONTINUIDAD SINTÁCTICA.
- Bathia lo emplea para hacer referencia a la inserción de oraciones que restringen el

significado de la cláusula principal (qualifications) y que, de estar mal situadas,
pueden producir ambigüedad.
PUNTUACIÓN ESCASA O INADECUADA.

- La escasez de puntuación se debe a que las cuestiones estilísticas se consideran
secundarias y se da prioridad absoluta al contenido.
ESTRUCTURAS PASIVAS FRECUENTES Y EN OCASIONES COMPLEJAS.

- Estas estructuras abundan en textos donde lo que interesa es el resultado de la
acción, no los agentes, es decir, donde se fomenta la impersonalidad, como por
ejemplo acuerdos y contratos.
EL EMPLEO DE ADVERBIOS COMO CONECTORES EN POSICIÓN INICIAL.

- Se trata de un rasgo muy típico del discurso jurídico, destacan por su frecuencia:
whereas, provided that, where, etc.
IMPERSONALIDAD.
- Se potencia a través de la pasiva sin agente, el uso de sujetos inanimados, la
frecuencia de las formas no personales, las oraciones impersonales, etc.
TENDENCIA A EVITAR EL USO DE LA PARTÍCULA NEGATIVA NOT.

- Se da una abundante presencia de partículas o expresiones negativas que evitan el
uso directo de la partícula NOT. Destacan: never, unless, except, fail to, y términos
con el prefijo negativo -UN. Esto dificulta la comprensión.
SEPARACIÓN DE PREPOSICIONES Y SUS COMPLEMENTOS.

- Aunque también es rasgo del inglés coloquial, en el inglés jurídico, la dificultad reside
precisamente por la longitud de las oraciones y sintagmas, que provoca que en
ocasiones la preposición y su complemento estén muy lejanos y se pierda la
referencia.
- Estos elementos suponen un problema considerable a la hora de ser traducidos, pues

existen lenguas, como el español, que no permiten la separar la preposición de sus
complementos y que por tanto exigen un cambio de orden en la oración.

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PRESENCIA DEL SUBJUNTIVO.

- El subjuntivo se utiliza, tanto en registros formales como en el inglés jurídico, aunque
el inglés coloquial lo ha reemplazado por el verbo en presente y/o pasado, o la
partícula should.
- En el caso jurídico se utiliza: después de verbos como ASK, ADVISE, COMMAND,

etc, después de adjetivos como IMPORTANT, ESSENTIAL, etc; después de
sustantivos, etc.
FRECUENCIA DE ORACIONES CONDICIONALES CON INVERSIÓN:

- Existe en inglés una estructura condicional con ausencia de la partícula IF que se
forma mediante un tipo de inversión denominado “SUBJECT-OPERATOR
INVERSION”. Suele darse con HAD, pero también es frecuente con SHOULD o
WERE.
LOS TEXTOS JURÍDICOS:
- Las peculiaridades léxicas, sintácticas y textuales del discurso jurídico son fruto de la
función y uso social de los textos legales, y responden a factores pragmáticos,
semióticos, y comunicativos.
- Como consecuencia de la escasa correferencia, en determinados textos legales, el
texto está muy poco cohesionado, hasta el punto de que llega a parecer, según Berk-
Seligson “lists of sentences strung together”.
- Otro rasgo es la rigidez que presentan determinados textos jurídicos en su
estructuración, presentación y distribución.
- En los textos legales predominan los elementos directivos, también llamados
imperativos, impositivos, instructivos, o conativos; como las leyes o sentencias, los
declarativos como los testamentos y los comisivos como los contratos.
- El registro de los textos jurídicos suele ser muy formal, con mucha presencia de
terminología y fraseología especializadas. Esto provoca mucho distanciamiento, falta
de espontaneidad o naturalidad e impersonalidad.
- El lenguaje jurídico tiende a ser escrito, precisamente por su carácter conservador,
incluso los actos orales, se registran por escrito mediante taquigrafía.

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CLASIFICACIÓN DE LOS TEXTOS JURÍDICOS SEGÚN BORJA ALBÍ.

- TEXTOS NORMATIVOS: se encuentran las disposiciones legislativas, como leyes,
decretos, reglamentos, etc; cuya función es regular el orden social.
- TEXTOS JUDICIALES: todos aquellos que regulan las relaciones entre particulares o
administración y los órganos judiciales: autos, exhortos, citaciones, sentencias, etc.
- JURISPRUDENCIA: el papel que desempeña la jurisprudencia (case law) es la
diferencia principal entre el derecho anglosajón y el español. Mientras en España, la
fuente de derecho es el Código Civil, y la Jurisprudencia sería una fuente secundaria
o aclaratoria; sin embargo, en Reino Unido es una de las fuentes principales de
derecho, junto con la EQUITY (Equidad).
- OBRAS DE REFERENCIA: incluye todo material de consulta, como diccionarios (de
cualquier tipo), formularios, enciclopedias, repertorios profesionales, recopilaciones
de leyes, etc-. Los formularios son modelos de textos de los que se han eliminado los
datos personales.
- TEXTOS DOCTRINALES: son básicamente los manuales, libros de texto, tesis

doctorales, trabajos de investigación, artículos de publicaciones especializadas, etc.
- TEXTOS DE APLICACIÓN DEL DERECHO (INSTRUMENTOS LEGALES): incluyen
todos los documentos legales, públicos y privados: documentos notariales, contratos,
dictámenes jurídicos, expedientes, pólizas de seguros, testamos, etc.  
Los instrumentos legales son documentos formales escritos que expresan un acto
jurídico o un acuerdo entre partes (testamento, contrato, etc). No forman parte del
proceso judicial.  
En el sistema jurídico español, los documentos públicos son los autorizados por un
notario o empleado público competente, mientras que los privados son aquellos en
los que solo han tenido la intervención de particulares o interesados.  
En el sistema jurídico anglosajón no existe diferencia formal entre documentos
públicos y privados, que está institucionalizada, aunque sí se da en la práctica.

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INGLÉS PROFESIONAL
Y ACADÉMICO I:
TEXTOS JURÍDICOS Y
ECONÓMICO-
COMERCIALES
Tema 4:
English for Business

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ÍNDICE
1.2. La economía 5
1.3. El lenguaje económico-comercial 6
1.3.1. El inglés económico-comercial 7
1.3.2. Rasgos del inglés económico-comercial 13
1.4. Conclusión 26

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1.1. INTRODUCCIÓN
El lenguaje económico-comercial en inglés es un lenguaje de especialidad con una enorme

capacidad de creación léxica y una riqueza de recursos que no se da con tanta frecuencia en
otros lenguajes de especialidad, pues presenta rasgos que pueden parecer más característicos
del lenguaje literario que de un lenguaje de especialidad, como son: la presencia de
metáforas, personificaciones, juegos de palabras y otros recursos retóricos; la abundancia de
lenguaje coloquial; la simplificación sintáctica; la preferencia por el vocabulario de raíz
anglosajona, etc.
1.2. LA ECONOMÍA
Según El Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Española, la economía es la

“ciencia que estudia los métodos más eficaces para satisfacer las necesidades
humanas materiales, mediante el empleo de bienes escasos”
(http://lema.rae.es/drae/). Es, por tanto, una ciencia social que se ocupa de la
administración de los recursos, y también estudia las relaciones sociales que se
derivan de la producción e intercambio de los bienes y servicios así como de su
distribución para su consumo. Según The Economist, que aporta una definición
mucho más concisa, es “the study of how socierty uses its scarce resources”
(http://www.economist.com/economics-a-to-z/e#node-21529556).
La economía puede dividirse en dos grandes campos: la microeconomía y la
macroeconomía. La microeconomía estudia el comportamiento individual de los
agentes económicos, principalmente los tres roles básicos: empresas, empleados y
consumidores. La microeconomía explica cómo se determinan variables como los
precios de bienes y servicios, el nivel de salarios, el margen de beneficios y las
variaciones de las rentas. Los agentes tomarán decisiones intentando obtener la
máxima satisfacción posible, es decir, maximizar su utilidad. La macroeconomía
analiza las variables agregadas, como la producción nacional total, la producción, el
desempleo, la balanza de pagos, la tasa de inflación y los salarios, comprendiendo los

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problemas relativos al nivel de empleo y al índice de producción o renta de un país

(http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa).
Existen muchas clasificaciones de la economía, desde las que son muy exhaustivas,
como por ejemplo la del Journal of Economic Literature,
(http://www.et.bs.ehu.es/varios/jel.htm) hasta las más sencillas y quizás más
conocidas, como la Nomenclatura UNESCO de los campos de las ciencias
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-digit_UNESCO_Nomenclature), en este caso de las
Ciencias Económicas (código 53):
53 Economic Sciences
5301 Domestic fiscal policy and public finance
5302 Econometrics
5303 Economic accounting
5304 Economic activity
5305 Economic systems
5306 Economics of technological change
5307 Economic theory
5308 General economics
5309 Industrial organization and public policy
5310 International economics
5311 Organization and management of enterprises (see 3310)
5312 Sectorial economics
5399 Other economic specialities
El Tesauro ISOC de Economía (http://thes.cindoc.csic.es/index_ECON_esp.php),

por ejemplo, estudia los distintos términos del ámbito económico.
1.3. EL LENGUAJE ECONÓMICO-COMERCIAL
En relación con el lenguaje de la economía y de la empresa existen abundantes

publicaciones, cuyas referencias se pueden encontrar en la bibliografía de este tema.

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Es frecuente leer que el discurso económico utiliza un modelo abstracto

consistente en el empleo frecuente de personificaciones, metáforas y construcciones
sin agente (Alcaraz Varó 2000).
Henderson & Hewings (1990) afirman que lo más importante del discurso
económico es que utiliza la simplificación y la abstracción, lo cual se manifiesta a
través de distintos mecanismos textuales (por ejemplo, la nominalización) que
dificultarían el acceso a la información al no experto.
El discurso económico ha sido estudiado desde una perspectiva aplicada, con el fin
de mejorar la comprensión de su naturaleza. Se han estudiado los ejes verticales y
horizontales del discurso económico: el eje horizontal se refiere a la temática y
perspectiva, lo que nos permite distinguir los diferentes lenguajes económicos
clasificados por bloques de materias, por submaterias, etc. Por su parte, el eje vertical
clasifica el campo de acuerdo al estilo y grado de abstracción en que puede
presentarse un contenido. Es decir la clasificación realizada incluye la intención y el
nivel de especialización, que viene determinada por el emisor y que depende de
distintos aspectos, entre ellos la frecuencia y dificultad de mecanismos comunicativos
como cuadros, gráficos, tablas, imágenes, etc., la abundancia de nominalizaciones y
estructuras impersonales, el nivel de precisión y concisión del texto y el grado de
emotividad o de despersonalización del texto.
A nivel pedagógico se puede establecer una diferenciación diferenciación genérica,
como la que distingue entre el discurso especializado, el discurso didáctico y el
discurso divulgativo. El primero va dirigido a los especialistas, el segundo a personas
que desean formarse (o simplemengte aprender del tema) y el tercero al público en
general, como ya se ha visto en temas anteriores de esta asignatura.
1.3.1. EL INGLÉS ECONÓMICO-COMERCIAL
Una de las variedades de ESP (English for Specific Purposes) más estudiadas es la
del “inglés de los negocios”, nombre con el que hacemos referencia de forma genérica
al inglés académico y profesional relacionado con la economía o el mundo de los
negocios. Podemos establecer fundamentalmente cuatro divisiones en este tipo de
inglés:

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 Inglés del comercio o comercial. Con este nombre se hace referencia a

cursos de inglés organizados en torno a la correspondencia comercial, el
transporte, los seguros, el comercio internacional o la compraventa de
productos (Alcaraz Varo 2000: 73). En este lenguaje hay una combinación
bastante equilibrada de léxico de orientación latina (negotiable) y de origen
anglosajón (deadline), al que habría que añadir las palabras de origen
normando o del francés antiguo, especialmente las propias del transporte
marítimo (demurrage, average, etc.; Alcaraz Varó 2000: 73). Los cursos de
inglés comercial suelen desarrollar las denominadas “destrezas
comerciales”, entre las cuales se encuentran las siguientes: (i) escribir cartas
o correos electrónicos, informes, artículos y resúmenes de índole comercial;
(ii) leer artículos comerciales y económicos, informes y documentos; (iii)
trabajar con cifras y datos (por ejemplo, leer cifras o interpretar gráficos);
(iv) hacer presentaciones; (v) hacer llamadas telefónicas. Akgunas de estas
últimas destrezas se estudiarán en este tema, pues son muy útiles para el
desempeño de la vida profesional en inglés.
 Inglés empresarial. Ha pasado a denominarse así porque se imparte en las

diplomaturas y grados relacionados con la administración y dirección de
empresas (ADE). Comparte con la variante comercial el interés por los
aspectos comerciales antes mencionados incorporando, además, contenidos
empresariales y aspectos propios del denominado “Socializing English”1. El
inglés empresarial suele ir destinado a alumnos de nivel intermedio a los
que se les ofrecen tanto destrezas comunicativas generales en un entorno
empresarial como alguna de las destrezas comerciales antes descritas, así
como una introducción al mundo empresarial (por ejemplo, la organización
de la empresa, la importancia de la cultura empresarial, la publicidad y su
influencia sobre el marketing, etc.). También se trata el vocabulario.
 Inglés financiero o de las finanzas. Con esta denominación se suele hacer

referencia a la lengua inglesa utilizada para comprar y vender productos y
servicios financieros, es decir, a los mercados financieros. Se caracteriza por
un registro coloquial, creativo e innovador, y su terminología procede de
1
Por ejemplo, “striking up a conversation”, “keeping a conversation going”, “business meals”, etc.

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fuentes anglosajonas principalmente (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 73). Algunos de

sus rasgos son (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 73-75): (i) la tendencia hacia el lenguaje
popular o coloquial (por ejemplo, mediante el uso de expresiones familiares
o diarias, o frases hechas como a lot of bad apples); (ii) el dominio del
léxico anglosajón (cash flow, swap, roll-over, etc.); (iii) la expresividad de
las imágenes2; (iv) los juegos de palabras (advice and dissent en lugar de
advice and consent); (v) el empleo de siglas, acrónimos y formas
lingüísticas mutiladas, etc.
 Inglés económico o de la economía. Se centra en el manejo de textos

económicos, muchos de ellos normativos. El inglés económico tiene un
registro más formal: el vocabulario de base latina es fuerte (amortization,
absorption, etc.), aunque también tienen influencia los términos de origen
anglosajón (write-off, take-over, etc.; Alcaraz Varó 2000: 73). Tiende a ser
un discurso más abstracto (Alcaraz Varó 2000: 73).
El término Business English es “(...) an umbrella term encompassing what we call
English for General Business Purposes (EGBP) and English for Specific Business
Purposes (ESBP)” (St. John 1996: 3). Los primeros siguen la metodología de un curso
general de inglés, desarrollado en un contexto empresarial. Suelen ofrecerse a
estudiantes sin experiencia laboral, normalmente dentro de los sistemas de
enseñanza reglada. Los segundos utilizan didácticas muy específicas, ya que suelen
ofrecerse a profesionales en ejercicio, normalmente por encargo de una empresa,
institución u organismo.
En este ámbito son muy importantes los aspectos sociales, ya que los empresarios
o sus empleados contactan con gente de muchos lugares en situaciones distintas,
encuentros que se caracterizan por la existencia de una serie de rutinas que ocurren
en todos los encuentros sociales, como “saludos”, “presentaciones”, etc.; por tanto, la
comunicación debe ser clara y efectiva y, en la medida de lo posible, debe trasmitirse
de forma que no haya posibilidad de malos entendidos (Ellis & Johnson 1994:7).
2
Esto se refleja en una abundancia de metáforas: podemos poner el ejemplo de titulares de The Economist como
“Letting tax payers off the hook”. Igualmente abundan las metáfora referidas a animales, como “The lion and the
lamb” o a colores, como “Big blue apple”).

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Ellis & Johnson (1994: 10-13) comparan los conceptos “inglés de la economía” e
“inglés general” partiendo de la idea que el primero surge del segundo, por lo que
observan que lo que diferencia el inglés empresarial de otras variedades es la
existencia de una especificidad que afecta a casi todos los componentes del curso: el
needs analysis, o análisis de las necesidades de los alumnos, por ejemplo, debe
contemplar las necesidades de la empresa en su conjunto y de los departamentos
individuales.
Figura 1: ‘Business English’ vs. ‘General English’ - summary (Ellis & Johnson 1994:
10-13)
Pre-course preparation Business English General English
Needs analysis To assess the needs of the To assess the language needs of the
company, the job, and the learners.
individuals, and to define the
language level required by the
job. In-company training de-
partments must make decisions
about the type of training
required: group v. individual,
on-site v. language school,
person-to-person tuition v.
distance learning, etc.
Assessment of level Using formal tests or interviews Placement tests or interviews to
allocate learners to courses or to form
groups of a similar language level.
Syllabus Set course will have fixed Often determined by choice of

objectives and syllabus. Special coursebook and (if applicable) an
courses will require a special end-of-course examination. The
syllabus. syllabus is wide ranging and may
One-to-one courses may develop encompass the broad vocabulary and
syllabus and content on an variety of styles found in literature
ongoing basis. and other general reading and in the
world of entertainment and the
media.
Course objectives Defined precisely in relation to Examination courses (e.g. Cambridge
the needs analysis findings. May First Certificate) will have fixed pre-
be worded in terms of the determined objectives. Individuals
tasks/skills required in the job may have their own objectives:
(job-experienced learners) or interest in the culture; desire to travel
course of study (pre- or live abroad; a feeling that language
experienced learners), or in skills will be useful or will lead to
terms of required language better job prospects.
improvement (e.g. command of
structures or pronunciation).
Time In company language training, Outside the state education system,
there are usually time general language study will usually be
constraints because of the need open-ended. Even examinations can
for training to be cost-effective. be repeated if necessary. An
In collages and universities, exception would be someone
time for language study is also preparing for a holiday or residence
likely to be limited. abroad.
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Learner expectations Learners are likely to be more Learners also want to make progress
goal-orientated and to expect but are less likely to set themselves
success. Business people specific targets within a rigid time
normaly have high expectations escale.
of efficiency, quality, and
professionalism.
Materials Print, audio, and video In most parts of the world, there is
materials can be bought off the now a wide choice of off-the-shelf
shelf for Business English - but materials for General English
they may not meet the specific teaching at all levels. Materials
needs of an individual or group. development by the teacher is not
It may be necessary to develop usually required or expected.
materials for a specific course.
Methodology Many learning tasks and There may be a broader range of
activities will be the same as on techniques in use in the General
a General English course, English classroom. Many activities
especially for teaching are designed to make learning more
structures, vocabulary, and ‘fun’, and variety for its own sake is
social English. Role-plays are important to maintain interest and
common to both although the motivation in the absence of specific
situations and language will needs.
differ. Business English also
borrows ideas from
management training - e.g.
problem-solving, decision-
making, and team-building
tasks. Job-experienced learners
will be given many
opportunities to present and
discuss aspects of their work.
Evaluation of progress In colleges and universities Formal examinations include a

there may be set (written and written paper in which marks are
oral) examinations. In company awarded for grammatical accuracy as
lan-guage training there is well as range of vo-cabulary and
usually no examination, but the appropriacy. Oral examinations also
training organization may use take into account fluency,
an off-the-shelf Business pronunciation and general
English test. In informal communicative ability. Informal
assessment, the em-phasis is assessment (e.g. of class
usually on evaluating the performance) is likely to focus mainly
success of communication -i.e. on grammatical accuracy,
did the speaker/writer express appropriacy of vocabulary and
the idea precisely enough and expression and pronunciation.
appropriately enough for the
target situation?
Como ya hemos indicado anteriormente, los cursos de inglés empresarial tienen

una gran demanda en todo el mundo. Hay tres tipos principales de demandantes de
este producto: (i) estudiantes universitarios (por lo general sin experiencia
profesional), a los que suele impartirse un curso mixto que incluye lengua inglesa
general y contenidos específicos; (ii) ejecutivos jóvenes, que normalmente acuden a
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cursos de reciclaje dentro de la política de formación de personal de una empresa;

(iii) ejecutivos con gran experiencia y responsabilidad, que acuden a cursos intensivos
con objeto de mejorar alguna destreza concreta.
Los materiales utilizados se ocupan habitualmente de las siguientes destrezas:
Figura 2: Tareas relacionadas con destrezas empresariales (Ellis & Johnson 1994: 37)
Speaking
Giving a formal presentation
Giving an informal presentation
Instructing or demonstrating on the job
Giving descriptions and explanations
Interacting
Visiting a company or receiving visitors
Showing visitors around or being shown around
Entertaining or being entertained
Participating in discussions and informal meetings
Participating in formal meetings
Chairing meetings
Interviewing
Negotiating
Telephoning
Listening
Following presentations, lectures, or talks
Following instructions
Following descriptions and explanations
Following training sessions
Reading
Documents Skills
Telexes Reading for detail
Letters and faxes
Memos and short reports
Professional journals Reading quickly for general information

Textbooks
Long reports Scanning for specific points

Contracts and legal documents
Technical specifications and manuals
Writing
Telexes
Letters and faxes
Memos and short reports
Long reports and articles for professional journals
Editing the letters or reports of others
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1.3.2. RASGOS DEL INGLÉS ECONÓMICO-

COMERCIAL
Una de las características específicas del lenguaje económico-comercial, además de

su coloquialidad en determinadas áreas, es su solapamiento con el discurso jurídico:
ciertos campos de la economía son limítrofes con el derecho, y por ello comparten
rasgos discursivos. Por ejemplo, un contrato de alquiler tiene rasgos típicos del
lenguaje jurídico y del económico, así como terminología de ambos campos. Por ese
motivo, algunos de los rasgos que se exponen a continuación son compartidos con
cierto tipo de textos jurídicos.
Tipos de léxico
Al igual que sucede en otros ámbitos de especialidad, la división general que se

puede hacer es la siguiente:
(i) vocabulario técnico (revenue, entrepreneurship, subsidy, taxation, audit,
inflationary, deflationary, etc);
(ii) vocabulario “subtécnico” o “semitécnico”, cuyo significado difiere respecto
del que tiene en la lengua general al aparecer en un contexto
económico-comercial (por ejemplo, run = accrue; aid; shift; positive;
equilibrium, etc.). Según Trimble (1985:128-129), “subtécnico” “refers
to those words that have one or more ‘general’ English meanings and
which in technical contexts take on extended meanings (technical, or
specialized in some fashion)” (Trimble 1985:129).
(iii) vocabulario general que se utiliza en el contexto económico-comercial:
debt, barrier, unemployment, rate, cost, etc.
La abundancia de nominalizaciones
Las nominalizaciones son un recurso para compactar información y realzar la

objetividad, obviando la identidad del agente (Alcaraz Varó 2000:64). Esto se da muy
a menudo, pero incluso con más frecuencia en el discurso económico frente a los
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discursos comercial, empresarial o financiero. Algunos ejemplos son: lawlessness,

ownership, demonstration, employment, etc.
Predominio de vocablos de origen anglosajón en el inglés financiero y

presencia de vocablos greco-latinos en el inglés económico
Para Alcaraz Varó (2000:74), en el léxico financiero, que tiende a lo popular y

coloquial, existe una “gran carga de términos de origen anglosajón”, y cita algunos
ejemplos: cashflow, floor, gap, swap, dealer, broker, call, etc.
Los vocablos de origen greco-latino, que corresponden a lo que Teresa Cabré
(1993) denomina “estructuras morfológicas compuestas por formantes cultos”
(financial, recession, referendum, etc.), son frecuentes en textos de naturaleza
económica; como ya hemos visto, no sucede lo mismo en textos de índole
empresarial, comercial o financiera, donde predominan los vocablos de raíz
anglosajona (set off, a talk-to, a stand in, leave out, cut off, check out, etc.) y los
términos compuestos (downfall, outline, output, upsurge, shutdown price, crowding
out, etc.).
El empleo de locuciones preposicionales complejas
Ya hemos observado que algunos textos de carácter económico comparten rasgos

en común con los textos jurídicos; uno de esos rasgos es el uso en ciertos tipos de
discurso económico (por lo general textos normativos o contractuales) de locuciones
preposicionales complejas (P+N+P, cf. Quirk et al. 1972:302), por ejemplo by virtue
of en lugar de by; in pursuance of en lugar de according to o under; for the purpose
of en lugar de to; in the event of en lugar de if; subsequent to en lugar de after;
adjacent to en lugar de next to, etc..
También se observan adverbios, preposiciones y conjunciones poco habituales,
complejos o formales, por ejemplo el uso de where con sentido condicional (=if).
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La neología3
Prácticamente todos los recursos de formación de palabras se dan en el inglés

económico-comercial: derivación (sufijos y prefijos, por ejemplo unemployment,
separatist, unresponsiveness, etc.), composición (sustantivos que funcionan como
adjetivos, por ejemplo borrowing costs, breakaway attempt, bailout money, etc.),
conversión (cambio de categoría, por ejemplo a face – to face) o mutilación léxica
(info; demo, etc.). Abundan también las siglas y acrónimos4: NYSE (New York Stock
Exchange), IMF (International Monetary Fund), asap (as soon as possible); lifo (last
in, first out); NGOs (Non-governmental organizations), MNCs (Multinational
Corporations), TNCs (Transnational Corporations), etc.
Dichas siglas y acrónimos se dan incluso con más frecuencia en el inglés
económico (cf. Alcaraz Varó 2000: 76), como observamos en el siguiente ejemplo,
citado por Alcaraz Varó: “The AASC has been working closely with the IOSCO, a club
of securities-market regulators which includes America’s SEC.”
La Premodificación
La premodificación puede ser fundamentalmente de tres tipos: (i) noun

compounds o compuestos nominales (también llamados compound nouns, que son
“noun strings” según Michael Swan, cit. en Trimble 1985:130); (ii) adjectival
premodification y (iii) premodificación mixta, que combina las dos anteriores
(adjetivo/s u otro tipo de elemento + sustantivo/s + núcleo).
Los compuestos nominales serían estructuras que comprenden más de un
sustantivo y que son del tipo “noun as adjective”, en las que el primer nombre por lo
general clasifica el segundo: euro zone, banking crisis, stock flotation, blanket
leverage ratio, stock market, etc.
En el discurso económico no se dan unidades de longitud tan grande como en el
discurso científico-técnico, ya que no suelen pasar de las tres o como mucho cuatro
unidades, pero es frecuente la premodificación mixta (adjetivo/s u otro tipo de
3
Se trata de un proceso de innovación léxica a través de diferentes mecanismos. Ver
http://pagines.uab.cat/aaguilaramat/sites/pagines.uab.cat.aaguilaramat/files/continguts_Neologia%
20I.pdf o http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologismo.
4
Sobre siglas y acrónimos, leer http://abbreviations.yourdictionary.com/articles/what-is-the-
difference-between-an-abbreviation-and-an-acroynm.html
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elemento + sustantivo/s + núcleo): European Commission forecast, booming real

estate, state-backed bailouts, loss-absorbing capital, free trade agreement, etc.
Estas unidades logran máxima eficiencia comunicativa, precisión y capacidad de
síntesis, hasta tal punto que Trimble dice de ellas que son “a kind of shorthand”
(1985: 131), pues ahorran el uso de partículas de enlace, que son necesarias en
lenguas que tienden a posmodificar como el español (por ejemplo, tree branch
requiere en español el uso de una preposición: “rama de árbol”). El problema
fundamental que plantean es lograr saber el tipo de relación semántica que se
establece entre las unidades que integran la estructura (Trimble 1985: 131), pues
puede ser de muchos tipos: referente al tiempo (morning newspaper), al lugar (a
Paris man), de tipo objeto directo/atributo (an animal trainer), composición
(chocolate ice-cream), etc.
La densidad léxica
En algunos textos se da un grado de concentración léxica de unidades con carga

semántica (nombres, adjetivos, verbos…) muy similar al que se observa en algunos
textos jurídicos (Alcaraz Varó 2000):
The consultants at PERC reckon big companies can usually find ways to avoid corruption
in all but the relayively minor day-to-day dealings with low-level bureaucrats.
Las repeticiones abundantes
Como ya hemos visto en temas anteriores, el inglés soporta las repeticiones léxicas
mucho mejor que el español, donde se considera mal estilo. En el discurso
económico, sobre todo en algunos géneros, abundan las repeticiones léxicas en
búsqueda de mayor claridad expresiva.
Los dobletes preposicionales
También se ha visto este aspecto en temas anteriores: se trata en su mayoría de

estructuras en las que dos o más preposiciones rigen un único complemento de forma
simultánea (o casos en los que un mismo elemento rige dos preposiciones distintas):
Growth is related to and dependent on domestic prices
Inflation is derived from and a result of bad funds management.
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La presencia de oraciones del tipo “preposición o conjunción + -ing”
Algunos ejemplos de estructuras gerundivas son estructuras del tipo when + -ing;
on + -ing; if + -ing; in + -ing. Por ejemplo: When investing on national funds, do not
underestimate ....; In dealing with foreign customers, always bear in mind…
El estilo elíptico
Se dan oraciones que llevan elementos oracionales implícitos, como el verbo, algún
sujeto o partículas de relativo, especialmente lo que Berk-Seligson (1990) denomina
whiz-deletion, que ya hemos estudiado en el discurso jurídico, y que consiste en la
omisión del pronombre relativo y del verbo to be: All the rights and remedies [which
are] available to a secured party.
En general, se emplean oraciones de relativo reducidas (Sager et al. 1980:223-224)
mediante varios procedimientos: omisión del pronombre relativo y sustitución de la
forma finita por una forma en –ing (Growth factors depending on imports are the
following...); omisión del relativo y parte del verbo (It may be of interest to compare
these methods with those already discussed) y omisión del verbo to be cuando es el
verbo principal, así como del relativo (These investments have results much worse
than the above mentioned).
El uso de formas impersonales
La tendencia existente hacia la despersonalización del discurso especializado

aparece especialmente en los textos que pertenecen a lo que hemos denominado
“inglés económico”, en los que se da abundancia de pasivas, relativa escasez de
pronombres personales, uso de pronombres indefinidos (One could think that...), uso
de pronombres con significado indefinido (You/we will never know what...),
abundancia de nominalizaciones (The training of new personnel is a key element…),
uso de verbos ergativos (Assets freeze when...), etc.
La frecuencia de cláusulas no finitas
El infinitivo se usa como complemento de adjetivos, sustantivos y verbos (Sager et

al. 1980). El participio de pasado la mayoría de las ocasiones aparece como adjetivo,
aunque también se da en posición de posmodificación, como por ejemplo: The best
timing for a particular fund is a matter determined by its long-term value. En
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algunos casos se mueve a la posición inicial, siendo en este caso premodificador, por
ejemplo: Helped by the globalisation of capital markets, the U.N....; Marketed under
a different name, our product is still a high-quality one.
Las formas en –ing presentan varias posibilidades (Sager et al. 1980): (i) como
sustantivos (In these conditions, negotiating is impossible); (ii) tras preposiciones (It
is a mechanism for securing liquidity; This is illustrated by considering cash-flow);
(iii) como adjetivos (Bonds are the dominating option in money transfers); (iv) como
reducción de una cláusula (We have built a plant using new funds); (v) para expresar
resultados (The main amount can be withdrawn, leaving the rest in the bank) y (vi)
en cláusulas no finitas del tipo detached, en las que el sujeto no aparece y que por
tanto tienen una conexión gramatical muy reducida con la oración en sí (Bond
behaviour is a recently studied factor, its influence depending upon many factors).
El empleo de todo tipo de recursos retóricos
En el discurso financiero, especialmente en prensa, se da un tipo de lenguaje muy

coloquial, que se vale de las “licencias” literarias y que muestra por ello una enorme
creatividad: aparecen juegos de palabras, referencias culturales, ambigüedades,
juegos fonéticos, metáforas, etc. Este discurso muestra una gran tendencia hacia el
lenguaje coloquial y popular.
Veamos algunos ejemplos de titulares tomados aleatoriamente de The Economist:
Bean counters, unite! (referencia cultural a una cita muy conocida de Marx: “Workers of
the world unite”)
Old bums in new seats (juego de palabras)
A very crude form of politics (juego de palabras: artículo sobre el petróleo)
In France, pile-’em-high and sell-’em-cheap hypermarkets compete fiercely.
Cleaning up the legal spill (sobre el vertido de BP)
Taxing times (juego de palabras sobre la entrada en vigor de nuevos impuestos)
La metáfora es uno de los mecanismos fundamentales de conocimiento, por lo que

tiene una enorme relevancia. Precisamente por ser una herramienta conceptual, se
extiende a todos los campos, no únicamente a la literatura, como se solía afirmar. Por
ejemplo, “Spain has pushed through a series of austerity measures meant to rein in its
deficit” (ejemplo tomado de un artículo en The New York Times).
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Una metáfora es un mecanismo conceptual esencial consistente en una proyección

estructural de un campo conceptual a otro (por ejemplo, se proyectan los rasgos de la
guerra sobre los del amor para poder “comparar” ambos, lo cual se refleja
posteriormente en la lengua: “conquistar a alguien”, “ganar una batalla amorosa”,
“utilizar armas”, etc.), por lo que es fundamental distinguir entre las palabras que
expresan la metáfora de la metáfora en sí (“palabras que reflejan la metáfora:
“conquistar a alguien”; metáfora: “el amor es la guerra”).
Dado que un estudio de los distintos recursos retóricos desbordaría los límites de
este tema, no expondremos más que una somera clasificación de algunos de ellos. La
clasificación que ofrecemos, por tanto, ni mucho menos refleja todas las
posibilidades; por otro lado, las definiciones que presentamos han sido elegidas por
su funcionalidad, no por motivos autoriales.
En primer lugar, está la fraseología (cf. Roberts 1998:61, Corpas Pastor 1997),
término por el que muchos autores hacen referencia a unidades de más de una
palabra que suelen estar lexicalizadas, que son de uso común y que tienen estabilidad
sintáctica y semántica. Entre ellas las expresiones idiomáticas (idioms), que serían
unidades con formación sintáctica regular cuyo significado se ha de aprender, ya que
no consistiría en la suma del significado de sus componentes5; también dentro de la
fraseología estarían las collocations6, categoría que se superpone a la anterior, ya que
la diferencia entre ambas no está muy clara: “idioms overlap with collocations,
because they both involve the selection of two or more words. At present, the line
between them is not clear” (Sinclair 1991:172). Algunos incluso reconocen diferentes
categorías según la mayor o menor fijación de las unidades que los componen (cf.
Francis 1993:143). En general se considera que un idiom se da cuando se requiere la
expresión completa para su interpretación (to give someone the green light, a dog-
eat-dog world, to sell like hot cakes, etc.), mientras que la collocation7 será una
selección de dos o más palabras que están relacionadas, pero cada una de las cuales
conserva cierta independencia semántica (to gain ground, face value, fair play,
current account, etc.; cf. Sinclair 1991:172). También formarían parte de la
5
A chip on your shoulder, a piece of cake, kettle of fish, hold your horses, etc.
6
“Collocations are partly or fully fixed expressions that become established through repeated context-
dependent use (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collocation).
7
Crystal clear, be fully aware, vaguely remember, make progress, etc.
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fraseología los proverbios o refranes (when the going gets tough, the tough get
going; better late than never, etc.), los símiles estereotipados (as clear as crystal),
las citas, las tautologías (business is business), etc. (see Roberts 1998).
Los símiles presentan una comparación explícita y por tanto suelen incluir un
“término de comparación” (“como”, “similar a”, etc.; cf. Freeborn 1996:63). La
metonimia, por su parte, sería un tipo de metáfora lingüística en la que existe una
relación de contigüidad entre origen y meta (“causa-efecto”, “poseedor-atributo”, etc.;
por ejemplo, “the Crown” en lugar de la monarquía; “eyes” por la vista, etc.; cf.
Freeborn 1996:65; Barcelona 2000; Ruiz de Mendoza 1997a y 1997b). La sinécdoque,
otro tipo de metáfora lingüística, consiste en la representación de un término por
otro, el cual se encuentra en relación de inclusión por el primero (por ejemplo,
“échame una mano”, en la que la mano significa ayuda; Alcaraz Varó & Martínez
Linares 1997:525). En cuanto a la antítesis, manifiesta un contraste entre los
términos de la comparación, que suelen ser incompatibles o irreconciliables (cf.
Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares 1997:416, Freeborn 1996:68; Speech is silver, but
silence is gold; Man proposes, God disposes). La lítotes es un tipo de metáfora
lingüística que se vale de lo contrario de lo que realmente quiere expresar (cf.
Freeborn 1996:66; He is not the cleverest person; She is not unlike her mother).
La onomatopeya trata de reproducir el sonido del elemento al que hace referencia
(splash, boom; cf. Freeborn 1996:69), y la sinestesia combina sensaciones distintas
(warm colours, sweet sound; cf. Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares 1997:525). El
oxímoron contrasta dos términos marcadamente diferentes (sweet death; cf. Alcaraz
Varó & Martínez Linares 1997:416; cf. Freeborn 1996:66); se diferenciaría de la
antítesis en que el oxímoron “se aplica al choque en un mismo sintagma de dos
unidades léxicas” (Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares 1997:416). El retruécano es una
metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras en orden distinto (when the
going gets tough, the tough get going; cf. Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares
1997:504), y la paradoja se basaría en el contraste (if you want peace, prepare for
war; cf. Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares 1997:429). El juego de palabras o
paronomasia mediante un solo elemento activa dos o más interpretaciones, y su
finalidad normalmente es humorística (bite into an Apple, que fue un slogan de la
compañía Apple; a horse is a very stable animal; cf. Freeborn 1996:67). En muchas
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ocasiones los juegos de palabras se basan en una silepsis, que se vale del sentido
propio y figurado de un término de forma simultánea (cf. Le Guern 1976:123).
La ironía diría lo contrario de lo que se piensa con el fin de resaltar la idea no
expresada (cf. Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares 1997:429; Freeborn 1996:66), y el
sarcasmo se diferenciaría de la ironía en que “existe una clara intención por parte del
hablante de causar daño moral al oyente” (Alcaraz Varó & Martínez Linares
1997:429). La personificación o prosopopeya consiste en atribuir a una cosa o ser
inanimado un rasgo animado (inflation speaks for itself, Alcaraz Varó & Martínez
Linares 1997:438; cf. Freeborn 1996:64). Otro tipo de metáfora lingüística, la
perífrasis (también llamada circumlotion), se vale de más elementos lingüísticos de
los necesarios para expresar una idea (he is no Romeo; cf. Freeborn 1996:69). La
alegoría sería una metáfora lingüística que prolonga la comparación en el texto o
discurso, y la hipérbole una exageración que busca causar impresión en el
destinatario (that was the easiest question in the world).
Alcaraz Varó (2000:75) resalta el hecho de que las imágenes que se utilizan en el
discurso financiero son particularmente expresivas. Abundan las expresiones
metafóricas referidas a animales (Alcaraz Varó 2000:76), como bull (especulador
alcista), bear (especulador bajista), CATS o TIGER (dos tipos de bonos), así como los
adjetivos metafóricos referidos a los colores, como blue chips (valores bursátiles
punteros), red interest (números rojos), red tape (papeleo administrativo),
greenback (dólar), etc.
Respecto al papel de las metáforas en los textos económicos, según Henderson
(1982) se dan habitualmente tres tipos: (i) las que sirven como elemento decorativo o
ilustrativo, pero que no son esenciales; (ii) las que se dan habitualmente en el
lenguaje y (iii) las que sirven de ayuda para profundizar en determinados problemas
económicos, y que sirven “as a basis for extending the domain of economic ideas”.
Estos tres tipos se denominarían, respectivamente, image metaphors, generic-level
metaphors, y specific-level metaphors. Todas ellas se utilizan con profusión para
ilustrar la relación entre la realidad económica y las suposiciones que subyacen a un
modelo económico concreto.
Las metáforas son parte integrante del vocabulario de la economía. Simplemente
por citar algunos ejemplos, veremos a continuación algunas de las metáforas
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lOMoARcPSD|3798630
conceptuales del tipo specific-level más habituales en los textos económicos, que son
las siguientes:
 Horse metaphors, que aluden al incremento de velocidad de este animal

mediante referencias como trotting inflation, galloping inflation, run-
away inflation, etc., y que por lo general se emplean para refererirse a tipos
de interés peligrosos (ver por ejemplo el manual clásico de Samuelson &
Nordhaus: Economics).
 Machine metaphors, que se usan como parte de un modelo de predicción de

precios, que entiende los mercados como lugares donde las fuerzas de la
oferta actúan sobre las de la demanda para producir equilibrio en los
precios. Los gráficos de oferta y demanda son en realidad metáforas
icónicas que reflejan la economía como una máquina, cuyo enemigo es la
inflación (INFLATION IS AN ENEMY). Expresiones ilustrativas de esta
metáfora son los siguientes (Lakoff & Johnson 1980):
Inflation has attacked the foundation of our economy
Inflation has pinned us to the wall
Inflation has robbed me of my savings
Inflation has outwitted the best economic minds in the country
Inflation has given birth to a money-minded generation
 Organism metaphors, que hablan de la economía como de un organismo

que crece, cambia e incluso muere. Según Fuertes Olivera (1998), se
emplean con frecuencia expresiones referentes a “a healthy economy, whose
sectors can be healthy, strong, robust, sick, weak, ailing, paralysed, etc. It
may need some kind of surgery to recover from the disease or to return to
form and be in good shape again”.
 War metaphors. Se entiende la actividad empresarial como una guerra

(BUSINESS IS WAR), como ilustran algunas de las expresiones empleadas
en la siguiente presentación del presidente al Consejo de Administración de
una empresa (Powell 1996:46, cit. en Fuertes Olivera 1998):
“As you´re no doubt well aware, we are, at the moment, in the middle of the
fiercest price war we´ve seen for over eight years. We´re under attack from
all sides and in an increasingly hostile environment it´s a cut-throat struggle
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just to survive. We´ve lost a lot of ground to the Swiss and the Germans and
have been completely outmanoeuvred by our Korean competitors. Perhaps
we should be thinking of actually joining forces with the Koreans. It´s a bit of
a long shot, but it might just work. Of course, with our stock value falling so
sharply, we´ve been an easy target for the corporate raiders. But in a
takeover battle it´s always a question of who´ll back down first and I can
assure you that we´ll not be giving in without a fight. For the time being, at
least, we should be able to fight off the threat of a takeover. Some of you have
said that it´s time to cut our losses, withdraw from markets overseas and
reinforce our position in the UK instead. But I´m pretty sure that a defensive
strategy like that won´t work and that what we need is to take the offensive
and fight back in the one market where we know we can beat the
competition, namely, the United States. Our products enjoy high status in
the US and, in my view, should be pushed upmarket. In short, it´s time to
take action. And I propose that we re-group, change tactics and mobilize our
sales forces in North and Central America. I also propose that we move
towards an alliance with our main Korean competitor. And there´s not a
moment to lose. Otherwise, we might end up becoming yet another casualty
of the recession”.
La frecuencia de estructuras pasivas
La pasivización, como ya hemos visto en temas anteriores, tiende a ocultar la

identidad del autor para otorgar mayor relieve al efecto o resultado de la acción.
Algunos ejemplos son:
Some information can be assembled...
Necessary improvements to maintain the very high standards in the

Company’s area cannot be expected to...
All proposals for increased charges are submitted to this committee.
Can the country be reformed before it’s too late?
La distancia larga entre el sujeto y el verbo
En muchos casos se observa un distancia significativa entre el sujeto y el verbo de

algunas oraciones por la inserción de cláusulas subordinadas: Considerable
differences in the various ways in which companies in different countries from all
over the world presented their financial results have given rise to...
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Mayor flexibilidad en la puntuación
Esta “despreocupación” por la puntuación, típica de casi todos los discursos de

especialidad, se debe a que las cuestiones estilísticas se consideran secundarias, y por
ello se da prioridad al contenido. Es por consiguiente muy importante estar
especialmente atento a la puntuación, ya que en ocasiones es incorrecta y puede
inducir a error.
Los géneros y subgéneros del lenguaje económico
Como ya hemos afirmado en el apartado dedicado al análisis del género en el

capítulo dedicado a los lenguajes de especialidad, en realidad no tiene sentido
establecer una clasificación genérica global, que además sería de carácter prescriptivo
(impositiva) y por tanto inválida, pues los tipos cambian constantemente. Parece
pues mucho más aconsejable exponer de forma descriptiva los principales subgéneros
de los textos económicos.
Dentro de los textos de naturaleza económica podemos distinguir a grandes rasgos
tres subgéneros, basándonos en sus rasgos discursivos, su naturaleza, su propósito
comunicativo, su tenor (grado de formalidad) y las áreas temáticas que cubren:
 Inglés comercial: los textos de este subgénero se suelen encuadrar dentro de

la correspondencia comercial, el transporte, la compraventa de productos y
los seguros (cf. Alcaraz Varó 2000:73).
 Inglés financiero: cubre la compra-venta de productos y servicios

financieros. Manifiesta fundamentalmente el denominado “estilo informal”
(cf. Fuertes Olivera 1996 y 1999), por lo que se caracteriza por un registro
coloquial, creativo e innovador muy anclado a la realidad circundante. La
principal diferencia con respecto a los otros discursos de inglés de los
negocios es el vocabulario, que en opinión de Alcaraz Varó (2000:74-73),
destaca por la preponderancia del léxico de origen anglosajón, el empleo
constante de metáforas, referencias culturales, juegos de palabras y otros
recursos estilísticos, así como por su claridad comunicativa.
 Inglés económico: abarca los textos de naturaleza económica más

normativos, como son los manuales, los informes, etc. Presenta un tipo de
vocabulario de naturaleza más formal (por lo general de origen greco-latino)
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y una serie de características que hacen de él un ejemplo del denominado

“lenguaje abstracto”, caracterizado por la abundante presencia de
conversiones (cambio de verbo a nombre), nominalizaciones, metáforas y
construcciones pasivas, etc.. Este discurso en algunos casos puede llegar a
equipararse con el formalismo del discurso jurídico.
Relevancia del componente oral
Como ya hemos visto a lo largo de este capítulo, en el discurso del mundo de los
negocios es especialmente relevante la parte oral, mucho más que en el lenguaje
científico-técnico y en el lenguaje jurídico, donde se da prioridad al medio escrito.
Así, en el discurso del mundo de los negocios destacan especialmente las
funciones, tácticas, técnicas y destrezas lingüísticas orales utilizadas en la
organización del mensaje (Ellis & Johnson 1994:96; showing sequence, marking
boundaries, marking new information, etc.), en la señalización de la intención (Ellis
& Johnson 1994:97; getting attention, stating that you want to speak, introducing a
topic, stating purpose, etc.), en la enfatización del mensaje (Ellis & Johnson 1994:98;
use of intensifiers, word order, use of intonation and stress, etc.), etc.
La cortesía verbal
Como acabamos de ver, en el ámbito del English for Business es esencial el

componente oral, lo que se refleja claramente en su docencia: hoy en día, gran parte
de los negocios se llevan a cabo verbalmente: presentaciones, conversaciones
telefónicas, videoconferencias, reuniones, etc. Aquí entra en juego la cortesía verbal 8
(politeness theory), y en algunos casos la paralingüística9, puesto que muchos de
estos casos existe contacto visual.
8
“Politeness theory is the theory that accounts for the redressing of the affronts to face posed by face-
threatening acts to addressees. First formulated in 1978 by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson,
politeness theory has since expanded academia’s perception of politeness. Politeness is the expression
of the speakers’ intention to mitigate face threats carried by certain face threatening acts toward
another (Mills, 2003, p.6). Another definition is "a battery of social skills whose goal is to ensure
everyone feels affirmed in a social interaction". Being polite therefore consists of attempting to save
face for another” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeness_theory).
9
“Paralinguistics are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words”
(http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/paralinguistics).
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El inglés de los negocios es directo, marca las distancias, impersonaliza y suele ser
tajante; todo ello indica que da prioridad a la estrategia del tipo independence y
respeta la libertad del emisor del mensaje (Tannen 1986:15-16).
Especial importancia tiene en el discurso del mundo de los negocios la
cooperación. La cooperación es “a major factor in international meetings where
English is being used by non-native speakers” (Ellis & Johnson 1994:92). Consiste en
reducir el empleo de formas muy idiomáticas y de buscar un término medio que
pueda ser utilizado por los negociadores de procedencias muy diversas. Procede de
Grice (1975), y en el inglés empresarial las principales manifestaciones de este
principio son la lengua utilizada para aclarar (se supone que todos los presentes en la
reunión quieren colaborar para solucionar un problema, por lo que intentan
entenderse) y para asegurarse de que todo el mundo ha entendido los puntos
tratados. Hay, por ello, “rituales” y “rutinas” que deben seguirse para lograr la
cooperación. Los rituales son muy importantes para las personas del mundo de los
negocios que realizan reuniones internacionales, ya que incluyen aspectos como “dar
la bienvenida”, “presentarse”, “romper el hielo” con una pequeña conversación o
anécdota antes de que empiece la reunión, “dar las gracias”, “despedirse”, etc. La
lengua utilizada para llevar a cabo estos rituales está muy formalizada y muy
condicionada por la cultura. Las rutinas son “commonly accepted procedures for
doing things which are highly predictable” (Ellis & Johnson 1994:93), como la que
tiene lugar, por ejemplo, en los inicios de reuniones y que consiste en estos cinco
puntos: (i) el presidente llama la atención de los participantes, (ii) inicia la reunión,
(iii) ofrece los antecedentes, (iv) establece el propósito de la reunión, (v) invita a los
participantes a hablar. Otras rutinas se utilizan para respetar los turnos de habla en
las discusiones, para interrumpir el planteamiento de uno de los participantes, etc.
1.4. CONCLUSIÓN
A lo largo de este capítulo hemos analizado la naturaleza y rasgos principales del

inglés económico-comercial, entre ellos los elementos retóricos, las estructuras
pasivas, los grupos preposicionales complejos, etc.
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También hemos visto que existen textos de índole jurídica y de contenido

económico, o a la inversa, que combinan rasgos de uno y otro lenguaje de
especialidad.
Es fundamental recordar, que estos rasgos son generales, es decir, que

experimentarán variación en función del género de que se trate, bien sea respecto a
su frecuencia o incluso respecto a su aparición en un género concreto.
En este apartado incluimos un listado de algunos de los términos más importantes

de este tema, pero no es un listado cerrado, pues incluye sólo algunos de ellos. Es
importante que los alumnos sepan definir todos estos conceptos, además del resto de
términos especializados incluidos en el tema.
- Economía
- Microeconomía
- Macroeconomía
- Inglés comercial
- Inglés empresarial
- Inglés económico
- Inglés financiero
- Vocabulario técnico
- Vocabulario subtécnico
- Nominalizacón
- Locuciones preposicionales complejas
- Neología
- Abreviaturas
- Siglas
- Derivación y composición
- Mutilación léxica
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- Premodificación
- Compuesto nominal
- Densidad léxica
- Dobletes
- Construcciones gerundivas
- Estilo elíptico
- Whiz deletion
- Formas impersonales
- Cláusulas no finitas
- Metáforas
- Juegos de palabras
- Fraseología
- Idioms
- Collocations
- Símiles
- Metonimia
- Sinécdoque
- Antítesis
- Lítotes
- Onomatopeya
- Sinestesia
- Paradoja
- Ironía
- Sarcasmo
- Personificación
- Perífrasis
- Alegoría
- Hipérbole
- Image metaphors
- Generic-level metaphors
- Specific-level metaphors
- Pasivización
- Cortesía verbal
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1.6. CUESTIONES FUNDAMENTALES
En este apartado incluimos un listado de las principales cuestiones que deben saber
responder los alumnos por cada apartado tras haber estudiado este tema.
1) ¿Qué es la economía?
2) ¿En qué campos se suele dividir la economía?
3) ¿Qué es la macroeconomía?
4) ¿Qué es la microeconomía?
1) ¿A qué hacen referencia los ejes horizontal y vertical del discurso económico-
comercial?
2) Indique algún ejemplo de términos subtécnicos (o semitécnicos).
3) Explique las diferencias y similitudes entre el inglés comercial, el inglés
empresarial, el inglés financiero y el inglés económico.
4) Explique la diferencia entre EGBP y ESBP según St. John.
5) ¿Qué tres tipos principales existen de demandantes de cursos de
Business English?
6) Ponga dos ejemplos de cada una de las siguientes destrezas en Business
English: speaking, interacting, listening, reading, writing.
7) Explique qué es el vocabulario subtécnico y ponga un ejemplo
contextualizado.
8) Explique en qué consisten las nominalizaciones un ponga un ejemplo
contextualizado.
9) Ponga dos ejemplos de vocabulario económico-comercial de origen
greco-latino y dos de origen anglosajón.
10) ¿Qué son las locuciones preposicionales complejas? Ponga dos ejemplos.
11) ¿Qué es la neología?
12) ¿Qué es la derivación? Ponga un ejemplo de inglés económico-
comercial.
13) Ponga dos ejemplos de siglas en inglés económico-comercial.
14) ¿Qué es la premodificación?
15) ¿Cuántos tipos de premodificación existen en inglés?
16) Ponga ejemplos de compuestos nominales en inglés económico-
comercial.
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17) La repetición léxica en el inglés económico-comercial.

18) Los dobletes preposicionales.
19) Las construcciones gerundivas.
20) ¿Qué problemas puede plantear la puntuación en inglés
económico-comercial?
21) El estilo elíptico.
22)La pasiva y la impersonalidad.
23)Las cláusulas no finitas. Ponga ejemplos.
24)Los principales recursos retóricos: ponga ejemplos.
25) Explique horse metaphors, machine metaphors, organism metaphors y
war metaphors en inglés económico-comercial, poniendo ejemplos.
26)Los géneros y subgéneros en el económico-comercial.
27) El componente oral y la cortesía verbal en el inglés económico-
comercial.
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COMERCIALES
Tema 4:
- English for Business
CUADERNILLO
DE EJERCICIOS
Y SOLUCIONARIO

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EXERCISES
1. Choose the correct preposition:
(i) The user path contains a great deal of introductory information for those
interested ________ economics.
(a) in (b) on (c) to (d) onto
(ii) The ongoing euro zone crisis hampered sales of German goods, which fell
_____ 0.9% to countries in the 27 EU member states and ______ 3.0 % to the
euro zone.
(a) down (b) at (c) in (c) by
(iii) Not only are rich Germans putting more of their wealth _______ fixed assets,
but foreigners see German cities as a safe haven.
(a) on (b) into (c) above (c) for
(iv) Recessions are usually job killers, so the way in which the UK economy has
created new jobs _______ a time when growth has been so weak has baffled the
experts.
(a) in (b) at (c) during (c) until
(v) The rationale for a rising profit share is that it leads _____ higher investment,
which in turn leads _____ stronger growth and rising employment.
(a) at (b) for (c) to (c) into
(vi) The supply-side reforms of the 1980s were in part based ______ the theory
that the wage share in the 1970s was too high.
(a) on (b) above (c) at (c) in
(vii) If the financial sector is responsible ______ the entire increase in the profit
share over the past three decades, that shows how dependent the economy has
become on the City as a source of growth.
(a) against (b) from (c) for (c) of
(viii) At present, there is little real incentive ______ businesses to invest.
(a) towards (b) for (c) to (c) into
(ix) A poorly designed political compromise that cuts the deficit too quickly could
push an already weak economy ______ recession.
(a) into (b) onto (c) at (c) for

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(x) That is much too weak a pace of expansion to tolerate the fiscal cliff's increase
__________ tax rates and spending cuts.
(a) along (b) in (c) into (c) at
(xi) Although Congressional Republicans rightly object ______ raising tax rates,
they appear willing to raise revenue through tax reform.
(a) at (b) towards (c) in (c) to
(xii) A desirable way to broaden the tax base would be to put an overall cap on the
amount of tax reduction that each taxpayer can achieve _________ deductions
and exclusions.
(a) since (b) at (c) through (c) against
(xiii) Even if the full deduction for charitable gifts is preserved and only high-value
health insurance is regarded _______ a tax expenditure, the extra revenue in 2013
would be about $150bn.
(a) as (b) like (c) how (c) to
(xiv) Extra revenue of $150bn in 2013 would be 1% of GDP, and could be too much
for the economy to swallow, particularly if combined ________ reductions in
government spending and a rise in the payroll tax.
(a) against (b) onto (c) with (c) to
(xv) America's current budget negotiations should focus _____ achieving a credible
long-term decline in the national debt.
(a) at (b) to (c) in (c) on
(xvi) The United States may be headed ______ a recession in 2013.
(a) at (b) for (c) from (c) into
(xvii) President Barack Obama's proposed alternative ______ the fiscal cliff would
substantially increase tax rates and limit tax deductions for the top 2% of earners.
(a) for (b) to (c) at (c) against
(xviii) The potential recession risk of a budget deal can be avoided _______
phasing in the base-broadening that is used to raise revenue.
(a) since (b) for (c) by (c) to
(xix) Trade gave a boost ______ growth in the quarter, as did business investment.
(a) into (b) in (c) towards (c) to

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(xx) We invested nearly $70 billion in R&D since the beginning of 2000, shifting
research _______ new areas and generating more than 47,000 patents.
(a) into (b) in (c) on (c) onto
(xxi) One consequence of this business-citizenship fusion is that we can deliver its
benefits _________ increasing scale.
(a) to (b) at (c) on (c) in
(xxii) Bad debt expense increased $47 million in 2011 primarily due _______
higher receivable balances and the current economic environment in Europe.
(a) towards (b) for (c) at (c) to
(xxiii) The timing and amount of sales and other transfers of IP may vary
significantly from period to period depending ______ timing of divestitures.
(a) to (b) for (c) upon (c) of
(xxiv) The company’s ongoing focus _________ productivity together with the
relative strength of the Software business drove strong margin performance in the
fourth quarter of 2011.
(a) on (b) at (c) in (c) to
(xxv) Revenue growth was strongest in North America, up 8.5 percent (7 percent
adjusted ______ currency).
(a) into (b) for (c) on (c) from
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct term:
portion penalty obligation purchase value services

incur
Purchase obligations include all commitments to _________ goods or services of

either a fixed or minimum quantity that meet any of the following criteria: (1) they
are noncancelable, (2) the company would incur a ___________ if the agreement
was canceled, or (3) the company must make specified minimum payments even if it
does not take delivery of the contracted products or _____________ (take-or-pay).
If the obligation to purchase goods or services is noncancelable, the entire
________________ of the contract is included in the table above. If the obligation
is cancelable, but the company would ____________ a penalty if canceled, the
dollar amount of the penalty is included as a purchase ____________. Contracted
minimum amounts specified in take-or-pay contracts are also included in the table as
they represent the __________ of each contract that is a firm commitment.
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3. Form adjectives from these nouns:

[Adapted from McArthur, T., A Rapid Course in English for Students of Economics, OUP]
a) relation
b) minority
c) nature
d) commerce
e) addition
f) majority
g) responsibility
h) benefit
i) money
j) base
4. Form verbs from these adjectives:

a) indicative
b) specific
c) national
d) simple
e) influential
f) selective
g) realistic
h) complex
i) special
j) satisfactory
k) relative
l) regular

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5. Provide the correct form of the word in each blank. A clue is

given in brackets.
Spain has tak en painful steps to clean up its bank s, but m ore m ay yet be needed
The Economist, Dec 1st 2012
[…]
On November 28th the European Commission approved restructuring plans that will
allow it to __________ [injection] €37 billion ($48 billion) in euro-zone funding
into four Spanish banks. The money will _________ [allowance] for a clean-up of
bank balance sheets begrimed by dud loans granted to property
________________ [people who develop; plural noun] during the
_____________ [inflate] of Spain’s ____________ [colossus; adjective]
property bubble. Many of these loans are now worth just cents on the euro. Yet an
earlier _________ [refuse] by supervisors and banks to recognise the scale of the
problem ____________ [contribution] to an __________ [erode] of confidence
in both banks and in government finances.
Under the new plan, four banks including Bankia, itself the ________ [failure]
product of an earlier half-hearted restructuring of bust ____________ [region;
adjective] savings banks, will get cash from two of Europe’s bail-out funds. In return
they have promised to cut their balance-sheets, stop lending to ___________ [risk;
adjective] property developers and focus instead on lending to small and medium-
sized businesses.
The _______ [sharp; superlative] cuts will be at Bankia, which has already been
__________ [nation] and which will ___________ [receipt] public funds worth
almost €18 billion (including €4.5 billion injected into the bank by the state in
September). It will cut its branch network by almost 40% and its staff by 28%.
Investors in the bank’s debt will also take a hit, with as much as €4.8 billion in
additional [addition] capital coming from the _________ [mandate; adjective]
swapping of hybrid instruments and ___________ [subordinate] debt for new
shares worth less. Across all four banks, holders of hybrid instruments may take a hit
of about €10 billion.
Forcing ___________ [people who invest, in the plural] in some of the banks’ debt
to take losses was a condition imposed by contributors to the bail-out funds to
______________ [minimal] the burden on taxpayers. Yet it will probably prove
____________ [not popular] in Madrid, since much of this debt is held by tens of
thousands of small investors, many of whom bought it after being __________
[assurance] by banks that it was as _________ [safety] as deposits.
Bankia ___________ [optimism; adverb] hopes to return to _____________

[profit] next year and to be generating ________ [health] returns by 2015. One
bank, Banco de Valencia, was deemed beyond salvation. It will be recapitalised with
€4.5 billion and then sold to CaixaBank, Spain’s third-largest bank.
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A second key element of the bail-out will be the _________ [create] of a new “bad
bank” in December. It will take dud loans from those being restructured. The
government hopes this will help them regain the _____________ [confide] of
markets. It may also kickstart lending, which has contracted by about 5% in the year
to August. Little detail was provided as to exactly how much debt the bad bank,
known as Sareb, will take, but officials in Brussels said some €45 billion in Spanish
banking assets would be transferred to it.
[…]
A report by staff at the International Monetary Fund (IMF) released on November

28th sounded __________ [warn; plural noun] of further loan losses as Spain’s
economy contracts. _____________ [lose; plural noun] on corporate loans have
already increased sharply, yet those on mortgages remain remarkably subdued. Some
______________ [deteriorate] in these seems likely if, as the IMF expects, house
prices contract and unemployment also rises.
6. Turn the following sentences into passive structures:

2001 I BM annual report
http:/ / w w w .ibm .com / annualreport/ 2011/
The company assesses qualitative factors in each of its reporting units that carry
goodwill.
_________________________________________________________
The company recognizes tax liabilities based on estimates of whether additional taxes
and interest will be due.
_________________________________________________________
This assessment relies on estimates and assumptions.
_________________________________________________________
Management considers all available evidence for each jurisdiction.
_________________________________________________________
The company will adjust the valuation allowance.
_________________________________________________________
This acquisition strengthened the company’s business analytics and optimization
capabilities.
_________________________________________________________

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7. Turn the following sentences into active structures:

The accompanying financial statements have been prepared in accordance with

accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.
_________________________________________________________
Costs that are incurred to produce the finished product after technological feasibility
has been established are capitalized as an intangible asset.
_________________________________________________________
Certain prior year amounts have been reclassified to conform to the current year
presentation.
_________________________________________________________
These identified intangible assets will be amortized on a straight-line basis over their
useful lives.
_________________________________________________________
It is expected that none of the goodwill will be deductible for tax purposes.
_________________________________________________________
8. Choose the correct option:

[Adapted from http://www.businessenglishsite.com/basic-business-english1.html]
1. He is the head of the accounting department. He's ____________________ of

the accounting department.
a. in charge b. charged with c. in control d. in the charge
2. Do you have any __________________________ on you?

a. job card b. card of job c. business card d. card of business
3. The amount of work that you have to do is called your _________________.

a. job load b. load job c. work-heap d. workload
4. 25% of my __________________________ goes to taxes

a. earns b. income c. cash d. incoming cash
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5. I got pregnant and was on __________________________ for six months.

a. maternity leave b. maternal leaving
c. mother leave d. mother permission
6. It's a lot of work, but I can __________________________ it.

a. deal b. handle c. answer d. handle with
7. I can’t come to work on Friday so I have to take it _____________.

a. free b. of c. out d. off
8. You will receive 50% _____________, and the rest when you finish the contract
a. up-ahead b. upfirst c. upfront d. uptop
9. What are the steps I should take in order to do this? I really don’t know how to go
______ it.
a. on b. out c. about d. under
10. This serves to ________________________ us that we should never neglect

our core customers.
a. remember b. remind c. recall d. rebring
11. Jane _____________________ last year.

a. changed her jobs b. job changed
c. changed jobs d. made a change in jobs
12. Generally speaking, a good manager ________ a smooth production process.

a. makes sure b. ensures c. is sure d. reassures
13. The _____________________ for this product is weak.

a. demanding b. requirement c. demand d. requesting
14. He was __________________ about accepting the proposal

a. hesitant b. hesitate c. hesitaty d. hesitated
15. I have a couple of things I'd like to talk about. I'm going to go through them
______.
a. in order b. orderly c. by order d. through order
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TEXTS
I. Without reading the text below, choose the most appropriate option:
1. "We have not yet __________ from the crisis," Mario Draghi said, predicting that
the recovery for most of the eurozone would not begin until the second half of 2013.
(a) surged (b) left (c) emerged (c) surpassed
2. "The crisis has shown that we were living in a fairy world," he said, citing the
_______ debts, weak banks and poor policy co-ordination of the past.
(a) insustainable (b) insupportable (c) unsupportable (c) unsustainable
3. The euro ________ against the dollar after the German parliament approved the
latest €44bn (£36bn) bailout for Greece by a large majority
(a) fortified (b) strengthened (c) stiffened (c) ratified
4. It's a turning point for Greece. It's also a turning point for the eurozone because it
helps recreate stability and confidence.
(a) eurozone (b) euroregion (c) eurocountries (c) euroarea
5. There were ______ differences between northern and southern European

countries, with Austria seeing unemployment of just 4.3%.
(a) stark (b) bared (c) open (c) brute
6. "This is extremely bad news – it is clear that the ________ in the eurozone is not
going away, which will impact negatively on the UK."
(a) imbalance (b) disbalance (c) unstability (c) instability
7. Young people, in particular, __________ to find work and youth unemployment

in the eurozone hit 23.9%, up from 21.2% in October last year.
(a) combatted (b) struggled (c) fought (c) disputed
8. Madrid said a 2.9% increase in pensions would _______ the country's deficit
targets.
(a) overwhelm (b) jeopardize (c) threat (c) danger
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9. In the eurozone, inflation ________ much more than expected to 2.2% in

November, from 2.5% in October.
(a) rose (b) went up (c) grew (c) dropped
10. (…) we believe that the ECB has ample justification and scope to take interest
rates down from 0.75% to 0.5%."
(a) ample (b) thick (c) comprehensive (c) expansive
II. Read the following text:
Eurozone won’t begin recovery until late 2013, Mario Draghi

says
Warning from ECB president comes as unemployment in the currency bloc hits a new
high in October
• Josephine Moulds
• guardian.co.uk, Friday 30 November 2012 18.39 GMT
A 'Youth with no Future' protest in Madrid. Photograph: Susana Vera/Reuters
The head of the European Central Bank has warned that the eurozone crisis is far
from over, as unemployment in the currency bloc hit a new high in October.
"We have not yet emerged from the crisis," Mario Draghi said, predicting that the
recovery for most of the eurozone would not begin until the second half of 2013. He
urged governments to tighten budgets and implement a banking union to leave
behind a "fairy world" that led to the financial meltdown three years ago.
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"The crisis has shown that we were living in a fairy world," he said, citing the
unsustainable debts, weak banks and poor policy co-ordination of the past. Speaking
at a conference in Paris, Christine Lagarde, head of the IMF, echoed his call for
reform, saying: "Banking union seems to us to be the first priority."
The euro strengthened against the dollar after the German parliament approved the
latest €44bn (£36bn) bailout for Greece by a large majority, despite growing unease
about the cost to taxpayers. It is thought the vote will strengthen Chancellor Angela
Merkel, less than a year ahead of federal elections. Despite the criticism of the plan,
only 12 members of her conservative-led coalition rejected the package – less than
had been feared by party officials.
France's finance minister, Pierre Moscovici, hailed the Greek aid deal as a
breakthrough. "It's a turning point for Greece. It's also a turning point for the
eurozone because it helps recreate stability and confidence. Greece's fate will no
longer be a daily issue."
But investors said the celebrations should not be overdone. Jason Conibear, trading
director of Cambridge Mercantile, said: "Certainly the Greek bailout is back on track,
and the immediate prospect of Eurogeddon has receded. But even if the single
currency is not about to come apart at the seams, the eurozone is still stuck in a deep
economic funk."
Another 173,000 people joined the jobless queues in the eurozone in October,
pushing the unemployment rate to a record high of 11.7%. There were stark
differences between northern and southern European countries, with Austria seeing
unemployment of just 4.3% compared with Spain's eye-watering rate of 26.2%.
Across the 27 member states of the EU, unemployment also rose, although to a lower
10.7%.
Graeme Leach, chief economist at the Institute of Directors, said: "This is extremely
bad news – it is clear that the instability in the eurozone is not going away, which will
impact negatively on the UK."
Young people, in particular, struggled to find work and youth unemployment in the
eurozone hit 23.9%, up from 21.2% in October last year. There are now 3.6 million
people under the age of 25 out of work in the region. Spain was among the worst hit,
with 56% of its young people out of work.
Spanish pensioners were also punished on Friday, with news that Madrid has
cancelled an inflation-linked rise in pensions this year. This was the last remaining
campaign pledge by prime minister Mariano Rajoy yet to be broken. Labour minister
Fatima Banez said: "It was a difficult, painful decision because it was the last thing we
wanted to do, but we had no other choice." Madrid said a 2.9% increase in pensions
would jeopardise the country's deficit targets. Instead they will be lifted by just 1% -
2%, which is expected to save the country €3.8bn.
In the eurozone, inflation dropped much more than expected to 2.2% in November,
from 2.5% in October. That will ease the pressure on European household incomes
13

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and could prompt an interest rate cut from the ECB, as policymakers will be less
concerned that cheap debt is fuelling inflation. Howard Archer, chief European
economist at IHS Global Insight, said: "With the underlying inflation situation in the
eurozone looking far from alarming, we believe that the ECB has ample justification
and scope to take interest rates down from 0.75% to 0.5%."
III. Now summarise the text in your own words (NO KEY PROVIDED).
IV. Complete the table with the missing antonyms of the following words
from the text:
employment
sustainable
a high
strengthen
majority
ease (n.)
ease (v.)
conservative
stability
clear
negatively
difficult
dropped
cheap
V. Explain in your own words the meaning of the following expressions,

which are underlined in the text (NO KEY PROVIDED):
He urged governments to tighten budgets:
_________________________________________________________
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Christine Lagarde, head of the IMF, echoed his call for reform:
_________________________________________________________
(…) despite growing unease about the cost to taxpayers:
_________________________________________________________
Pierre Moscovici, hailed the Greek aid deal as a breakthrough:
_________________________________________________________
Greece's fate will no longer be a daily issue:
_________________________________________________________
(...) even if the single currency is not about to come apart at the seams:
_________________________________________________________
Spain's eye-watering rate of 26.2%:
_________________________________________________________
This was the last remaining campaign pledge by prime minister Mariano Rajoy yet to
be broken:
_________________________________________________________
15

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16

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SOLUCIONARIO
17

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18

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EXERCISES
(a) in (b) on (c) to (d) onto
euro zone.
experts.

19

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and exclusions.
20

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incur obligation
Purchase obligations include all commitments to purchase goods or services of either
a fixed or minimum quantity that meet any of the following criteria: (1) they are
noncancelable, (2) the company would incur a penalty if the agreement was canceled,
or (3) the company must make specified minimum payments even if it does not take
delivery of the contracted products or services (take-or-pay). If the obligation to
purchase goods or services is noncancelable, the entire value of the contract is
included in the table above. If the obligation is cancelable, but the company would
incur a penalty if canceled, the dollar amount of the penalty is included as a purchase
obligation. Contracted minimum amounts specified in take-or-pay contracts are also
included in the table as they represent the portion of each contract that is a firm
commitment.
21

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a. relation (relative, related, relational)

b. minority (minor)
c. nature (natural)
d. commerce (commercial)
e. addition (additional)
f. majority (major)
g. responsibility (responsible)
h. benefit (beneficial)
i. money (monetary)
j. base (basic)

a. indicative (indicate)
b. specific (specify)
c. national (nationalize)
d. simple (simplify)
e. influential (influence)
f. selective (select)
g. realistic (realize)
h. complex (complicate)
i. special (specialize)
j. satisfactory (satisfy)
k. relative (relate)
l. regular (regulate)
22

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given in brackets.
Spain has tak en painful steps to clean up its bank s, but m ore m ay yet be needed
[…]
allow it to inject [injection] €37 billion ($48 billion) in euro-zone funding into four
Spanish banks. The money will allow [allowance] for a clean-up of bank balance
sheets begrimed by dud loans granted to property developers [people who develop;
plural noun] during the inflation [inflate] of Spain’s colossal [colossus; adjective]
earlier refusal [refuse] by supervisors and banks to recognise the scale of the problem
contributed [contribution] to an erosion [erode] of confidence in both banks and in
government finances.
Under the new plan, four banks including Bankia, itself the failed [failure] product of
an earlier half-hearted restructuring of bust regional [region; adjective] savings
banks, will get cash from two of Europe’s bail-out funds. In return they have
promised to cut their balance-sheets, stop lending to risky [risk; adjective] property
developers and focus instead on lending to small and medium-sized businesses.
The sharpest [sharp; superlative] cuts will be at Bankia, which has already been
nationalised [nation] and which will receive [receipt] public funds worth almost €18
billion (including €4.5 billion injected into the bank by the state in September). It will
cut its branch network by almost 40% and its staff by 28%. Investors in the bank’s
debt will also take a hit, with as much as €4.8 billion in additional [addition] capital
coming from the mandatory [mandate; adjective] swapping of hybrid instruments
and subordinated [subordinate] debt for new shares worth less. Across all four banks,
holders of hybrid instruments may take a hit of about €10 billion.
Forcing investors [people who invest, in the plural] in some of the banks’ debt to take
losses was a condition imposed by contributors to the bail-out funds to minimise
[minimal] the burden on taxpayers. Yet it will probably prove unpopular [not
popular] in Madrid, since much of this debt is held by tens of thousands of small
investors, many of whom bought it after being assured [assurance] by banks that it
was as safe [safety] as deposits.
Bankia optimistically [optimism; adverb] hopes to return to profitability [profit] next

year and to be generating healthy [health] returns by 2015. One bank, Banco de
Valencia, was deemed beyond salvation. It will be recapitalised with €4.5 billion and
then sold to CaixaBank, Spain’s third-largest bank.
A second key element of the bail-out will be the creation [create] of a new “bad bank”
in December. It will take dud loans from those being restructured. The government
23

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
hopes this will help them regain the confidence [confide] of markets. It may also
kickstart lending, which has contracted by about 5% in the year to August. Little
detail was provided as to exactly how much debt the bad bank, known as Sareb, will
take, but officials in Brussels said some €45 billion in Spanish banking assets would
be transferred to it.
[…]

28th sounded warnings [warn; plural noun] of further loan losses as Spain’s
economy contracts. Losses [lose; plural noun] on corporate loans have already
increased sharply, yet those on mortgages remain remarkably subdued. Some
deterioration [deteriorate] in these seems likely if, as the IMF expects, house prices
contract and unemployment also rises.

goodwill.
Qualitative factors are assessed by the company in each of its reporting units that
carry goodwill.
Tax liabilities are recognized by the company based on estimates of whether
additional taxes and interest will be due.
Estimates and assumptions are relied on by this assessment.
All available evidence for each jurisdiction is considered by management.
The valuation allowance will be adjusted by the company.
capabilities.
The company’s business analytics and optimization capabilities were strengthened by
this acquisition.
24

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We have prepared the accompanying financial statements in accordance with
We capitalize as an intangible asset costs that are incurred to produce the finished
product after we have established technological feasibility.
presentation.
We have reclassified certain prior year amounts to conform to the current year
presentation.
useful lives.
We will amortize these identified intangible assets on a straight-line basis over their
useful lives.
We expect that none of the goodwill will be deductible for tax purposes.



25

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4. 25% of my __________________________ goes to taxes.




8. You will receive 50% _____________, and the rest when you finish the contract.
______ it.

our core customers.
11. Jane _____________________ last year.



14. He was __________________ about accepting the proposal.

______.
a. in order b. in orderly c. by orderly d. through order
26

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TEXTS
latest €44bn (£36bn) bailout for Greece by a large majority.
4. It's a turning point for Greece. It's also a turning point for the _______ because it


targets.
27

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says
high in October
28

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economic funk."
10.7%.
29

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from the text:
employment unemployment
sustainable unsustainable
a high a low
strengthen weaken
majority minority
ease (n.) unease
ease (v.) harden
conservative progressive
stability instability
clear unclear
negatively positively
difficult easy
dropped rose
cheap expensive

30

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even if the single currency is not about to come apart at the seams:
be broken:
31

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BUSINESS SKILLS:
PRESENTATIONS

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The information collected and presented here has been adapted from various
sources:
http://englishplusplus.jcj.uj.edu.pl/presentation/practical-information/
http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCEQFjAA&url=
http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.washington.edu%2Frturner1%2FORAL%2520CLASSROOM%2520PR
ESENTATIONS.ppt&ei=DY1MVLzaIsGNaJWwgsgL&usg=AFQjCNFAtFKsmH9nbG79xe-
BnAYnAhLbuQ&bvm=bv.77880786,d.d2s
http://www.presentationprep.com/how-to-present-in-english-non-native-speaker/
http://speakspeak.com/resources/general-english-vocabulary/presentation-language-phrases
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/647
http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=7&ved=0CDIQFjAG&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fhplengr.engr.wisc.edu%2FRubric_Presentation.doc&ei=05ZMVP2dJZDUauD
5gbAB&usg=AFQjCNFDDMD0bG-tRRlRzk10eTOPfuqPOQ
http://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&ved=0CFoQFjAH&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fwww.education.vic.gov.au%2Flanguagesonline%2Ftoolkit%2Fcommunication
%2Fdocs%2Foral%2520presentation%2520rubric.doc&ei=DY1MVLzaIsGNaJWwgsgL&usg=AF
QjCNH56Kon0L2wImi-YHJCv9XvvY_F2w
http://www.english-at-home.com/business/vocabulary-and-phrases-for-making-
presentations/
http://www.empa.ch/plugin/template/empa/*/50158
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/business/bsadmin/staff/s3/pdfs/oralassess.pdf
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/business/talkingbusiness/unit3presentati
ons/expert.shtml
http://www.garrreynolds.com/preso-tips/deliver/
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words/charts.htm

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PRESENTATIONS: LOGICAL STRUCTURE

1. INTRODUCTION
General purposes:
1. To introduce the topic to the audience;

2. To stimulate the audience’s interest in the topic;
3. To let the audience know how the speaker intends to develop the topic.
Condense the whole presentation into a single sentence and refer to it several times in the
presentation (first of all in the introduction).
2. BODY OF THE PRESENTATION
The purpose of the presentation body is to develop the thesis/topic.
• Major points should be obvious, and clearly related to the topic.

• In longer presentations, the body should contain an internal summary to (1)
review for the listener what has already been covered and (2) forecast what is to
come.
3. CONCLUSION
Don’t come to an end after the last major point has been developed, it is too abrupt. There has to be
a conclusion.
Effective conclusions can occur in a variety of forms.
1. A review of the major points, with an emphasis on the thesis.

2. An application of principles discussed in the presentation.
3. Telling a story which serves as an example of the major ideas developed in the
presentation.
SUPPORTING MATERIAL
Supporting material has three major roles to play with regard to the ideas and major points of the
presentation:
 To help the listeners understand them.
 To help the listeners remember them.
 To get the listener to accept them, particularly in a persuasive presentation.
Effective supporting material is necessary to manage the audience’s attention. An endless stream of
statistics or facts and figures is not going to keep your audience focused on the presentation.
A mixture of expert opinion, statistics, specific instances and anecdotes is necessary to hold the
audience’s attention.

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IN A NUTSHELL… CLARITY, CONSISTENCY, EFFECTIVENESS

Preparation: Keep it simple.
• Give your presentation a logical structure: (1) introduction (what you’re going to say); (2)
main body (development); (3) conclusion (summing up).
• Don’t crowd slides with text. They should contain only the information necessary to illustrate
your point Remove information which is irrelevant or not related to the topic.
• If there are issues you cannot express in a clear way, better not to talk about them.
• Find time to rehearse: make yourself familiar with your own voice, check and adjust time and
see coordination between visuals and the points you want to make.
• Keep to the time. It is better to shorten the presentation by three minutes than to extend it by
three minutes.
• Leave time for questions from the audience. See questions as a way of getting your message
across, not as something negative.
• Use good (audio)visuals to get your message across efficiently. Visual aids should speak for
themselves in illustrating your point. Give listeners time to take them in.
• Have your presentation edited. Correct grammatical and spelling errors.
Delivery
• Use a ‘hook’ (to make the audience want to hear more) at the beginning and a ‘take home
message’ at the end.
• Reading out every single thing you have written on a slide is counterproductive.
• Do not read extensively from your notes. You should know your material well enough.
• Try not to digress too much, digressions take much longer than we think.
• Speak clearly and avoid raising your voice, whispering or mumbling “under your breath”.
• Try to maintain the natural pace of speaking appropriate for a formal, rather than everyday
situation.
• Make pauses in places which you consider critical for your presentation.
• Try to control your body language; avoid excessive gesticulation.
• Maintain eye contact with your listeners but do not focus on one person.
• Don’t turn your back to the audience if you want to show something on the screen and don’t
“talk to the screen” either.
• Observe your audience’s reactions and act consequently (skipping, explaining, etc.).
• Do not finish abruptly.
• Thank the audience for their attention and encourage them to ask questions.
• If you do not know the answer to a question, don’t be afraid to admit it.
• Show enthusiasm; engage the audience.
Other issues:
• Font size: title between 36 & 44; body between 24 & 32. Avoid italicized fonts. Be consistent.
• Colours (foreground and background): contrast. Not too many.
• Transitions, graphics, audios, videos (use images sparingly; to visualize, not to decorate).
• Words per screen: less than 40 words. Average adult: maximum reading speed of between
200 and 300 words per minute. Handouts.
• Time for each slide on the screen (theory: average of 2mins; btw 5 secs & 4 mins.).

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DELIVERY
1. Show your passion. Try to connect with your audience in an honest and exciting way.
2. Start strong. First impressions are powerful. The first 2-3 minutes of the presentation are the most
important: this is what the audience will give you at the beginning to engage them.
3. Keep it short. Audiences have short attention spans when passively sitting and listening. Better to
have the audience wanting more than to feel that they have had more than enough.
4. Make good eye contact. Try looking at individuals rather than scanning the group.
5. Know your slides inside out.
6. If possible, learn the names of participants. They like to be called by their name and it keeps
them on their toes.
7. Speak slowly and clearly. Especially with non-native English. Slow down or you will lose your
audience. Everyone has an accent, so having an accent is not a problem. Don’t mumble.
8. Don’t speak in a flat monotone. This will bore your audience.
9. Use simple language. Try to use short words and sentences.
10. Don’t waffle. Do not talk in a vague or trivial way.
11. Do not give unnecessary apologies. Don’t apologise for what you’re saying (I’m sorry if this is
boring’).
12. Avoid assertions and truisms. Do not say something is true if you don’t know; don’t say obvious
things.
13. Avoid jargon. Use plain English to explain what you mean.
14. Avoid idioms. An idiom used incorrectly sounds hilarious or ridiculous and will detract from the
seriousness of your talk.
15. Don’t use slang. In a professional environment, slang is out of place, even if you hear native English
speakers doing so. Use the best English you can and you will make a better impression.
16. Don’t use crutch/filler words. Try your best not to overuse certain crutch words or sounds (like
ummm, you know, etc.) while you are trying to remember the right word. It can be quite annoying for
the listener.
17. Use verbs instead of nouns. Spoken English sounds more natural when you use more verbs.
18. Use active verbs instead of passive verbs. They are much easier to understand.
19. Use linking words. Examples are: on the contrary, similarly, nevertheless, therefore, in addition,
etc. They make it easier for your listeners to follow your argument.
20. Write down & adapt numerical information. Make sure important numbers and statistics are
written on your slides so the audience does not miss this critical information. Adapt the style of
writing and saying the numbers to the country where you are making your presentation.
21. Don’t use acronyms/abbreviations without explaining them. The first time you use such a
term, say or write it in full, followed by the acronym. After that, you may use the shorter version.
22. Use a remote-control device. With a handheld remote you can move away from the podium and
closer to your audience.
23. Keep the lights on. Go for a compromise between a bright screen image and ambient room lighting.
Turning the lights off -besides inducing sleep- puts all the focus on the screen, and the audience
should be looking at you more than the screen.
24. Remain courteous, gracious and professional at all times. Even if someone is being difficult,
at all times be a gentleman/lady and courteously deal with them. Remain in control.

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PRESENTATIONS: SIGNPOSTING
Section of presentation Signpost language
Welcoming Good morning/afternoon ladies and gentlemen.

Good morning and welcome to…
Thank you all very much for coming today.
I hope you all had a pleasant journey here today.
Introducing yourself My name is … and I am responsible for….
My name is …. From (company) where I am responsible for…
Let me introduce myself; my name is … and I am responsible
for….
Introducing the topic The subject/topic/theme of my talk/presentation is ...
I'm going to talk about ...
The purpose of today’s presentation/my presentation today is
to…
In my presentation I’d like to show you/I’m hoping to give you
an update on…
My topic today is…
My talk is concerned with ...
After my talk there will be time for discussion and any
questions.
So that concludes the introduction.
Now let’s move to the first part of my talk, which is about…
Overview (outline of I’m going to divide/I have divided this/my talk into (four) parts.
presentation) I’m going to examine/cover…
I’m going to fill you in on the…
There are a number of points I'd like to make.
Basically/ Briefly, I have three things to say.
I'd like to begin/start by ...
Let's begin/start by ...
First of all, I'll... … and then I’ll go on to …
Then/ Next ...
Finally/ Lastly ...
I’d like to give you an overview of/a brief outline of…
My presentation will take (about) thirty minutes…
In today’s presentation I’m hoping/I’d like to cover 3 points…
Firstly … secondly … thirdly…

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Questions during or after the Please (feel free to) interrupt me if you have any questions.
presentation I’d be grateful if you could ask your questions after the
presentation.
If you have any questions you’d like to ask, please leave them
until the end, when I’ll be happy/I’ll do my best to answer them.
Starting the presentation To begin with/to start with...
Let’s start by looking at…
I’d like to start by looking at…
Let’s start with/by looking at...
Starting a new section Moving on now to …
Now let’s move on to…
Now I’d like to move on to…
Next I’d like to look at…
Turning to...
Let’s turn now to …
The next issue/topic/area I’d like to focus on …
I’d like to expand/elaborate on …
Now we'll move on to...
Moving on to the next part/section, I’d like to…
I'd like now to discuss...
Let's look now at…
Now let’s take a look at...
Analysing a point and giving Where does that lead us?
recommendations Let's consider this in more detail...
What does this mean for...?
Translated into real terms...
Why is this important?
The significance of this is...
Giving examples For example, ...
A good example of this is...
As an illustration, ...
To give you an example, ...
To illustrate this point...

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Introducing a visual/referring I’d like to show you…

to a visual This graph shows/represents…
Let’s compare the....
Take a look at this…
If you look at this, you will see…
This chart illustrates the figures…
This chart gives you a breakdown of…
This clearly shows…
Here you see a comparison between ...
One advantage is ... another is… a third advantage is… finally…
We can see two advantages and one disadvantage …
On the one hand… on the other hand ...
First ... second
Finishing/closing a section So that concludes…
So that’s an overview of…
I think that just about covers…
I’d like now to turn to…
Now I’d like to look at…
That's all I have to say about...
We've looked at...
So much for...
That’s all I wanted to say about…
Let’s move on to (the next part, which is…)…
So now we come to…
So we’ve seen first the background, then the present situation
and then the prospects for the future.
Summarising and concluding That brings the presentation to an end.
That concludes my talk.
That brings us/me to the end of my presentation.
Unfortunately, I seem to have run out of time, so I’ll conclude
very briefly by saying that …..
Finally, I’d like to finish by…
… some conclusions and recommendations.
To conclude...
In conclusion ...
In short ...
Right, let's sum up, shall we?
Well, that’s about it for now, we’ve covered…
In brief, today we…
To sum up ...
To summarise...
Let's summarise briefly what we've looked at...
If I can just sum up/summarise the main points...

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Finally, let me remind you of some of the issues we've covered...

I’d like to end by emphasizing the main point(s).
That’s an overview of…
Now, just to summarise, let’s quickly look at the main points
again.
So, to remind you of what I’ve covered in this talk, …
I'd like now to recap...
Thanking Thanks for listening.
Thank you for listening.
Thank you for your attention.
I’ll have to come to that later, perhaps after the break since
we’re running out of time.
I’d like to thank you all for your attention and interest.
I’d like to end by thanking you (all) for coming today.
Invitation to discuss / ask Thanks for listening. Now I’d like to invite your comments.
questions Now we have (10 minutes) for questions and discussion.
So now I’d very interested to hear your comments.
I’m happy to answer any queries/ questions.
Does anyone have any questions or comments?
If anyone has any questions, I’ll be pleased to answer them/I’ll
do my best to answer them.
Please feel free to ask questions.
If you would like me to elaborate on any point, please ask.
Would you like to ask any questions?
Any questions?
I’ll have to come to that later, perhaps after the break since
we’re running out of time.
Re-wording questions (to give So you would like further clarification on our strategy?
yourself time) That’s an interesting question. How are we going to transfer
responsibilities? By….
Thank you for asking. What is our plan for next year?
Let me just say it in another way.
Perhaps I can rephrase that.
Put another way, what you’re asking is…
Answers Does this answer your question?
Did I explain myself?
Did that help?
Do you follow what I am saying?
I hope this explains the situation.
I don’t actually know off the top of my head, but I’ll try to get
back to you later with an answer.
I’m afraid I’m unable/not able to answer at the moment.
Perhaps I can get back to you later?

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Good question! I really don’t know. Let me find out and I’ll get
back to you.
That’s a very good question. However, I don’t have any figures
on that, so I can’t give you an accurate answer.
Unfortunately, I’m not the best person to answer that. Please
get in touch with…
Referring to a previous point As I mentioned earlier...
As we saw earlier…
You may recall that we said/that I explained…
Paraphrasing and clarifying Simply put...
In other words.......
So what I’m saying is....
To put it more simply....
To put it another way....

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DATES
[Source: Haigh, R. (2012. 3rd ed.), Legal English. Routledge]
When using British English, dates should be written as follows:
• 21 March 2000 – NOT 21st March 2000 or March 21, 2000.

• 7 April 2006 – NOT 07 April 2006.
• 1991-95 – NOT 1991-1995 or 1991/95
In American English dates are written differently, since the month is placed before the day, and
a comma is often placed after the day: May 2nd, 2012.
A hyphen can be used to replace “to” in phrases such as “during the period July-October 2012,
but not in “from … to” or “between … and”. For example, write:
• … from July 2012 to October 2013,

AND
• … between July and October 2012 (NOT between July-October 2012)
NUMBERS
The rule is that all numbers ten and below should be spelled out and numbers 11 and above
should be put in numerals. However, there are certain exceptions to this:
• If numbers recur through the text or are being used for calculations, then numerals
should be used.
• If the number is approximate (e.g. “around three hundred years ago”) it should be spelled
out.
• Very large numbers should generally be expressed without using rows of zeros where
possible (e.g. €4.5 million instead of €4,500,000). In contracts, the use of both words
and numbers is common in order to increase certainty. For example, FOUR THOUSAND
THREE HUNDRED EUROS (€4,300).
• Percentages may be spelled out (thirty per cent) or written as numbers (30 per cent).
• Numbers that begin sentences should be spelled out.
In English writing, the decimal point is represented by a dot (.) and commas are used to break
up long numbers. Commas CANNOT be used to represent a decimal point. Therefore the
number six thousand nine hundred and sixty eight and three quarters is written like this in
English:
6,968.75

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PRESENTATIONS: DESCRIBING CHARTS
Type of chart Name
Table
Pie chart
Bar chart
Line graph
Flow chart

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Phrases to describe charts

The pie chart is about ...
The bar chart deals with ...
The line graph (clearly) shows ...
The slices of the pie chart compare the ...
The chart is divided into ... parts.
The chart highlights ...
... has the largest (number of) ...
... has the second largest (number of) ...
... is as big as ...
... is twice as big as ...
... is bigger than ...
More than ... per cent ...
Only one third ...
less than half ...
The number ... increases/goes up/grows by ...
The number ... decreases/goes down/sinks by ...
The number ...does not change/remains stable
Describing charts
• Increase/fall (adjectives): gradual, marked, moderate, sharp, significant, slight, steady, steep,
dramatic, considerable, sudden, small, rapid, slow.
• Position: highest level, lowest level, peak, reached a peak, stood at, remain the same.
• Nouns of movement: decline, decrease, drop, fall, fluctuation, improvement, increase,
recovery, reduction, rise, flow, lift, downward trend, upward trend.
• Verbs of movement: bottom out, double to, fluctuate, level off, plummet, plunged, soared,
remained steady, decrease, drop, go up, go down, fall, grow, increase, rise.
• Comparing: more, far more, many more, a lot more, substantially more, considerably more,
significantly more, slightly more, fractionally more; as many, twice as many, three times as many,
not as many.
• Considerable: amount, degree, difference, doubt, extent, impact, influence, interest, number,
power, risk.
• Important: aspect, contribution, decision, difference, point, question, reason.
• Major: change, concern, contribution, difference, factor, issue, problem, role, theme.
• Significant: difference, effect, impact, increase.
• Widespread: allegation, assumption, belief, destruction, opposition, practice, protest, support,
use.

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EXAMPLE OF CHART DESCRIPTION
The pie charts illustrate the primary reasons that people came to and left the UK in 2007. At first
glance it is clear that the main factor influencing this decision was employment.
Having a definite job accounted for 30 per cent of immigration to the UK, and this figure was very
similar for emigration, at 29%. A large number of people, 22%, also emigrated because they were
looking for a job, though the proportion of people entering the UK for this purpose was noticeably
lower at less than a fifth.
Another major factor influencing a move to the UK was for formal study, with over a quarter of
people immigrating for this reason. However, interestingly, only a small minority, 4%, left for this.
The proportions of those moving to join a family member were quite similar for immigration and
emigration, at 15% and 13% respectively. Although a significant number of people (32%) gave
‘other’ reasons or did not give a reason why they emigrated, this accounted for only 17% with regards
to immigration.
HOW TO SAY PERCENTAGES THAT ARE NOT EXACT

Percentage Qualifier
77% just over three quarters
77% approximately three quarters
49% just under a half
49% nearly a half
32% almost a third
proportion / number /
Percentage amount / majority /
minority
75% - 85% a very large majority
65% - 75% a significant proportion
10% - 15% a minority
5% a very small number

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Teacher Rubric: Oral presentations
[Source: www.education.vic.gov.au/languagesonline]
 This is a sample rubric for teachers to assess students’ oral presentations. The criteria are based on the standards for LOTE
and Communication.
 This rubric is designed to be integrated into a scoring sheet. A complete grading sheet typically has a scoring system attached
to performance descriptors, and space for comments.
Criteria Below expected level At expected level Above expected level

Topic introduced. Topic introduced clearly, and Topic introduced clearly and in
Introduction of purpose of talk was made clear. an interesting way. Purpose of
topic talk was made clear. Outline of
points was given.
Some understanding of topic Good understanding of topic A very good understanding of

shown. Some links and shown. Links and connections the topic shown. Links and
connections made between between ideas made clear. connections between ideas
ideas. Points are usually Information was relevant and made clear. Information was
Development of
developed with minimum expressed in own words. Points relevant and well expressed in
topic detail. Information is usually were developed with sufficient own words. Points were well-
relevant. and appropriate details. organised and developed with
sufficient and appropriate
details.
Some eye contact was made. An interesting approach taken Speaker monitored audience
to topic. Speaker used and adapts presentation
Techniques used to engage
techniques such as visual aids accordingly. An interesting or
audience were minimal, or
Ability to engage and props, anecdote, surprising original approach taken to the
mainly ineffective.
and involve facts, direct audience topic. Speaker used techniques
audience participation. such as visual aids and props,
anecdote, humour, surprising
facts, direct audience
participation.
Attempts were made to tailor The presentation content and The presentation content,
Suitability of the presentation content to the structure was tailored to the structure and delivery were
presentation for intended purpose of informing, audience and to the intended closely tailored to the audience
purpose and interesting or persuading. purpose of informing, and to the intended purpose of
audience interesting or persuading. informing, interesting or
persuading.
Presenter occasionally spoke Presenter usually spoke clearly Presenter spoke clearly and at a
Voice: clarity, clearly and at a good pace. to ensure audience good pace to ensure audience
pace, fluency comprehension. Delivery was comprehension. Delivery was
usually fluent. fluent and expressive.

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The vocabulary of the The vocabulary of the The vocabulary of the

presentation was mainly presentation was appropriate presentation was appropriate
Vocabulary,
appropriate for the topic. The for the topic. Sentence for the topic. A variety of
sentence
presentation content was structures were usually correct. phrases and sentence structures
structure, occasionally grammatically The presentation content was were used. The presentation
grammar correct. usually grammatically correct. content was grammatically
correct.
Pronunciation occasionally Pronunciation and intonation is Pronunciation and intonation is

Pronunciation correct, but often hesitant and usually correct. correct and confident.
inaccurate.
Greetings and general Greetings are culturally Greetings are culturally

Cultural presentation are not culturally appropriate. Questions are appropriate. Gestures, stance
conventions for inappropriate. answered appropriately. and eye contact are
oral presentation appropriate. Questions are
answered appropriately.
No visual aids were used; OR Visual aids supported the Visual aids were carefully
presentation effectively. They prepared and supported the
Visual aids were occasionally
clarified and reinforced the presentation effectively. They
appropriate and related to the
Use of visual aids spoken message. clarified and reinforced the
spoken message. spoken message. The aids
added impact and interest to
the presentation.
An attempt was made to The presentation was summed The presentation was summed
Conclusion of
conclude the presentation. up clearly. up clearly and effectively, with
topic key points emphasised.
Not all questions could be Most questions answered. Questions answered with little
Answering answered. Questions answered difficulty. Very good knowledge
with difficulty, and little Answers showed good of the topic was demonstrated.
questions from knowledge and understanding
audience knowledge of the topic was Language was correct and
of the topic. Language was
demonstrated. fluent.
mainly correct.

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Scoring Rubric for Oral Presentations

[Source: hplengr.engr.wisc.edu/Rubric_Presentation.doc]
Category Scoring Criteria Total Score

Points
The type of presentation is appropriate for the topic and 5

Organization audience.
(15 points) Information is presented in a logical sequence 5

(introduction, body, conclusion).
Questions at the end. 5
Introduction is attention-getting, lays out the problem 5
well, and establishes a framework for the rest of the
presentation.
Technical terms are well-defined in language 5
Content appropriate for target audience.
(45 points)
Presentation contains accurate information. 10
Material included is relevant to the overall 10
message/purpose.
Appropriate amount of material is prepared, and points 10
made reflect well their relative importance.
There is an obvious conclusion summarizing the 5
presentation.
Speaker maintains good eye contact, is appropriately 5
animated (e.g., gestures, moving around, etc.) and
keeps the interest of the audience.
Speaker uses a clear, audible voice. 5
Delivery
(40 points) Delivery has a good pace (speed) and goes smoothly. 5
Good language skills and pronunciation. 5
Audiovisual aids are informative and effective. 5
Length of presentation is within assigned time limits. 5
Information was well communicated. 10
Score Total Points 100

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BUSINESS SKILLS:
CHAIRING MEETINGS

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CHAIRING MEETINGS
THE ROLE OF THE CHAIR

1. Control and coordinate the meeting.
2. Ensure that all matters under discussion are properly presented.
3. Allow participants to comment on the matters being discussed.
4. Ensure that the meeting is not dominated by a single individual.
5. Move from one issue to the other.
6. Ensure that business is transacted efficiently.
7. Ensure that the necessary decisions are made.
8. Not allow the meeting to exceed the time allotted.
9. See that all necessary minutes and records are kept.
STRUCTURE
A typical meeting structure is as follows:
1. The chair opens the meeting.

2. The minutes are read.
3. The agenda is introduced.
4. First subject is introduced.
5. The chair gives the floor to a participant.
6. Another speaker takes the floor.
7. The chair keeps order.
8. The chair moves the discussion to a new point.
9. The chair directs the discussion.
10. Participants propose new motions.
11. The chair moves to a vote.
12. Voting occurs.
13. Consensus reached.
14. Any other business dealt with.
15. Meeting closed.

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LANGUAGE
Section of meeting Language
Opening [Very formal] Ladies and gentlemen, I declare the meeting open.
Good morning/afternoon ladies and gentlemen.

Good morning and welcome to…
Thank you all very much for coming today.
[Informal] Right, shall we get started?

Let’s get down to business, shall we?
The minutes [Very formal] May I read the minutes?
Would someone move that the minutes of the last meeting be

accepted?
Can we take the minutes as read?
The agenda Has everyone received a copy of the agenda?
Has everyone got the agenda in front of them?
The first item on the agenda today is…
I would like to add an item to the agenda…
The subject The purpose of today’s meeting is…
The first problem we have to consider is…
Perhaps we could first look at…
Giving the floor [Very formal] I’d like to give the floor to Mr./Mrs. Smith
Mr./Mrs. Smith ___, do you have any views on this / would you like
to say something about this?
[Informal] Have you got anything to say, Mr. Smith?

What are your views on this, Susan?
Taking the floor [Very formal] With the chair’s permission, I’d like to take up the
point about…
Could I just make a point about ...
[Informal] Could I say something here, please?

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Finishing a point Has anyone anything further they wish to add before we move on to
the next item?
Has anyone anything further to add?
Directing [Very formal] We seem to be losing sight of the main point. The
question is…
This isn’t really relevant to our discussion. What we’re trying to do

is…
[Informal] Could we stick to the subject, please?

[Informal] Let’s not get sidetracked. The issue under discussion is…
Keeping order We can’t all speak at once. Mr. Smith, would you like to speak first?
Mr. Smith, would you mind addressing your remarks to the chair,
please?
I shall have to call you to order, Mr. Smith.
Moving to a new point [Very formal] Could we move on to item 4 on the agenda, please?
Now I’d like to turn to…

Can we go on now to…?
Postponing discussion [Very formal] Well, ladies and gentlemen, with your approval, I
propose to defer this matter until we have more information at our
disposal.
If no one has any objections, I suggest that we leave this matter until
our next meeting. ...
Perhaps we could leave this for the time being. We can come back to
it on another occasion.
[Informal] Let’s come back to this later on.

We can talk about this next time we meet.
Proposing the motion [Very formal] With the chair’s permission, I move that…
I would like to propose the motion that ...

Would anyone like to second the motion?
[Informal] I suggest/propose we ...

I’m in favour of that.
Is anyone else in favour of that?

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Moving to a vote [Very formal] Perhaps we should take a formal vote?
Let’s put it in the vote.

Could we take a vote on it?
Can we move to a vote on it?
[Informal] Should we vote?

Can I ask for a show of hands?
Voting [Very formal] In the event of a tie, I would like to remind you that I
have a casting vote.
Those for the motion, please?

Those again?
Any abstentions?
The motion is carried unanimously.
The motion has been rejected by six votes to five.
[Informal] If there’s a tie, I have the deciding vote.

Who’s in favour?
Who’s against?
Abstentions?
Everyone was in favour.
The motion was rejected.
Seeking consensus Would everyone agree if…
I’d be interested to know if anyone has any objections, but shall we
try ...
Am I right in thinking that …
Consensus It seems that we have a consensus.
Can I take it everyone’s in favour?
[Less formal] We’re all agreed ...

I think we all agree on that.
Any other business Is there any other business?
Any further points?
Is there anything else to discuss?

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Closing [Very formal] I declare the meeting closed. Thank you, ladies and
gentlemen.
That concludes our business for today, thank you.
[Informal] Well, I think that covers everything.

That’s all for today, thank you.

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BUSINESS SKILLS:
DEALING WITH
DIFFICULT PEOPLE

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DEALING WITH DIFFICULT PEOPLE

TEN-POINT GUIDE WITH DIFFICULT PEOPLE
1 Empathise. Indicate that you understand your client’s concerns or conversation will not progress.
2. Avoid defensiveness. Don’t say things like It’s not our fault; even if it’s true, the client will think
that you are trying to avoid responsibility. Find a way of apologizing without necessarily admitting
fault:
I’m really sorry that you feel we let you down…
Pacify your client, but keep things reasonably vague rather than make specific promises:
…and of course we’ll do whatever we can to sort matters out for you.
3. Seek more information, but avoid tactless questions that might send them over the edge.
It would be helpful if you could provide further information about what happened when…
4. Anger management. Watch out for people who are apparently rational but evidently seething
with anger: they are keeping tight control, but might explode at any time. Signs: artificially calm voice,
tense facial expression, fidgety body language, over-rigid body language. Two approaches: (1)
encourage them to talk about their feelings (I am sorry you feel that way, perhaps you would like to
tell me briefly what happened?); (2) put it off until they calm down (maybe it would make more sense
to talk about this in the afternoon). Manage your own anger before replying.
5. Don’t be judgmental. Even if the client’s problems have been caused by his own actions,
remember that they are looking for someone to take it out on, so don’t say things like If you’d done it in
the first place, this wouldn’t have happened. A good technique is to ask questions that take things for
granted: Why did you decide to book the flight at that price?
6. Avoid unrealistic promises. Never agree to do something that you cannot realistically achieve,
so say things like: I’d love to be able to tell you that we could do this but we can’t, and the reasons
are…
7. Use human language. Rather than take refuge in over-formal language, be polite but use clear
and straightforward language at all times.
8. Set a realistic timetable for action. Rather than specify dates, set out the steps that need to be
taken and at what stage each step will occur.
9. Deal with perceived irrelevance. Many times clients cannot see the link between the questions
you are asking and the problem s/he consulted you about in the first place. They become confused and
start to feel that you have nor understood the problem, and tension grows. Explain things out by saying
things like:
I’m going to have to ask you two questions. This might not seem strictly relevant to your case,
but in fact it is very important. In order to establish… we need to know…
10. Avoid echoing the client but don’t add to what s/he is saying either. Don’t repeat the
client’s words once and again, it sounds mechanical, but don’t add (or subtract) to what s/he is saying
either.

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LANGUAGE TO BE USED WITH DIFFICULT PEOPLE
1. Use could, would or might, they sound more tentative and less assertive:
This could be a problem instead of This is a problem.
2. Present your view as a question rather than as a statement:

How about changing the dates? instead of We’l’ll change the dates.
3. Use an introductory phrase to prepare the listener for your message:

Here’s one possibility: suppose we... or We’d like to make an offer to settle the case.
This is what we were thinking…
4. Adding I’m afraid to tone down a negative message, to make clear that you recognise the
unhelpfulness of your response, and to get across the message that you would do more if you
could, but you can’t.
That’s all we can offer, I’m afraid.
5. Use words that qualify or restrict what you say, to make your position more flexible
There is a slight problem with the proposal
instead of
We can’t accept Clause 6.
6. Use not with a positive word instead of the obvious negative one, it tones down a refusal.
This is not very convenient instead of I disagree
7. Use a comparative (better, more convenient) to soften your message.

It would be better if you could agree to…
instead of
This proposal is not acceptable
8. Use a continuous form (I was wondering) instead of a simple form (I wondered) to make a
suggestion more flexible.
We were wondering if you would like to make a proposal.

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BUSINESS SKILLS:
E-MAILS

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E-MAILS: NETIQUETTE
• Be specific in the “Subject” box.
• Don't assume the recipient knows the background. Include contextual information.
• Keep it concise. Keep messages brief and to the point.
• Reply within 24 hours if possible. The recipient will appreciate a prompt reply and it
also makes you look efficient.
• Allow time for a reply. Before sending a reminder, allow some time for a response.
• Use the “Bcc” field when sending bulk email. If you're sending email to a list of people,
put their email addresses in the Bcc field. That way the privacy of the recipient is respected.
• Don't use capital letters or oversized fonts. If you must use UPPERCASE, use it very
sparingly and only to emphasize a particularly important point.
• Don’t reply to an email when you are angry. Always wait until you have calmed down.
• Correct punctuation, grammar and spelling. One exclamation point is as effective as
five.
• Layout your message for readability. Use spaces and breaks between paragraphs and
long sentences to make it easier on the reader.
• Keep the thread. When replying to an e-mail, use the reply option on the sidebar in your
mail. This will keep the message in the "thread", and make it easier for the recipient to follow.
• Don't “Reply to All” unless necessary. Think twice about sending a reply to everyone.
• Acronyms, abbreviations, and emoticons are OK within reason. Emoticons (for
example ;-) a winking smiley face) are good when used in context. As a general rule, you
shouldn't use emoticons when talking to someone in authority unless you're totally sure.
• Try not to forget attachments. Attach the file before writing the email.
• Edit the superfluous text out of emails. When you are sending email that has 'been
around' in the sense that it has been replied to or forwarded many times, take the time to
remove the angle brackets '>' from the message.
• Don't be over-familiar with the recipient. Many people are offended by strangers being
over-familiar. As a rule, don’t address recipients by their first name. Use the title or form of
address that you would use in verbal communication.
• Email is not confidential. If you work within an organisation, rather than directly
connected to an ISP (internet service provider) it’s likely that every email you send and
receive is scanned for certain words that are 'deemed unacceptable', and record is kept.
• Correct priority. Avoid marking an email 'high priority' when it is really 'normal' priority.

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EMAILS
Informal e-mail Dear Mark/Jane,
Thanks for your mail.

Sorry it's taken me so long to write.
I hope you’re well.
Love,
Best wishes,
Kind regards,
All the best,
Formal e-mail Dear Sir, (a man whose name you don’t know)
Dear Madam, (a woman, single or married, whose name you
don’t know)
Dear Mr./Mrs./Miss/Ms. Smith,
Dear Sir or Madam (when you don’t know name or sex),
Dear Sirs, (to address a firm where at least one of the members
is male)
[Initials or first names are not used with courtesy titles, e.g.
“Dear Mr. John Smith”]
I am writing in reply to your mail of 4 September regarding …

Further to our previous mail, I am pleased to confirm our
appointment for 12.30am on Friday, 7 January.
I would be grateful if you could attend to this matter as soon as

possible.
If you would like any further information, please don't hesitate
to contact me.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Regards,
Kind regards,
With best regards,
(If you started the mail with Dear Mr./Mrs., then use “Yours)
sincerely”; if you started with Dear Sir/Madam, then use “Yours
faithfully”).

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ACRONYMS
• AAMOF As a matter of fact
• AFAIAA As far as I am aware
• AFAIK As far as I know
• AFAIUI As far as I understand it
• AIH As it happens
• AKA Also known as
• ASAP As soon as possible/practicable
• ATB All the best
• ATVB All the very best
• AWYR Awaiting your reply
• BAC By any chance
• B4N/BFN Bye for now
• BR Best regards
• BTW By the way
• C.c. Carbon copy
• CID Consider it done
• CMIIW Correct me if I'm wrong
• C/o Care of
• CU(L) See you (later)
• DK Don’t know
• DU Don’t understand
• FAO For the attention of
• FWIW For what it’s worth
• FYI For your information
• HIH Hope it helps
• IAW In accordance with
• ICBW I could be wrong
• ICYI In case you’re interested
• ICYMI In case you missed it
• IIUC If I understand correctly
• IMO In my opinion
• IOW In other words
• KIT Keep in touch
• LMK Let me know
• N/A Not applicable/available
• NRN No reply necessary
• OIC Oh I see
• PP Per procurationem (used when signing a letter on someone else’s behalf)
• PS Postcript
• PTO Please turn over
• RFI Request for information
• SOW Speaking of which
• SYS See you soon
• TIA Thanks in advance
• TTYL Talk to you later
• WADR With all due respect
• WBR With best regards
• WBS Write back soon
• WGBTY Will get back to you
• WRT With regard to
• WRT With respect to

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EMOTICONS
:) happy
:( sad
:o very surprised
;) wink
;* kiss

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BUSINESS SKILLS:
TELEPHONING

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TELEPHONING IN ENGLISH
SAMPLE CONVERSATION
Hello, Brothers Incorporated. This is Mary Johnson speaking. How can I help
you/be of help?
Good morning, this is Mr. Smith calling. May I speak to Mrs. Storm,
please?
I’m afraid she is out of the office at the moment. Would you like to leave a
message for her/would you like me to take a message?
As a matter of fact I would. Could you please ask her to call me back as
soon as possible? It’s on a rather urgent matter. My number is 44 629 02
62 58, that’s a direct number.
Ok, Mr. Smith, I will give her the message as soon as she returns. Is there
anything else I can do for you?
No, thank you very much. Bye-bye.

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WHAT YOU SAY WHAT YOU HEAR

Identifying yourself or your company/institution Taking the call/asking your identity
This is Phil Collins/Mr. Collins here (US) Good morning/good afternoon/good evening / Hello
Phil Collins speaking EJN Training Department, can I help you?
It’s Mr. Green of CPS here. May/can I help you?
This is Mr. Jackson of/from the UK’s Crown Prosecution Service May I ask who’s calling?
Who is calling him?
Who’s calling please? Who’s speaking please?
Can I have your name please?
Can you give me your name and company/institution?
Trying to get through Being put through/ not being put through
Hello/Good morning, can I speak to (BrE)/with (AmE) Mr. Green? One moment please
Hello/Good morning, may I/can I/could I speak to Mr. Green, please? Hold on, I’ll connect you
I’d like to/could I/may I speak to (BrE)/with (AmE) Mr. Green? Just a moment
Is Mr. Green in? / Is Mr. Green there, please? Hold the line, please
Would it be possible to speak to Mr. Green? Hold on (a moment) please
Is Mr. Green available/at the office? I’ll put you through / Putting you through
Could I have Mr. Green in the Criminal Department? Sorry, the line is engaged
Could you give me Mr. Green, please? Please don't hang up
Could you connect me with the UKCA, please?
Could you please put me through to Mr. Green from the MLA department?

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WHAT YOU SAY WHAT YOU HEAR

Giving information about the purpose of your call Giving information about the purpose of your call
I have an important/urgent matter on international cooperation to discuss May I ask what you are calling him for?
with him
May I ask who's calling?
I have something important/urgent to discuss with him
What is this in connection with?
How can I help you?/What can I do for you?
Leaving/Not leaving a message Problems to get through / Being asked to leave a message
Could you say/tell him I called? I’m afraid the line’s busy / engaged
Could you ask her to call me back? I´m sorry, he’s not in at the moment
Could you tell her that I’ll call her back/later? I’m afraid he’s out of the office
Could you tell him that Mr. Green called? I’m afraid Mr. Green is not available (until...)
I’ll call back later I’m afraid there is no reply from that extension
I’ll call him on his mobile Would you like to/Do you want to leave a message?
I'll be in my office all afternoon Can I take a message?
Could you ask him to call me as soon as possible? Does Mr. Smith have your number?
He can reach me on 664 44 921 Could you spell your name, please?
I'll get back to you on this

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Apologizing Asking what number the caller wanted
I'm sorry, I think I've dialled the wrong number What number were you calling?
I'm sorry, I wanted 662 44 921 What number did you want?
Oh, excuse me, I must have the wrong number What number did you dial?
I'm afraid you have the wrong extension
Checking on something
Let me check (on) that for you
I'll see what I can find out
I'll look into that for you
Agreeing/not agreeing to a request
By all means
Go ahead
Please do
Yes, of course
I'm sorry to say...
I'm afraid...

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Help!
Could you speak a little slower/a bit more slowly, please?
Excuse me? I didn't catch that
Sorry, could you repeat that?
Could you explain that to me again, please?
Can you speak up a bit?
There is a lot of interference on this line
I'm afraid I can't hear you very well
It's very noisy here, I can hardly hear you
I'm afraid you are speaking a bit too fast for me
I'm afraid I don't understand what you mean/I’m afraid I don’t follow you
What exactly do you mean by that?

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Thank you/You are welcome
Thank you very much for...

I'm very grateful for...
It's good of you to...
That's very kind of you
I'd be very grateful if...
I'd really appreciate it if...
That would be fine/great/lovely, thanks
I'd like that, thank you
That's all right / OK
It's a pleasure
Not at all
My pleasure
You're welcome

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

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COMERCIALES
Tema 4:
- English for Business
CUADERNILLO
DE EJERCICIOS
Y SOLUCIONARIO

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
EXERCISES
(a) in (b) on (c) to (c) onto
euro zone.
experts.

3

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and exclusions.

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incur obligation
Purchase obligations include all commitments to _________ goods or services of

either a fixed or minimum quantity that meet any of the following criteria: (1) they
are noncancelable, (2) the company would incur a ___________ if the agreement
was canceled, or (3) the company must make specified minimum payments even if it
does not take delivery of the contracted products or _____________ (take-or-pay).
If the obligation to purchase goods or services is noncancelable, the entire
________________ of the contract is included in the table above. If the obligation
is cancelable, but the company would ____________ a penalty if canceled, the
dollar amount of the penalty is included as a purchase ____________. Contracted

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
minimum amounts specified in take-or-pay contracts are also included in the table as
they represent the __________ of each contract that is a firm commitment.

a) relation
b) minority
c) nature
d) commerce
e) addition
f) majority
g) responsibility
h) benefit
i) money
j) base

a) indicative
b) specific
c) national
d) simple
e) influential
f) selective
g) realistic
h) complex
i) special
j) satisfactory
k) relative
l) regular

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given in brackets.
Spain has taken painful steps to clean up its bank s, but m ore may yet be needed
[…]
allow it to __________ [injection] €37 billion ($48 billion) in euro-zone funding
into four Spanish banks. The money will _________ [allowance] for a clean-up of
bank balance sheets begrimed by dud loans granted to property
________________ [people who develop; plural noun] during the
_____________ [inflate] of Spain’s ____________ [colossus; adjective]
earlier _________ [refuse] by supervisors and banks to recognise the scale of the
problem ____________ [contribution] to an __________ [erode] of confidence
in both banks and in government finances.
Under the new plan, four banks including Bankia, itself the ________ [failure]
product of an earlier half-hearted restructuring of bust ____________ [region;
adjective] savings banks, will get cash from two of Europe’s bail-out funds. In return
they have promised to cut their balance-sheets, stop lending to ___________ [risk;
adjective] property developers and focus instead on lending to small and medium-
sized businesses.
The _______ [sharp; superlative] cuts will be at Bankia, which has already been
__________ [nation] and which will ___________ [receipt] public funds worth
almost €18 billion (including €4.5 billion injected into the bank by the state in
September). It will cut its branch network by almost 40% and its staff by 28%.
Investors in the bank’s debt will also take a hit, with as much as €4.8 billion in
additional [addition] capital coming from the _________ [mandate; adjective]
swapping of hybrid instruments and ___________ [subordinate] debt for new
shares worth less. Across all four banks, holders of hybrid instruments may take a hit
of about €10 billion.
Forcing ___________ [people who invest, in the plural] in some of the banks’ debt
to take losses was a condition imposed by contributors to the bail-out funds to
______________ [minimal] the burden on taxpayers. Yet it will probably prove
____________ [not popular] in Madrid, since much of this debt is held by tens of
thousands of small investors, many of whom bought it after being __________
[assurance] by banks that it was as _________ [safety] as deposits.
Bankia ___________ [optimism; adverb] hopes to return to _____________

[profit] next year and to be generating ________ [health] returns by 2015. One
bank, Banco de Valencia, was deemed beyond salvation. It will be recapitalised with
€4.5 billion and then sold to CaixaBank, Spain’s third-largest bank.
7

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
A second key element of the bail-out will be the _________ [create] of a new “bad
bank” in December. It will take dud loans from those being restructured. The
government hopes this will help them regain the _____________ [confide] of
markets. It may also kickstart lending, which has contracted by about 5% in the year
to August. Little detail was provided as to exactly how much debt the bad bank,
known as Sareb, will take, but officials in Brussels said some €45 billion in Spanish
banking assets would be transferred to it.
[…]

28th sounded __________ [warn; plural noun] of further loan losses as Spain’s
economy contracts. _____________ [lose; plural noun] on corporate loans have
already increased sharply, yet those on mortgages remain remarkably subdued. Some
______________ [deteriorate] in these seems likely if, as the IMF expects, house
prices contract and unemployment also rises.

goodwill.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
capabilities.
_________________________________________________________

lOMoARcPSD|3798630


_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
presentation.
_________________________________________________________
useful lives.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________




4. 25% of my __________________________ goes to taxes

9

lOMoARcPSD|3798630



8. You will receive 50% _____________, and the rest when you finish the contract
______ it.

our core customers.
11. Jane _____________________ last year.



14. He was __________________ about accepting the proposal

______.
a. in order b. orderly c. by order d. through order
10

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
TEXTS
latest €44bn (£36bn) bailout for Greece by a large majority
4. It's a turning point for Greece. It's also a turning point for the eurozone because it


targets.
11

lOMoARcPSD|3798630


says
high in October
12

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
economic funk."
10.7%.
13

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from the text:
employment
sustainable
a high
strengthen
majority
ease (n.)
ease (v.)
conservative
stability
clear
negatively
difficult
dropped
cheap

_________________________________________________________
14

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_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
(...) even if the single currency is not about to come apart at the seams:
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
be broken:
_________________________________________________________
15

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16

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SOLUCIONARIO
17

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18

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
EXERCISES
(a) in (b) on (c) to (c) onto
euro zone.
experts.

19

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
and exclusions.
20

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

incur obligation
Purchase obligations include all commitments to purchase goods or services of either
a fixed or minimum quantity that meet any of the following criteria: (1) they are
noncancelable, (2) the company would incur a penalty if the agreement was canceled,
or (3) the company must make specified minimum payments even if it does not take
delivery of the contracted products or services (take-or-pay). If the obligation to
purchase goods or services is noncancelable, the entire value of the contract is
included in the table above. If the obligation is cancelable, but the company would
incur a penalty if canceled, the dollar amount of the penalty is included as a purchase
obligation. Contracted minimum amounts specified in take-or-pay contracts are also
included in the table as they represent the portion of each contract that is a firm
commitment.
21

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

a. relation (relative)
b. minority (minor)
c. nature (natural)
d. commerce (commercial)
e. addition (additional)
f. majority (major)
g. responsibility (responsible)
h. benefit (beneficial)
i. money (monetary)
j. base (basic)

a. indicative (indicate)
b. specific (specify)
c. national (nationalize)
d. simple (simplify)
e. influential (influence)
f. selective (select)
g. realistic (realize)
h. complex (complicate)
i. special (specialize)
j. satisfactory (satisfy)
k. relative (relate)
l. regular (regulate)
22

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

given in brackets.
Spain has taken painful steps to clean up its bank s, but m ore may yet be needed
[…]
allow it to inject [injection] €37 billion ($48 billion) in euro-zone funding into four
Spanish banks. The money will allow [allowance] for a clean-up of bank balance
sheets begrimed by dud loans granted to property developers [people who develop;
plural noun] during the inflation [inflate] of Spain’s colossal [colossus; adjective]
earlier refusal [refuse] by supervisors and banks to recognise the scale of the problem
contributed [contribution] to an erosion [erode] of confidence in both banks and in
government finances.
Under the new plan, four banks including Bankia, itself the failed [failure] product of
an earlier half-hearted restructuring of bust regional [region; adjective] savings
banks, will get cash from two of Europe’s bail-out funds. In return they have
promised to cut their balance-sheets, stop lending to risky [risk; adjective] property
developers and focus instead on lending to small and medium-sized businesses.
The sharpest [sharp; superlative] cuts will be at Bankia, which has already been
nationalised [nation] and which will receive [receipt] public funds worth almost €18
billion (including €4.5 billion injected into the bank by the state in September). It will
cut its branch network by almost 40% and its staff by 28%. Investors in the bank’s
debt will also take a hit, with as much as €4.8 billion in additional [addition] capital
coming from the mandatory [mandate; adjective] swapping of hybrid instruments
and subordinated [subordinate] debt for new shares worth less. Across all four banks,
holders of hybrid instruments may take a hit of about €10 billion.
Forcing investors [people who invest, in the plural] in some of the banks’ debt to take
losses was a condition imposed by contributors to the bail-out funds to minimise
[minimal] the burden on taxpayers. Yet it will probably prove unpopular [not
popular] in Madrid, since much of this debt is held by tens of thousands of small
investors, many of whom bought it after being assured [assurance] by banks that it
was as safe [safety] as deposits.
Bankia optimistically [optimism; adverb] hopes to return to profitability [profit] next

year and to be generating healthy [health] returns by 2015. One bank, Banco de
Valencia, was deemed beyond salvation. It will be recapitalised with €4.5 billion and
then sold to CaixaBank, Spain’s third-largest bank.
A second key element of the bail-out will be the creation [create] of a new “bad bank”
in December. It will take dud loans from those being restructured. The government
23

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
hopes this will help them regain the confidence [confide] of markets. It may also
kickstart lending, which has contracted by about 5% in the year to August. Little
detail was provided as to exactly how much debt the bad bank, known as Sareb, will
take, but officials in Brussels said some €45 billion in Spanish banking assets would
be transferred to it.
[…]

28th sounded warnings [warn; plural noun] of further loan losses as Spain’s
economy contracts. Losses [lose; plural noun] on corporate loans have already
increased sharply, yet those on mortgages remain remarkably subdued. Some
deterioration [deteriorate] in these seems likely if, as the IMF expects, house prices
contract and unemployment also rises.

goodwill.
Qualitative factors are assessed by the company in each of its reporting units that
carry goodwill.
Tax liabilities are recognized by the company based on estimates of whether
additional taxes and interest will be due.
Estimates and assumptions are relied on by this assessment.
All available evidence for each jurisdiction is considered by management.
The valuation allowance will be adjusted by the company.
capabilities.
The company’s business analytics and optimization capabilities were strengthened by
this acquisition.
24

lOMoARcPSD|3798630


We have prepared the accompanying financial statements in accordance with
We capitalize as an intangible asset costs that are incurred to produce the finished
product after we have established technological feasibility.
presentation.
We have reclassified certain prior year amounts to conform to the current year
presentation.
useful lives.
We will amortize these identified intangible assets on a straight-line basis over their
useful lives.
We expect that none of the goodwill will be deductible for tax purposes.



25

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
4. 25% of my __________________________ goes to taxes.




8. You will receive 50% _____________, and the rest when you finish the contract.
______ it.

our core customers.
11. Jane _____________________ last year.



14. He was __________________ about accepting the proposal.

______.
a. in order b. in orderly c. by orderly d. through order
26

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
TEXTS
latest €44bn (£36bn) bailout for Greece by a large majority.
4. It's a turning point for Greece. It's also a turning point for the _______ because it


targets.
27

lOMoARcPSD|3798630


says
high in October
28

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
economic funk."
10.7%.
29

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
from the text:
employment unemployment
sustainable unsustainable
a high a low
strengthen weaken
majority minority
ease (n.) unease
ease (v.) harden
conservative progressive
stability instability
clear unclear
negatively positively
difficult easy
dropped rose
cheap expensive

30

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
even if the single currency is not about to come apart at the seams:
be broken:
31

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
jueves, 26 de noviembre de 2015

IPA 1
Textos Jurídicos, Económico-Comerciales (English for Business)

- LA ECONOMÍA: según la RAE es la ciencia que estudia los métodos más eficaces
para satisfacer las necesidades humanas materiales, mediante el empleo de bienes
escasos.  
Según “The Economist” es “the study of how society uses its scarce resources”.
- MICROECONOMÍA: estudia el comportamiento individual de los agentes
económicos, principalmente de los tres roles básicos: empresas, empleados y
consumidores. Explica como se determinan variables como los precios de bienes y
servicios, el nivel de salarios etc.
- MACROECONOMÍA: analiza las variables agregadas, como la producción nacional
total, la producción, el desempleo, la balanza de pagos, la tasa de inflación y los
salarios, comprendiendo los problemas relativos al nivel de empleo y al índice de
producción o renta de un país.
EL LENGUAJE ECONÓMICO-COMERCIAL:
- El discurso económico utiliza un modelo abstracto consistente en el empleo frecuente
de personificaciones, metáforas y construcciones sin agente.
- Henderson & Hewings afirman que los más importante del discurso económico es que
utiliza la simplificación y la abstracción, que dificultarían el acceso a la información al
no experto.
- EJE HORIZONTAL: se refiere a la temática y perspectiva, lo que nos permite
distinguir los diferentes lenguajes económicos clasificados por bloques de materias, y
submaterias, etc.
- EJE VERTICAL: clasifica el campo de acuerdo al estilo y grado de abstracción en que
puede presentarse un contenido, es decir, la clasificación realizada incluye la
intención y el nivel de especialización, que viene determinada por el emisor y que
depende de diversos aspectos, como la frecuencia y dificultad de los mecanismos
comunicativos, la abundancia de nominalizaciones, etc.
EL INGLÉS ECONÓMICO-COMERCIAL:
- English for Specific Purposes (ESP) como el inglés de los negocios. Se puede dividir
en cuatro tipos de inglés:
• Inglés del comercio o comercial: hace referencia a cursos de inglés
organizados en torno a la correspondencia comercial, etc. Hay una
combinación bastante equilibrada de léxico de orientación latina y de origen
anglosajón, también normandos o del francés antiguo. Las destrezas
experimentadas son: escribir cartas o correos electrónicos, leer artículos

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

comerciales y económicos, trabajar con cifras y datos, hacer presentaciones y

hacer llamadas telefónicas.
• Inglés empresarial: se imparte en las diplomaturas y grados relacionados con
la administración y dirección de empresas (ADE). Suele ir destinado a alumnos
del nivel intermedio a los que se les ofrecen tanto destrezas comunicativas
generales en un entorno empresarial como alguna de las destrezas
comerciales antes descritas.
• Inglés financiero o de las finanzas: se hace referencia a la lengua inglesa
utilizada para comprar y vender productos y servicios financieros, es decir, a
los mercados financieros. Se caracteriza por un registro coloquial, creativo e
innovador; su terminología procede de fuentes anglosajonas. Sus rasgos
principales son: tendencia hacia el lenguaje popular o coloquial; dominio del
léxico anglosajón; expresividad de las imágenes; juegos de palabras; empleo
de siglas, acrónimos y formas lingüísticas mutiladas, etc.
• Inglés económico o de la economía: manejo de textos económicos, muchos de
ellos normativos. El inglés económico tiene un registro más formal: el
vocabulario es de fuerte base latina, tiene mucha influencia del anglosajón.
Tiende a ser un discurso más abstracto.
- Business English es: an umbrella term encompassing what we call English for
General Business Purposes (EGBP) [estos siguen la metodología de un curso general
de inglés, suele ofrecerse a estudiantes sin experiencia laboral] and English for
Specific Business Purposes (ESBP) [utilizan didácticas muy específicas, ya que
suelen ofrecerse a profesionales en ejercicio, normalmente por encargo de un
empresa].
- Hay tres tipos principales de demandantes de este producto como son: estudiantes
universitarios, en general sin experiencia profesional, a los que suele impartirse un
curso mixto que incluye lengua inglesa general y contenidos específicos; ejecutivos
jóvenes, que normalmente acuden a cursos de reciclaje; y ejecutivos con gran
experiencia y responsabilidad, que acuden a cursos intensivos con objeto de mejorar
alguna destreza concreta.
RASGOS DEL INGLÉS ECONÓMICO-COMERCIAL
- Una de las características específicas del lenguaje económico-comercial, además de
su coloquialidad en determinadas áreas, es su solapamiento con el discurso jurídico,
porque ciertos campos de la economía son limítrofes con el derecho y por ello
comparten rasgos discursivos.
TIPO DE LÉXICO:
- Vocabulario técnico (revenue, entrepreneurship, subsidy, etc)
- Vocabulario subtécnico o semitécnico, cuyo significado difiere respecto del que tienen
en la lengua general, por ejemplo RUN = ACCRUE, AID, SHIFT, POSITIVE, etc.
Según Trimble sería “ refers to those words that have one or more general English
meanings and which in technical contextos take on extended meanings (technical or
especialised in some fashion).

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- Vocabulario general que se utiliza en el contexto económico-comercial: debt, barrier,

unemployment, rate, etc.
ABUNDANCIA DE NOMINALIZACIONES:
- Las nominalizaciones son un recurso para compactar información y realzar la
objetividad, obviando la identidad del agente.
PREDOMINIO DE VOCABLOS DE ORIGEN ANGLOSAJÓN EN EL INGLÉS
FINANCIERO Y PRESENCIA DE VOCABLOS GRECO-LATINOS EN EL INGLÉS
ECONÓMICO.
- Hay una gran carga de términos de origen anglosajón según Alcaraz Varó, como:
cashflow, floor, gap, broker, etc…
- Teresa Cabré denomina a los vocablos de origen greco-latino, como estructuras
morfológicas compuestas por formantes cultos.
EMPLEO DE LOCUCIONES PREPOSICIONALES COMPLEJAS:
- Un rasgo que comparten con el inglés jurídico es el uso en ciertos tipos de discurso
económico (por lo general textos normativos o contractuales) de locuciones
preposicionales complejas, por ejemplo BY VIRTUE OF, en lugar de BY; IN
PURSUANCE OF, en lugar de ACCORDING TO, etc.
- También se observan adverbios, preposiciones y conjunciones poco habituales,
complejos o formales, por ejemplo el uso de WHERE con sentido condicional (IF).
LA NEOLOGÍA:
- Se utilizan todos los recursos de formación de palabras que se dan en el inglés
(sufijos, prefijos, composición [sustantivos que funcionan como adjetivos], conversión
[cambio de categoría gramatical], o mutilación léxica [lifo =last in, etc]. Abundan
también las siglas y acrónimos.
PREMODIFICACIÓN
Pueden ser de tres tipos:
• noun compounds o compuestos nominales, también noun strings: estructuras que
comprenden más de un sustantivo y que son del tipo noun as adjective, en el que el
primer nombre clasifica el segundo: EURO ZONE, BANKING CRISIS, etc.
• adjectival premodification.
• premodificación mixta, que combina las dos anteriores: (adjetivo/s u otro tipo de
elemento + sustantivo/s + núcleo). Por ejemplo MORNING NEWSPAPER, el
problema principal que plantean es lograr saber el tipo de relación semántica que
se establece entre las unidades que integran la estructura, pues puede ser de
muchos tipos como: referente al tiempo, al lugar, al objeto directo/atributo o
composición.

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DENSIDAD LÉXICA:
- Concentración léxica de unidades con carga semántica (nombres, adjetivos, verbos,
etc).
REPETICIONES ABUNDANTES:
- Repeticiones léxicas que buscan una mayor claridad expositiva. En español está mal
visto.
DOBLETES PREPOSICIONALES:
- Estructuras en las que dos o más preposiciones rigen un único complemento de
forma simultánea o en casos en los que un mismo elemento rige dos preposiciones
distintas.
PRESENCIA DE ORACIONES DEL TIPO “PREPOSICIÓN O CONJUNCIÓN + ING”.
- Estructuras gerundivas del tipo WHEN+ING; ON+ING; IF+ING; IN+ING.
ESTILO ELÍPTICO:
- Oraciones que llevan elementos oracionales implícitos, como el verbo, algún sujeto o
partículas de relativo. Berk-Seligson denomina “whiz-deletion”, consiste en la omisión
del pronombre relativo y del verbo to be.
- Se emplea en oraciones de relativo reducidas, omisión del pronombre relativo y
sustitución de la forma finita por una forma en -ing, u omisión del relativo y parte del
verbo, y omisión del verbo to be cuando es el verbo principal así como el relativo.
FORMAS IMPERSONALES:
- Hay tendencia hacia la despersonalización del discurso especializado. Hay
abundancia de pasivas, relativa escasez de pronombres personales, uso de
pronombres indefinidos, uso de pronombres de significado indefinido, abundancia de
nominalizaciones o uso de verbos ergativos.
FRECUENCIA DE CLÁUSULAS NO FINITAS:
- El infinitivo se usa como complemento de adjetivos, sustantivos y verbos.
- El participio de pasado aparece como adjetivo.
- Las formas en -ing presentan varias posibilidades como: sustantivos; tras
preposiciones; como adjetivos; como reducción de cláusula; para expresar resultados;
en cláusulas no finitas en las que no aparece sujeto, etc.
EMPLEO DE TODO TIPO DE RECURSOS RETÓRICOS.
- En el lenguaje o discurso financiero, se da sobre todo, el lenguaje coloquial, y se
permiten diversas licencias literarias como: juegos de palabras, referencias culturales,
ambigüedades, juegos fonéticos, metáforas, etc.
- La metáfora es uno de los mecanismos fundamentales de conocimiento. Se extiende
a todos los campos, no únicamente a la literatura.

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- Una metáfora es un mecanismo conceptual esencial consistente en una proyección

estructural de un campo conceptual a otro, por lo que es fundamental distinguir entre
las palabras que expresan la metáfora de la metáfora entre sí.
- FRASEOLOGÍA: unidades de más de una palabra que suelen estar lexicalizadas,
que son de uso común, y que tienen estabilidad sintáctica y semántica.
- EXPRESIONES IDIOMÁTICAS (IDIOMS): serían unidades con formación sintáctica
regular cuyo significado se ha de aprender, ya que no consistiría en la suma del
significado de sus componentes. - Un IDIOM se da cuando se requiere la expresión
completa para su interpretación.
- COLLOCATIONS: categoría superpuesta a la anterior. Será una selección de dos o
más palabras que están relacionadas, pero cada una de las cuales conserva cierta
independencia semántica.
- PROVERBIOS Y REFRANES, CITAS Y TAUTOLOGÍAS.
- SÍMILES: presentan una comparación explícita y por tanto suelen incluir un término
de comparación.
- METONIMIA: es una metáfora lingüística en la que existe una relación de contigüidad
entre origen y meta (causa-efecto, etc).
- SINÉCDOQUE: otra metáfora lingüística, consiste en la representación de un término
por otro, el cual se encuentra en relación de inclusión con el primero; por ejemplo:
échame una mano.
- ANTÍTESIS: manifiesta un contraste entre los términos de la comparación, que suelen
ser incompatibles o irreconciliables.
- LÍTOTES: es un tipo de metáfora lingüística que se vale de lo contrario de lo que
realmente quiere expresar.
- ONOMATOPEYA: reproduce un sonido del elemento al que se hace referencia.
- OXÍMORON: contrasta dos términos marcadamente diferentes, en el oxímoron se
aplica al choque en un mismo sintagma de dos unidades léxicas.
- RETRUÉCANO: es una metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras en
orden distinto.
- PARADOJA: se basa en el contraste.
- JUEGO DE PALABRAS O PARANOMASIA: un elemento activa dos o más
interpretaciones, y su finalidad es humorística.
- SILEPSIS: que se vale del sentido propio y figurado de un término de forma
simultánea.
- IRONÍA: diría lo contrario de lo que se piensa con el fin de resaltar la idea no
expresada.
- SARCASMO: existe una clara intención por parte del hablante de causar daño moral
al oyente. (similar a la ironía, pero con intención dañina).

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- PERSONIFICACIÓN O PROSOPOPEYA: consiste en atribuir a una cosa o ser

inanimado un rasgo animado.
- PERÍFRASIS: otra metáfora lingüística, se vale de más elementos lingüísticos de los
necesarios para expresar una idea.
- ALEGORÍA: metáfora lingüística que prolonga la comparación en el texto o discurso.
- HIPÉRBOLE: es una exageración que busca causar impresión en el destinatario.
Según Henderson se dan habitualmente tres tipos de metáforas:
• las que sirven como elemento decorativo o ilustrativo, pero no son esenciales.
• las que se dan habitualmente en el lenguaje.
• las que sirven de ayuda para profundizar en determinados problemas
económicos, y que sirven “as a basis for extending the domain of economic
ideas”.
- HORSE METAPHORS: aluden al incremento de velocidad de este animal mediante
referencias como TROTTING INFLATION, GALLOPING INFLATION, etc. Se refiere a
tipos de interés peligrosos.
- MACHINE METAPHORS: se usan como parte de modelo de predicción de precios.
los gráficos de oferta y demanda son en realidad metáforas icónicas que reflejan la
economía como una máquina.
- ORGANISM METAPHORS: hablan de la economía como de un organismo que crece,
cambia e incluso muere.
- WAR METAPHORS: se entiende la actividad empresarial como una guerra.
FRECUENCIA DE ESTRUCTURAS PASIVAS:

- La pasivización tiende a ocultar la identidad del autor para otorgar mayor relieve al
efecto o resultado de la acción.
LA DISTANCIA LARGA ENTRE EL SUJETO Y EL VERBO:
- En muchos casos se observa la distancia significativa entre el sujeto y el verbo, por la
inserción de cláusulas subordinadas.
MAYOR FLEXIBILIDAD EN LA PUNTUACIÓN:
- Hay despreocupación por la puntuación, típica de casi todos los discursos de
especialidad, se da siempre prioridad al contenido. Muchas veces la puntuación es
incorrecta y puede inducir a error.

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GÉNEROS Y SUBGÉNEROS DEL LENGUAJE ECONÓMICO:

Dentro de los textos de naturaleza económica podemos distinguir tres subgéneros:
• Inglés comercial: los textos de este subgénero se suelen encuadrar dentro de
la correspondencia comercial, transporte, etc.
• Inglés financiero: cubre la compra-venta de productos y servicios financieros.
Manifiesta su estilo informal que se caracteriza por un registro coloquial,
creativo e innovador. La principal diferencia con el inglés de los negocios es su
vocabulario.
• Inglés económico: abarca los textos de naturaleza económica más normativos,
como son los manuales, los informes, etc. Su vocabulario es de naturaleza
más formal.
RELEVANCIA DEL COMPONENTE ORAL:
- En el mundo de los negocios es especialmente relevante la parte oral, mucho más
que en lenguajes científico-técnico o jurídicos.
- Destacan especialmente las funciones tácticas, técnicas y destrezas lingüísticas
orales utilizadas en la organización del mensaje, en la señalización de la intención y
en la enfatización del mensaje.
CORTESÍA VERBAL:
- Como es especialmente oral, entra en juego la CORTESÍA VERBAL (politeness
theory) y en algunos casos la paralingüística, puesto que muchas veces no existe
contacto visual.
- Tiene especial importancia la COOPERACIÓN: que es “a major factor in international
meetings where English is being used by non-native speakers”. Consiste en reducir el
empleo de formas muy idiomáticas y de buscar un término medio que puede ser
utilizado por los negociadores de procedencias muy diversas.
- RITUALES: dar la bienvenida, presentarse, romper el hielo con una pequeña
conversación, contar anécdotas, dar las gracias, despedirse, etc.
- RUTINAS: son ·commonly accepted procedures for doing things which are highly
predictable. Serían cinco puntos importantes:
• el presidente llama la atención de los participantes.
• Inicia la reunión.
• Ofrece los antecedentes.
• Establece el propósito de la reunión.
• Invita a los participantes a hablar.

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PRUEBA DE AUTOEVALUACIÓN.
El inglés económico-comercial
1. Indique la pasiva correcta para la siguiente oración: “This assessment
relies on estimates and assumptions.”
a. On these estimates and assumptions are relied by this assessment.
b. Estimates and assumptions are relied on by this assessment.
c. On this assessment are relied these estimates and assumptions.
d. Estimates and assumptions are relied by this assessment.
2. ¿Qué tipo de vocabulario abunda en el inglés económico?

a. Vocabulario compuesto.
b. De raíz greco-latina.
c. Vocabulario de raíz anglosajona.
d. Vocabulario de origen francés.
3. ¿Qué es la derivación?
a. Formación de palabras mediante la composición.
b. Formación de palabras mediante la conversión.
c. Formación de palabras mediante prefijos y sufijos.
d. Formación de palabras mediante siglas.
4. Elija la preposición correcta en la siguiente oración. “Even if the full

deduction for charitable gifts is preserved and only high-value health
insurance is regarded __________ a tax expenditure, the extra revenue in
2013 would be about $150bn.”
a. as
b. how
c. like
d. to
5. ¿Cuál es la forma adjetival para “benefit”?

a. beneficious
b. benefitious.
c. beneficial.
d. benefitial.

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SOLUCIONARIO
1. b
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. c

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INGLÉS PROFESIONAL Y ACADÉMICO I: TEXTOS JURÍDICOS Y

ECONÓMICO-COMERCIALES
Elija la opción correcta para cada una de las siguientes preguntas.
1. Indique la opción correcta:

a. Una sentencia es un texto fundamentalmente persuasivo.
b. Una sentencia es un texto fundamentalmente impositivo.
c. Una sentencia es un texto fundamentalmente expresivo.
d. Una sentencia es un texto fundamentalmente fático.
2. En el dominio del lenguaje científico-técnico, el español y el inglés difieren en

una serie de aspectos. Marque la opción correcta de las que se proponen a
continuación:
a. El uso de dobletes preposicionales es correcto tanto en español como
en inglés.
b. El español hace uso de la posmodificación mientras que el inglés
emplea la premodificación.
c. El inglés tiende más a la subordinación que el español.
d. El uso de la pasiva en español es mucho mayor que en el inglés.
3. ¿Cuál es la forma gramatical del subjuntivo en la siguiente oración? "It was

requested ________________ (THE CLAIMANT, BE ) present in the hearing."
a. the claimant to be.
b. that the claimant were.
c. that the claimant was.
d. that the claimant be.
4. ¿Cuál es la inversión correcta para la siguiente oración? "He is hardly aware

of his rights" (empiece la oración con Hardly):
a. Hardly is he aware of his rights.
b. Hardly be he aware of his rights.
c. Hardly is he to be aware of his rights.
d. Hardly he is aware of his rights.
5. ¿Cuál sería el equivalente en lenguaje común de la expresión latina inter alia

empleada en el lenguaje judicial?
a. Between other people.
b. Among other things.
c. In fact.
d. Elsewhere.
6. Elija el término adecuado para la definición: "The judges of a country, seen as a

group".
a. The Banc.
b. The Bench.
c. The Judicials.
d. The Judgery.

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7. Indique la opción correcta para los huecos que faltan en el siguiente texto: "As
the effects of years of ________ [recede] pile up, more and more Spanish families
— with unemployment checks running out and stuck with mortgages they
cannot pay — are __________ [lean] hard on their ____________ [old]. And there is
little relief in sight — ____________ [employ] statistics released in late July 2012
showed that the jobless rate had __________ [rise] to a record 25percent."
a. recession, leaning, elderly, employment, risen.

b. recession, leant, old, employment, risen.
c. recession, leaned, elderlies, employment, rosen.
d. recession, leaning, olds, employment, rose.
8. Indique la opción correcta los huecos que faltan en el siguiente texto: "Even
allowing for some _____________ in the bank balances over an 18 month period
from mid 1999 to early 2001, if she was as ___________________ as she made out
there would have been no need for this loan or for a loan of such ________________ ."
a. deplenation, wealthy, magnitude.

b. depletion, wealthily, magnitude.
c. depletion, wealthy, magnitude.
d. deplete, wealth, magnification.
9. ¿Cuál de estas opciones NO es un recurso para la creación de formas
condensadas?
a. La mutilación léxica.
b. La metáfora.
c. La parasíntesis.
d. Los acrónimos.
10. "The wife's case cannot be so succinctly summarised". Indique la opción

correcta:
a. Se trata de una pasiva que se usa como mecanismo de personalidad.

b. Se trata de una activa que se usa como mecanismo de personalidad.
c. Se trata de una pasiva que se usa como mecanismo de impersonalidad.
d. Se trata de una activa que se usa como mecanismo de impersonalidad.
1. ¿Cuál es la preposición correcta que falta en la siguiente oración? "The supply- side
reforms of the 1980s were in part based______the theory that the wage share in the 197Os
was too high."
a. on.
b. into.
c. above.
d. in.
2. ¿Cuál es el sustantivo correcto para "disclose"?

a. disclotion.
b. disclosal.
c. disclosement.
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d. disclosure.
3. ¿Cuál es el término que se corresponde con la siguiente definición? "Body of

principles and rules of law contained in written codes".
a. Common law.
b. Statute law.
c. Case law.
d. Judge-made law.
4. Elija la opción correcta: "A request for the hearing of a person shall not be executed
when the person concerned claims the right to_______to give evidence or to be
prohibited from giving evidence."
a. refuse.
b. turn down.
c. neglect.
d. deny.
5. Elija la opción correcta: "The applicant shall bear any costs of translation
prior _________ the transmission of the document."
a. for.
b. off.
c. to.
d. of.
6. Indique cuál de estas palabras NO es el adjetivo (adj.) correspondiente de los

siguientes sustantivos:
a. Base = basic (adj.)
b. Addition = additional (adj.)
c. Money = monetary (adj.)
d. Benefit = beneficiary (adj.)
7. Indique cuál de las siguientes NO es una condición de textualidad del IPA:

a. Coherencia.
c. Cohesión.
d. Claridad.
8. Una oración hipotáctica especifica una relación de:

a. Coordinación.
b. Yuxtaposición.
c. Subordinación.
d. Analogía.
9. ¿Cómo se denomina el proceso que subyace a la siguiente transformación?

"The US Government established new rules  The establishment of new rules
by the US Government."
a. Pasivización.
b. Nominalización.
c. Reificación.
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d. Personificación.
10. ¿Cuál es la forma gramatical del subjuntivo en la siguiente oración? "It was
requested________________ (THE CLAIMANT, BE) present in the hearing."
a. the claimant to be.
b. that the claimant were.
c. that the claimant was.
d. that the claimant be.
1. ¿Qué tipo de término es "affidavit"?

a. No específico.
b. General.
c. Específico.
d. Homónimo.
2. Elija la opción correcta: "Recessions are usually job killers, so the way in which the
UK economy has created new jobs______a time when growth has been so weak has
baffled the experts".
a. In.
b. During.
c. Until.
d. At.
3. ¿Cuál es el verbo en inglés para el adjetivo "national"?

a. Nationize.
b. Nationalite.
c. Nationalize.
d. Nationalization.
4. ¿Cuál de los siguientes sería, según Castellví, una "estructura morfológica

compuesta por formantes cultos"?
a. Recession.
b. Cut-off.
c. Upsurge.
d. Shutdown.
5. ¿Cuál es la traducción jurídica correcta para "order for committal"?
a. Orden de detención.
b. Auto de encarcelamiento.
c. Orden de remisión.
d. Auto interlocutorio.
6. "Allegation" viene del verbo:

a. Allege.
b. Allegate.
c. Allegated.
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d. Allegationate.
7. Elija la opción correcta: "America's current budget negotiations should

focus__________achieving a credible long-term decline in the national debt".
a. On.
b. In.
c.To.
d.At.
8. De los siguientes, ¿cuál es un sinónimo de "statute law"?

a. Common law.
b. Civil law.
c. Enacted law.
d. Judge-made law.
9. ¿Cuál es el sustantivo correcto para "hear"?

a. Hear.
b. Hearance.
c. Heard.
d. Hearing.
10. ¿Cuál de los siguientes no es un mecanismo lingüístico de impersonalización

de un texto?.
a. Uso de la estructura there + be.
b. Uso del subjuntivo.
c. Uso de la pasiva.
d. Uso de la segunda y tercera personas del plural.
1. ¿Qué tipo de término es "decree nisi"?

a. Específico.
b. General.
c. No específico.
d. Homónimo.
2. ¿Cuál de los siguientes no es un mecanismo lingüístico de impersonalización

de un texto?.
a. Uso de pasivas.
b. Uso de la segunda y tercera personas del plural.
c. Uso de la inversión.
d. Uso de la estructura there + be.
3. "Instruction" viene del verbo:

a. Instrue.
b. Instructify.
c. Instructionate.
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d. Intruct. (instruct?)
4. ¿Qué significa el término "statute" usado como adjetivo de "law" en inglés

jurídico?
a. Parlamentario.
b. De derecho común.
c. De equidad.
d. Obligatorio.
5. Elija la opción correcta: "At present, there is little real incentive ________________
businesses to invest".
a. Towards.
b. For.
c. To.
d. Into.
6. ¿Cuál es la traducción jurídica correcta para "enacting formula"?

a. Fórmula de ejecución.
b. Fórmula de pronunciamiento.
c. Fórmula de promulgación.
d. Fórmula de legislación.
7. ¿Qué es el hipérbaton?
a. La premodificación de los complementos.
b. La tematización de los complementos.
c. La posposición de los premodificadores.
d. La alteración del orden de los complementos.
8. Elija la opción correcta: "The requested Court shall acknowledge receipt of

the deposit or advance without delay, ____________ within 10 days of receipt of the
deposit or the advance"
a. To the latest.
b. At the latest.
c. In the latest.
d. On the latest.
9. ¿Cuál de los siguientes sería un vocablo de raíz anglosajona?

a. Recession.
b. Inflationary.
c. Financial.
d. Shutdown.
10. Elija la opción correcta: "President Barack Obama's proposed alternative

_______ the fiscal cliff would substantially increase tax rates and limit tax deductions".
a. For.
b. At.
c. To.
d. Against.

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1. Indique cuál de las siguientes características NO es propia de la carta comercial:
a. Es el macrogénero escrito por excelencia en el mundo de los negocios.

b. Posee una macroestructura muy estricta.
c. El cuerpo de la carta suele ir precedido de una oración introducida por la
palabra re, que avisa del tópico o tema discursivo que se aborda.
d. Permite una gran flexibilidad en lo que respecta a la macroestructura.
2. Indique cuál de los siguientes NO es un tipo de carta comercial:
a. Testamento.
b. Solicitud de información.
c. Solicitud de referencias.
d. Formulación de un pedido.
3. Elija el término adecuado para la definición: "Law derived from custom and
from precedent rather than from written, codified statutes"
a. Criminal law
b. Civil law
c. Statute law
d. Common law
4. Señale la opción que NO se utiliza en las demandas entre particulares:
a. Parties to the suit.

b. Claimant.
c. Defendant.
d. Defendee.
5. Señale la opción que NO se utiliza en las demandas de divorcio:
a. Parties to the suit.

b. Claimant.
c. Petitioner.
d. Respondent.
6. Señale el equivalente a la locución preposicional in pursuance of:
a. According to.
b. Because.
c. By.
d. For.
7. De los siguientes ejemplos, señale el que NO es un doblete:
a. Will and testament.

b. Cease and desist.
c. Each and every.
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d. Here and there.
8. Dentro de los textos especializados ¿cuáles son "biunívocos"?
a. Típico de la comunicación entre expertos.

b. Texto didáctico.
c. Texto divulgativo.
d. Texto persuasivo.
SI HA HECHO LA PEC, NO RESPONDA A LAS PREGUNTAS 9 Y10
9. Dentro de los textos especializados ¿cuáles son "unívocos"?
a. Típicos de la comunicación entre expertos.

b. Textos didácticos.
c. Textos divulgativos.
d. Textos persuasivos.
10. ¿Qué tipo de vocabulario es advocate?
a. Técnico.
b. Semitécnico.
c. General.
d. General de uso en una especialidad.
1. "There has seldom been so much protest". ¿Cuál es la inversión gramatical

correcta?
a. Seldom there has been so much protest.
b. Seldom has there been so much protest.
c. There seldom has been so much protest.
d. Been has there seldom so much protest.
2. ¿Qué término se corresponde con la definición "The judges of a country, seen as

a group?
a. The Judicature.
b. The Justices.
c. The Justice
d. The Bench.

a. Persuadir al receptor.
b. Transmitir información neutral.
c. Deleitar al receptor.
d. Mantener la comunicación.
4. Los lenguajes de especialidad pueden considerarse tipos mixtos a medio camino

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entre:
5. El término "English for Specific Purposes" puede significar dos cosas distintas:
a. La docencia del IFE (Inglés para Fines Específicos) y el inglés que se usa
en situaciones comunicativas marcadas. (page 28 Tema 1)
b. La docencia del IFE en situaciones comunicativas marcadas y el uso del
inglés general en las aulas.
c. La docencia del IFE en las aulas universitarias y su docencia en las
empresas.
d. La docencia del inglés general en las empresas y la docencia del IFE en las
filologías.
6. ¿Qué término falta en el doblete de la siguiente oración? "I certify that, to the
best of my ____________ and belief, this is a full, true and correct report".
a. knowledge.
b. mind.
c. ability.
d. awareness.
7. Indique cuál de los siguientes NO es un rasgo léxico sintáctico del IPA:

a. Ausencia de léxico de origen greco-latino.
b. Neología léxica (derivación).
c. Neología semántica (metáforas).
d. Neología léxica (condensación).
8. ¿Cuál es el sustantivo correcto para "disclose"?

a. disclotion.
b. disclosal.
c. disclosement.
d. disclosure.
9. ¿Qué significa literalmente el latinismo "in camera"?

a. In closed court.
b. In open court.
c. In court.
d. In the courtroom.
10. Elija el subjuntivo correcto para la siguiente oración: "It is crucial

(A CAR, BE WAITING) for the President when the meeting is over
a. for a car being waiting.

b. that should a car be waiting.
c. that a car is waiting.
d. that a car be waiting.

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1. Elija la opción correcta: "Bad debt expense increased $47 million in 2011
primarily due ___________ higher receivable balances and the current economic
environment in Europe."
a. to
b. at
c. for
d. towards
2. Elija la opción correcta: "The euro______________ against the dollar after the
German parliament approved the latest €44bn (£36bn) bailout for Greece by a large
majority".
a. fortificated
b. stiffened
c. hardened
d. strengthened
3. ¿Cuál de los siguientes es un ejemplo de compuesto nominal?

a. European Central Bank.
b. Free trade agreement.
c. Unsustainable high debt.
d. State party officials. (Tema 4, pág. 15)
4. Elija la opción correcta: "(...) the Supreme Court of the United States declares
such acts or actions unconstitutional, and they do not have the _________________ of
law".
a. force
b. strength
c. coerción
d. fortitude
5. "Conviction" es un tipo de:

a. Acquittal.
b. Decision.
c. Release.
d. Condemnation.
6. ¿Cuál de las siguientes expresiones es correcta?

a. Sentence in favour to the claimant.
b. Judgment in favour to the claimant.
c. Sentence for the claimant.
d. Judgment for the claimant. (page 8 solucionario ejercicios tema 2)
7. Elija la opción correcta: "What are the steps I should take in order to do this?
I really don't know how to go ______________ it."
a. out
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b. on
c. for
d. about (solucionario tema 4, pág. 26)
8. ¿Cuál de los siguientes es un ejemplo de derivación?
a. Unemployment.
b. Employ.
c. Rate.
d. Occupy.
9. Elija la opción correcta: "(...) there may be considerable argument about

what that law actually is before giving a __________________ judgment".
a. reasoned (pág. 11 solucionario tema 2)

b. grounded
c. justified
d. motivated
10. ¿Cuál es el significado del latinismo "alibi" en inglés jurídico?

a. In that place.
b. Contention.
c. Elsewhere.
d. Deceit.

1. ¿A qué término corresponde la siguiente definición según el material de esta
asignatura? "To make a bill into a law".
a. To proclamate.
b. To assent.
c. To approve.
d. To enact.
2. Elija la opción correcta según el material de esta asignatura: "The ongoing euro zone
crisis hampered sales of German goods, which fell_______0.9% to countries in the 27
EU member states and______3.0 % to the euro zone".
a. to, down at
b. in, by
c. by, by.
d. at, by
3. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿cuál de los siguientes tiempos verbales
no es más frecuente en el discurso narrativo?
a. Simple past.
b. Present continuous.
c. Simple present.
d. Present perfect.
4. Elija la opción correcta según el material de esta asignatura: "A desirable way
to broaden the tax base would be to put an overall cap on the amount of tax reduction
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that each taxpayer can achieve________deductions and exclusions".

a. through
b. since
c. at
d. against
5. Rellene el hueco que falta según el material de esta asignatura, "Court

decisions are considered law ( ___________ )'.
a. statutory law.
b. equity.
c. case law. (Common Law Systems Vs. Civil Law -Word Doc page 2)
d. enacted law.
6. Según el material de esta asignatura, el término actual para "plaintiff es:

a. claimant.
b. petitioner.
c. defendant.
d. prosecutor.
7. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿cuál es el término en Plain English

equivalente al término jurídico "sous peine de"?
a. Under the sentence.
b. In spite of.
c. Under penalty of.
d. Taking into consideration.
8. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿cuál de los siguientes no es un ejemplo

de una cláusula no finita?
a. Helped by the globalisation of capital markets, the UN raised its

expectations.
b. Inflation has attacked the foundation of our economy.
c. Marketed under a different name, our product is still a high-quality one.
d. The best timing for a particular fund is a matter determined by its long-
term value.
9. Según el material de esta asignatura, "summary offences" son:
a. Lesser crimes. (An introduction to criminal proceedings – Word doc. page

2)
b. Serious crimes.
c. Indictable offences.
d. Felonies.
10. Según el material de esta asignatura, un equivalente de "breach" es:

a. Disobey.
b. Impose.
c. Take on.
d. Infringe. (solucionario Tema 2- Word doc, pág. 22)
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1. Indique cuál de las siguientes NO es una característica del inglés de las finanzas:
a. La tendencia hacia el lenguaje popular y coloquial.

b. El domino del léxico anglosajón.
c. Lo festivo en los juegos de palabras.
d. El predominio del léxico de origen griego y latino.
2. Indique cuál de las siguientes características NO es propia del memo:
a. Es un breve informe profesional que transporta información relevante

presentada de forma clara y correcta.
b. No suele tener formalismos.
c. La forma de la redacción es más o menos telegráfica.
d. Suele utilizar arcaísmos.
3. ¿Qué tipo de vocabulario es affidavit?
a. Técnico.
b. Semitécnico.
c. General.
4. ¿Qué tipo de vocabulario es chattels?
a. Técnico.
b. Semitécnico.
c. General.
5. Señale la opción que NO es correcta:

a. En España tenemos las leyes por escrito, como es el caso del código civil o penal,
entre otros.
b. En Inglaterra y Gales no hay código civil ni penal.
c. En España hay una constitución escrita mientras que en Inglaterra y Gales no hay
una como tal, aunque hay documentos que la substituyen: la Magna Carta de
1215, La Declaración de Derechos de 1689, etc.
d. En Inglaterra y Gales no hay dos tipos de abogados: solicitors y barristers.
6. La expresión bona fide es un ejemplo de:
a. Préstamo. Tema 3: Legal English pág. 10

b. Arcaísmo.
c. Calco.
d. Término subtécnico.
7. Goods and chattels es un ejemplo de:
a. Préstamo.
b. Arcaísmo.
c. Calco. Tema 3: Legal English pág. 10 (goods and chattels = bona et
13

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catalla)
d. Término subtécnico.
8. Una de las consecuencias producidas cuando un lenguaje de especialidad adopta un

término perteneciente a otro lenguaje de especialidad es:
a. La pérdida de precisión del significado. Tema 1 pág. 15

b. La disminución del número de usuarios.
c. Siempre se mantiene el comportamiento lingüístico del término.
d. Se mantiene la precisión semántica, pero puede producirse un
cambio de significado.
9. ¿Cuál de los siguientes parámetros NO determina el comportamiento terminológico

(o no-terminológico) de las unidades léxicas?
a. El grado de precisión semántica.

b. El número de usuarios.
c. El comportamiento lingüístico.
d. El cambio de significado. (Tema 1 pág. 15)
10. Elija el término adecuado para la definición: "Law concerning the private rights of
individuals"
a. Criminal law.
b. Civil law. (solucionario Tema 2 – word doc. Page 1)
c. Statute law.
d. Case law.
1. ¿Cuál es la preposición correcta que falta en la siguiente oración? "Not only are rich
Germans putting more of their wealth________fixed assets, but foreigners see German cities
as a safe haven".
a. to.
b. into.
c. above.
d. for.
2. ¿Cuál es el sinónimo más adecuado del término jurídico "contention" en "The

Claimant's contention is that..."?
a. Altercation.
b. Rivalry.
c. Allegation. (Tema 2 word doc page 22)
d. Conflict.
3. ¿Cuál es la forma gramatical del subjuntivo en la siguiente oración? "Counsel

recommended ____________________________ (ANSWERS, KEEP) short".
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a. that answers to be kept.

b. that answers kept.
c. that answers are kept.
d. that answers be kept.
4. Indique cuál de las siguientes NO es una condición de textualidad del IPA:
a. Coherencia.
c. Cohesión.
d. Claridad.
5. ¿Cuál es la inversión correcta para la siguiente oración? "There has seldom been
so much protest against a proposal" (empiece la oración con seldom):
a. Seldom has there been so much protest against a proposal.
b. Seldom there has been so much protest against a proposal.
c. Seldom been there has so much protest against a proposal.
d. Seldom there has to be so much protest against a proposal.
6. ¿ Cuál es la explicación correcta en inglés para el latinismo "de iure"?

a. from justice.
b. by command.
c. in fact.
d. by law. Solucionario tema 3 pág. 12
7. ¿Cuál es el adjetivo correcto para "benefit"?

a. benefitiary.
b. beneficious.
c. beneficial. Solucionario tema 4
d. benefitial.
8. ¿Cuál es el término que se corresponde con la siguiente definición? "Law derived

from custom and from precedent rather than from written, codified statutes".
a. common law.
b. enacted law.
c. civil law.
d. criminal law.
9. Los modofóricos nos indican:

a. La textualidad, es decir, lo coherente que es un texto.
b. La textualidad, es decir, lo cohesionado que está un texto.
c. La simplicidad de la estructura de un texto.
d. La modalidad, es decir, la actitud del emisor respecto de lo que emite.
(Tema 1 pág. 46)
10. If someone is "accused" of three offences, s/he is _________________ those offences.

Elija la opción correcta.
a. charged from.
b. charged with.
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c. charged of.
d. charged onto.
1. Elija la opción correcta: "We invested nearly $70 billion in R&D since the beginning
of 2000, shifting research ________ new areas and generating more than
47,000patents."
a. in
b. into
c. on
d. onto
2. Elija la opción correcta: "There were ___________ differences between northern
and southern European countries, with Austria seeing unemployment of just 4.3%".
a. stark
b. open
c. bared
d. brute
3. Elija la opción correcta: "Occasionally, the parties will have agreed the
relevant facts and it will not be necessary for the judge to hear any live______
a. evidences.
b. evidence.
c. proofs.
d. proof.
4. Elija la opción correcta: "If the obligation is cancelable, but the company would
_______ a penalty if canceled, the dollar amount of the penalty is included as a
purchase obligation".
a. decur
b. incur
c. find into
d. go across
5. "Acquittal" es un tipo de:

a. Conviction.
b. Disclosure.
c. Decision.
d. Condemnation.
6. ¿Cuál de las siguientes expresiones es correcta?

a. Judgment against the claimant.
b. Judgment in opposition of the claimant.
c. Sentence against the claimant.
d. Sentence in contrary to the claimant.
7. Elija la estructura pasiva correcta para la siguiente oración: "She has conducted her
16

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own case before me."
a. Her own case has to be conducted by her before me.

b. She has been conducting her own case before me.
c. She has been conducted her own case before me.
d. Her own case has been conducted by her before me.
8. Entre los recursos de formación de unidades léxicas están:
a. La hiperonimia.
b. La sinonimia.
c. La antonimia.
d. La derivación.
9. A person who has been found guilty of committing a crime is:
a. An offender.
b. An offenser.
c. A suspect.
d. A defendant.
10. ¿Cuál es el significado del latinismo "inter alia" en inglés jurídico?

a. Between others.
b. Among other things. solucionario Tema 2, pág. 7
c. Among other people.
d. In instance.

1. Según el material de esta asignatura, "a person who has been charged or
summoned" es:
a. A respondent.
b. A suspect.
c. An offender.
d. A defendant.
2. Según el material de esta asignatura, uno de los "Plain English principles of
clear writing" es:
a. Use indefinite pronouns as references if there is ambiguity.
b. Avoid indefinite pronouns used as references if there is ambiguity.
c. Replace indefinite pronouns used as references if there is ambiguity.
d. Use definite pronouns as references if there is ambiguity.
3. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿cual de los siguientes tiempos verbales
no es mas frecuente en el discurso narrativo?
a. Simple present.
b. Present perfect.
c. Simple past.
d. Past continuous.
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4. Según el material de esta asignatura, un mecanismo lingüístico de

impersonalización no es:
a. El uso de oraciones subordinadas.
b. El uso de la segunda y tercera persona del plural.
c. El uso de sujetos inanimados.
d. EL uso de pasivas.
5. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿que es una silepsis?

a. Atribuir a una cosa inanimada un rasgo animado.
b. El contraste de dos términos marcadamente diferentes.
c. Usar el sentido propio y figurado de un termino de forma simultanea.
d. Una metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras en orden
distinto.
6. Según el material de esta asignatura, el termino anteriormente usado para

"claimant" es:
a. plaintiff.
b. petitioner.
c. defendant.
d. pursuer.
7. Elija la opción correcta según el material de esta asignatura: "At present, there
is little real incentive _______ businesses to invest".
a. towards
b. for
c. to
d. into
8. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿cual de las siguientes es correcta?
a. Compensation is seeked by her.

b. Compensation is sought by her. (Ejercicios tema 1, pág. 41)
c. Compensation is ventured by her.
d. Compensation is struggled by her.
9. Elija la opción correcta según el material de esta asignatura: "One

consequence of this business-citizenship fusion is that we can deliver its benefits
increasing scale".
a. in
b. on
c. at
d. to
10. Según el material de esta asignatura, un ejemplo de "Statutory Instrument"

es:
a. A bill.
b. A judgment.
c. A conviction.
d. A ministerial order.
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IPA 1: POSIBLES PREGUNTAS DE EXAMEN (TEMA 1) 1

ISABEL BAREA 2016

1. Según los materiales de esta asignatura, ¿cuál no es uno de los principios reguladores de la comunicación
textual?
a. la adecuación
b. la efectividad
c. la eficiencia
d. la eficacia
2. Según los materiales de esta asignatura, señale la opción correcta: En la mayoría de ocasiones,
a. el participio pasado aparece como núcleo de la cláusula finita.
b. el participio pasado se da en posición de premodificación.
c. el participio pasado aparece como adjetivo.
d. el participio pasado no se tematiza a la posición inicial.
3. Elija la respuesta correcta, según el material de esta asignatura.

a. Las formas en –ing se usan para expresar causalidad.
b. Las formas en –ing aparecen el cláusulas finitas tipo detached.
c. Las formas en –ing nunca aparecen como sujeto de la oración.
d. Las formas en –ing aparecen el cláusulas no finitas tipo detached.
4. Elija la opción incorrecta, según el material de esta asignatura. La ______es una condición de textualidad.
a. Intencionalidad.
b. Coherencia.
c. Tolerancia.
d. Aceptabilidad.
5. La expresión “Roof systems are easy to suspend” es un ejemplo de:

a. uso del infinitivo como complemento de verbo.
b. uso del infinitivo como complemento de adjetivo.
c. uso de la cláusula finita como complemento de adjetivo.
d. uso de la cláusula no finita en posición de tematización.
6. Según Alcaraz Varó, una misma categoría textual comparte estas convenciones formales y estilísticas:
(señale la opción correcta)
a. Un nivel léxico-semántico análogo.
b. Un esquema funcional similar.
c. Unas convenciones socio-pragmáticas diferentes.
d. Una modalidad discursiva semejante.
7. Indique la respuesta correcta. A. Varó y M. Linares distinguen estas modalidades discursivas:

a. discurso descriptivo, narrativo y dialógico.
b. discurso descriptivo, narrativo y lógico.
c. discurso narrativo, explicativo y dialógico.
d. discurso narrativo, expresivo y dialógico.
8. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. El discurso expositivo se sirve de recursos como:

a. técnicas de exclusión.
b. técnicas de identificación.
c. técnicas de representación.
d. técnicas de análisis procedimental.
9. Elija la opción incorrecta. Los modofóricos nos indican la actitud del emisor de un texto con relación a:
a. la obligación
b. la posibilidad
c. la conveniencia
d. el permiso
10. Según el material de esta asignatura, “terapia” es un ejemplo de:

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ISABEL BAREA 2016

a. término no-específico
b. vocabulario general
c. término específico
d. término específico y de vocabulario general.
11. Señale la respuesta correcta. Cuando una unidad léxica de la lengua general se incorpora a un lenguaje de
especialidad:
a. se produce una pérdida de precisión en el significado.
b. se aumenta en número de usuarios.
c. se produce un incremento en la precisión del significado.
d. se produce un cambio en el comportamiento lingüístico (más variantes combinatorias)
12. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. Cuando una unidad léxica de la lengua de especialidad se incorpora a otra
lenguaje de especialidad:
a. se produce una pérdida de precisión en el significado.
b. el grupo de usuarios cambia.
c. el comportamiento lingüístico se puede restringir
d. la precisión semántica se mantiene
13. Los términos window y mouse son ejemplos de unidades léxicas:

a. del lenguaje de especialidad que han pasado a otro lenguaje de especialidad
b. del lenguaje de especialidad que se han incorporado a la lengua general
c. del lenguaje general que se han incorporado al lenguaje de especialidad
d. que presentan más variantes combinatorias debido al trasvase de un lenguaje a otro
14. Señale la respuesta correcta. En términos generales, los tipos de textos pueden ser de tres tipos:
a. general o no especializado, especializado o profesional, y divulgativo o bidireccional.
b. general, especializado y divulgativo.
c. bidireccional, unívoco y profesional
d. académico, general y profesional
15. Señale la respuesta correcta.

a. El texto especializado se dividiría en lenguaje académico y lenguaje profesional.
b. El discurso académico se dividiría en lenguaje especializado y lenguaje profesional.
c. El discurso profesional se dividiría en lenguaje especializado y lenguaje entre expertos.
d. El texto especializado se dividiría en lenguaje académico y lenguaje didáctico.
16. Señale la respuesta correcta. El discurso profesional se establece entre:

a. profesional y estudiante
b. profesionales del mismo campo
c. profesor y alumnos
d. profesional y una institución o persona relacionada con su profesión
17. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. El discurso bidireccional:

a. es típico de la comunicación entre expertos
b. tiende a usar un vocabulario altamente especializado
c. hace un uso alterno de términos especializados y de términos de divulgación
d. es la variante que Castelví denomina “comunicación entre especialistas”
18. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. El texto divulgativo:

a. se denomina también “de transición”
b. se establece entre un emisor experto, semi-experto, o pseudo-experto y un receptor profano o no
especializado
c. es el que Cabré denomina “comunicación entre especialista y lego”
d. es aquel en el que el grado de conocimiento compartido entre emisor y receptor es alto.
19. Señale la respuesta correcta. En los textos especializados, el propósito:

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ISABEL BAREA 2016

a. hace referencia al papel que desempeña el texto en una sociedad determinada.

b. hace referencia a la intención que el emisor quiere que tenga el texto.
c. se valora desde el receptor
d. tiene una función inmanente, de ahí que un mismo texto pueda tener tantas funciones como
receptores.
20. ¿Cuál de las siguientes no es una función textual según el material de esta asignatura?
a. función expositiva
b. función mediativa
c. función comunicativa
d. función fática
21. ¿Cuál de los siguientes no es un tipo de texto o tipo textual?

a. texto expresivo
b. texto híbrido
c. texto mediativo
d. texto persuasivo
22. Señale la opción correcta. Los términos se diferencian de las unidades léxicas del lenguaje general en que:
a. los términos son monosémicos
b. los términos activan su significado dentro de un contexto
c. los términos son polisémicos
d. las unidades léxicas no poseen sinónimos
23. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. Los entes subtécnicos y técnicos resultan en su mayor parte de los
siguientes procesos:
a. palabras de lenguaje especializado que adquieren un significado cotidiano
b. designaciones por medio de figuras o símbolos
c. procesos de formación de palabras con afijos clásicos
d. marcas comerciales y / o nombres de productos
24. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. Las nominalizaciones se emplean en estos casos:

a. organización de la información en el texto
b. establecimiento de causa y efecto
c. como símbolo semiótico alternativo
d. desarrollo de conceptos técnicos y científicos abstractos
25. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. En los lenguajes de especialidad se logra un alto grado de
impersonalización por medio de los mecanismos textuales:
a. uso de la construcción pasivo-perifrástica
b. empleo de verbos y oraciones impersonales
c. uso de la segunda y tercera persona del singular
d. uso de sujetos inanimados
26. Señale la respuesta incorrecta.

a. En los textos científico-técnicos la sintaxis es más sencilla pero también se puede encontrar
muestras de subordinación compleja
b. Los textos jurídicos presentan un grado de complejidad sintáctica muy elevado.
c. En los textos jurídicos hay abundante subordinación
d. En los textos científico-técnicos la sintaxis es más sencilla y poco subordinación compleja
27. Señale la respuesta incorrecta. La neutralidad se trata de lograr a través de fórmulas textuales como:
a. la argumentación
b. la referencia
c. la descripción
d. la nominalización

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1 .- ¿Cuál es el sustantivo correcto para la palabra que está en negrita?: “The money will allow
for a clean-up of bank balance sheets begrimed by dud loans granted to property developers”.
allowity
allowing
allow
allowance
2 .- Elija la opción correcta: “In many cases, the judge determines _____ of law, while the jury
(or judge sitting without a jury) determines _____ of fact.”
matters … affairs
affairs … matters
issues … findings
findings … affairs
3 .- The stages of a Statute are:
Act > bill > draft.
Draft > bill > act.
Act > draft > bill.
Bill > draft > act.
4 .- En inglés económico-comercial, el infinitivo (formas no personales) se utiliza como

complemento de:
adjetivos, verbos y preposiciones.
sustantivos, conjunciones y adverbios.
adverbios, sustantivos y adjetivos.
adjetivos, sustantivos y verbos.
5 .- ¿Qué es el retruécano?
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene sinónimos en orden distinto.
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene palabras similares en orden distinto.
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras en orden distinto.

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Una metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras pero con forma de sinónimos.
6 .- ¿Cuál de las siguientes afirmaciones es cierta?
La polisemia está ausente de los lenguajes especializados.
Tanto la sinonimia como la polisemia existen en los lenguajes especializados.
La sinonimia está ausente de los lenguajes especializados.
Tanto la sinonimia como la polisemia están ausentes de los lenguajes especializados.
7 .- Elija la opción correcta: “These courts often _________ of three, five, seven, or nine
judges/justices.”
sit in groups
sit in panels
enjudge in panels
judge in panels
8 .- La variación horizontal de los lenguajes de especialidad incluye:
La intención y la perspectiva.
La intención y el nivel de especialización.
La temática y la perspectiva.
La temática y la intención.
1 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Courts of general jurisdiction can hear almost any case. All judges
of Article III courts are _______ by the President of the United States with the advice and _______
of the Senate.”
named … consensus
nominated … permit
appointed … consent
called … permit
2 .- Señale la opción correcta:
Parties at the suit.

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Parties in the suit.

Parties on the suit.
Parties to the suit.
3 .- ¿Qué tipo de expresión es current account?
Personification.
Simile.
Idiom.
Collocation.
4 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Any state court may interpret the U.S. Constitution, federal
statute, treaty, etc., if the applicable Constitutional provision, statute, or treaty has direct
________ on a case brought in state court under a state law.”
Bearing
outcome
load
consequence
5 .- Civil law systems are also called _______ systems.
encoded codificated incoded codified
6 .- ¿Qué término es equivalente a “sinónimo funcional”?

Partisinónimo.
Semisinónimo.
Cuasisinónimo.
Polisinónimo.
7 .- ¿Cuál es la inversión correcta para la siguiente oración? “He little realizes the importance
of the evidence.”
Little he realizes the importance of the evidence.
Realizes he little the importance of the evidence.
Little realizes he the importance of the evidence.
Little does he realize the importance of the evidence.
8 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Trial courts of limited jurisdiction are courts that deal with only
specific types of cases. They are often located in/near the county courthouse and are usually
presided over by a(n) _______ judge.”

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
only lonely alone single
9 .- ¿Cuál es la palabra correcta en inglés para el término “especulador bajista”?
Bear. Boar. Cat. Bull.
10 .-El lenguaje de especialidad es un subconjunto del lenguaje general caracterizado

pragmáticamente por tres variables:
La temática, los usuarios, la situación comunicativa.
La temática, los usos, la situación comunicativa.
La gramática, los usuarios, el contexto.
La temática, los usos, el cotexto.
11 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Even if the full deduction for charitable gifts is preserved and
only high-value health insurance is regarded _______ a tax expenditure, the extra revenue in
2013 would be about $150bn”.
like as how to
12 .- ¿Cuál de las siguientes opciones es una conversión de to study?
Studying Studied Studily Study
13 .-Murder carries a mandatory life ________.

judgment
decision
injunction
sentence
14 .-Elija la opción correcta: “35% of my __________________________ goes to taxes.”
cash
earned
earns
income
15 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Any state court may interpret the U.S. Constitution, federal
statute, treaty, etc., if the applicable Constitutional provision, statute, or treaty has direct
________ on a case brought in state court under a state law."(una única respuesta correcta)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
consequence
load
outcome
bearing
16 .- ¿Cuál de los siguientes factores NO ayuda a definir un lenguaje de especialidad? (una

única respuesta correcta)
Los símbolos específicos.
La estructura textual.
La morfología.
La temática.
17. ¿Cuál de las siguientes afirmaciones es cierta?

La polisemia está ausente de los lenguajes especializados.
La sinonimia está ausente de los lenguajes especializados.
Tanto la sinonimia como la polisemia existen en los lenguajes especializados.
Tanto la sinonimia como la polisemia están ausentes delos lenguajes especializados.
18. Case law is also called ________ law.

Parliament-passed
judge-done
judge-made
equity
19. Elige la opción correcta: " The company ongoing focus_______ productivity together with
the relative strength of the software business drove strong margin performance in the forth
quarter of 2011"
in to at on
20.

1
lOMoARcPSD|3798630
2012/2013 FEBRERO 1ª SEMANA
A CONTINUACIÓN INCLUYO TODOS LOS EXAMENES NACIONALES Y DE LA EU HASTA

LA FECHA, CON LAS SOLUCIONES QUE YO CREO QUE SON CORRECTAS (NO
GARANTIZO NINGUNA), HE INTENTADO CONTRASTARLAS TODAS, SIN EMBARGO,
HAY ALGUNA QUE OTRA EN LA QUE TENGO DUDAS, SI VEIS ALGUNA QUE ESTÉ MAL O
DUDOSA, POR FAVOR, COMENTAD.
¡ÁNIMO! SEGURO QUE NOS LA SACAMOS
Solucionario Tema 3, página 2, 1-d)
Evidencia negativa, defendee no sale en los apuntes

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Tema 3, página 11
Tema 3, página 12
(bidireccionales)
Tema 1, página 17
(unidireccionales)
Tema 1, página 17
Ejercicios Tema 1, página 34.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

2
Tema 4, página 24
Ejercicios Tema 1, página 34

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Spain vs England & Wales, slide 11
Tema 3, página 10, (iii)
Tema 3, página 10, (iii)
Tema 1, página 15
Tema 1, página 15
Tema 3, solucionario, página 2, 1-b)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
3
2012/2013 SEPTIEMBRE ORIGINAL
Solucionario Tema 3, página 13, d.
Solucionario Tema 3, página 2, 1-i)
Tema 1, página 21

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Tema 1, página 6, 3er párrafo
Tema 1, página 28, penúltimo párrafo
Solucionario Tema 3, página 3, 2-h)
Tema 1, página 36
Solucionario Tema 3, página 8
Solucionario Tema 3, página 10, 13.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
2012/2013 SEPTIEMBRE RESERVA

4
Ejercicios Tema 4, página 19, 1-(iii)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Tema 1, pp 42-43
Solucionario Tema 3,
página 13, d.
Solucionario Tema 3, página 11, 10-8)
Ejercicios Tema 4, página 22, 3-h.
Solucionario Tema 3, página 2, 1-d)
Tema 1, página 46 (Modalidad)
Solucionario Tema 3, página 10, 25
c. charged of.
d. charged onto.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

5
Tema 3, página 26
Tema 4,
página 15-16
Solucionario ejercicios Tema 3, página 15, 6
Solucionario Tema 3, página 13, a.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Solucionario Tema 3, página 11, 10-13)
Solucionario Tema 3, página 2, 1-i)
Ejercicios Tema 1, página 49, 7.
Ejercicios Tema 1, página 14, último pto
Tema 1, página 37, último párrafo

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

6
Ejercicios Tema 4, página 19, 1-(vi)
Solucionario Tema 3, página 8
Solucionario Tema 3,página 2, 1-a)
Ejercicios Tema 3 16. Multiple choice excercise II, página 21, 12.
Solución: Solucionario Tema 3, página 18,

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Ejercicios Tema 3 15. Multiple choice excercise I, página 18, 14.
Solución: Solucionario Tema 3, página 18,
Ejercicios Tema 4, página 22, 3
Tema 1, páginas 42-43
Tema 1, página 39

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
7
Ejercicios tema 4, página 19
Ejercicios Tema 4, página 22, 4.c
No es según Castellví, sino según Cabré,

Tema 4, página 14

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Solucionario ejercicios Tema 3, Página 7, 8.
Ejercicios Tema 4, página 20, (xv)
common law systems vs law systems & sources, slide 11
Ejercicios Tema 1, página 38, 16-9

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

8
Cuadernillo de ejercicios, página 34
common law vs civila law & sources, slide 7, 11

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 19, (viii)
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%A9rbaton
Ejercicios Tema 3, 16. Multiple choice Excersice II

Página 20 ejercicios - solucionario página 18
Tema 4, página 14, 3er párrafo
Tema 4, ejercicios, página 20, (xvii)
= Fuera de temario

9
lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 21, (xxii)
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 27, 1-3
Tema 4. Página 15-16
An intro to the US legal system, página 2, pto 3.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

An intro to criminal proceedings, slide 16
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 26, 9.
Tema 1, página 37
Solucionario ejercicios Tema 3, página 19, 1-(ii)
Solucionario ejercicios Tema 3, página 11, 10-5)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

10
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 21, (xx)
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 27, 5
Solucionario Tema 3, página 20 (i)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 4, página 21, 2.
Solucionario Tema 3, página 9, 9-6

Common law vs civil law & sources, slides 5, 6, 15
Solucionario Tema 3,
página 7, 7.
Cuadernillo de ejercicios
Tema 1, página 41, 18.
Unit 1, Página 37.
Solucionario Unit 3, página 11, 10-13

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
11
Solucionario Tema 3, página 2, h)
Solucionario Tema 4, página 19, (ii)
Unit 1, página 44
Solucionario Tema 4, página 20, (xii)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Common vs civil law & sources, slide 5
An intro to civil proceedings, slide 13
Tema 3, página 11
Tema 4, páginas 17 y 18
Introduction to criminal proceedings, página 10, 1
http://www.wordreference.com/thesaurus/
breach + solucionario tema 3, páginas 17, 30,

lOMoARcPSD|3798630

12
Comprobada: An intro to criminal proceedings, slide 3.
Plain English point 3
Unit 1, página 44
Unit 1, página 25 y 26

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Página 21 Tema 4
Cuadernillo de ejercicios tema 4, página 19 (viii)
Cuadernillo de ejercicios Tema 1

página 41, ejercicio 18, primera frase
Cuadernillo de ejercicios tema 4, página 21, (xxi)
Common law vs civil law and sources, slide 11

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
1. “There has seldom been so much protest”. ¿Cuál es la inversión gramatical

correcta?
a. Seldom there has been so much protest.
b. Seldom has there been so much protest.
c. There seldom has been so much protest.
d. Been has there seldom so much protest.
2. ¿Qué término se corresponde con la definición “The judges of a country, seen

as a group?
a. The Judicature.
b. The Justices.
c. The Justice
d. The Bench.

a. Persuadir al receptor.
b. Transmitir información neutral.
c. Deleitar al receptor.
d. Mantener la comunicación.
4. Los lenguajes de especialidad pueden considerarse tipos mixtos a medio

camino entre:
5. El término “English for Specific Purposes” puede significar dos cosas

distintas:
a. La docencia del IFE (Inglés para Fines Específicos) y el inglés que se
usa en situaciones comunicativas marcadas.
b. La docencia del IFE en situaciones comunicativas marcadas y el uso
del inglés general en las aulas.
c. La docencia del IFE en las aulas universitarias y su docencia en las
empresas.
d. La docencia del inglés general en las empresas y la docencia del IFE en
las filologías.
6. ¿Qué término falta en el doblete de la siguiente oración? “I certify that, to the

best of my _________ and belief, this is a full, true and correct report”.
a. knowledge.
b. mind.
c. ability.
d. awareness.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
7. Indique cuál de los siguientes NO es un rasgo léxico sintáctico del IPA:

a. Ausencia de léxico de origen greco-latino.
b. Neología léxica (derivación).
c. Neología semántica (metáforas).
d. Neología léxica (condensación).
8. ¿Cuál es el sustantivo correcto para “disclose”?

a. disclotion.
b. disclosal.
c. disclosement.
d. disclosure.
9. ¿Qué significa literalmente el latinismo “in camera”?

a. In closed court.
b. In open court.
c. In court.
d. In the courtroom.
10. Elija el subjuntivo correcto para la siguiente oración: “It is crucial

_____________ (A CAR, BE WAITING) for the President when the meeting
is over”.
a. for a car being waiting.
b. that should a car be waiting.
c. that a car is waiting.
d. that a car be waiting.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Pecs contestadas
LARA GIL·SÁBADO, 10 DE ENERO DE 2015
1 .- ¿Cuál es la inversión correcta para la siguiente oración? “He little

realizes the importance of the evidence.”
Little realizes he the importance of the evidence.
Realizes he little the importance of the evidence.
Little does he realize the importance of the evidence.
Little he realizes the importance of the evidence.
2 .- Civil law systems are also called _______ systems.(una única

respuesta correcta) .25
codified
encoded
codificated
incoded
3 .- Señale la opción correcta: (una única respuesta correcta) .25
Parties on the suit.
Parties to the suit.
Parties in the suit.
Parties at the suit.
4 .- Elija la opción correcta: “These courts often _________ of three,

five, seven, or nine judges/justices.”
(una única respuesta correcta) .25
judge in panels

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
enjudge in panels
sit in panels
sit in groups
5 .- ¿Cuál de las siguientes opciones es una conversión de to study?(una

única respuesta correcta) .25
Study.
Studied.
Studying.
Studily.
6 .- ¿Qué es el retruécano?(una única respuesta correcta) .25
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras pero con
forma de sinónimos.
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene palabras similares en orden

distinto.
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene sinónimos en orden distinto.
Una metáfora lingüística que contiene las mismas palabras en

orden distinto.
7 .- ¿Cuál es la palabra correcta en inglés para el término “especulador

bajista”?
Boar.
Bull.
Bear.
Cat.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
8 .- Elija la opción correcta: “In many cases, the judge determines _____
of law, while the jury (or judge sitting without a jury) determines _____
of fact.”
matters … affairs
issues … findings
findings … affairs
affairs … matters
9 .- El lenguaje de especialidad es un subconjunto del lenguaje general

caracterizado pragmáticamente por tres variables:
La temática, los usos, el cotexto.
La gramática, los usuarios, el contexto.
La temática, los usuarios, la situación comunicativa.
La temática, los usos, la situación comunicativa.
10.- ¿Cuál es el sustantivo correcto para la palabra que está en negrita?:

“The money will allow for a clean-up of bank balance sheets begrimed by
dud loans granted to property developers”.
allow
allowity
allowing
allowance
11 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Even if the full deduction for charitable gifts
is preserved and only high-value health insurance is regarded _______ a
tax expenditure, the extra revenue in 2013 would be about $150bn”.
to
as

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
how
like
12 .-¿Qué término es equivalente a “sinónimo funcional”?
Cuasisinónimo.
Polisinónimo.
Partisinónimo.
Semisinónimo.
13 .-¿Qué tipo de expresión es current account?
Idiom.
Collocation.
Personification.
Simile.
14.- ¿Cuál de las siguientes opciones es una conversión de to study?
Study.*
Studying.
Studied.
Studily.
15 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Trial courts of limited jurisdiction are

courts that deal with only specific types of cases. They are often located
in/near the county courthouse and are usually presided over by a(n)
_______ judge.”
alone
only
single*
lonely

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
16 .-Murder carries a mandatory life ________.
judgment
decision
injunction
sentence*
17 .-Elija la opción correcta: “35% of my

__________________________ goes to taxes.”
cash
earned
earns
income*
18 .- Elija la opción correcta: “Any state court may interpret the U.S.
Constitution, federal statute, treaty, etc., if the applicable Constitutional
provision, statute, or treaty has direct ________ on a case brought in
state court under a state law."(una única respuesta correcta)
consequence
load
outcome
bearing
19 .- ¿Cuál de los siguientes factores NO ayuda a definir un lenguaje de

especialidad? (una única respuesta correcta)
Los símbolos específicos.
La estructura textual.
La morfología.
La temática.

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
20. ¿Cuál de las siguientes afirmaciones escierta?
La polisemia está ausente de loslenguajes especializados.
La sinonimia está ausente de loslenguajes especializados.
Tantola sinonimia como la polisemia existen en los lenguajes

especializados.
Tanto la sinonimia como la polisemia están ausentes delos lenguajes

especializados.
21. Case law is also called ________ law.
Parliament-passed
judge-done
judge-made
equity
22. En inglés económico-comercial, elinfinitivo (formas no personales) se

utiliza como complemento de:
adjetivos, verbos y preposiciones.
adjetivos, sustantivos y verbos.
adverbios, sustantivos y adjetivos.
sustantivos, conjunciones y adverbios.
23. Elige la opción correcta: " The company ongoing focus_______

productivity together with the relative strength of the software business
drove strong margin performance in the forth quarter of 2011"
in
to
at
on

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
24. Courts of general jurisdiction can hear almost any case. All judges of
Article III courts are _______ by the President of the United States with
the advice and _______ of the Senate.”(una única respuesta correcta)
.25
called … permit
nominated … permit
appointed … consent
named … consensus
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Andrea MarTen Editado y sin las repetidas, espero que no os importe que lo haya colocado, pero si hay
un total de 25 preguntas y ya tenemos 16....así las localizamos todas
10 de enero de 2015 a las 18:56 · Me gusta
José Gascó He añadido dos que me han salido y no estaban.

Petulante Tuk He añadido 3 nuevas

10 de enero de 2015 a las 19:15 · Me gusta · 1
Isabel Silva-González no sé hacerlo :(
Blanca Lz Yo añadí una, solo nos faltan dos.

Blanca Lz Isabel Silva-González, arriba al lado del nombre Pecs Contestadas pone EDITAR, si picas,
puedes escribir y añadir tus preguntas.
Rosana BA Gracias chicos...las mías ya están todas...!

Mvict Mesonero hay más preguntas a parte de éstas? GRACIAS A TODOS

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Esther BT Mirad!! el aNYo pasado tenian la misma PEC!!!

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lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Solucionario Tema 3, página 2, h)
Solucionario Tema 4, página 19, (ii)
Unit 1, página 44
Solucionario Tema 4, página 20, (xii)

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
Common vs civil law & sources, slide 5
Tema 3, página 11
Tema 4, páginas 17 y 18
Introduction to criminal proceedings, página 10, 1
http://www.wordreference.com/thesaurus/
breach + solucionario tema 3, páginas 17, 30,

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
IPA 1 exam – febrero 2016, semana única – Extranjero
1. Según el material de esta asignatura, ¿cuál es el ‘qualifier’ correcto para el siguiente

‘percentage’: 77%?
a) Above the third.

b) Over third.
c) Below three quarters.
d) Just over three quarters. *
2. Según el material de esta asignatura ¿qué tipo de metáfora en un texto económico-

comercial es la siguiente: ‘Inflation has pinned us to the wall’
a) Machine metaphor. *
b) Organism metaphor.
c) Horse metaphor.
d) War metaphor.
3. Elija la opción correcta según el material de la asignatura. En un correo electrónico

¿qué significa ‘FYI’?
a) For your interest.

b) Four your implementation.
c) For your information. *
d) For your importance.
4. Según el material de la asignatura, ¿cuál de los siguientes no es un mecanismo

lingüístico de impersonalización en inglés?
a) Uso de sujetos animados. *

b) Uso de sujetos inanimados.
c) Uso de la segunda y tercera persona del plural.
d) Uso de there + be.
5. Según el material de la asignatura, uno de los ‘Plain English principles of clear

writing’ es:
a) Use indefinite pronouns as referents if there is no ambiguity.

b) Avoid indefinite pronouns used as referents if there is no ambiguity. *
c) Replace nouns used as referents if there is ambiguity.
d) Use modal verbs for actions is there is ambiguity.
6. Elija la opción correcta según el material de esta asignatura: ‘A poorly designed

political compromise that cuts the deficit too quickly could push on already economy
….. recession.’
a) onwards
b) into *
c) at
d) for

lOMoARcPSD|3798630
7. Según el material de esta asignatura, ‘a defendant is…’
a) A person who has been charged or summoned. *

b) Someone who is not yet the subject of formal criminal proceedings.
c) A person who has admitted guilt.
d) A person who has been found guilty.
8. Según el material de la asignatura, ‘in civil proceedings the defendant at the appeal
stage is called a ……’
a) Respondent. *
b) Claimant.
c) Demander.
d) Petitioner.
9. Según el material de esta asignatura, ‘to be convicted’ significa:
a) Ser condenado. *
b) Ser absuelto.
c) Ser indultado.
d) Ser acusado.
10. Según el material de la asignatura, elija la opción correcta: ‘The chain-disruption

hypotheses Chaim that agrammatic comprehension is caused by the underrepresentation
of traces (and, in Mauner et al’s ………. [propose], other referentially dependent
elements) in the syntactic representations constructed by these subjects’.
a) Proposition.
b) Propound.
c) Proposal. *
d) Propose.
Para mí, las respuestas son:

1d, 2 a, 3c, 4 a, 5b, 6b, 7 a, 8 a, 9 a, 10c

Todo Ipa Apuntes 1 4

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Todo IPA - Apuntes 1-4

Inglés Profesional y Académico I: Textos Jurídico y Económico-Comerciales (UNED)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

El término “Inglés Profesional y Académico” (IPA), o ESP (English for Specific

Este tema introduce los lenguajes de especialidad y el Inglés Profesional y

Las actividades prácticas sobre este tema se pondrán a disposición de los

1.2. LOS LENGUAJES DE ESPECIALIDAD

En este apartado analizaremos la naturaleza de los lenguajes de especialidad.

1.2.1. LA NATURALEZA DE LOS LENGUAJES DE ESPECIALIDAD

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

La demarcación de las diferencias que definen los lenguajes de especialidad

• su adquisición, que debe hacerse de forma consciente;

• su flexibilidad, que se ve constreñida por la incorporación de lenguajes

• su manifestación suele ser el medio escrito, y por lo tanto se trata de un

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

• sus funciones, que suelen estar reducidas a lo descriptivo, clasificativo e

• la intención, que suele ser informativa o incluso directiva5.

Para la descripción de los lenguajes de especialidad Cabré (1999a: 1) propone

En cuanto a la variación horizontal, dado que la temática especializada es una

Respecto a la variación vertical, incluye la intención y el nivel de especialización,

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

Sager et al. (1980: 68 y sigs.) afirman que el lenguaje de especialidad es un

“(…) conjunto de subcódigos -parcialmente coincidentes con el subcódigo

La variación lingüística hace referencia a los cambios que experimenta una

La relación entre el lenguaje de especialidad y el lenguaje general puede ser de

1. El lenguaje general es sinónimo de la variante estándar y, por

Downloaded by Elena Navrotskaya (navrmavr@inbox.ru)

subconjuntos del lenguaje general (cf. Varantola 1986; Sager et al.

2. El lenguaje general es un subconjunto de los lenguajes de

3. Los lenguajes de especialidad y el lenguaje general son dos

4. No existe el lenguaje general, ya que “each usage is specific to a

Figura 1: Relación entre lengua general y lenguajes de especialidad

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Fuente: Pérez Hernández, Chantal. http://elies.rediris.es/elies18/index.html

Para Cabré (1993: 140), los lenguajes de especialidad están en relación de

Figura 2: Relación entre lengua global, lengua general y lenguajes de

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Fuente: Pérez Hernández, Chantal. http://elies.rediris.es/elies18/index.html

2. las restricciones léxicas, sintácticas y semánticas;

3. las reglas gramaticales “anómalas”;

4. la alta frecuencia de aparición de determinadas construcciones;

6. el uso de símbolos específicos.

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La postura más comúnmente aceptada hasta ahora, que recientemente se ha

• La temática (campo o field). Una temática es

• Los usuarios. Están agrupados en torno a una escala

• La situación comunicativa. Sería, como ya hemos

Sin embargo, como ya hemos mencionado, recientemente han comenzado a

“(…) la detección inicial de los textos especializados se lleva a cabo por

Por consiguiente, el lenguaje de especialidad sería un subconjunto del lenguaje

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1. Condiciones pragmáticas. Pragmáticamente, los lenguajes de

2. Condiciones cognitivas. Básicamente se refieren a la temática y

“(…) no podemos decir que sea la temática el factor que determina la

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3. Condiciones lingüísticas. No se refieren exclusivamente a los

1.2.2. TÉRMINOS Y PALABRAS.