Proteccion y Restauracion Ecologica

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Pronóstico tecnológico y cambio social
Volumen 166 , mayo de 2021 , 120578
¿La protección ecológica y la restauración de ecosistemas

completos conducen al equilibrio del carbono? Un estudio de
caso de la provincia de Hubei, China
Los enlaces de autor abren el panel de superposiciónYing Wang ( redacción del borrador
original ) Cong LiuHongwei Zhang
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Esquema
Cuota
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120578 Obtenga derechos y contenido
Reflejos
•
Realizar sistema de índices y medición cuantitativa para el nivel EPRFE.

•
Los proyectos de EPRFE tienen efectos positivos en la promoción de la

reducción de las emisiones netas de carbono.
•
El grado de coordinación del nivel EPRFE y las emisiones netas de carbono

tienen potencial de mejora.
Resumen
La protección ecológica y la restauración de ecosistemas completos (EPRFE) es
crucial para mejorar los entornos ecológicos en muchos aspectos. Sin embargo,
no está claro si EPRFE puede contribuir al equilibrio de carbono en términos de
reducción de emisiones de carbono y aumento de la captura de carbono. En este
estudio, se lleva a cabo un sistema de indicadores para evaluar los niveles de
EPRFE, se aplica un método de contabilidad de emisiones netas de carbono para
medir el balance de carbono y se emplea un modelo de coordinación de
acoplamiento para explorar la relación entre los niveles de EPRFE y las emisiones
netas de carbono de las ciudades de la provincia de Hubei. de 2013 a 2017. Los
resultados mostraron que Jingzhou y Jingmen alcanzaron niveles altos de EPRFE,
mientras que Shennongjia y Ezhou exhibieron niveles de EPRFE relativamente
bajos. Además, la aglomeración urbana de Wuhan logró mayores emisiones netas
de carbono que el oeste de Hubei. General, Los proyectos de EPRFE tuvieron
efectos positivos en la reducción de las emisiones netas de carbono. El grado de
acoplamiento entre los niveles de EPRFE y las emisiones netas de carbono fue
significativamente alto (0,85); sin embargo, el grado de coordinación fue moderado
(0,68) y necesita mejoras adicionales. Los resultados de este estudio pueden ser
una referencia eficaz para mejorar las estrategias de gestión de EPRFE a través
de la evaluación y gestión ambiental adaptativa para lograr un desarrollo con bajas
emisiones de carbono.
 Anterior
 próximo
Palabras clave
Proteccion ecologica
Restauración ecológica
Ecosistemas de gama completa
Emisiones netas de carbono
Hubei
1 . Introducción
Las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, en particular CO 2 , son
responsables del calentamiento global ( Crutzen, 2002 ). Los ecosistemas
terrestres actúan como "fuentes de carbono" y "sumideros de carbono" en el ciclo
global del carbono y, por lo tanto, son importantes para la supervivencia y el
desarrollo humanos ( Davies et al., 2011 ). La combustión a gran escala de
combustibles fósiles y el uso irracional de la tierra, atribuido a las actividades
humanas a través de la industrialización y la urbanización, han provocado la
alteración de los patrones del ciclo del carbono en los ecosistemas terrestres, lo
que a su vez ha aumentado la concentración de emisiones de carbono atmosférico
( IPCC, 2014 ).
Se han dedicado considerables esfuerzos de investigación a las emisiones de
carbono y el secuestro de carbono; entre estos, las emisiones de carbono
inducidas por el uso de la tierra son vitales. Un tercio de las emisiones de carbono
de las actividades humanas son inducidas por el cambio de uso de la tierra, lo que
indica que las emisiones de carbono y el secuestro del cambio de uso de la tierra
son fundamentales para el ciclo global del carbono ( Houghton, 2016 ). La
investigación existente sobre el balance de carbono en relación con el uso de la
tierra se ha centrado principalmente en la medición de las emisiones de carbono
( Dumortier et al., 2020 ; Houghton, 2012 ; Zhu et al., 2019 ) y los impactos del
cambio de uso de la tierra en el carbono. almacenamiento para la transformación
del uso de la tierra y varios modos de gestión de la tierra ( Deng et al.,
2012 ;Derner y Schuman, 2007 ; O'Sullivan et al., 2015 ). El método de
contabilidad de emisiones de carbono basado en el cambio de uso de la tierra
llevado a cabo por el Panel Intergubernamental sobre Cambio Climático (IPCC) es
el enfoque más notable empleado en los estudios académicos. Los modelos de
teledetección, que son impulsados por avances continuos en la tecnología
relacionada, se han adoptado cada vez más con preferencia a los métodos
tradicionales de cálculo de emisiones de carbono para estimar la biomasa de la
vegetación y la producción primaria neta para evaluar los cambios en las
emisiones netas de carbono causadas por el cambio de uso de la tierra ( DeFries
et al. al., 1999 ; Raich et al., 1991 ).
Si bien los métodos de contabilidad para medir las emisiones de carbono se han
estudiado ampliamente, la investigación sobre la reducción de las emisiones de
carbono y la mejora del secuestro de carbono es una disciplina emergente. Los
estudios existentes sobre los medios para reducir las emisiones regionales de
carbono han enfatizado la implementación de desplazamientos con bajas
emisiones de carbono ( Choudhary y Gokhale, 2018 ; Karkatsoulis et al.,
2017 ; Meisterling et al., 2009 ), la mejora de la eficiencia industrial ( Dong et al. ,
2020 ; Wang et al., 2019 ), ajustes en las estructuras energéticas ( Xia et al.,
2020 ), mejoras en la aplicación de tecnologías bajas en carbono y fertilizantes
orgánicos en la producción agrícola ( Bai et al., 2019 ;Deng y Gibson, 2019 ; Jebli
y Youssef, 2017 ; Orth et al., 2007 ) y la utilización de energías renovables ( Chen
y Geng, 2017 ; Liu et al., 2017 ; Rahil et al., 2019 ). La mayoría de estos estudios
cuantifican la cantidad de emisiones de carbono que podrían reducirse.
Varios estudios sobre enfoques o estrategias para reducir las emisiones netas de
carbono basadas en el cambio de uso de la tierra han analizado los efectos de los
proyectos de protección y restauración ecológica en el ciclo del carbono; sin
embargo, los resultados de la investigación varían considerablemente. Shan y
col. (2020) realizaron evaluaciones del ciclo de vida para analizar el efecto del
carbono de la consolidación de tierras en China y encontraron que el
almacenamiento de carbono se redujo durante todo el ciclo de vida de la
consolidación de tierras. Polat y Manavbași (2012) demostraron que la
implementación de la consolidación territorial en regiones seleccionadas conduce
a la reducción de las emisiones de carbono en términos de consumo de
combustible. En Finlandia, Kolis et al. (2017) encontraron que el almacenamiento
de carbono aumentó después de un proyecto de consolidación forestal, mientras
que en Carolina del Norte,Kluber y col. (2014) observaron que la restauración de
humedales solo tuvo un leve impacto en las emisiones de carbono. Sin embargo,
estos estudios se centraron principalmente en evaluar los impactos de la
protección y restauración de un solo elemento ecológico sobre las emisiones de
carbono.
China continúa enfocándose en cuestiones ambientales. En el contexto de los
crecientes desafíos planteados por los problemas ambientales, la construcción de
una civilización ecológica se propuso en el XVII Congreso Nacional del Partido
Comunista de China (PCCh), y se mantuvo un modo de desarrollo verde y bajo en
carbono como el camino hacia la construcción de una civilización ecológica en el
18º Congreso Nacional del PCCh. Se ha implementado una serie de proyectos de
conservación y restauración ecológica que involucran montañas, ríos, bosques,
tierras de cultivo, lagos y pastizales en los que se ha modificado el enfoque
original para conservar y restaurar un solo elemento ecológico para proporcionar
un tratamiento integral de ecosistemas completos.
Aunque estos proyectos han aumentado significativamente la capacidad de carga
ecológica de China ( Dang y Liu, 2012), su impacto en la reducción de las
emisiones netas de carbono requiere una mayor investigación. Primero, la
investigación existente se limita a evaluar el impacto de la protección y
restauración ecológica en las emisiones de carbono en base a un solo elemento
ecológico (por ejemplo, agua, tierras agrícolas o bosques) e ignora los efectos
integrados de la protección ecológica y la restauración de ecosistemas completos (
EPRFE) sobre emisiones netas de carbono. En segundo lugar, ningún estudio ha
realizado evaluaciones cuantitativas para explorar las relaciones de acoplamiento
y coordinación entre los niveles de EPRFE y las emisiones netas de carbono. Para
abordar estas brechas de investigación, este estudio calcula cuantitativamente los
niveles de EPRFE y las emisiones netas de carbono para la provincia de Hubei, y
analiza las relaciones de acoplamiento y coordinación entre ellos; esto permite
determinar la magnitud y ubicación específica del impacto, generando así nuevos
conocimientos para las políticas estratégicas nacionales sobre la construcción de
una civilización ecológica y un desarrollo bajo en carbono. La relación entre
EPRFE, tipo de uso de la tierra y balance de carbono se muestra enFigura 1 .
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Figura 1 . Marco teórico de EPRFE en la promoción del balance de
carbono.
2 . material y métodos
2.1 . Área de estudio
La provincia de Hubei está ubicada en el centro de China dentro de 108 ° 21′42 ″ E
– 116 ° 07′50 ″ E y 29 ° 01′53 ″ N – 33 ° 6′47 ″ N ( Fig. 2 ). Tiene una superficie
total de 185.900 km 2y contiene 17 ciudades. Constituye una parte de la zona
ecológica clave del río Yangtze y tiene una dotación natural y un estado ecológico
prominentes. Reconocida como “la provincia de los mil lagos”, Hubei es una región
con abundantes lagos y humedales. La reserva natural de Shennongjia es una
reserva biológica mundial con muchas especies de animales y plantas preciosas
que contribuyen a la rica biodiversidad de Hubei. Con respecto a la agricultura,
Hubei es una de las principales bases de producción de granos, algodón y
semillas oleaginosas a nivel nacional. Además, Hubei es de importancia crítica
para las estrategias de desarrollo de la “Zona Económica del Río Yangtze” y el
plan “El Aumento de China Central” y ha experimentado un rápido desarrollo
socioeconómico. Uno de los marcadores de este desarrollo es la tasa de
urbanización, que pasó del 41,7% en 2002 al 61,0% en 2019. En Hubei se han
implementado una serie de proyectos de restauración y protección ecológica para
impulsar la calidad ecológica, la productividad agrícola y las condiciones de vida
de las personas, lo que ayuda a garantizar la seguridad ecológica y lograr el
desarrollo regional sostenible. Por lo tanto, la provincia de Hubei es un área de
estudio ideal para analizar la relación entre las emisiones netas de carbono y los
niveles de EPRFE.
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Fig. 2. Location of the study area.
2.2. Data sources
In this study, data from ecological protection and restoration projects were used to
determine EPRFE levels. Meanwhile, data on land-use, agricultural input,
agricultural production, and energy consumption were used to calculate net carbon
emissions.
Data on ecological protection and restoration projects were derived from the Land
Consolidation Plan (2011–2015) for individual cities and the 12th Five-Year Plan
for Environmental Protection of Hubei Province. The land-use data were obtained
from the Natural Resources Department of Hubei and based on annual land-use
change data for the second national land survey. In line with the accounting
method used to calculate the carbon balance, land-use types were classified into
seven categories, covering cultivated land, woodland, grassland, garden plots,
water area, construction land, and unused land. Data on agricultural input,
agricultural production, and energy consumption were sourced from the Hubei
Statistical Yearbook (2014–2018) and the China Statistical Yearbook for Regional
Economies (2014–2018). To avoid statistical errors, the linear regression method
was used to fill in missing values. Smoothing of noise and removal of inconsistent
data were adopted to obtain high-quality data.
2.3. Calculation of EPRFE levels

2.3.1. Selection of indices of EPRFE levels
EPRFE refers to systematic projects that involve ecological protection and
restoration of mountains, rivers, forests, cultivated land, lakes, and grasslands as
complete ecosystems. Over the past few decades, several administrative
departments in China have conducted targeted ecological protection and
restoration projects covering a wide variety of ecological elements. For instance,
the environmental protection department has conducted restorations of the water
environment, and the forestry department has implemented forest and grassland
restoration. Therefore, this study combined various ecological elements managed
by different departments. Subsequently, the types of indices affecting multi-
element ecological protection and restoration projects in their entirety were
classified into Farmlands-Grasslands, Mountains-Forests, and Rivers-Lakes. The
projects implemented by each department were considered as indicator variables
and are defined in Table 1.
Table 1. Selection of indices for the measurement of EPRFE levels.
Type Variable Definition Unit
Farmlands- Level of high- The total scale of Hectares

Grasslands standard basic high-standard basic
farmland farmland
construction construction
(W1) projects
Level of urban– The total scale of Hectares

rural urban–rural
construction construction land
land replacement
replacement projects
(W2)
Type Variable Definition Unit
Level of The overall area of Hectares

agricultural land cultivated land
consolidation supplemented by
(W3) agricultural land
consolidation
projects
Level of land The overall area of Hectares

reclamation cultivated land
(W4) supplemented by
land reclamation
projects
Level of The overall area of Hectares

exploitation of cultivated land
reserve land supplemented by
resources the exploitation of
suitable for reserve land
tillage (W5) resources suitable
for tillage projects
Mountains- Level of forest Supplementary ratio %

Forests management of ecological forest
(W6)
Rivers- Level of water Number of river –

Lakes environment sections controlled,
treatment (W7) watershed and lake
management
projects
As the overall implementation period of each ecological protection project is 2 to 4

years, the relevant data for various projects implemented between 2011 and 2015
were statistically determined to analyze their impact on carbon gains and losses
effectively. To compare the implementation of each project focused on protecting
or restoring a single ecological element with different units of assessment, each
index was Z-score standardized. The specific principles are defined as follows:
(1)Xi=Yi−Y¯Swhere Xi denotes the mean deviation from the standard
deviation, Yi represents the original data, Y¯ is the average value of the
sequence Y1,Y2⋯Yn, and S is the standard deviation of the sequence Y1,Y2⋯Yn.
2.3.2. Methods of EPRFE level calculation
To calculate the protection and restoration level of a single ecological element,
each index was classified using the natural breaks (Jenks) method, which is based
on the standardized results of Z-scores split into five levels. To compare these
results effectively with carbon emissions and carbon sink data, it was necessary to
measure the EPRFE level at the multi-factor level. The process of standardizing
the data and calculating the comprehensive score is presented below.
The standardization method was adopted to process the data from each index at
the multi-factor level, and the positively correlated indices were standardized as
follows:(2)Cij=(Xij−Xjmin)/(Xjmax−Xjmin)
The negatively correlated indices were standardized as follows:
(3)Cij=(Xjmax−Xij)/(Xjmax−Xjmin)
In both equations, Cij is the value after normalization, Xij refers to the statistical
value of each assessment unit index, j represents the different assessment
indices, i is the different assessment units corresponding to index j, Xjmin is the
minimum value of index j, and Xjmax is the maximum value of index j.
The overall score of each assessment unit was obtained using the following
equation:(4)Qi=(∑j=1nqij)×100where Qi denotes the comprehensive score of the
EPRFE level of the i-th assessment unit. The statistical value corresponding to
index j of the i-th assessment unit after qij was standardized and normalized.
2.4. Accounting method for net carbon emissions
At present, the carbon balance can be represented by the carbon neutral
coefficient (CNC) (Guo et al., 2017) or net carbon emissions (Chuai et al., 2019).
The CNC is the ratio of the amount of carbon emitted by carbon sources to the
amount of carbon sequestered by carbon sinks. Net carbon emissions are
represented by the difference between the carbon emissions and the amount of
carbon sequestered by carbon sinks. In this study, we use net carbon emissions to
estimate the carbon balance.
EPRFE projects, such as comprehensive land reclamation, forest reclamation,
returning farmlands to lakes, wetland restoration, and mine reclamation have been
conducted for different ecological elements to enhance regional ecological quality
and achieve sustainable development. These projects tend to affect land-use and
land-cover change and demonstrate direct associations with the material cycle and
energy flow of terrestrial ecosystems. Different land-use and land-cover changes
alter the carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems, causing them to act as carbon
sources or sinks (Yang et al., 2011). The land-use classifications, combined with
relevant research, divide the net carbon emissions from regional land-use into
carbon sources from energy consumption and natural ecosystems that uptake
carbon and act as sinks (Zhao and Huang, 2013). In particular, carbon emissions
caused by economic and social activities are based primarily on energy
consumption, whereas cultivated land, forests, grasslands, garden plots, water
areas, and unused land are considered primarily as natural ecosystems that act as
carbon sinks.
The methods used in this study for calculating carbon emissions and carbon sinks
are presented in Section 2.4.1.
2.4.1. Carbon emissions
(1) Cultivated land
Cultivated land is considered a carbon source through human agricultural activities.

From the perspective of agricultural input, carbon emissions from cultivated land
originate from the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural films,
agricultural machinery, and irrigation. The amount of carbon emitted from cultivated
land can be calculated as follows:(5)Csource−culti=Gfh+Gpn+(Scaj+Wmk)
+Swl+Gafm(6)Scaj=Scβjwhere Csource−culti represents carbon emissions from
cultivated land attributable to agricultural production; Gf,Gp,andGaf, are the
amounts of fertilizer, pesticide, and agricultural films used,
respectively; Sca,Sc,β,Sw,andWm are crop acreage, cultivated land area, cropping
index, irrigation area, and total power consumed by agricultural machinery,
respectively; h,n,j,k,l,andm are the conversion coefficients for fertilizer usage
(0.8575 kg/kg; West and Marland, 2002), pesticide usage (4.9341
kg/kg; Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2016), crop acreage (16.47
kg/hm2; West and Marland, 2002), the total power consumed by agricultural
machinery (0.18 kg/kW; West and Marland, 2002), irrigation area (266.48
kg/hm2; West and Marland, 2002), and agricultural film usage (3.84
kg/Mg; Institute of Resources, Ecosystems, and Environment of Agriculture of
Nanjing Agricultural University, 2016), respectively.
(2) Construction land
Human activities supported by construction land consume a considerable amount

of energy. This study uses the indirect method proposed by Xu et al. (2006),
wherein carbon emissions are characterized by the amount of carbon produced by
the energy consumed by human activity. The energy sources considered include
coal, coke, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and natural gas. The amount of the energy
consumed is converted into a standard coal equivalent using the following formula:
(7)Csource−const=∑Ej=∑(ej×θj×βj)where Csource−const denotes the overall carbon
emissions from construction land, Ej represents the carbon emissions from various
fossil fuels, ej is the consumption of the j-th fossil fuel, θj is the coefficient of
conversion of various fossil fuels into standard coal, as given in the China Energy
Statistical Yearbook, and βj refers to the carbon emission factor of the j-th fossil
fuel, obtained from the IPCC (2006) (Table 2).
Table 2. Main energy carbon emission coefficients (IPCC).
Energy Carbon Energy Carbon
type emission type emission
factor (t/t factor (t/t
standard coal) standard coal)
Raw coal 0.7559 Fuel oil 0.6185
Coke 0.8550 Diesel 0.5714
Other 0.6449 Natural 0.4483

coking gas
products
2.4.2. Carbon sinks
(1) Cultivated land
Cultivated land contributes to carbon sequestration via photosynthesis during the

growing phase of crops. Hubei Province is a critical national production base for
grain, cotton, and oilseed. In line with the cultivation in Hubei Province, wheat,
corn, paddy, soybean, oilseed rape, peanuts, and cotton are the crops considered
in this study. The amount of carbon sequestered by cultivated land is calculated as
follows:(8)CIcrop=∑iCIcrop−i=∑iCcrop−i×(Yeco−i/Hcrop−i)where CIcrop is the carbon
sequestered by crops via photosynthesis throughout the growth
phase, Ccrop−i represents the i-th crop carbon sequestration rate of organic matter
(dry weight) via photosynthesis, and Yeco−iandHcrop−i are the economic production
and economic coefficients of the i-th crop, respectively. These coefficients are
taken from Wang (1996) and are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Economic production coefficient and carbon absorption rate of major
crops in Hubei.
Crop type Wheat Cor Paddy Soybean Oilseed Peanut Cotton
n rape
Economic 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.34 0.25 0.43 0.10

production
coefficient
Carbon 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45

absorption
rate (%)
(2) Woodland
Forests in China make a significant contribution to carbon sequestration, thus

playing a major role as carbon sinks (Liu et al., 2000). The carbon sink for
woodland can calculated as follows:(9)Csink−w=Aw×Fwwhere Csink−w denotes the
total amount of carbon sequestered, Aw refers to the area of woodland,
and Fw represents the carbon sink coefficient of woodland, which has been found
to reach 3.81 t/hm2 (Fang et al., 2007).
(3) Grassland
In China, the biomass and carbon pool of soil organics in grasslands have not
changed significantly over the past two decades. The grassland ecosystem in
China is in a neutral carbon sink (Fang et al., 2007), and the carbon sink for
grassland can be calculated as follows:(10)Csink−g=Ag×Fgwhere Csink−g denotes
the total amount of carbon sequestered, Ag represents the total area of grassland,
and Fg represents the carbon sink coefficient of grassland, which is 0.024 t/(hm 2•a)
according to an analysis of the carbon absorption coefficient of grassland in the
Wuhan Urban Agglomeration (Zhang et al., 2014).
(4) Garden plots
Few existing studies have accounted for carbon emissions from garden plots. The
carbon sequestration capacity of gardens has been equated extensively with that
of woodlands, and the carbon sink for garden plots can be calculated as follows:
(11)Csink−gp=Agp×Fgpwhere Csink−gp denotes the overall amount of carbon
sequestered by garden plots, Agp refers to the area of garden plots,
and Fgp represents the carbon sink coefficient of garden plots, which is 3.81
t/hm2 (Fang et al., 2007).
(5) Water area
Carbon sequestration in water areas consists primarily of carbon fixation therein
and carbon absorption during dry and wet deposition. The surfaces of rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, pit-ponds, and tidal flats are classified as water area in this study.
Carbon sequestration is an important ecosystem service function of wetlands and
can be calculated as follows:(12)Csink−wa=∑iAiβi+Yθwhere Csink−wa denotes the
overall amount of carbon sequestered, Ai represents the area of the i-th water
area, βi refers to the carbon sequestration rate of the i-th water area, Y denotes the
overall area of water area, and θ represents the carbon sequestration rate during
dry and wet deposition. Duan et al. (2008) studied the carbon sequestration of
wetlands in eastern China. Based on their results, 0.567 t/(hm2•a) was applied to
the carbon sequestration rate of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and pit-ponds; 2.356
t/(hm2•a) was applied to that of tidal flats; and 0.0521 t/(hm2•a) was applied to θ.
(6) Unused land
In Hubei Province, unused land consists mostly of barren sandy land, bare land,
saline land, and marshland. The carbon sink for unused land can be calculated as
follows:(13)Csink−un=(Asl+Abl+Asli)×Fun−sbs+Aml×Fmlwhere Csink−un denotes the
total amount of carbon sequestered by unused land; Asl,Abl,Asli,andAml are areas
of sandy land, bare land, saline land, and marshland,
respectively; Fun−sbs represents the carbon sequestration coefficients of sandy
land, bare land, and saline land, each of which is 0.005 t/(hm 2•a) (Shi et al., 2012);
and Fml is the carbon sequestration coefficient of the marshland, which reached
2.356 t/(hm2•a) (Duan et al., 2008).
2.5. Coupling coordination degree model for EPRFE levels and net carbon
emissions
The degree of coupling refers to the degree of influence between systems and
reflects their interaction intensity. Coupling is a specific representation of whether
the relationship between various systems is mutually beneficial or detrimental,
whereas coordination describes a positive relationship between systems. The
coupling degree can be calculated using as follows:
(14)C=(Ie×Ince)/[(Ie+Ince)/2]2where Ie and Ince, denote the intensive utilization index
of the EPRFE level and net carbon emissions, respectively. C, which lies between
0 and 1, represents the degree of coupling between the two systems.
The coupling coordination model is built upon the model for the degree of coupling,
and its specific formula is expressed as follows:(15)D=[C×(aIe+bInce)]where D,
which lies between 0 and 1, represents the degree of coupling coordination
between EPRFE level and net carbon emissions. Both a and b are undetermined
coefficients, which are generally determined by the weights of different systems in
the assessment of coupling coordination. Since ecological protection and low-
carbon development are both important for sustainable development in China, the
EPRFE level and net carbon emissions involved in this study are equally important;
thus, a=b=0.5.
3. Results
3.1. Spatial evolution characteristics of EPRFE levels
The spatial distribution of EPRFE levels over the study period is shown in Fig. 3.
The natural breaks (Jenks) method was employed to divide each index level into
five grades, in which the first grade indicates the minimum EPRFE level and the
fifth grade represents the maximum.

Fig. 3. Spatial characteristics of EPRFE levels in Hubei Province.
For high-standard basic farmland construction (W1), high-level areas are located
primarily in central and eastern Hubei (e.g., Xiangyang, Jingmen, Jingzhou,
Huanggang, and Xiaogan), while low-level areas include Shennongjia and Ezhou.
For urban–rural construction land replacement (W2), Jingmen is the only city in the
high-level area, while the low-level area covers Shennongjia and Huanggang.
Regarding agricultural land consolidation (W3), high-level areas are located
primarily in central and eastern Hubei (e.g., Jingmen, Jingzhou, and Huanggang),
and Shennongjia is the only city in the low-level area. For land reclamation (W4),
high-level areas include Huangshi, Wuhan, Suizhou, and Shiyan, while low-level
areas include Shennongjia and Tianmen. For exploitation of reserve land
resources applied to tillage (W5), Huangshi is the only city in the high-level area,
while Shennongjia, Suizhou, Jingmen, Tianmen, Qianjiang, and Ezhou are low-
level areas. For forest management (W6), Qianjiang is in the high-level area, while
Shennongjia is in the low-level area. For water environment treatment (W7), the
only cities in the high-level and low-level areas are Jingzhou and Shennongjia,
respectively. Finally, for total EPRFE (W-Total), Jingzhou and Jingmen exhibit high
levels, while Shennongjia and Ezhou exhibit low levels.
3.2. Spatiotemporal characteristics of carbon emissions/sinks

The carbon emissions/sinks of 17 cities were calculated based on annual land-use
change survey data, agricultural production and input data, and energy
consumption data of Hubei Province from 2013 to 2017 (Tables 4 and 5). The
results show that the overall carbon emissions from Hubei Province decreased
significantly at a rate of 12.96% from 2013 to 2017. At the same time, the total
carbon sinks went into a decline, with slight fluctuations in 2017.
Table 4. Carbon emissions of cities in Hubei from 2013 to 2017.
City Carbon emissions (104 tons) Rate of
change
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 (%)
Wuhan 2036.12 1903.05 1834.60 1773.98 1769.1 −13.11

9
Huangshi 773.25 787.76 713.77 685.55 674.56 −12.76
Shiyan 228.14 202.12 178.20 166.40 144.44 −36.68
Yichang 1077.41 1164.64 1157.67 1126.20 822.07 −23.70
Xiangyang 1104.49 1194.31 1185.27 1154.00 852.09 −22.85

City Carbon emissions (104 tons) Rate of
change
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 (%)
Ezhou 682.02 663.25 652.91 683.46 638.17 −6.43
Jingmen 532.73 502.24 491.53 484.42 476.76 −10.51
Xiaogan 548.26 611.52 622.68 631.54 700.29 27.73
Jingzhou 328.37 311.23 297.01 283.10 298.64 −9.05
Huanggang 343.97 334.05 321.11 374.56 298.74 −13.15
Xianning 438.27 439.27 403.08 449.80 504.57 15.13
Suizhou 234.11 226.46 165.26 109.34 78.96 −66.27
Enshi 116.43 87.78 83.92 121.58 163.72 40.62
Xiantao 187.25 205.15 163.76 174.69 172.34 −7.96
Qianjiang 184.23 172.99 154.11 134.87 121.69 −33.94
Tianmen 225.62 205.47 194.17 166.14 164.91 −26.91
Shennongji 28.70 19.87 17.40 16.89 14.46 −49.62

a
Total 9069.37 9031.16 8636.45 8536.53 7895.6 −12.96

1
Table 5. Carbon sinks of cities in Hubei from 2013 to 2017.

City Carbon Rate
sinks of
(104 tons chang
) e (%)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Wuhan 195.71 194.77 194.30 176.76 161.99 −17.23
Huangshi 136.88 137.45 138.21 130.06 134.11 −2.02
Shiyan 837.03 836.70 835.35 823.97 811.45 −3.06

City Carbon Rate
sinks of
(104 tons chang
) e (%)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Yichang 744.36 741.19 742.37 720.31 730.24 −1.90
Xiangyang 759.36 736.30 728.47 724.03 718.02 −5.44
Ezhou 57.93 58.20 58.37 51.88 47.07 −18.75
Jingmen 569.67 538.49 540.34 502.56 546.60 −4.05
Xiaogan 364.98 362.66 363.46 330.93 376.84 3.25
Jingzhou 665.42 659.77 659.82 594.01 694.22 4.33
Huanggang 738.20 727.65 725.83 674.13 672.11 −8.95
Xianning 341.53 342.88 344.49 331.06 373.65 9.40
Suizhou 386.31 384.21 386.00 379.10 377.21 −2.36
Enshi 789.44 791.35 792.71 777.29 787.52 −0.24
Xiantao 133.30 133.30 132.76 114.14 119.94 −10.02
Qianjiang 100.78 93.26 89.21 71.80 87.63 −13.05
Tianmen 126.53 119.73 118.55 100.21 126.99 0.36
Shennongji 119.48 119.42 118.05 119.24 119.34 −0.12

a
Total 7066.90 6977.3 6968.3 6621.4 6884.9 −2.57

3 0 8 3
Of all the cities during the study period, Wuhan had the highest carbon
emissions (9316.94×104tons), whereas Shennongjia had the lowest (97.32×104tons).
The carbon emissions from Enshi, Xiaogan, and Xianning grew significantly at a
rate of 40.62%, 27.73%, and 15.13%, respectively; however, all the other cities
experienced a decline in carbon emissions from 2013 to 2017. This phenomenon
was particularly noticeable for cities in the Western Hubei Eco-Cultural Tourism
Circle, such as Suizhou, Shennongjia, and Shiyan, which exhibited significant rates
of decline at of 66.27%, 49.62%, and 36.68%, respectively. Furthermore, Qianjiang
achieved the highest rate of decline among cities in the Wuhan Urban
Agglomeration at a rate of 33.94%, followed by Tianmen, where carbon emissions
declined at a rate of 26.91%. Wuhan, Huangshi, and Huanggang had a rate of
decline of approximately 13%, whereas the rate was below 10% in Ezhou and
Xiantao.
In terms of carbon sequestration, Shiyan ranked the highest (4414.50×104tons) and
Ezhou ranked the lowest (273.45×104tons) during the study period. Jingmen,
Xiantao, Jingzhou, Xianning, and Tianmen were the only cities that displayed an
increasing trend in carbon sequestration from 2013 to 2017. Xianning achieved the
highest rate of increase, approaching 10%. Tianmen had the lowest rate of
increase (0.36%), while other cities had rates between 1% and 5%. However, the
carbon sequestration of Ezhou, Wuhan, Xiantao and Qianjiang decreased
significantly from 2013 to 2017, at rates exceeding 10%. Ezhou had the highest
rate of decline, approaching 18.75%.
3.3. Spatiotemporal characteristics of net carbon emissions
The net carbon emissions of Hubei Province during the study period, as calculated
from measurements taken as part of this study, are listed in Table 6.
Table 6. Net carbon emissions of cities in Hubei from 2013 to 2017.
City Net carbon emissions (104 tons)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Wuhan 1840.41 1708.28 1640.30 1597.22 1607.19
Huangshi 636.38 650.31 575.56 555.50 540.45
Shiyan −608.89 −634.57 −657.15 −657.57 −667.00
Yichang 333.05 423.45 415.29 405.89 91.83
Xiangyang 345.13 458.01 456.80 429.97 134.07
Ezhou 624.09 605.05 594.54 631.57 591.10

City Net carbon emissions (104 tons)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Jingmen −36.93 −36.25 −48.82 −18.13 −69.84
Xiaogan 183.29 248.86 259.22 300.62 323.44
Jingzhou −337.05 −348.54 −362.81 −310.91 −395.58
Huanggang −394.23 −393.60 −404.72 −299.57 −373.37
Xianning 96.74 96.39 58.59 118.74 130.92
Suizhou −152.20 −157.74 −220.75 −269.76 −298.25
Enshi −673.01 −703.57 −708.79 −655.71 −623.80
Xiantao 53.95 71.85 31.00 60.56 52.40
Qianjiang 83.44 79.73 64.90 63.06 34.06
Tianmen 99.08 85.74 75.62 65.93 37.91
Shennongjia −90.78 −99.55 −100.65 −102.35 −104.88
A decline from 2013 to 2017, at a rate of 50.03%, is clearly exhibited, although

some fluctuations were observed in 2014. There were differences among the 17
cities in the speed and magnitude of net carbon emissions. Xiaogan, Huanggang,
Xianning, and Enshi experienced a steady growth in their net carbon emissions
during the study period, whereas other cities exhibited a decline. Suizhou was
characterized by the most significant decline in net carbon emissions (95.6%),
followed by Jingmen (83.1%). The most significant growth in net carbon emissions
occurred in Xiaogan (76.5%).
The spatial distribution of the net carbon emissions of cities in Hubei in 2017 is
shown in Fig. 4. Due to the wide span in the net carbon emission levels of the
different cities, the values from 2013 to 2017 fall in the same interval. Therefore,
the year 2017 was selected to reflect the spatial relationship between net carbon
emissions and the spatial location of various cities. Cities with high and low net
carbon emissions were distributed primarily in eastern and western Hubei,
respectively. Wuhan, Ezhou, and Huangshi, in particular, were areas with high net
carbon emissions (greaterthan500×104tons). Among these, Wuhan had the highest
annual net carbon emissions (1678.68×104tons). Shiyan and Enshi were areas with
low net carbon emissions (lessthan-600×104tons), and Enshi had the lowest carbon
emissions (−672.97×104tons).

Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of net carbon emissions in Hubei Province in
2017.
3.4. Characteristics of the coupling coordination degrees between EPRFE levels
and net carbon emissions
The coupling coordination degree between EPRFE levels and net carbon
emissions was determined from the outcome of the quantitative calculation using
the coupling coordination model (Table 7).
Table 7. Coupling coordination degrees between EPRFE levels and net
carbon emissions in Hubei from 2013 to 2017.
City Coupling degree Coordination degree
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Enshi 0.889 0.889 0.889 0.889 0.893 0.781 0.781 0.781 0.781 0.777
Ezhou 0.880 0.892 0.897 0.905 0.897 0.538 0.530 0.527 0.521 0.527
Huanggang 0.980 0.982 0.982 0.985 0.982 0.853 0.849 0.849 0.841 0.849
Huangshi 0.980 0.971 0.975 0.977 0.978 0.765 0.748 0.754 0.758 0.761
Jingmen 0.994 0.993 0.993 0.993 0.994 0.905 0.902 0.900 0.899 0.906
Jingzhou 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.998 0.965 0.961 0.961 0.959 0.969
Qianjiang 0.979 0.983 0.983 0.982 0.980 0.755 0.748 0.747 0.750 0.753
Shennongjia 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Shiyan 0.981 0.981 0.981 0.979 0.979 0.895 0.894 0.896 0.901 0.901
Suizhou 0.963 0.966 0.963 0.957 0.955 0.775 0.770 0.775 0.784 0.786
Tianmen 0.945 0.950 0.951 0.948 0.946 0.703 0.697 0.696 0.699 0.702
Wuhan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Xiangyang 0.999 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.996 0.748 0.725 0.721 0.723 0.767
Xianning 0.988 0.991 0.991 0.992 0.993 0.772 0.765 0.766 0.761 0.759
Xiantao 0.951 0.958 0.956 0.957 0.957 0.718 0.710 0.712 0.711 0.712
Xiaogan 0.995 0.999 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.777 0.761 0.755 0.751 0.748
Yichang 0.996 0.999 1.000 1.000 0.990 0.740 0.718 0.714 0.717 0.759
In terms of spatial distribution, the regions with a relatively high degree of coupling
were Xiangyang, Jingzhou, Xiaogan, and Yichang, among which Xiangyang
exhibited the highest average degree of coordination (0.999) from 2013 to 2017;
those exhibiting a relatively low degree of coupling included Shennongjia and
Wuhan. The coordination degrees were unevenly distributed in Hubei. Jingzhou,
Jingmen, Shiyan, and Huanggang exhibited a relatively high degree of
coordination, with the highest average degree (0.963) observed in Jingzhou.
Shennongjia, Wuhan, and Ezhou demonstrated relatively low degrees.
Overall, both coupling and coordination degrees between the EPRFE levels and
net carbon emissions of the cities in Hubei Province remained relatively stable from
2013 to 2017, and no significant changes were observed. The average degree of
coupling between EPRFE levels and net carbon emissions in Hubei from 2013 to
2017 was 0.85, and the average degree of coordination was 0.68.
4. Discussion
According to the spatial characteristics of the EPRFE level, Shennongjia is the only
city that remained constant in the first (low-level) grade for indices W1 to W7. This
finding can be explained as follows. Shennongjia is in a mountainous area that is
inconvenient for transportation and its overall population of 79,248 results in a
relatively low intensity of human activity and thus a low level of resultant damage to
the ecological environment. Accordingly, few ecological protection and restoration
projects have been rolled out in this area. Jingmen had a relatively high EPRFE
level. This result was achieved because the Hubei government issued the
“Opinions about supporting acceleration of building a Chinese agricultural valley in
Jingmen” in 2012, prioritizing the construction of that agricultural valley in Jingmen
as part of its provincial strategy. As a consequence, many EPRFE projects were
initiated.
From the perspective of net carbon emissions, cities with high net carbon
emissions, such as Wuhan, Ezhou, and Huangshi, are located primarily in the
Wuhan Urban Agglomeration. Noticeable characteristics of spatial aggregation
were observed in these cities. Wuhan, the capital city, has the largest population
and the most developed secondary and tertiary industries in the region. Hence, its
carbon emissions induced by energy consumption were substantially higher than
those of other cities. This result is consistent with that of Zhang et al. (2014).
Ezhou, which borders Wuhan, has been affected by the rapid economic
development of Wuhan as the economic center of Hubei Province. Although Ezhou
has the smallest area of the cities studied, its per-capita GDP ranks third in the
province. As the government of Wuhan made considerable efforts into dealing with
environmental issues, numerous heavy industry factories moved to Ezhou, which
expedited fossil fuel consumption in the area. Huangshi is a city with a highly
developed mining industry, and this has resulted in high net carbon emissions.
Cities with low net carbon emissions, such as Enshi and Shiyan, are located in
western Hubei. These two cities are within the Western Hubei Eco-Cultural
Tourism Circle, which follows the “two circles and one belt” development
strategy.1 Several national nature reserves and wetland parks are present within
the region. Thus, a large area of woodland contributes to their local carbon sinks.
Cities such as Xiangyang achieved a high coupling degree because of their low-
carbon industrial structure and the fact that city residents followed a low-carbon
lifestyle. In addition, local governments have placed a great emphasis on the
protection and restoration of the ecological environment. In 2015, Xiangyang was
recognized by the provincial government for its outstanding performance in carbon
emission reduction. These two aspects have helped such cities to achieve their
low-carbon development targets. Conversely, Wuhan is characterized by a low
coupling degree, since its net carbon emissions account for over 90% of the total in
Hubei Province within the study period.
Cities with high coordination levels, such as Jingzhou, Jingmen, and Shiyan, are
also characterized by high EPRFE levels, indicating that the implementation of
EPRFE projects has significantly impacted the reduction of net carbon emissions in
these regions. Cities, such as Ezhou and Shennongjia, which exhibited low
coordination levels also had low EPRFE levels, indicating that very few EPRFE
projects were implemented within these areas. Thus, the mutually beneficial effects
of implementing EPRFE projects and achieving a reduction in net carbon
emissions were relatively low.
An average coupling degree of 0.85 indicates that a strong relationship exists

between the implementation of EPRFE projects and net carbon emissions. An
average coordination value of 0.68 suggests that the implementation of EPRFE
projects may promote a reduction in net carbon emissions, but the effect is at a
moderate level and could be further enhanced. Within the study period, policies
related to nature conservation and management of the ecological environment
favored the implementation of a series of ecological protection and restoration
projects, including land reclamation, wetland restoration, return of farmland to
forests, ecological restoration of mines, construction of ecological forests, and
water environment treatment. However, an ecosystem is dynamic, and these
projects were managed by various departments, which resulted in them being
independent and decentralized, and, therefore, in a lack of systematic
management and protection in later stages. Consequently, the effects of these
projects on net carbon emissions during this period were not apparent.
This study has several limitations. First, the impacts of non-natural factors, such as
modes of production and lifestyle, on net carbon emissions were not considered. In
future research, a more refined assessment of the impact of EPRFE projects on
net carbon emissions will be used to control these factors. Second, China is
currently implementing a comprehensive governance and management approach
for mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes, and grasslands. The harness level
and management capabilities, including dynamic management modes and
government emphasis on these projects, have been greatly improved. Evaluating
and comparing the impact of these projects on net carbon emissions in different
regions through monitoring the implementation of these projects in recent years will
be the scope of future research based on this study.
5. Conclusions
This study constructed index systems to assess EPRFE levels, calculated net
carbon emissions based on land-use types, and analyzed their spatiotemporal
distribution characteristics in Hubei Province from 2013 to 2017. Furthermore, a
scientific and quantitative method was used to explore the relationships between
the effects of implementing EPRFE projects and net carbon emissions. The results
show that the spatial distribution of EPRFE projects exhibited different
agglomerations, and no systematic trends were found. Spatial aggregation was
observed from the distribution of net carbon emissions, with cities in the Wuhan
Urban Agglomeration characterized by higher net carbon emissions due to their
developed secondary industries. Cities of the Western Hubei Eco-Cultural Tourism
Circle exhibited lower net carbon emissions due to their large areas of woodland
and excellent endowment of natural resources. Although the implementation of
EPRFE projects was found to have promoted the reduction of net carbon
emissions through a reduction in carbon emissions and an increase in carbon
sequestration, the average coordination degree was moderate, indicating a
potential for further improvement.
This study can be used as a reference for assessing the effects of the
implementation of EPRFE projects. Thus, it can enhance the positive effects of
such projects, helping China to fulfill its carbon emission reduction goals. With the
promulgation of the Master Plan for the Major Projects for the Protection and
Restoration of National Key Ecosystems (2021–2035), a range of EPRFE projects
is to be rolled out over the next 15 years. To improve the positive effects of EPRFE
projects on the reduction of net carbon emissions, polices and measures for
adaptive environmental assessment and management, such as systematic
planning and management, continuous investigation, dynamic regulation,
performance evaluation, and frequent maintenance, should be addressed.
CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ying Wang: Methodology, Validation. Hongwei Zhang: Conceptualization,
Supervision, Writing - review & editing. Chen Zhang: Data curation,
Investigation. Cong Liu: Data curation.
Declaration of Competing Interests
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program
of China (grant number: 2016YFA0602502).
Appendix. Supplementary materials
Download : Download Acrobat PDF file (209KB)
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Ying Wang is a Ph.D. candidate at the School of Public Administration, China University of
Geosciences. She received her M.S. degree from New York University and a B.S. degree from
Michigan State University. Her research interests include resource and environmental
management, land-use and land-cover change, carbon emissions, and ecological
management.
Hongwei Zhang is an Assistant Professor in the School of Public Administration, China
University of Geosciences. He received his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from China University of
Geosciences. His research interests are in resource and environmental management, land
economy and land planning, climate change, and land-use. His research has appeared in the
Journal of Rural Studies, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
among others.
Chen Zhang is an M.S. candidate at School of Public Administration, China University of
Geosciences. His research interests include land-use efficiency, resource and environmental
management.
Cong Liu is an M.S. candidate at School of Public Administration, China University of
Geosciences. His research interests include ecological protection and restoration, and
environmental management.
1
“Two circles and one belt” refers to the Wuhan City Circle, Western Hubei Eco-Cultural
Tourism Circle and the Yangtze River Belt
View Abstract
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Saltar al contenido principalSaltar al artículo

¿La protección ecológica y la restauración de ecosistemas

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120578 Obtenga derechos y contenido

Realizar sistema de índices y medición cuantitativa para el nivel EPRFE.

Los proyectos de EPRFE tienen efectos positivos en la promoción de la

El grado de coordinación del nivel EPRFE y las emisiones netas de carbono

Ecosistemas de gama completa

Emisiones netas de carbono

2.3. Calculation of EPRFE levels

Farmlands- Level of high- The total scale of Hectares

Level of urban– The total scale of Hectares

Level of The overall area of Hectares

Level of land The overall area of Hectares

Level of The overall area of Hectares

Mountains- Level of forest Supplementary ratio %

Rivers- Level of water Number of river –

As the overall implementation period of each ecological protection project is 2 to 4

Cultivated land is considered a carbon source through human agricultural activities.

Human activities supported by construction land consume a considerable amount

Raw coal 0.7559 Fuel oil 0.6185

Coke 0.8550 Diesel 0.5714

Other 0.6449 Natural 0.4483

Cultivated land contributes to carbon sequestration via photosynthesis during the

Economic 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.34 0.25 0.43 0.10

Carbon 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45

Forests in China make a significant contribution to carbon sequestration, thus

1. Download : Download high-res image (828KB)

3.2. Spatiotemporal characteristics of carbon emissions/sinks

Wuhan 2036.12 1903.05 1834.60 1773.98 1769.1 −13.11

Huangshi 773.25 787.76 713.77 685.55 674.56 −12.76

Shiyan 228.14 202.12 178.20 166.40 144.44 −36.68

Yichang 1077.41 1164.64 1157.67 1126.20 822.07 −23.70

Xiangyang 1104.49 1194.31 1185.27 1154.00 852.09 −22.85

Ezhou 682.02 663.25 652.91 683.46 638.17 −6.43

Jingmen 532.73 502.24 491.53 484.42 476.76 −10.51

Xiaogan 548.26 611.52 622.68 631.54 700.29 27.73

Jingzhou 328.37 311.23 297.01 283.10 298.64 −9.05

Huanggang 343.97 334.05 321.11 374.56 298.74 −13.15

Xianning 438.27 439.27 403.08 449.80 504.57 15.13

Suizhou 234.11 226.46 165.26 109.34 78.96 −66.27

Enshi 116.43 87.78 83.92 121.58 163.72 40.62

Xiantao 187.25 205.15 163.76 174.69 172.34 −7.96

Qianjiang 184.23 172.99 154.11 134.87 121.69 −33.94

Tianmen 225.62 205.47 194.17 166.14 164.91 −26.91

Shennongji 28.70 19.87 17.40 16.89 14.46 −49.62

Total 9069.37 9031.16 8636.45 8536.53 7895.6 −12.96

Table 5. Carbon sinks of cities in Hubei from 2013 to 2017.

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Wuhan 195.71 194.77 194.30 176.76 161.99 −17.23

Huangshi 136.88 137.45 138.21 130.06 134.11 −2.02

Shiyan 837.03 836.70 835.35 823.97 811.45 −3.06

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Yichang 744.36 741.19 742.37 720.31 730.24 −1.90

Xiangyang 759.36 736.30 728.47 724.03 718.02 −5.44

Ezhou 57.93 58.20 58.37 51.88 47.07 −18.75

Jingmen 569.67 538.49 540.34 502.56 546.60 −4.05

Xiaogan 364.98 362.66 363.46 330.93 376.84 3.25

Jingzhou 665.42 659.77 659.82 594.01 694.22 4.33

Huanggang 738.20 727.65 725.83 674.13 672.11 −8.95

Xianning 341.53 342.88 344.49 331.06 373.65 9.40

Suizhou 386.31 384.21 386.00 379.10 377.21 −2.36

Enshi 789.44 791.35 792.71 777.29 787.52 −0.24

Xiantao 133.30 133.30 132.76 114.14 119.94 −10.02