Useful Algebraic Manipulations and Factorizations

P 
n−1
Result 1. - Difference of same powers xn − y n = (x − y) i=0 xn−1−i y i for non-negative integers n and all reals
x, y.
P 
2n
Result 2. - Sum of same odd powers x2n+1 + y 2n+1 = (x + y) i=0 (−1)i (x2n−i y i ) for non-negative integers n
and all reals x, y.

Result 3. - Special Case of Result 1. - Difference of squares x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y) for all reals x, y.

Result 4. - Special Case of Result 1. - Difference of cubes x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) for all reals x, y.

Result 5. - Sum of Squares - Different representations x2 + y 2 = (x + y)2 − 2xy = (x − y)2 + 2xy for all reals x, y.

(x+y)2 +(y+z)2 +(z+x)2

Result 6. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + xy + yz + zx = 2 for all reals x, y, z.

(x−y)2 +(y−z)2 +(z−x)2

Result 7. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx = 2 for all reals x, y, z.

Result 8. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2(xy + yz + zx) = (x + y + z)2 for all reals x, y, z.

Result 9. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 3(xy + yz + zx) = (x + y)(y + z) + (y + z)(z + x) + (z + x)(x + y) for all reals x, y, z.

Result 10. xy + yz + zx − (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = (x − y)(y − z) + (y − z)(z − x) + (z − x)(x − y) for all reals x, y, z.

x2 +y 2 +(x+y)2
Result 11. x2 + y 2 + xy = 2 for all reals x, y.

x2 +y 2 +(x−y)2
Result 12. x2 + y 2 − xy = 2 for all reals x, y.

Result 13. 4(x2 + xy + y 2 ) = 3(x + y)2 + (x − y)2 for all reals x, y

Result 14. 3(x2 − xy + y 2 ) = (x2 + xy + y 2 ) + 2(x − y)2 for all reals x, y

Result 15. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − (xy + yz + zx) = (x − y)2 + (x − z)(y − z) for all reals x, y, z

Result 16. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − (xy + yz + zx) = 16 [(2x − y − z)2 + (2y − z − x)2 + (2z − x − y)2 ] for all reals x, y, z

Result 17.
(xy + yz + zx)(x + y + z) = (x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x) + (xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) + 3xyz
for all reals x, y, z

Result 18.
(x + y)(y + z)(z + x) = (x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x) + (xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) + 2xyz
for all reals x, y, z

Result 19. (xy + yz + zx)(x + y + z) = (x + y)(y + z)(z + x) + xyz for all reals x, y, z

Result 20. 3(x + y)(y + z)(z + x) = (x + y + z)3 − (x3 + y 3 + z 3 ) for all reals x, y, z

Result 21. (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) = (xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) − (x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x) for all reals x, y, z

Result 22.
(x − y)(y − z)(z − x)(x + y + z) = (xy 3 + yz 3 + zx3 ) − (x3 y + y 3 z + z 3 x)
for all reals x, y, z
Result 23.

(x − y)(y − z)(z − x)(xy + yz + zx) = (x2 y 3 + y 2 z 3 + z 2 x3 ) − (x3 y 2 + y 3 z 2 + z 3 x2 )

for all reals x, y, z

Result 24. x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz = 12 (x + y + z)[(x − y)2 + (y − z)2 + (z − x)2 ] for all reals x, y, z

Result 25 a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a − b)2 + (a + b + c)(a − c)(b − c) for all real a, b, c

Result 26 (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) − 8abc = 2c(a − b)2 + (a + b)(a − c)(b − c) for all real a, b, c

Result 27 ab2 + bc2 + ca2 − 3abc = c(a − b)2 + b(a − c)(b − c) for all real a, b, c

Result 28 a4 + b4 + c4 − a3 b − b3 c − c3 a = (a2 + ab + b2 )(a − b)2 + (b2 + bc + c2 )(a − c)(b − c) for all real a, b, c

Result 30 ! !
n−1
X n−1
X
n+i n i
x + 1 = (x − x + 1) x
i=1 i=0

Result 31
x3 + y 3 + 3xy − 1 = ((x + y) − 1)((x + y)2 − (x + y) − 3xy + 1)

Result 32. 2(a2 + b2 )(b2 + c2 )(c2 + a2 ) = (a2 b + b2 c + c2 a − abc)2 + (b2 a + c2 b + a2 c − abc)2

Result 33
(a + b + c)(a + b − c)(a − b + c)(−a + b + c) = 2a2 b2 + 2a2 c2 + 2b2 c2 − a4 − b4 − c4
-from Problems from the Book Result 34

a4 + 4b4 = (a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)(a2 + 2b2 − 2ab)

-Sophie Germain

Result 35
a+b a+c b+c
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = xyz + 4 =⇒ x = ,y = ,z =
c b a
(also Problems from the Book)

Result 36 (x + y + z)3 − (y + z − x)3 − (z + x − y)3 − (x + y − z)3 = 24xyz for all reals x, y, z.

Result 37 (x − y)3 + (y − z)3 + (z − x)3 = 3(x − y)(y − z)(z − x) for all reals x, y, z.

Result 38 (x − a)3 (b − c)3 + (x − b)3 (c − a)3 + (x − c)3 (a − b)3 = 3(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
Q
(x − a) for all reals x, a, b, c.

Result 39: ”Lagrange’s Identity”

(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = (ac − bd)2 + (ad + bc)2 for all reals a, b, c, d

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Result 40. x4 + x2 y 2 + y 4 = (x2 + xy + y 2 )(x2 − xy + y 2 ) = 4 · (x2 + y 2 + (x + y)2 )(x2 + y 2 + (x − y)2 ), for
∀{x, y} ∈ R.

Result 41. x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 3xyz for {x, y, z} ∈ R if and only if one or both of the following conditions are true:
{x + y + z = 0, x = y = z}.

Result 42. xyz = 1 ⇐⇒ x = ab , y = bc , z = c

a for ∀{a, b, c, x, y, z} ∈ R.

Result 43. If a, b, c are the sides of a triangle, the identity or inequality can be transformed to
a = x + y, b = y + z, c = z + x, where {x, y, z} ∈ R+ . The converse is also true. (This is somewhat related to

2
geometry, but it allows one to brute-force proof a geometric inequality with algebraic technniques that hold for
postiive reals instead of the inconvenient sides of a triangle).

Result 44.

(a + b)2 + (a − b)2 = 2(a2 + b2 )

Result 56.
(1 + a2 )(1 + b2 )(1 + c2 ) + 8abc = (1 + abc)2 + (a + bc)2 + (b + ca)2 + (c + ab)2
√
Result 57. The maximum of K sin x + J cos x is K 2 + J 2.

Result 58
(a + b + c)(ab + bc + ca) = a2 (b + c) + b2 (c + a) + c2 (a + b) + 3abc

Result 59
a2 + b2 + (a + b)2 = 2(a2 + ab + b2 )

Result 60
a4 + b4 + (a + b)4 = 2(a2 + ab + b2 )2

Result 61 A useful substitution

2a 2b 2c
xy + yz + zx + xyz = 4 =⇒ x = ,y = ,z =
b+c c+a a+b

Result 62 m4 + n4 + p4 + u4 − 4mnpu = (m2 − u2 )2 + (n2 − p2 )2 + 2(mu − np)2

Result 63
(a + b)3 − a3 − b3 = 3ab(a + b)

Result 64
(a + b)5 − a5 − b5 = 5ab(a + b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

Result 65
(a + b)7 − a7 − b7 = 7ab(a + b)(a2 + ab + b2 )2

Result 66
(a2 + bc)(b2 + ac) (a2 + bc)(c2 + ab) (b2 + ac)(c2 + ab)
+ + = a2 + b 2 + c2
(a + c)(b + c) (a + b)(b + c) (a + b)(a + c)

Result 67 :

- (a2 − nb2 )(c2 − nd2 ) = (ac + nbd)2 − n(ad + bc)2

- (a2 + b2 + c2 )(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = (ax + by + cz)2 + (ay − bx)2 + (az − cx)2 + (bz − cy)2

Result 68 x, y, z 6= −1
1 1 1 a+b b+c c+a
xyz = x + y + z + 2 =⇒ + + = 1 =⇒ x = ,y = ,z =
x+1 y+1 z+1 c a b

Note: x = 2p, y = 2q, z = 2r gives

a+b b+c c+a
4pqr = p + q + r + 1 =⇒ p = ,q = ,r =
2c 2a 2b

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Result 69
a + b + c = abc =⇒ arctan a + arctan b + arctan c = 180◦
ab + bc + ca = 1 =⇒ arctan a + arctan b + arctan c = 90◦

Result 70:
ma nb pc qd
+ + + + (m + n + p + q) =
b+c+d a+c+d a+b+d a+b+c
m n p q
(a + b + c + d)( + + + )
b+c+d a+c+d a+b+d a+b+c
where a, b, c, d, m, n, p, q ∈ R

Result 71: a2 b + b2 c + c2 a + ab2 + bc2 + ca2 = a(b − c)2 + b(c − a)2 + c(a − b)2 + 6abc

Result 72: a2 b + b2 c + c2 a + ab2 + bc2 + ca2 = (a + b + c)(ab + bc + ca) − 3abc