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CAPÍTULO 4

LA NECESIDAD Y DISPONIBILIDAD DE MINERALES

74 La 'necesidad' de minerales

74 Necesidad como demanda

75 Necesidades básicas

76 Buscar un equilibrio entre el consumo excesivo y la satisfacción de


las necesidades básicas

76 Demanda, uso y consumo

77 La disponibilidad de minerales

78 Medidas fisicas

80 Medidas económicas

81 Escasez global versus local Evaluación de la

82 disponibilidad a largo plazo

82 Conclusión

83 Notas finales
La satisfacción de las 'necesidades' es fundamental para la definición de
Es probable que la demanda de productos minerales aumente con el aumento
desarrollo sostenible. Este capítulo examina las formas en que los
de la población y el ingreso real per cápita. A juzgar por la experiencia de los
diferentes minerales pueden satisfacer las necesidades de la sociedad o de
países industrializados, el aumento de los ingresos conduce a un aumento
los individuos. Las personas se benefician del uso de minerales y productos
de la esperanza de vida y la población. A medida que avanza el desarrollo, la
elaborados a partir de ellos en un número casi infinito de formas. En
educación y la atención de la salud se extienden a las mujeres. Por esta y
muchos casos el beneficio es indirecto, como la energía que hace funcionar
otras razones, la tasa de natalidad disminuye y el crecimiento de la
una computadora, y se origina en la quema de carbón o en el giro de una
población se desacelera y finalmente cesa. Se podría esperar una
turbina eólica de metal.
tendencia similar en los países en desarrollo durante los próximos 50-100

años. La población mundial en 2000 era

de 6.100 millones, y se prevé que alcance aproximadamente 9.300 millones


en
2050. 1 La mayoría de los economistas también creen que el ingreso per

Las personas también se benefician de la producción de minerales cápita aumentará durante el próximo siglo. Las preguntas difíciles con respecto

directamente a través de trabajos en minería, refinación o e al uso de minerales son, ¿qué tan rápido aumentará el ingreso? ¿Qué
reciclaje,
a través de los ingresos y medios de vida que obtienen de la
indirectamente porcentaje del crecimiento se producirá en los países en desarrollo, donde

elaboración y venta de productos hechos en parte con minerales. Cualquier es probable que la elasticidad de la demanda de minerales sea mayor y se

discusión sobre las necesidades termina acompañadapregunta de la concentre en productos intensivos en metales, como la infraestructura? ¿Cuáles
de
disponibilidad: si hay suficientes minerales físicamente disponibles para son las implicaciones para el uso de minerales y metales de la migración

continuar satisfaciendo las necesidades humanas y si la sociedad masiva del campo a la ciudad

podrá o estará dispuesta a pagar los costos económicos, sociales y ?

ambientales de obtenerlos en forma utilizable.

junto con
El crecimiento de la población mundial, Particularmente en los países industriales, los aumentos de la demanda
Las mejoras en los niveles de vida en muchos países y el
provocados por el crecimiento de la población y los ingresos pueden
desarrollo de nuevos usos para los impulsado
minerales el
haritmo compensarse
en parte con aumentos en la eficiencia con la que se utilizan los
explotación, en parte facilitado por de
avances en la nología que recursos
minerales como resultado de las nuevas tecnologías. Los materiales mejorados
tec menor costo
los permiten extracción
una más y de junto con han dado lugar a reducciones en el uso de la mayoría de los productos
eficiente un minerales

mayor reciclaje. discusión de la necesidad, la segunda parte del en muchas aplicaciones, y la creación de nuevos materiales ha llevado a la

capítulo analiza la disponibilidad. sustitución. Sin embargo, los aumentos en la población y los ingresos,

particularmente en países en fases de desarrollo intensivas en


metales,
indudablemente tendrán ramificaciones importantes para la demanda de
minerales
y estimularán métodos más eficientes de producción, uso y reciclaje.

La 'necesidad' de minerales

Una forma de evaluar la necesidad de minerales es observar los

beneficios derivados del uso de productos minerales, desde los minerales

que se usan directamente, como los suplementos dietéticos de zinc, hasta


Si el uso per cápita actual de aluminio y cobre en los países más
usos duraderos como herramientas, ladrillos y aviones o productos no
industrializados fuera igualado por el resto del mundo, la demanda de
minerales que se fabrican mediante el uso de minerales (como alimentos
estos metales se cuadruplicaría con creces. Incluso teniendo en cuenta
producidos con tractores, arados y otros equipos fabricados con metal). La
que los datos de consumo en los países industriales incluyen
sociedad actual depende en gran medida
materiales relacionados con los minerales que se exportan posteriormente
de los materiales relacionados con los minerales para la generación y
transmisión a los países en desarrollo, la producción de minerales necesaria para
de energía, la movilidad y el transporte, la información y la comunicación,
el mantener los niveles actuales de uso de manera uniforme superaría con
suministro de alimentos, la prestación de servicios de salud y muchos
otros creces el nivel actual.
servicios. El uso y la producción de minerales también es esencial en términos

de los medios de vida proporcionados a través del empleo y la generación

de ingresos (ver Capítulo 3) y para un número significativo de economías

nacionales (ver Capítulo 8).

Necesidad como demanda

Incluso cuando la discusión se limita a los beneficios del uso de minerales, hay
EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE

7 MMSD
diferentes formas de considerar la necesidad.

Una definición básica de libro de texto de economía de 'necesidad' lo ve como

MMSD EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO


SOSTENIBLE
7
MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

sinónimo de la demanda de un producto en particular. Los


Cualquier intento de enfocarse en lo que es 'derrochador' implica
consumidores individuales determinan la necesidad por sus elecciones en el
necesariamente juicios de valor que variarán de una persona a otra y de
mercado. Si hay personas dispuestas a pagar un precio que proporcione
una región a otra. Por ejemplo, ¿es la Estatua de la Libertad un
un rendimiento adecuado al productor, el producto es, por definición,
ejemplo de derroche excesivo de cobre? La legitimidad general del uso
"necesario". Desde este punto de vista,
la cantidad de cualquier mineral que se necesita es la también está en ocasiones en duda. Por ejemplo, algunas personas
que los consumidores
cantidad comprarán al precio vigente. argumentan que el uso de piedras preciosas para adornos no es
'necesario' para cumplir con los requisitos humanos básicos o podría
ser reemplazado por otros materiales. De manera similar, algunos opinan
El problema con este enfoque estrictamente de libre mercado es la noción de que el almacenamiento de oro por parte de los bancos centrales está
que un deseo más la capacidad de pago constituye una necesidad. Sin subsidiando la minería a gran escala y la degradación ambiental. 4

embargo, el hecho de que exista un mercado para algo no constituye una

demostración adecuada de que existe una necesidad para todos los

propósitos.
de equipararUnla problema
necesidad con la demanda es la falta de voluntad que
(Vea el Capítulo 5.)
muchos
tienen para decir que alguien que es obviamente indigente no necesita un

simplemente porque no puede pagarlo. Desde la perspectiva de los más

pobres, es posible que "necesiten" viviendas hechas de ladrillo y hormigón o


Necesidades básicas
una olla de metal para cocinar incluso si no pueden satisfacer su
Para cualquier debate sobre la necesidad es fundamental el objetivo
demanda.
de aliviar la pobreza. La Declaración Universal de Derechos

Humanos

establece que:
Toda persona tiene derecho a un nivel de vida adecuado para la salud
y el
A otros les preocupa que algunos tengan 'más de lo que necesitan', bienestar de sí mismo y de su familia, incluidos alimentos,
vestido,
consuman en exceso, o la idea relacionada de que la 'necesidad' no
vivienda y atención médica y los servicios sociales necesarios,
aumenta simplemente porque la demanda lo hace: la demanda es sensible y el
al gusto del consumidor, la moda y la publicidad (como se ve en la derecho a la seguridad en caso de desempleo o
enfermedad. ,
publicidad actual campaña destinada a estimular la demanda de oro).

Además, en ausencia de los productos básicos 'necesarios', la demanda

puede satisfacerse de otras formas. Un enfoque de libre mercado puede

llevar al subconsumo de algunos y al sobreconsumo de otros porque se


Aunque en muchas partes del mundo estos derechos siguen siendo
basa en lo que las personas pueden pagar y no en lo que realmente
una aspiración, el sector de los minerales ya desempeña un papel
necesitan. . Finalmente, hay un sinfín de ejemplos de cosas para las que
clave para lograrlos mejorando la vida de los más pobres. Un mejor
existen mercados pero que la sociedad prohíbe, como los tesoros
acceso al agua potable, mejores técnicas agrícolas, transporte a los
arqueológicos, los productos elaborados a partir de especies en peligro de
mercados, generación y transmisión de electricidad y una mejor atención
extinción y los clorofluorocarbonos.
médica dependen de la disponibilidad de recursos para comprar
productos minerales o los servicios que brindan. Pero el acceso a estos
servicios depende de la capacidad de pago de las personas y los
gobiernos.

El debate sobre la necesidad también puede abordarse desde una (Vea el Capítulo 11.)
perspectiva ética, que puede basarse en la preocupación de que algunos

no tienen suficiente para vivir o en la creencia de que las economías

de consumo modernas tienden a generar un `` consumo cada vez

mayor y derrochador ''. 2

Una forma de abordar esto es el enfoque de ecoeficiencia, que


busca incrementos en la proporción de beneficios económicos
entregados por un bien o servicio por unidad de impacto ambiental y
agotamiento de recursos. El concepto de eco-suficiencia tiene como
objetivo asegurar que haya "suficiente para todos" en términos de
acceso a recursos ambientales críticos. 3 Este enfoque normativo
tiene sus propias dificultades, entre ellas quién decide qué es "un
desperdicio" y qué es "suficiente", y en función de qué criterios.
LA NECESIDAD Y DISPONIBILIDAD DE MINERALES
CAPÍTULO 4

Por lo tanto, los minerales pueden hacer una contribución

importante a la realización de los diversos activos de capital

(naturales, sociales, humanos, físicos y financieros) que las

personas utilizan para construir sus medios de vida. El empleo

en el sector minero también puede desempeñar un papel

importante a la hora de proporcionar una fuente de ingresos

o reducir la vulnerabilidad estacional al desempleo.

Cualquier intento de calcular la necesidad mínima de un individuo de

materiales relacionados con los minerales implicará en última instancia

juicios de valor, particularmente con respecto a la necesidad de bienes

privados. Se encuentran muchos de los minerales que pueden mejorar la

calidad de vida de las personas


en bienes y servicios comunales o públicos, tales como sistemas de suministro
Además, otros argumentan que estas preocupaciones
de agua potable y electricidad, redes de comunicación y transporte
pueden abordarse en parte mejorando los métodos de
público, mejores servicios de salud e instalaciones médicas y mejores
producción, refinación, uso y reciclaje o reduciendo el uso
escuelas. Por tanto, una medida ideal de si se están satisfaciendo las
de materiales.
necesidades básicas podría realizarse a nivel comunitario. Mientras tanto,
como aproximación, las estadísticas sobre el consumo nacional per cápita
se pueden utilizar para
Lo que está claro es que para que los niveles de uso sean óptimos en
contrastar países en diferentes niveles de desarrollo. (Vea el Capítulo 3.) términos de desarrollo sostenible, los gobiernos necesitarán utilizar un
paquete de herramientas de política voluntarias y obligatorias
que tengan en cuenta la equidad, la eficiencia y los factores
ambientales. Estas herramientas incluyen mecanismos de mercado,
regulación y campañas educativas. Se han utilizado enfoques
A pesar de esta importante concepción de la necesidad de materiales obligatorios para conservar materiales escasos en tiempos de
relacionados con los minerales, se han realizado pocas investigaciones para guerra, por ejemplo, cuando se consideraba que la seguridad
examinar cuánto aumentaría la demanda de metales si el mundo cubriera nacional estaba en juego. Pero es importante recordar el papel
algunas de las necesidades más básicas de las personas más pobres. que pueden jugar los mercados en la conciliación de la oferta y
la demanda. El peligro real es cuando los mercados no pueden
ajustarse, ya sea porque no existen (por ejemplo, para el
carbono en la atmósfera) o porque están distorsionados por

Buscando un equilibrio entre el consumo excesivo y la satisfacción de políticas, como los subsidios en diversas formas. Empresas

las necesidades básicas también 8( Consulte el Capítulo 11 para obtener más

los Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1998 del Programa de Desarrollo información).
de la

revela que el 86% del dinero que se destina al consumo personal en


ONU
todo el mundo lo gasta solo el 20% de la población mundial. El 20% más

rico también utiliza el 58% de la energía total, tiene el 74% de todas las

líneas telefónicas y posee el 87% de todos los vehículos. 6 Debe lograrse

un equilibrio entre la expansión del consumo de minerales en los países en

desarrollo para satisfacer las necesidades básicas de poblaciones en


Demanda, uso y consumo
crecimiento y su expansión para igualar los niveles de consumo actuales

en los países industrializados. En palabras de Gro Harlem Brundtland, “es Esta discusión se ha centrado más en las necesidades satisfechas mediante

simplemente imposible que el mundo en su conjunto mantenga un nivel el uso de minerales que en las necesidades satisfechas produciéndolos. En

occidental de consumo para todos. De hecho, si 7 mil millones de parte, esto se debe a que medir los beneficios económicos totales

personas consumieran tanta energía y recursos como lo hacemos hoy en obtenidos de los medios de vida basados en la minería es aún más difícil

el oeste, necesitaríamos 10 mundos, no uno, para satisfacer todas de determinar que, por ejemplo, las estadísticas sobre el reciclaje o la

nuestras necesidades ”. 7 cantidad de diferentes metales que se pierden cada año. Parece que muchas

de las preguntas clave que podría plantear el análisis del desarrollo

sostenible no han sido prioridades de investigación. Por ejemplo, una

pregunta clave puede ser la elasticidad de la demanda en niveles de

ingresos muy bajos: si los pobres del mundo tuvieran ingresos más altos,

¿cómo afectaría esto a la demanda de minerales? Esto ha recibido mucha

menos atención que el comportamiento de los consumidores de altos


Algunos observadores sostienen que para lograr patrones globales
ingresos.
más equitativos de uso de minerales sin exceder los límites
ecológicos, se deben reducir los niveles de uso en los países
industrializados. (Consulte el Capítulo 11 para una discusión de los
conceptos y objetivos de eficiencia de recursos). Pero la opinión
La Figura 4–1 proporciona una versión simplificadaa de
cadena
l de
está dividida y hay muchos contraargumentos y soluciones
producción
y uso del aluminio. Se han producido unos 573 millones de toneladas
alternativas. Por ejemplo, en términos de lograr patrones de uso más
aluminio desde que se inició la producción de ese metal en el siglo XIX. No
equitativos, no hay garantía de que limitar el consumo de los ricos
hay estadísticas precisas sobre cuánto de ese metal se sigue utilizando;
necesariamente mejorará el consumo de los pobres. Además, la noción
podría ser del orden de 400 millones de toneladas.
Aproximadamente 25 millones
de imponer límites al consumo plantea cuestiones éticas sobre las
de
toneladas de aluminio ingresan al almacén de material en uso cada
libertades individuales, así como preocupaciones políticas prácticas.
algunos de materiales reciclados y otros de materiales
Figura 4-1. Esquema de los flujos de aluminio

Aluminio de virgen materiales por año Aluminio producido por año Aluminio regresó de uso por año

Residuos
arroyos

Inventario de
aluminio
en uso Recuperado, reciclado, reutilizado por
año

Nota: El tamaño de las cajas no está a escala.

Cada año se retira una cantidad desconocida de aluminio del stock en uso,
minerales. 11 Esta preocupación volvió a alcanzar su punto máximo en
una parte incierta del cual se recupera o recicla y el resto se pierde. Parte
el debate sobre minerales estratégicos de finales de la década de
de lo que se 'pierde' puede permanecer fuera de uso durante un tiempo
1970.
considerable, pero aún puede estar potencialmente disponible para su

recuperación si aumenta el precio.


Algunos están realmente perdidos o son El debate tiene realmente tres Una es que el mundo se 'agotará'
costosos de encontrar y recuperar, como los barcos en el fondo del
demasiado vertientes.
físicamente de minerales que se puedan ubicar en depósitos de los
que sean recuperables con tecnología actual o razonablemente
previsible.
segundo esUn
la sustitución: si la sociedad se
'agota'
físicamente o decide
Los precios más altos pueden crear incentivos para
por cualquier motivo reducir la producción, ¿qué se utilizaría en su
reciclar o reutilizar una mayor proporción de un material que el
recuperar,
lugar? Yseelrelaciona con el costo de
tercero
que
producción:
que incluso si todavía
hay depósitos disponibles, los costos ambientales, sociales o
financieros de su extracción son prohibitivos.

se retira de las
existencias.
Al igual que el carbón, ciertamente no existe una forma viable de recuperarlos y 'gigantesco y hasta ahora insaciable' por los materiales y señaló las

reutilizarlos. Esto va al centro de la discusión sobre la sostenibilidad del uso de consecuencias para la seguridad del agotamiento de las fuentes nacionales de

minerales. De hecho, algunos productos básicos se "consumen" completamente

en uso. Pero la mayor parte del oro, el cobre o el aluminio que se haya

producido todavía está en uso y puede seguir siéndolo, si se mejora la

eficiencia de los materiales y el reciclaje.

La disponibilidad de minerales

En términos de extracción la mayoría de los minerales no pueden


primaria,
considerarse un recurso renovable en ninguna escala temporal de relevancia

para la raza humana. 9 En consecuencia, existe un extenso historial de

preocupación por el uso de minerales y la disponibilidad a largo plazo. 10 Por

ejemplo, a principios de la década de 1950, la Comisión de Política de

Materiales del presidente de los EE. UU. Expresó su preocupación por el apetito
Fue con el aumento de la preocupación por el medio ambiente en las

décadas de 1960 y 1970 que la dependencia de la sociedad industrial de

los minerales comenzó a cuestionarse, sobre todo en 1972. Límites del

crecimiento Este informe concluyó que `` si las tendencias actuales de

crecimiento de la población mundial, la industrialización, la producción de

alimentos y el agotamiento de los recursos no se controlan, los límites del

crecimiento se alcanzarán en algún momento dentro de los próximos cien

años ''. 12 El primer 'shock petrolero' de 1973-74 sirvió para enfocar aún

más las preocupaciones públicas sobre la posibilidad de quedarse sin

recursos vitales. Desde entonces, la controversia se ha desatado, en gran

parte negativa, pero vale la pena señalar que una gran parte de la tesis se

referían a las

los Límites del funciones y límites del ecosistema, no a la escasez de


recursos.
crecimiento advirtió, por ejemplo, sobre los efectos del aumento de las

concentraciones de dióxido de carbono en la atmósfera debido a las

actividades humanas y el impacto potencial sobre el clima.


entregado hoy por el Panel Intergubernamental sobre Cambio
Medidas fisicas
Climático. 13

La medición física es intuitivamente atractiva. Hay varios enfoques.En


un
extremo están los cálculos de la esperanza de vida de las s
reservas (la
que reflejan los costos de oportunidad de encontrar y cantidades de un producto mineral que se encuentra en los recursos
producir minerales. El mejor enfoque puede ser tratar de del subsuelo, que son conocidas y rentables de explotar con la
combinar estas perspectivas. La evaluación de la En el
tecnología y los precios existentes). (Consulte laotro extremo
Tabla 4-1.)
disponibilidad se complica aún más cuando se considera están
los cálculos de la esperanza de vida de toda la base de (todos de
dentro del marco del desarrollo sostenible. recursos
un mineral

materia contenida en la corteza terrestre). (Consulte la tabla 4-2.) En el


medio, y mucho más fáciles de defender, se encuentran cálculos delosla
de vida de varias evaluaciones de recursos, es decir, esperanza
las reservas de un

producto mineral más la cantidad contenida en depósitos que son económicos


pero que todavía no descubiertos o que se espera que se vuelvan
económicos
como resultado de nuevas tecnologías u otros desarrollos en un
futuro
previsible. (C onsulte la Figura 4-2.) Desafortunadamente, obtener la
evaluación correcta de los recursos no es sencillo. Es más útil llamar a
las reservas "inventarios de trabajo", ya que están sujetas a revisión
constante. Por ejemplo, las reservas probadas de carbón a finales de 1985
se situaban en
954.000 millones de toneladas. Quince años después, a pesar de la
extracción y el consumo significativos en los años intermedios, las reservas
se calcularon en 984 mil millones de toneladas. 14

Tabla 4-1. Expectativas de vida de las reservas económicas mundiales identificadas, materias primas minerales seleccionadas

Mineral 1999 1997-1999 Esperanza de vida en años, a tres Promedio anual

mercancía una Reservas segundo Promedio anual tasas de crecimiento en primaria crecimiento en la producción

producción primaria segundo producción C 1975–99 (%)

0% 2% 5%

Carbón 987 x 10 9 4561,3 x 10 6 216 84 49 1.1

Petróleo crudo 1035 x 10 9 23,7 x 10 9 44 31 23 0,8

Gas natural 5145 x 10 12 80,5 x 10 12 64 41 29 2.9

Aluminio 25 x 10 9 123,7 x 10 6 202 81 48 2.9

Cobre 340 x 10 6 12,1 x 10 6 28 22 18 3.4

Hierro 74 x 10 12 559,5 x 10 6 132 sesenta y cinco 41 0,5

Dirigir 64 x 10 6 3070,0 x 10 3 21 17 14 - 0,5

Níquel 46 x 10 6 1133,3 x 10 3 41 30 22 1,6

Plata 280 x 10 3 16,1 x 10 3 17 15 13 3,0

Estaño 8 x 10 6 207,7 x 10 3 37 28 21 - 0,5

Zinc 190 x 10 6 7753,3 x 10 3 25 20 dieciséis 1,9

una Para metales distintos del aluminio, las reservas se miden en términos de contenido de metal. Para el aluminio, las reservas se miden en términos de mineral de bauxita. segundo Las reservas se miden en toneladas métricas, excepto el petróleo crudo

(en barriles) y el gas natural (en pies cúbicos). C Las cifras de esperanza de vida se calcularon antes de redondear los datos de reserva y producción media. Como resultado, las expectativas de vida que se muestran en las columnas 4, 5 y 6 pueden

desviarse ligeramente de las expectativas de vida derivadas de los datos de reserva que se muestran en la columna 2 y los datos de producción primaria anual que se muestran en la columna 3.

Fuentes: Tilton (2002); Oficina de Minas de los Estados Unidos (1977); Servicio Geológico de Estados Unidos (2000a); Servicio Geológico de Estados Unidos (2000b).
Cuadro 4-2. Expectativas de vida de la base de recursos, productos minerales seleccionados

Mineral Recurso 1997-1999 Esperanza de vida en años, a tres tasas Promedio anual

mercancía una base Promedio anual de crecimiento en primaria crecimiento en la

(toneladas metricas) una producción primaria segundo producción producción 1975–99

0% 2% 5% (%) segundo

Carbón C n/A 4561,3 x 10 6 n/A n/A n/A 1.1

Petróleo crudo C n/A 23,7 x 10 9 n/A n/A n/A 0,8

Gas natural C n/A 80,5 x 10 12 n/A n/A n/A 2.9

Aluminio 2,0 x 10 18 123,7 x 10 6 89,3 x 10 9 1065 444 2.9

Cobre 1,5 x 10 15 12,1 x 10 6 124,3 x 10 6 736 313 3.4

Hierro 1,4 x 10 18 559,5 x 10 6 2,5 x 10 9 886 373 0,5

Dirigir 290,0 x 10 12 3070,0 x 10 3 9,4 x 10 6 607 261 - 0,5

Níquel 2,1 x 10 12 1133,3 x 10 3 1,8 x 10 6 526 229 1,6

Plata 1,8 x 10 12 16,1 x 10 3 111,8 x 10 6 731 311 3,0

Estaño 40,8 x 10 12 207,7 x 10 3 196,5 x 10 6 759 322 - 0,5

Zinc 2,2 x 10 15 7753,3 x 10 3 283,7 x 10 6 778 329 1,9

una La base de recursos para los productos minerales se calcula multiplicando su abundancia elemental medida en gramos por tonelada métrica por el peso total (24 x 1018) en toneladas métricas de la corteza terrestre. Refleja la cantidad

de ese material que se encuentra en la corteza. segundo Las cifras para la producción anual promedio de 1997–99 y el crecimiento porcentual anual de la producción para 1975–99 provienen del Cuadro 4–1 y las fuentes allí citadas. C No se

dispone de estimaciones de la base de recursos de carbón, petróleo crudo y gas natural. El Servicio Geológico de EE. UU. Y otras organizaciones proporcionan evaluaciones de los recursos recuperables finales de petróleo, gas natural y

carbón. Si bien a veces se les conoce como estimaciones de la base de recursos, no intentan medir todo el carbón, el petróleo y el gas natural que se encuentran en la corteza terrestre. Como resultado, es más apropiado considerarlos

como estimaciones de recursos que como evaluaciones de la base de recursos.

Fuentes: Cuadro de Tilton (2002). Los datos sobre la base de recursos se basan en la información de Erickson (1973) pp.22-23 y en Lee y Yao (1970).

Figura 4-2. Reservas, recursos y base de recursos algunos de los elementos más escasos, como el cobre (número 28
Fuente: Tilton (2002)
en orden de aparición en la corteza terrestre), se encuentran en

grandes depósitos en concentraciones cientos o incluso miles de

Identificado Sin descubrir veces mayores que el promedio de la corteza.

Económico
Reservas
La viabilidad de la industria minera se basa en la disponibilidad continua
de minerales que han sido enriquecidos naturalmente por
Increasing economic feasibility

Recursos
procesos geoquímicos que ocurren en la corteza terrestre. Los
Antieconómico
minerales extraíbles de cobre, zinc y plomo están todos muy
enriquecidos en comparación con el promedio de la corteza. Sin
Base de recursos
embargo, una gran proporción de la masa total de elementos, incluidos
los metales, que se encuentran en la corteza terrestre se distribuye como
Mayor seguridad geológica
sustitutos atómicos en minerales de muy baja ley. La extracción y el
procesamiento de estos raras veces es factible. pero

Los geólogos clasifican los elementos como geoquímicamente abundantes o ¿quedan por explotar metales geoquímicamente escasos a partir de

geoquímicamente escasos. Once elementos abundantes, incluidos tres minerales enriquecidos?

metales ampliamente utilizados, hierro, aluminio y magnesio, constituyen el

99% de la corteza terrestre. Los aproximadamente 90 elementos conocidos

que dan cuenta del resto pueden considerarse geoquímicamente escasos.


15

El cobre es un buen ejemplo aquí. A nivel mundial, la ley promedio del


Por tanto, sería fácil suponer que todos los elementos del primer grupo
mineral de cobre extraído actualmente es de aproximadamente
son fáciles de producir, mientras que los del segundo pueden ser
0,8%. Dado que, en igualdad de condiciones, las leyes más altas normalmente
mucho más difíciles. Sin embargo, gracias a los procesos geológicos
se explotan primero, la ley promedio del mineral ha estado cayendo y se
que dan lugar a la formación de minerales, esto no siempre es así.
espera que continúe cayendo con el tiempo. Sin embargo, los geólogos
Por ejemplo,
estiman que en algún mineral
MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

Sin embargo, las baterías y el uso de plomo en pinturas y gasolina

provocaron una caída de la producción primaria durante el mismo período en

que el reciclaje y la producción secundaria aumentaron a más del doble. 20

Pero para la mayoría de los minerales, al menos a mediano plazo, mientras

que la demanda general de productos minerales sigue aumentando, es

probable que el efecto sobre la producción primaria de un mayor reciclaje

sea mínimo. Los esfuerzos para reducir la intensidad del material en la

fabricación y el diseño de productos también pueden contribuir a reducir

la demanda de extracción primaria. (Las claves de los avances en el

reciclaje y la intensidad de los materiales se analizan en el Capítulo 11.)

En segundo lugar, la reducción en la disponibilidad de un producto mineral

puede llevar a su reemplazo por otro. El aluminio puede reemplazar al cobre en

ciertos usos finales, por ejemplo. Las tecnologías también pueden

grade between 0.1% and 0.01% a ‘mineralogical barrier’ will modificarse para aceptar sustitutos de materiales relacionados con

be encountered. 16 Crossing this line could result in a staggering minerales. (Véanse los Capítulos 2 y 5.) No obstante, los méritos relativos

increase in the costs of producing copper, as different and de

much more
energy-intensive processing techniques would need to be used. substitution between minerals should be evaluated on a case-by-
Moreover, the water required to mine copper from non- case basis, taking into account the implications for
enriched crustal rock in quantities comparable to current US sustainable development.The same applies to situations
consumption using existing technologies would amount to something where mineral commodities may be replaced by other
like five times the annual flow of the Mississippi River. 17 As a materials.
result, the recovery of copper from common crustal sources is
currently economically and ecologically not viable.
Third, new sources of mineral commodities, such as from
beneath Earth’s crust (or, indeed, from space) may seem far-fetched
today but are feasible and should certainly not be discounted.
21

Estimates of peak production of minerals from primary sources 1993-94. 19

depend on numerous assumptions but often go well beyond the


life expectancy of known reserves. For example, using certain Government policies regulating the recycling of car
assumptions about the role of technology, recycling, and substitution
affecting copper demand and availability, it has been proposed
that copper mine production will peak in about 50-60 years. 18

This contrasts with the estimate of 18-28 years for known copper
reserves.

Medidas económicas

Optimists point to four major problems with the fixed-stock


paradigm and the estimates of long-term availability that it gives
rise to. First, they argue that this approach ignores secondary
production and recycling, and the fact that many mineral
commodities are not destroyed after they are used. Recycling can
significantly affect the rate of primary production, and hence of
depletion. For example, the use of lead in the US grew by
about 15% between 1970 and

THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

8
THE NEED FOR AND AVAILABILITY OF MINERALS CHAPTER
4

En cuarto lugar, señalan los optimistas, el paradigma de

acciones fijas ignora el papel fundamental de la nueva

tecnología. Las nuevas tecnologías de exploración, como la

sísmica 3D y la prospección hiperespectral, han aumentado

enormemente la capacidad de encontrar nuevos suministros

de minerales. 22 Además, es concebible que en algún momento

en el futuro, la nueva tecnología pueda permitir la recuperación

de materias primas minerales de depósitos de muy baja ley,

incluso depósitos al otro lado de la barrera mineralógica. Por otro

lado, también es posible que la nueva tecnología no sea

suficiente para permitir la explotación completa de los

depósitos de menor ley que aún se encuentran en este lado de la

barrera mineralógica. En este caso, el aumento de los costos

podría erradicar la demanda mucho antes de que el recurso se

explote por completo. Por lo tanto, la cantidad de un producto

mineral que aún debe explotarse es en gran medida

irrelevante si el costo de extracción es prohibitivamente alto.

El agotamiento económico ocurre antes de que el agotamiento

físico se convierta en un problema.

For these reasons, proponents of the opportunity-


cost approach favour an emphasis on
economic measures of

MMSD EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO


SOSTENIBLE
8
disponibilidad de recursos. Tres de estas medidas son ampliamente
conditions reflects trends in the value of mineral resources in the
reconocidas: los costos marginales de extracción y producción, el precio
ground.The relevant type of resources here are those that are
de mercado de los productos básicos y los costos de uso.
currently just barely economic to exploit.The dearth of data on
user costs makes it difficult to estimate this indicator over long
periods, and the few existing studies have posted different
Los costos marginales (el costo de producir una unidad más del producto
findings. In any case, the impacts of new technology can make user
básico en varios niveles de producción) se centran en el proceso de
costs irrelevant. For example, Sweden benefited greatly from the
producción y su impacto en la disponibilidad. En un importante
exploitation of its iron ore deposits to supply the European steel
estudio publicado en 1963, HJ Barnett y C Morse demostraron que a
industry in the first half of the twentieth century. But the ability of
pesar del considerable crecimiento en el consumo de materias primas
these mines to compete was diminished by the technological
minerales en los Estados Unidos, entre 1870 y 1957 los costos de
leap in the 1960s that made the ocean transport of bulk
producción cayeron en más del 75%. Atribuyeron esta dramática
commodities possible. Had Sweden decided to save these deposits
reducción a los impactos de la nueva tecnología, que permitió la
in the hope of realizing higher profits in the future, it would likely
explotación de yacimientos conocidos, pero anteriormente
not have benefited. In retrospect, the user costs of mining Swedish
antieconómicos, permitió sustituir recursos menos escasos por otros
iron ore in the first half of the twentieth century were zero. More
más escasos y redujo los recursos necesarios para producir bienes y
recently, technological breakthroughs (such as new leaching
servicios finales. 23 Hubo varias críticas al estudio, incluido que no
methods for copper, gold, and nickel) have changed the
consideró insumos como el consumo de energía además de la mano
economics of some metals.
de obra y el capital, que ignoró los crecientes costos ambientales y que
eligió 1957 como su punto de corte, mientras que si el estudio había
ampliado, podría haber mostrado un aumento en los costos. 24 A pesar
de estas críticas, los hallazgos han demostrado ser sólidos y
sugieren la creciente disponibilidad de productos minerales a lo largo
del tiempo.

suelo para su explotación futura. 26 Esta medida bajo ciertas

Los precios de muchos productos básicos minerales a precios constantes

también han caído durante el siglo pasado. Sin embargo, las tendencias

recientes son más difíciles de interpretar. (Véase el Capítulo 2.) Si bien algunos

estudios muestran que los precios continúan cayendo y son optimistas sobre la

disponibilidad de minerales a largo plazo, otros sugieren que la escasez ahora

está aumentando. 25

A pesar de la tendencia histórica, es poco probable que los precios reales

sigan cayendo indefinidamente, por lo que esta tendencia se

estabilizará o posiblemente se revertirá en algún momento. Las reservas

son sensibles a los precios y a la cantidad de dinero gastado en

exploración. Cuando los precios han subido, el gasto en exploración ha

aumentado y la cantidad de reservas minerales conocidas ha aumentado.

Muchas partes del mundo todavía están subexploradas utilizando los

métodos más modernos.

La tercera medida económica son los costos de usuario: el valor presente de

las ganancias futuras que un productor perdería como resultado de

aumentar la producción actual en una unidad. El argumento aquí es que la

disminución de las ganancias futuras surge porque el aumento de la producción

hoy deja depósitos de minerales de menor calidad o de menor calidad en el


A pesar de los problemas descritos, las medidas económicas permiten

dos conclusiones generales: primero, el agotamiento no ha resultado en

escasez de productos minerales durante el siglo pasado, a pesar de que

la demanda de esos productos nunca ha sido tan alta. En segundo

lugar, las tendencias a largo plazo en la disponibilidad no son fijas y

pueden cambiar en cualquier dirección. Solo porque la disponibilidad de

minerales haya aumentado en el pasado, no hay garantía de que continúe

haciéndolo en el futuro.Los factores subyacentes que influyen en la oferta y

la demanda de minerales, como las nuevas tecnologías y la tasa de

crecimiento económico mundial, podrían cambiar de manera que en

última instancia conducen a la escasez económica.

Escasez global versus local


La disponibilidad de minerales también se puede considerar en el

contexto geográfico de los mercados. Por ejemplo, cuando los productos

básicos tienen un alto valor por unidad de peso, como las piedras

preciosas y el oro, pueden enviarse a cualquier lugar y competir en los

mercados mundiales. En el otro extremo del espectro se encuentran los

productos básicos con una relación valor / peso baja, como áridos y

arena. Los costos de transporte de estos materiales dictan que solo se

pueden vender en un mercado local. (Véase el recuadro 4-1.) Se puede

vender una gama intermedia de materiales (por ejemplo, piedra caliza y

algunos grados de carbón) en amplios mercados regionales, pero no

pueden competir a nivel mundial.


MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

Recuadro 4–1. Áridos en la Región Metropolitana de São Paulo Estos suelos contienen la mayoría de las reservas conocidas de níquel en

el mundo, pero no han sido susceptibles de recuperación económica

hasta hace poco.

área metropolitana es el mayor consumidor de grava y arena del país. Entre 1994 y 2000, el consumo anual de grava en São Paulo aumentó de 11,8 millones a 17,7 millones de toneladas. La región es también el mayor productor de grava y arena
Además de la explotación de reservas minerales terrestres
convencionales, es importante considerar otras fuentes de minerales.
Es concebible que los vertederos puedan ser importantes reservas
de metales en el futuro. 27

More knowledge about deposits that are presently


uneconomic to exploit could provide useful insights on the future
availability of mineral commodities.

Technology and input prices cover all the variables that affect the
cost of producing mineral commodities other than geological
ciales de grava y arena en el área metropolitana ya no son accesibles debido al crecimiento urbano. La expansión descontrolada de las parcelas de viviendas en áreas periféricas ha resultado en conflictos de uso de la tierra y el cierre de muchas canteras de grava y aren
considerations.The cost-reducing effects of new technology as well
as changes in the prices of labour, capital, energy, and materials
need to be taken into account. In the past, the effect of the latter on
availability has been dwarfed by new technology; although this
may happen again in the future, it is impossible to forecast it.

El reciclaje y otras medidas de conservación de recursos también

pueden reducir la necesidad de extraer minerales del suelo. Cuanto

más sombrías sean las perspectivas para la producción primaria,

mayor será el papel probable del reciclaje (para los productos minerales

que se pueden reciclar) y viceversa.


Fuente: Coelho (2001).

Para los bienes vendidos en los mercados locales, la escasez local puede surgir

mucho antes de que el mineral se enfrente a la escasez a nivel regional o global. Conclusión

En general, seacepta que es poco probable que el mundo se enfrente a


una
escasez de productos minerales de importancia comercial a nivel mundial en

el próximo medio lo. Cuantas más proyecciones superen los 50


sig
Evaluación de la disponibilidad a largo plazo años, menos certera será la situación.

La disponibilidad a largo plazo productos minerales depende del


de
resultado de las fuerzas competitivas del agotamiento y la nueva
tecnología.
La tasa de agotamiento depende de varios factores, incluidos los
Sin embargo, una pregunta clave es si a la sociedad le interesa de
geológicos y tecnológicos. Los factores geológicos tienen en cuenta la alguna
manera adoptar políticas para restringir o prohibir la extracción de
incidencia y la naturaleza de las ocurrencias minerales. El patrón de algunos
minerales debido a preocupaciones sobre la escasez Responder a
distribución afectará la física.
tasa de agotamiento; a medida que avanza el agotamiento, se esto requiere una consideración de cómo se obtienen los beneficios del
explotarán leyes más bajas de mineral. Si el cambio hacia leyes más uso del mineral y los metales. o en términos de medios de vida se
bajas es suave o no depende de la geoquímica del mineral y de la puede reemplazar. Ya sea que el sustituto sea otro mineral o no,
forma en que se adopten los avances en las tecnologías de producirlo tendrá consecuencias ambientales.
procesamiento de minerales; La lixiviación ácida a alta presión (HPAL)
es un ejemplo de esto. Si tiene éxito en los lugares donde se ha
aplicado hasta ahora, HPAL podría cambiar significativamente la
economía de la recuperación de níquel de ciertos suelos tropicales El paradigma de existencias fijas no es una base suficiente para
llamados lateritas. determinar la disponibilidad de minerales: las medidas económicas,
así como la posibilidad de escasez local, deben tenerse en
cuenta al evaluar si

EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE


82 MMSD
los recursos minerales cubrirán las necesidades en el futuro. la Parte III.
Una consideración vital es hasta qué punto las personas están dispuestas a

confiar en las nuevas tecnologías para contrarrestar las consecuencias del

agotamiento de los minerales, independientemente de cómo lo definan. Las

tecnologías afectan no solo la capacidad de obtener acceso a los


recursos
minerales, sino también a las nuevas aplicaciones y sustitutos de los mismos.
los
servicios que brindan los
minerales.

Aunque las tendencias en la producción y el uso de minerales y en la

base de recursos estimada han reducido las preocupaciones de que el

mundo se está 'quedando sin minerales', los límites potenciales que los

factores ambientales y sociales pueden imponer a la disponibilidad de

minerales están recibiendo una atención creciente. Los desarrollos que

pueden limitar la disponibilidad de minerales incluyen:

• la disponibilidad de energía o los efectos ambientales del uso


de energía a medida que aumenta la energía por unidad de
producción en leyes de mineral más bajas;

• la disponibilidad de agua para la producción de minerales o los


impactos ambientales del uso de cantidades crecientes de agua en
leyes de mineral más bajas;

• society’s preference to use land for reasons other than


mineral production, whether for biological diversity and
pristine wilderness protection, cultural significance, or
agriculture and food security;

• community intolerance of the impacts of the


minerals industry;

• changing patterns of use; and


• ecosystem limits on the build-up of mineral products or by-
products (especially metals) in the air, water, topsoil, or
vegetation.

Incluso cuando la preocupación se limita a factores físicos, la

disponibilidad reducida puede tener implicaciones ambientales o sociales.

Por ejemplo, desde una perspectiva ambiental, la extracción de minerales

de menor ley puede resultar en una mayor generación de desechos. El

aumento de la escasez también puede requerir que los bienes se transporten

a distancias más largas hasta los mercados, lo que aumenta los impactos

ambientales del transporte. También puede significar que las minas se

abren en sitios que son menos deseables desde una perspectiva social o

ambiental, especialmente cuando los minerales se producen y venden en

un mercado local.

Dado que los recursos minerales no son renovables, una


preocupación adicional es la forma en que se invierten o utilizan
los ingresos obtenidos del agotamiento. Estos temas están en el
centro de los desafíos del desarrollo sostenible y se analizan en
Notas finales

1 Proyección de variante media de la División de Población, Departamento


de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales, Naciones Unidas, en
http://www.un.org/esa/population/demobase.
2 Este argumento fue presentado con fuerza en Packard (1960).

3 Véase, por ejemplo, Robins y Roberts (1996).


4 Joven (2000).
5 Naciones Unidas (1948) Parte 1 del artículo 25.

6 PNUD (1998) p.2.


7 Brundtland (1994).
8 Véase, por ejemplo, WBCSD (2001).

9 Esta sección se basa en gran medida en Tilton (2002).

10 El debate sobre la disponibilidad de recursos se remonta al menos 200


años a los economistas clásicos, como Malthus, Ricardo y Mill, aunque los
últimos 30 años han sido particularmente activos. Véase, por ejemplo,
Meadows et al. (1972) y Meadows et al. (1992).
11 Véase Packard (1960).

12 Meadows y col. (1972).

13 Houghton y col. (2001).


14 British Petroleum (1986); British Petroleum (2001).
15 Wedepohl (1995).
dieciséis Skinner (1976).

17 Gordon y col. (1987).

18 Ayres y col. (2001).

19 El Grupo de Trabajo Interagencial sobre Ecología Industrial, Flujos de Materiales y

Energía como se reproduce en Brown et al. (2000) pág.14.


20 Consulte USGS, en http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ commodity /

lead.
21 Gertsch y Maryniak (1991).
22 Gingerich y col. (2002).
23 Barnett y Morse (1963).
24 Cleveland (1991) págs. 289-317; Johnson y col. (1980); Hall y Hall (1984).

25 Hotelling (1931); Kesler (1994); Slade (1982).


26 Los costos de usuario también se denominan alquiler de Hotelling y alquiler de

escasez; ver Tilton (2002) Capítulo 3.


27 Ayres y col. (2001).
MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

CAPÍTULO 5

ESTUDIOS DE CASO SOBRE MINERALES

86 Los metales

86 Una descripción general

92 Acero

93 Aluminio

96 Cobre

97 Dirigir

99 Oro

105 Combustibles y minerales industriales

105 Carbón

108 Potasa

109 Notas finales


MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

The purpose of this chapter is to apply the general analysis


of steel, aluminium, copper, lead, and gold.The second section
developed in Chapter 4 to a range of individual minerals to see
treats a fuel mineral (coal) and an industrial mineral (potash). 2 Most
what conclusions can be drawn about need and availability.While it
of what can be said
would be interesting and valuable to apply these methods to
sobre la disponibilidad física se estableció en el Capítulo 4, pero se
any mineral commodity, space and availability of data require a
abordarán las limitaciones ambientales, sociales y de otro tipo sobre la
selection of a limited number from among the over 90
disponibilidad para cada uno de estos minerales.
products commonly sold.While materials such as sand and
gravel represent a high fraction of total mining activity, they
tend to be sold in local markets, each with its own set of issues and
concerns. It seemed appropriate therefore to select minerals of
Los metales
major economic importance that are traded in world markets.

Una descripción general

Por volumen, el acero es, con mucho, el metal industrial


más importante. (Véase el cuadro 5-1.) El consumo de acero en
2000 superó con creces el consumo de aluminio, el segundo
Otros minerales, como el zinc, la piedra caliza o las piedras preciosas, metal más utilizado en 2000. 3

también habrían sido muy interesantes, y un estudio de las arcillas


industriales tuvo que ser excluido por razones de espacio. 1
Durante los últimos 25 años, el crecimiento de la demanda de metales ha
Era imposible cubrir todo. La longitud de cada sección no debe
sido más rápido en las regiones que experimentan un rápido desarrollo, los
tomarse como una indicación de nada más que lo que se necesita
países en transición, que tienen una demanda sustancial para su uso en
para expresar los problemas y no tiene la intención de favorecer o
infraestructura, como vivienda, agua y suministro de electricidad. (Véanse las
desfavorecer ningún producto.
Figuras 5-1 y 5-2.) El rápido crecimiento de la demanda de plomo en estas

regiones refleja la creciente demanda de baterías de plomo, muchas de ellas

para automóviles. Los países en transición, en general, tienen un nivel


Esto incluye la mayoría de los metales. Por lo tanto, la primera sección de
moderado de industrialización e infraestructura , y estamos en el escenario
este capítulo se centra en varios metales, comenzando con una descripción

general y luego pasando a estudios específicos.

Cuadro 5-1. Producción, consumo y reciclaje de metales

Acero Aluminio Cobre Dirigir Oro

Total acumulado 32 mil millones 573 millones 409 millones 204 millones 128.000–140.000

producción mundial toneladas de toneladas toneladas una toneladas una toneladas

acero bruto

Anual reciente 837 millones 24,9 millones 15,1 millones 6,2 millones 3948

consumo mundial toneladas toneladas toneladas toneladas toneladas

Previsión de consenso para 0,8% 3% 2,9% 1,1% 4,3%

crecimiento del consumo en los próximos

10 años

Participación del metal total Estados Unidos 79%, Norteamérica mundo occidental Estados Unidos 70%, mundo occidental

consumo derivado de Europa Oriental 35%, occidental 35% resto del oeste 35%

material reciclado 55%, Oriente y Europa 31%, mundo 55%

Sudeste asiático 52%, Asia 25%,

resto del oeste mundo 29%

mundo 46%

una Producción mundial de 1900 a 2000.

Fuente: CRU International; producción de cobre y plomo de USGS.

EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE

8 MMSD
Figura 5-1. Consumo de metales: tasas de crecimiento regionales, 1975-2000
Fuente: CRU International

Tasa de crecimiento 7%

Tasas de crecimiento mundial: Aluminio 3%


6% Cobre 2.9%
Plomo 1.1%
Acero 0.4%
5%

4%

3%

2%

1%

0%
- 1%

- 2%

- 3%
Asia África Australasia America latina Europa Oriental Norteamérica Bloque del Este

Aluminio Cobre Dirigir Acero*

* Fechas de 1975 a 1999

Figura 5-2. Consumo de metales en comparación con la población, por región y para países seleccionados, 2000
Fuente: CRU International

% del total 45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

India Medio Este y Otralatín


China yÁfrica, Asia Otro Antiguo occidental Unido Japón Oriental pavo Sur CanadáTaiwán Australia
Estados Europa Corea
América Sudeste Asiático Europa Soviético
Unión

Aluminio Cobre Dirigir Acero Oro % de la población mundial

cuando se puede esperar un crecimiento más rápido en el consumo de La distribución de la demanda de acero entre los países industrializados
metales. En las economías industriales, la demanda de metales creció a y en transición muestra una menor disparidad que en el caso de los
tasas inferiores al promedio mundial durante los últimos 25 años, ya que la metales no ferrosos, lo que refleja el hecho de que el acero es una
demanda de gasto en infraestructura fue menor. materia prima industrial básica y fundamental incluso en los países

menos desarrollados.
MMSD EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE

87
MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

No es sorprendente que, dado el uso de metales en una amplia variedad


cantidad de metal producido e importado, no tiene en cuenta si
de aplicaciones industriales y de consumo (véanse el cuadro 5-2 y la
los productos fabricados con el metal se venden en el país o se
figura
exportan. Por lo tanto, Corea del Sur y Taiwán parecen tener niveles
5-3), existe una relación positiva razonablemente fuerte entre el
de consumo de metales extraordinariamente altos porque están muy
consumo per cápita y el producto interno bruto (PIB) per cápita. .
involucrados en la fabricación de metales y son los principales
(Véase el capítulo 2). Surge una distinción significativa entre países
exportadores de productos metálicos y baterías de plomo. Medido en
con un PIB per cápita superior o inferior a 10.000 dólares EE.UU. Un
el punto de uso final, el consumo real de metales en estos dos países
gran número de países se agrupan por debajo de este nivel, y
sería mucho menor. Al mismo tiempo, los países en las primeras
casi todos utilizan menos de 6 kilogramos (kg) de aluminio, 5 kg.
etapas de desarrollo no utilizan suficiente producto final para justificar
de cobre y 200 kg de acero per cápita. (Véase el cuadro 5-3.) Por
la fabricación local, por lo que importar bienes de uso intensivo de
encima de este punto de corte, el consumo per cápita aumenta con
metales, que no se registran en las estadísticas de consumo de
bastante rapidez porque parece ser el nivel en el que se desarrollan
metales.
importantes industrias de semifabricación para atender la demanda
interna y los mercados de exportación.

El reciclaje tiene un papel importante que desempeñar en las transiciones

hacia el desarrollo sostenible. En 2000,

Se reciclaron 15,6 millones de toneladas de chatarra de aluminio en todo el


Cabe señalar que las estadísticas sobre el uso de metales
mundo. La tasa de reciclaje es el porcentaje de
pueden ser engañosas, dado que el consumo se mide por

Cuadro 5-2. Metales o materiales competidores en algunas aplicaciones de uso final de gran tamaño

Industrias Materiales / metales en competencia

Transporte:

Vehículos de motor Hierro fundido y acero se utilizan en la construcción de vehículos de motor. La necesidad de reducir el peso de los automóviles ha

llevado a la introducción de aluminio en partes de motor y cada vez más en partes de carrocería. El aluminio ofrece la misma o mejor

resistencia con un peso más ligero en comparación con el acero, aunque el costo del aluminio por tonelada (cuatro o cinco veces más que el

acero) es prohibitivo. La industria del acero ha respondido demostrando que los automóviles se pueden construir con acero y aún así lograr

gran parte del ahorro de peso asociado con los automóviles que contienen altas proporciones de aluminio. Otros materiales, como magnesio y

plásticos de ingeniería, también compiten por su uso en componentes de automoción.

Armazones de aviones Aluminio ganó su primer mercado masivo cuando se utilizó como alternativa a balsa en la fabricación de fuselajes.

Telecomunicación:

Cables Cobre perdió parte de este mercado para fibras ópticas, which are now used for new installations between major centres. Optic
fibres are increasingly used in the branch connections, but copper remains the favoured material for the final connection to the end-

user. Mobile telephones pose a new challenge, since no cabling is required.

Transmisión eléctrica Aluminium competes with copper, having won the market for overhead conductors. The lower resistivity of copper,

however, makes it more effective as a conductor where space is restricted, hence its virtually unchallenged market for house wiring

and power cables that are laid under ground.

embalaje Tinplate was the first material to be used to make beer cans. Aluminium gradualmente hizo grandes avances en este mercado, hasta el punto

de que la hojalata fue eliminada de este uso final en los EE. UU. y en gran medida en Europa. Este fue un triunfo de marketing para la industria

del aluminio, que vendió el concepto de que el aluminio es reciclable (lo cual es igualmente cierto para la hojalata) y que las latas de aluminio son más

ligeras y cómodas para el usuario. Recientemente, la hojalata ha recuperado parte del mercado, especialmente en Europa. MASCOTA ( un tipo

de plástico) ha ganado participación en el mercado de envases grandes debido a la conveniencia de su uso, pero no se puede reciclar

convenientemente. Vaso las botellas se pueden reutilizar y tienen un atractivo tradicional en algunos países. Papel, plástico,

y laminados competir con el papel de aluminio en sus aplicaciones de embalaje.

EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE

8 MMSD
Table 5–2. Competing Metals or Materials in Some Large End-Use Applications (continued)

Industries Competing metals/material

Construction:

Roofing Galvanized steel has always been seen as the simplest and cheapest form of metallic roofing or panelling for buildings. It tends
to be replaced with better-looking or more technically efficient products as incomes rise. This market is heavily influenced by
climate, tradition, and the skills of the local building trade. The selection of material depends in part on the willingness of the
consumer to pay a higher price for a longerlasting material. It also depends on the training and skill of the local building trade
with each material.

Copper is widely used in Germany and Central Europe, where snowfall is heavy. Zinc is traditionally favoured in France
and Belgium, while the UK market prefers lead. Alternatives include slate, tiles, and

roofing felt.

Marcos de puertas y ventanas Aluminium displaced steel and wood in window and door frames, but has more recently lost some market share to plastic
window frames. The deciding factors are product design and the performance of the product when exposed to variations in
temperature and climate.

Vivienda residencial Structural steel competes with timber in the construction of residential housing. There has

been a campaign to promote steel-framed houses, especially in the US, but so far without any great success.

Transferencia de calor Aluminium competes with copper in this sector and particularly in car radiators, where aluminium has been successfully promoted.

Plastic plumbing tube has also taken some market share from copper and

brass, chiefly on the basis of price.

Monedas Copper alloy La acuñación está amenazada en algunos países por aluminio y zinc, y más ampliamente mediante el uso de billetes en lugar de monedas.

El uso de tarjetas de crédito en lugar de efectivo también es una forma de sustitución.

Baterías Dirigir compite con otros materiales en el desarrollo de baterías para automóviles eléctricos. La batería de plomo-ácido es voluminosa,

tiene una capacidad limitada (y por lo tanto, rango) y necesita tiempo para recargarse. Se están considerando muchas tecnologías

alternativas de baterías para la fuerza motriz de los automóviles eléctricos, que incluyen:

• cseóldlidaos,de combustibles de óxido

• combinaciones híbridas de pila de combustible y batería,

• baterías de hidruro metálico,

• baterías de zinc-aire, y

• Baterías de polímero / iones de litio.

Las pilas de combustible probablemente ofrecen las perspectivas más prometedoras, pero ninguna ha alcanzado aún la aceptación comercial en comparación

con el plomo a gran escala. El plomo todavía domina el mercado de baterías de encendido, iluminación y arranque convencionales, el principal

mercado del plomo.

Ingenieria En las aplicaciones de ingeniería, la elección de los materiales está determinada en parte por la tradición y la familiaridad, pero también

en gran medida por los ingenieros de producción que trabajan en la selección del material más rentable y técnicamente adecuado para los

componentes.

material disponible para reciclar cada año que se recicla. la clasificación y recuperación de aluminio. En 1997, más

Se utilizaron 4,4 millones de toneladas de chatarra en el sector del

transporte y el uso de aluminio en los automóviles aumenta cada año. 4

El crecimiento de

Las tasas de reciclaje para aplicaciones de construcción y transporte envases que se espera en América del Sur, Europa y Asia

oscilan entre el 60% y el 90% en varios países. (especialmente China) puede permitir el crecimiento en algunas partes

La industria del aluminio está trabajando con los fabricantes de de la industria del reciclaje de chatarra. En el caso del plomo, del 60 al 62%

automóviles para facilitar el desmontaje de los componentes de de la producción de plomo refinado en el mundo occidental proviene

aluminio de los automóviles con el fin de mejorar


MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

Figura 5-3. Consumo de metales por uso final, 2000


Fuente: CRU International

Aluminio Cobre
Doméstico y
Eléctrico comercial
equipo maquinaria Embalaje (inc.
bienes 8% Eléctrico
8% 8% contenedores) 6%
Doméstico y equipo
4%
Embalaje (inc. comercial
contenedores) 18% bienes 6% Maquinaria Aceite y

22% gas 3%

Otros
9%

Construcción
Construcción 30%

18%

Transporte Transporte
33% 27%

Dirigir Acero embalaje


Aceite y (incl. contenedores)
Eléctrico gas 1% Otros 8%
equipo 6% 6% Doméstico y
bienes comerciales 6%

Construcción Consumidor y
Construcción
34% productos generales
17%
9%

Maquinaria
5%

Aceite y

gas 5%

Transporte
70%

Transporte
37%

Oro
Eléctrico
equipo
7%

Otros
Nota: Las estadísticas por uso final solo están disponibles para los
8%
mercados de gran volumen en los países industriales. Para el aluminio,
los datos reflejan el consumo en EE.UU., Japón, Alemania, Francia,

Italia y el Reino Unido. En el caso del cobre, los datos reflejan el


consumo en EE. UU. Y Japón. Para el plomo, los datos reflejan el

consumo en los principales países occidentales en 1999. Para el


Joyería
acero, los datos reflejan el consumo en los EE. UU. Para el oro, los
85%
datos reflejan el consumo mundial.

de material reciclado. En Estados Unidos, el 90% de las baterías gastadas


where it is often claimed that developing countries play a pivotal
se reciclan. Más del 50% de la producción de acero en las naciones
role as consumers of jewellery, per capita consumption in India is
industrializadas proviene de materiales reciclados.
still far below that in the US or the UK. Jewellery
consumption of gold ranged from
Despite the rapid growth rates and large volumes consumed in
31.5 grams per capita in Dubai to 4.0 in Hong Kong,
Asia, especially China, on a per capita basis, most consumption still
1.5 in the US, 1.2 in the UK, 0.6 in India, and 0.1 in
occurs in the most industrialized countries. 5 In 2000, these nations
China.Total national consumption was 600 tonnes for India,
accounted for the majority of metals consumption, but only 14.6%
the highest of any country reported, and 409 tonnes for the
of the world’s population. Even for gold, US, as against 26 for Hong Kong or 41 for Dubai. 6

THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

9
Table 5–3. Population and Consumption of Metals in Industrial and Transition Countries, Per Capita and as Share of Total Consumption, 2000

% of World Aluminium Copper Lead Steel (1999) Gold a

Population

consumption %
consumption %
consumption %
consumption %

consumption %

grams/head
kg/head
kg/head
kg/head
kg/head
Industrial Countries

United States 4.6 22.3 24.4 10.9 19.7 6.1 26.6 458.2 16.2 1.0 7.3

Canada 0.5 26.6 3.3 8.9 1.8 2.1 1.0 606.4 2.4 0.8 0.7

Western Europe 6.9 14.2 23.3 10 27.2 4 26.2 381.1 20.2 2.0 22.2

Japan 2.1 17.7 8.9 10.8 8.9 2.7 5.5 562.8 9.1 1.4 4.6

Australia 0.3 18.3 1.4 8.9 1.1 2.4 0.7 340.7 0.8 0.6 0.3

Average/Total 14.6 17.8 61.5 10.3 58.8 4.4 60.1 438.4 48.8 1.5 35.2

Transition Countries

South Korea 0.8 17.6 3.3 18.4 5.7 6.6 4.9 756.8 4.6 2.3 2.9

Taiwan 0.4 22.8 2.0 28.6 4.2 6.7 2.4 1,112.30 3.2 3.5 2.0

Other S.E. Asia 7.8 1.1 2.0 0.9 2.8 0.6 4.2 68.4 4.1 0.8 9.5

Former Soviet Union 4.8 3.1 3.5 0.8 1.5 0.5 2.2 90 3.3 0.2 1.4

Turkey 1.1 3.3 0.8 3.7 1.6 0.9 0.9 188.8 1.6 3.3 5.6

Eastern Europe 1.8 6.5 2.8 3 2.1 1.8 3.0 193.5 2.7 0.1 0.4

Latin America 8.6 1.8 3.7 2 6.6 0.8 6.5 81.8 5.3 0.2 3.2

Average/Total 25.2 3.1 18.3 2.5 24.6 1 24.2 128.4 24.7 0.6 24.9

China and India 38.8 1.9 16.6 1 14.1 0.3 11.5 74.4 21.5 0.4 23.4

Africa, Middle East, and Other 22.4 0.7 3.6 0.3 2.7 0.2 4.2 9.3 5 0.5 16.5

Asia

a Gold consumption refers to fabrication of gold only, and excludes any investment or hoarding demand. Sources: United Nations,

WBMS, IISI, CRU International.

There is a consensus among forecasters that consumption


economies, world demand would be 26.4 million tonnes – over four
of aluminium and copper will continue to grow at the historical
times current world consumption. Renewable energy advocates have
rates of around 3%, at least over the next 5–10 years.The
long suggested that countries without established power grids can
demand for lead is forecast to grow 1.1% annually in the next
electrify more effectively with decentralized generation based on
5 years. Crude steel demand is expected to grow at between
wind or photovoltaics.This could create increased demand for
batteries, which today are principally lead.
1.8% and 2.1% per year.

Consensus forecasts are invariably based on history and a


‘business as usual’ approach to the future; they are often wrong. If
The appetite for steel in China has been driven by sustained
transition and developing countries succeed in achieving a higher
investment in construction and infrastructure over the past
standard of living, barring some rather dramatic change such
decade.There remains an extremely large potential demand for cars
as development of alternatives to lead-based batteries, world
and consumer goods among China’s huge population. Increasing
consumption of lead could increase considerably. If 6 billion people
personal incomes and continuing investment in infrastructure could
in the world each consumed the
keep the total demand for steel on the rise in China for some time.

4.4kg per capita that is today typical in industrial


MMSD BREAKING NEW
GROUND

The economics of recycling is mentioned in many of the metals


Steel consumption is intimately linked with overall economic
case studies. From a social perspective, the costs include the
development. It is, however, interesting to note that there is
cost to society of acquiring landfill sites, operating them
nothing to show that steel consumption would start to decline
properly, and collecting and transporting material to them. In
in industrial countries that are increasingly dependent on
some cases this includes the costs of remediating
services rather than manufacturing. So far, it appears that
environmental problems where disposal practices have proved
steel is consumed at a marginal rate that does not decline
inadequate.These costs are often not internalized in product
very much with income.
prices or reflected adequately in the price of scrap
materials.This has been an argument for government
initiatives to encourage higher levels of recycling.

In 1985 the Eastern bloc consumed 40% of the world steel total.
(See Figure 5–4.) By 1995 this figure had fallen to 18%, a mark
of the contrasting results achieved by the Communist and
capitalist economic systems.Another major development in the
It should also be kept in mind that much recycling is done by
world steel markets is the growth in Chinese steel consumption.
individuals and small enterprises, or in countries where data are not
This is a striking illustration of the relationship between economic
well reported, and the data on their activities are often incomplete,
development and the consumption of steel; China has become the
making it very hard to define the precise rate of recycling.
world’s largest
steel-maker, something hard to imagine just a few decades ago.

Research has focused on the habits and preferences of


consumers in the richest countries because that is where the
biggest markets are. Little is known about what poor people use
El acero se puede reciclar fácilmente en las mismas instalaciones de
metals for – although in general terms it is clear that they have
producción que se utilizan para producirlo a partir de materias primas
few metal products in comparison to other people. If their
primarias. Las aleaciones de acero más complejas (como el acero inoxidable)
incomes rise, as sustainable development requires, it is hard to
se reciclan dentro de esas industrias de aleaciones. El reciclaje de chatarra de
say what their priorities for spending those additional incomes
acero juega un papel importante y creciente. en la producción de acero. Toda la
might be, or what additional uses of metals or other minerals they
chatarra de acero es potencialmente reciclable, y los principales procesos de
would find most useful in improving their quality of life.This
producción dependen en gran medida de la disponibilidad de chatarra como
should be a high research priority.
materia prima.

In electric arc furnace (EAF) steel-making, scrap is the principal


Steel
source of iron.Additional raw materials used in the EAF process
The inherent qualities of steel are its strength and the ease with
are direct reduced iron/hotbriquetted iron (DRI/HBI) and pig iron.
which it can be ‘formed’ or rolled into a wide variety of shapes
EAF steelmaking has been growing as a percentage of total steel-
and forms.The ability to protect steel against corrosion by zinc
making capacity and this is expected to continue. In many countries
or tin coating has also extended the applications for steel
it has the advantages of lower capital and operating costs than blast
extensively.
furnaces and basic oxygen converters.The EAF process is also
more environmentally acceptable.

The mining of iron ore and the various other metals that are
alloyed with steel, and the coal that is used in steel-making,
together with transportation of these materials in enormous
The volume of scrap used per tonne of steel production varies
quantity and the fabrication of steel into final products, clearly
from region to region, according to the penetration of the EAF
makes steel the greatest direct and indirect employer of all the
process and the availability of DRI/HBI. Recent data show
metals. It has been seen as a linchpin of industrialization of
that in North America, 792kg of scrap were consumed per
economies. Because modern techniques at many stages of the value
tonne of steel produced; inWestern Europe, the figure was
chain are less labour-intensive, declining employment in this
554kg per tonne of crude steel; in East and Southeast Asia
industry in some regions is a major political issue, and steel has
523kg; and in other western countries 457kg. In other words, well
become a major focus of world trade concerns.
over half the total raw material used in the production of crude
THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

9
CASE STUDIES ON MINERALS
steel in the western CHAPTER 5

MMSD THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

9
Figure 5–4. Consumption of Crude Steel in the Eastern Bloc and China, 1980–2000
Source: CRU International

Million250
tonnes

200

150

100

50

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

China Eastern Bloc excluding China

el mundo se deriva de la chatarra, y la proporción de chatarra en la producción revisados para asegurar que no impiden que la chatarra de acero sea

total está aumentando. En Rusia, China y Europa del Este, la cifra es transportada al lugar donde se puede utilizar mejor.

mucho menor porque la producción de hornos eléctricos eléctricos ha

avanzado poco hasta ahora.


Aluminio

Scrap is most intensively used where it is most El aluminio solo se ha producido comercialmente durante 146 años y

plentiful.Transport costs constitute a major part of the todavía es un metal joven. Sin embargo, hoy en día se produce más

delivered price, and the economics of EAF steelmaking are aluminio que todos los demás metales no ferrosos combinados.

considerably improved if the steel-maker has a good supply of Comparativamente, hay poco enfoque en el consumo excesivo de

local scrap.The largest sources of scrap tend to be major aluminio, aparte de la reacción del consumidor al embalaje excesivo

population centres and heavy manufacturing centres.Thus de productos que no se recuperan y reutilizan. Se sabe relativamente

industrial economies tend to be the major generators of scrap, poco acerca de cómo las personas con ingresos muy bajos usan el

which is why the US has adopted EAF production most aluminio, o cuáles de sus necesidades más urgentes no se

readily. Developing regions such as South and East Asia tend satisfacen.

to have smaller quantities of obsolete scrap and therefore rely more


on blast furnace production or on imports of scrap for EAF
steel production.
Most aluminium is produced by a relatively small number of
large companies; direct employment in the industry is fairly
easy to determine simply by examining the payrolls of these

Given the vital role of scrap in the steel-making industry and the companies.As with all minerals, the number of livelihoods that

importance of the trade in scrap to balance out local surpluses depend on this product indirectly is much harder to

and deficits in scrap availability, governments should ensure that determine.

they do nothing that could hinder the free movement of scrap. In this
regard, the provisions of the Basel Convention on the
movement of hazardous waste need to be carefully Production of aluminium and its ores is important to a number of
national economies, such as India and Jamaica.
MMSD BREAKING NEW
GROUND

Aluminium’s popularity is due to several specific


The energy issue and the difference in energy consumption
characteristics:
between primary and secondary sources drive much of the debate
about aluminium to a focus on recycling.
• It has a high strength-to-weight ratio (which can be improved
by alloying), which accounts for its use in aircraft and other
forms of transport.
The Recycling of Aluminium
• Aluminium is an effective conductor of electricity.
Almost every aluminium product can be profitably recycled at
• Aluminium can be formed by rolling down to sheet or foil
the end of its useful life, without loss of metal quality or
with thickness of as little as 7 thousandths of a millimetre,
so it can be extruded, cast, or drawn into a wide range of properties. In several countries, organizations have been set
shapes. up specifically to promote aluminium recycling, particularly
aluminium cans and foil. Many countries also have laws controlling
packaging materials and recycling.

Even so, there is no end-use for which aluminium is


indispensable, though it is difficult to imagine another material
Aluminium recycling involves collecting scrap, separating it
making considerable inroads into aircraft frames.Aluminium has
from other materials such as plastics or other metals, melting
strong potential to be recycled in virtually all of its end-use
it, and casting it into a form that can be supplied as feed
applications, and its recycling networks and collection systems
to a
could provide a model for other large-volume metals.The
semi-fabricating process. There are two sources of aluminium scrap:
volume that goes into dispersive uses – such as laminated lids
of yoghurt cartons or fireworks displays

• New scrap is generated in the form of off-cuts, turnings, and


saw chips in manufacturing processes. It is usually returned
– is comparatively small. quickly to the supplier for reprocessing or is reprocessed by
the company that generates the scrap.
La gran pregunta en torno al uso y la necesidad de aluminio es una
cuestión del lado de la oferta: la energía necesaria para producir una
• Post-consumer scrap arises when a product containing
tonelada de aluminio primario.
aluminium comes to the end of its life and is discarded or
(13.000 a 14.000 kWh). La energía necesaria para reciclar la chatarra
dismantled.This may take a few weeks (a beverage can), 10–15
de aluminio es del 5%. Claramente, desde una perspectiva de years (a car), or 30–50 years (a building). Some products, notably
eficiencia energética, es mejor satisfacer la creciente demanda con foil and powder, are hard to recover once used.
material reciclado.

To recycle aluminium, a collection system and reprocessing


Las preocupaciones de la comunidad a nivel de la mina ciertamente
facilities are required.These will only be set up when there is a
han ocurrido en la industria del aluminio. Un ejemplo reciente es la
sufficient concentration of metal in use to generate scrap in
región de Kashipur en Orissa, India.
large enough quantities to justify the investment.The rate of
But the most highly publicized areas of conflict over sustainable
development values relate to energy use and the development of new recycling for aluminium is therefore determined by the rate at

smelters and the electrical capacity to run them, often which it is fabricated (in the case of new scrap) or products

through proposed hydroelectric development. Recent examples are discarded (in the case of old scrap). Since the use of the

include the Karahnukar Hydro proposal in Iceland, a project in metal is growing, the pool of metal in use is constantly increasing,

Orissa state in India, and a proposed project in the south of and most of this can potentially be recycled. (See Figure 5–5.)
Chile. 7

While this report is not intended to enter in depth into the fuente de energía neutra en carbono, como lo encontró la Comisión Mundial de Represas. 8

climate debate, it is essential simply to note that the current


concern about climate has and will focus attention on all forms
of energy use, and primary aluminium smelting is a major
energy user.

La energía hidroeléctrica, especialmente en climas cálidos, puede no ser una


EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO SOSTENIBLE

9 MMSD
ESTUDIOS DE CASO SOBRE MINERALES CAPÍTULO
5

Existen importantes diferencias regionales en la tasa


de reciclaje. En América del Norte, hasta el 35% del
consumo total de aluminio proviene de fuentes
secundarias (principalmente de latas de bebidas); en
Europa occidental, la cifra es del 31%, pero en Asia
es solo del 25%.

En general, el consumo secundario es menor en las regiones

MMSD THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

9
Figura 5-5. Total y proporción del consumo de aluminio primario versus secundario, 1975 y 1999
Fuente: CRU International

Consumo total de aluminio primario versus secundario y de desecho

Millones de toneladas

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

1975 11,5 3.1 Total 14,6

1999 23,4 9.4 Total 32,8

Participación en el crecimiento del consumo de aluminio primario frente al secundario y de chatarra

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1999 79% 21%

1975 71% 29%

Primary metal consumption Secondary and scrap consumption

where aluminium consumption has grown rapidly in recent


in an industrial process.With old scrap, particularly that collected from
years. Furthermore, when used to build power lines and
the shredding of cars or household goods, separating the scrap by
buildings, aluminium is unlikely to return as scrap for many
alloy is harder.While it is possible to separate the different metals
years.Where scrap collection is inefficient or non-existent,
contained in a car (steel, zinc, copper, and aluminium, for
collection for secondary consumption remains low.Where metal
example), there has been no commercial process for separating
consumption has been relatively high for many years, as
the scrap by alloy. In the absence of such a process, scrap
inWestern Europe or North America, and centres of
containing several different alloys can be recycled only as a
consumption are more concentrated, the collection system is
foundry-grade alloy, a relatively low value product.A recent
usually better developed. In the US, as much as 80% of the raw
development by Alcan Aluminium promises to make it possible to
material used to produce can body stock consists of scrap;
segregate shredded scrap by alloy and that others may also have
inWestern Europe, the figure is 50%. 9
developed such processes. 10

The analysis of the economics of recycling indicates that there is


a substantial (though variable) margin available to remunerate
Major Policy Issues in the Future of Aluminium Recycling
the scrap collecting chain. Companies that generate new
Many countries have legislation controlling packaging materials
aluminium scrap have an economic incentive to obtain cash
and recycling. Recycling rates are set in several states in the
for what would otherwise be a waste product, especially if the
US for all drinks containers, while others require packaging
collection costs are small. For old scrap, the economics of
materials to contain minimum proportions of recycled raw
collection is much more complex.
materials. Japan aims to recycle 70% of aluminium cans by
2000 and 80% by 2002.

is not difficult to keep various alloys separate when it is new


A key issue in the efficient recycling of aluminium is the way scrap that arises
metal is used in many different alloys. Aluminium can be
recycled into a more valuable product if it is sorted by alloy. It
The European Union Directive on Packaging and Waste requires
that by 2001 member countries should have been recovering
50–60% of their used packaging, material recycling rates
should have been 24–25%, and
MMSD BREAKING NEW
GROUND

no material should be recycled at less than 15%.


products if their incomes allowed them to do so. It seems quite
In practice, the aluminium can industry far exceeds these
plausible to believe that their immediate demands might include
targets, though aluminium foil is recycled at generally very low
electrification and use of more electronic products.Widespread
rates.
electrification for the world’s poor would undoubtedly result in
increased demand for copper.
Poor enforcement of regulation hinders the collection and recycling
of scrap. Environmental controls are rightly imposed on the
secondary smelting industry, which can cause serious pollution. But
Mientras que las fundiciones de aluminio a menudo dependen de la energía
these are not effectively enforced everywhere, so the playing field
hidroeléctrica, la fundición de cobre se realiza principalmente con
is not level for those who comply.Where waste regulations do
técnicas pirometalúrgicas que pueden producir emisiones significativas al aire
not adequately distinguish between material due for final disposal
de óxidos de azufre, arsénico u otros contaminantes. Esto ha sido durante
and raw material of the recycling industry, this can impose
mucho tiempo una fuente de preocupación para las comunidades locales y
significant administrative costs.
otros interesados, y cada vez más estricta Las regulaciones de calidad del aire

han estado entre los factores que reducen la fundición de cobre en lugares

como Estados Unidos. 11 Ha sido un problema en las fundiciones desde Perú

hasta Zambia. 12 Aunque gran parte de la industria ha realizado mejoras


Government intervention to increase recycling is often
significativas en el control de la contaminación y existen alternativas de
most effective if focused on the margin, where revenues are
extracción
not quite an adequate incentive for commercial
recycling.They can take different forms, from internalizing
the cost of waste to producers and sellers, to instituting
tecnologías ganando participación de mercado, esta sigue siendo un área en
refundable deposits on products, and providing citizens with
la que la industria del cobre enfrenta un desafío para sus operaciones en todo
cheaper and more convenient collection centres.
el mundo.

There are two principal routes by which copper is recycled.


Because of its vertical integration, and market incentives to
Copper scrap free of alloying materials (including ‘dirty’ or
recover material, aluminium is a fertile industry for
contaminated alloy scrap) is refined in secondary smelters to produce
development of more advanced concepts of product
pure refined copper (effectively equivalent to refined copper
stewardship, and these do seem to be emerging.
produced from ores and concentrates). Clean alloy scrap (of
which brass scrap is a large component) is recycled by
semifabricators into the same alloy. (See Figure 5–6.)

Copper

Copper is one of the metals that has been in use longest. It


La oferta de cobre secundario es sensible al precio del cobre en el corto
has been an important material in the development of
plazo. Los bajos precios de los metales conducen a la acumulación de
civilization because of its high ductility, malleability, thermal and
chatarra vieja en la cadena de recolección. La chatarra nueva se recicla
electrical conductivity, and resistance to corrosion. Copper has
independientemente del precio. El colapso de la ex Unión Soviética
become a major industrial metal, ranking third in quantity after
también ha tenido una gran influencia en el suministro de chatarra en
steel and aluminium. Copper is very useful for power
Europa Occidental en la última década, ya que se exportaron grandes
transmission and generation, building wiring, and
volúmenes de chatarra de Rusia a Alemania y otros países de Europa
telecommunications. It has a virtually unchallenged market
Occidental. En 2000, el gobierno ruso tomó medidas para restringir y
for house wiring and
finalmente detener esto con el fin de retener la valiosa materia prima para
la industria rusa. El cambio en la política rusa ha dificultado la
determinación del volumen total de cobre reciclado, ya que en estos no
underground power cables.The copper uses hardest to
se registra ni se publica el uso directo de la chatarra.
substitute may be motors and electronics. Investment in power
generation and distribution and telephone systems has been a
key driver of copper consumption.

As is the case with all minerals, little is known about the While some secondary copper can be processed using some
current uses made of copper by those in extreme poverty, or
primary smelting technologies, the two are not always
what needs they would meet with copper completely compatible. It is not always necessary to submit

THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

9
CASE STUDIES ON MINERALS
scrap to the full primary process. CHAPTER 5

MMSD EL PROYECTO MINERÍA, MINERALES Y DESARROLLO


SOSTENIBLE
9
Figure 5–6. Total and Share of Consumption of Primary versus Secondary Copper, 1975 and 1999
Source: CRU International

Total Consumption of Primary versus Secondary Copper


Million tonnes

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

1975 5.4 0.9 1.8 Total 8.1

1999 9.6 1.9 3.2 Total 14.7

Share of Consumption Growth of Primary versus Secondary Copper

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1975 66.8% 22.2%


11%

1999 65.2% 21.8%


13%

Primary refined Secondary refined Direct use of scrap

Note: These numbers do not include statistics for the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, or China, where data are not collected.

Secondary smelting costs vary according to the type of scrap


In general, copper and its alloys are easily recognized and therefore
purchased. High grade and pure scrap can be processed in an
unlikely to be wasted when they become available for recycling.Very
anode furnace and then electrolytically refined, whereas low-grade
little copper is used in the form of powder or sulphate, which
complex scrap must be smelted to produce blister copper first.
is dispersed and can never be recovered.
In contrast to secondary smelting, the costs of the next step –
refining – are less variable and directly comparable to the cost
of refining primary copper.
Legislation directing manufacturers to take
responsibility for recycling their products at the end of their lives
could increase the rate of recycling, particularly if it leads to
The profitability of a secondary smelter depends largely on its
changes in product design. Trade in some types of copper scrap
ability to acquire scrap at attractive prices.Those that are able to
may be affected by national regulations introduced as part of the
extract other metals as well as copper (such as tin, zinc, or
Basel Convention. (See Chapter 11.)
precious metals) may have an advantage.

El alto valor intrínseco del cobre siempre asegura que la chatarra vieja
Dirigir
tenga algún valor, a menos que surja en cantidades muy pequeñas en lugares
El plomo es un metal gris azulado muy resistente a la corrosión, denso,
alejados de cualquier instalación de reciclaje, o esté contenida en
dúctil y maleable que se ha utilizado durante al menos 5000 años. En
concentraciones muy bajas en otros materiales como las ferroaleaciones. La
algunos países, sin embargo, los problemas ambientales y de salud han
chatarra nueva se recicla rápidamente porque representa una fuente de
reducido o eliminado su uso en revestimientos de cables, aditivos de
efectivo disponible para las plantas en las que surge.
gasolina, soldaduras, perdigones y pigmentos.
MMSD ABRIR NUEVOS
TERRENOS

Lead has been used, for example, in the manufacture of water


the growth in the use of lead. It was offset in the 1960s and
pipes since Roman times, but new piping is no longer made of this
1970s by a gradual reduction in the size and weight of batteries
metal. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was also a market for lead in
required to provide starting, lighting, and ignition power for
covering electric cables for insulation and for general automobiles. But in the last two decades the average weight
protective purposes.Technological factors, together with the cost of of a car battery has stabilized at about 10.5kg. 13

lead, have caused this market to disappear except where cabling


requires special protection (such as underwater). Lead shot used for
sporting purposes is now less popular since it has been
The question of whether there is ‘overconsumption’ of lead by
recognized that it can accumulate on marsh lands and
high-income consumers is tightly tied to the question of whether
seashores, and can poison wildfowl and other birds that live
these same consumers are wastefully or excessively using motor
alongside water. Lead solder has lost a market in the manufacture
vehicles, since lead for vehicle batteries is the dominant use of the
of food cans, because of the danger of contaminating the
product. It is beyond the scope of this study to consider any
contents of the can. Lead was also widely used in paints, but this
perverse subsidies for auto use, better and less damaging
application has virtually ceased, at least in Europe and North
transportation alternatives, or the consequences of eventual
America, where it is specifically banned for use in indoor
widespread ownership of motorcars in densely populated
applications.
countries like China and India. 14

The addition of tetraethyl lead to gasoline was standard in the 1960s


Whether there is ‘underconsumption’ of lead is also relatively
and 1970s to improve the operation of combustion engines.This
straightforward, given its dominant role in electrical storage
end-use has also been lost. The dispersal of lead particles in
batteries.The question is the extent to which the ability to store
exhaust fumes is hazardous.And exhaust fumes are now cleaned
electricity is a priority for people with very low incomes. (See Box 5–
to prevent other harmful emissions, through the use of catalysts
1.)
containing platinum or palladium. Lead in petrol contaminates such
catalysts, and was eliminated to enable them to work (see
Chapter 10).
Box 5–1. Batteries for Decentralized Electrical Systems

The Association,
Energy Industries result is that lead-acid
and the Ministry ofbatteries
Energy and –Mines
the of
largest application
Peru signed in of Understanding for the design and installation of pilot remotearea power supply hybrid systems to supply 24-hour electricity
a Memorandum

which there are to date no competitive substitutes – have become


the most important end-use for this metal, accounting for about
75% of the consumption (in countries where this is measured
and recorded).There are some other uses where lead may be
a preferable alternative, such as radiation shielding.

Manufacturers of batteries buy refined lead and fabricate it


e is to support sustainable development of rural communities in poor areas along the Amazon River in Peru, which now have little or no electricity, by providing electricity necessary to increase income-generating activities. The d
directly into batteries for sale to car manufacturers (in the case
of original equipment batteries) or the retail trade (replacement
batteries). While there is some international trade in batteries and
new cars containing batteries, there is less discrepancy between the
location of reported consumption and the location of final
consumption of the products containing lead than for other
non-ferrous metals.

Demand for lead is closely linked to the demand for motor


vehicles, which continues to grow world-wide. The use of lead in Source: ILZRO.

THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

9
CASE STUDIES ON MINERALS
new and replacement batteries therefore continues to grow, and CHAPTER 5

accounts for almost all

MMSD THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

9
While lead is hardly immune from the mine site, smelter, and
retail outlets.They then have the batteries smelted back into lead by
refinery issues that are encountered in most mineral commodity
a secondary smelter.Thus battery producers are in a sense
chains, the most critical issues that will determine the future of this
competing with the scrap collecting industry.The result is that a high
commodity have to do with lead in use, and concerns over
proportion of spent batteries are collected and reprocessed.
whether it can be managed safely where it is used.The result of
trends previously identified has been to limit the use of lead to
applications where it can be collected and re-used or recycled
Battery scrap is a valuable resource to the battery manufacturer
without appreciable loss into the environment and where it cannot
since it arises locally and can be converted into refined metal
be reasonably replaced. Batteries have the advantage of being
easily. Some battery companies operate their own secondary
easily recycled, and provide a major source of raw materials for
smelting plants for this purpose.
the lead smelting and refining industry.
Dispersive uses of lead will over time be identified and prohibited.
Use of the metal will be limited to applications where high and
Secondary smelting is carried out principally in dedicated
efficient rates of recovery, re-use, and recycling can be
secondary smelters, but some smelters, mainly in Europe, take a
achieved.
mixture of primary and secondary feed.There is no shortage of
secondary smelting capacity, and none is expected to arise in the
medium term. Some lead products, such as old lead sheet, are
recycled without being smelted.They can be remelted and re-
used directly.
Lead has the highest recycling rate of all industrial metals. Recycling
and recovery rates for most materials in developing countries tend to
be high. If dispersive uses are eliminated, as most countries are
doing with leaded gasoline, most lead in use could be recovered
and
recycled. Basel Convention regulations are a potential obstacle to the
recycling of lead. (See Chapter 11.) Its objective is to prevent
the movement of hazardous waste across national borders in order
to prevent dumping
Lead recycling has become an efficient but not highly profitable in countries where environmental controls are weak or poorly
operation in most industrial countries. Lead is a co-product of a enforced. However, it can prevent the movement of scrap, such
number of other metals, such as zinc. It is therefore inevitably as used batteries, that is potentially hazardous but is also a
produced as these minerals are mined and processed, and this valuable resource for the recycling industry.
availability of lead from primary production at low cost is likely to
continue to limit the price of recovered or secondary lead.

Since batteries account for a high proportion of total lead use, Gold

they constitute an easily identifiable source of scrap. However, they Gold is notable for its versatility. It is malleable and ductile, an
arise not in large volumes but one by one, in the hands of excellent conductor of heat and electricity, immune to tarnish,
individual motorists. In many countries, there is now legislation (in and resistant to all but the strongest acids.These properties make
some form) requiring or encouraging spent batteries to be gold very useful in a variety of industrial applications, though it is
collected and used sparingly because of its cost. It also has a role that none of
re-processed. In the US, for example, people who buy a the other minerals studied in this chapter performs: it is the most
replacement battery either receive a discount for returning spent important mineral to be used as a store of value. Until recently, it
batteries or pay an extra deposit.The inherent value of lead in backed most of the world’s principal currencies, and it is still held
battery scrap is not great, however, and in the absence of other as a reserve asset by many central banks. It remains the
incentives, spent batteries may just be thrown away.There is a preferred store of individual wealth in many parts of the world. It
good case for creating or strengthening incentives for the is highly prized for ornament, and by far its largest current use is
individual motorist to return spent batteries, both to avoid land for jewellery, some of which has the dual purpose of
disposal of a potentially hazardous material and to reduce the ornamentation and a form of savings.
need for primary lead production.
Many battery producers organize their own collection systems for
spent batteries through garages and other In recent years the annual demand for gold has been
MMSD BREAKING NEW
GROUND

around 4000 tonnes per year. Jewellery is the main • Exploration activity is concentrated heavily on gold – In the recent peak
driver, constituting 80% of total demand in 2000. 15
of 1997, US$5.1 billion was spent on gold exploration, compared with
Gold has a variety of other applications, including electronics, base metal exploration of well under US$2 billion. To the extent
dentistry, decorating materials such as glassware and ceramics, communities are disturbed by exploration, the chances are good that it

medals, and coins.Taken as a whole, non-jewellery use of gold has may be for gold. There are public NGO campaigns directed

been relatively stagnant over the last 10 years, though some specifically at gold

individual uses such as electronics have shown considerable •


– Some NGOs are actively campaigning on gold-related concerns:
growth. Given the cost of gold, this indicates these uses have no
Goldbusters, for instance, ‘aims to depress the price of gold by
easy substitutes. But gold faces intense competition in almost
asking governments and individuals to divest of gold investments and
all markets. consumers to no longer purchase gold jewelry’. There is little parallel in
the case of other commodities. There are also major public campaigns,
sometimes successful, for legislation to prohibit the use of cyanide in
gold mining.

Use of gold for jewellery has been volatile for two main
reasons – income sensitivity in industrial markets and price
sensitivity in developing countries. Developing countries now • Gold is a store of value with a continued role in the monetary system

constitute about two-thirds of world demand for jewellery, with – The US dollar is the world’s principal reserve currency. The US, the

about a fifth of this in the Indian subcontinent alone, where world’s largest gold owner, holds about 60% of its foreign reserves in
gold. Many others hold substantial reserves in gold. It also is important
gold jewellery is of great cultural significance. 16 In a
for individual savings in many countries. Other metals do not have these
considerable part of South Asia and the Middle East, gold
functions or the controversies that go with it. Some eminent authorities
jewellery (and to a lesser extent bars and coins) serve as
expect its reserve role to continue.
bridal dowries and a store of value.

• Several highly publicized negative incidents have occurred in the gold


industry – Gold mining has had a significant share of the bad
Gold is scarce, with a very low abundance in Earth’s crust. 17
publicity received by industry in recent years.
In physical terms, annual production is only a fraction of most
other metals. In 2000, mine production amounted to 2574 In Tanzania, where gold exports rose from US $200,000 in 1982 to $120
tonnes, which represented 65% of total gold consumption. Its value million in 2000, President Mkapa noted that they ‘made a deliberate and a

is sufficient that other incentives are not needed for recycling. It conscious decision to make mining an engine of growth. Tanzania today is

is certainly more highly recycled than any of the other metals where South Africa was at the beginning of the last century.’ But not all have

considered in this study. (See Box 5–2.) Gold production has been the same view: the draft MMSD Report was criticized by Professor Philip

increasing slowly over the last few decades. In the last 6000 Crowson of the University of Dundee because it ‘implies that the present

years, over 140,000 tonnes of above ground stocks have price of gold is somehow “right” and that development of new gold mines in
developing countries should not be prejudiced. Is that really the view? To
been accumulated. 18

keep minerals of any type in


above-ground stocks when there is no further use for them is perverse
and certainly not sustainable.’

Box 5–2. Why Gold Is So Interesting

This report is not intended to be ‘pro’ or ‘anti’ gold but an attempt to reflect in
as balanced a way as possible what was an exceedingly complex and
passionate
y comments on gold during the preparation of this report. There are objective reasons for this level of attention – gold issues aredebate long before the MMSD Project came on the scene.
somewhat
of other metals:

ports many of the world’s 12–15 million artisanal miners and their dependents. It also supports a disproportionate share of the employment-intensive small and medium-scale industry. Even at the large end of industry, the top

The metal is readily identifiable and rarely found in forms other


than its elemental state. In some cases it occurs as free gold
in veins, nuggets, or visible flakes. Since these can be used
without complex recovery techniques or metallurgical processes,
gold is one of the minerals that has been in use the longest.
THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

1
This susceptibility to simple techniques of recovery means that
Even in the formal sector, gold supports a large number of
production can be considerably simpler than the other minerals
small companies.A high proportion of the well-known
studied, with the possible exception of coal.While there are large
Canadian and Australian junior companies are in gold, which
gold mines, gold is mined in more individual locations and often
collectively employ a considerable number of people; small and
at a much smaller scale of enterprise than is the case with iron
medium-sized companies are frequently found in almost all gold
ore or most of the base metals.As the mining industry has
mining regions. Even in the large end of the industry, gold is a
concentrated into a smaller number of larger enterprises, gold
major employer.The top 15
and coal remained among the bastions of the small and
gold-producing companies in 1999 and 2000 employed
medium producer.
approximately 250,000 people. (See Table 5–4.)

Gold Production as a Source of Livelihoods According to theWorld Gold Council, gold accounts for a
After steel, aluminium, and copper, gold has the fourth highest significant proportion – ranging from 5% to nearly 40% – of
value in terms of world metals production. the exports of many heavily indebted poor countries.
It may well, however, be responsible for far more than its
relative share of total mining employment.An estimated 12–15
million artisanal miners in the world support several times that Gold has been central to the development of South Africa, though
number of family members. Though it is difficult to estimate the declines in gold employment in this industry in recent years have
fraction of these millions of people engaged in gold mining, it is been a difficult problem to manage. (See Box 5–3.) In many
clearly very significant. It is estimated that perhaps 20% of total countries where gold mining is currently important, there are at
world gold production comes from artisanal and small-scale mining. present limited options for alternative industrial activities to support
In many countries where this is an important source of economic development.
employment, the sector accounts for the majority of gold
production.

Table 5–4. Output of Top 15 Gold-Producing Companies, 1999 and 2000

Company Base 1999 2000 Employment (2000)

(tonnes) (tonnes)

1 AngloGold South Africa 215.2 225.3 77,600

2 Newmont US 130.0 153.7 10,800

3 Gold Fields Ltd South Africa 118.7 121.2 55,000

4 Barrick Canada 113.8 116.4 5,500

5 Placer Dome Canada 97.9 92.8 12,000

6 Rio Tinto UK 92.9 84.9 5,100 a

7 Homestake US 74.3 68.6 na

8 Harmony South Africa 41.4 66.8 42,600

9 Normandy Australia 58.8 64.5 na

10 Freeport McMoran US 74.0 59.1 7,800 b

11 Ashanti Goldfields Ghana 48.6 54.0 10,400

12 Durban Roodepoort South Africa 27.7 35.7 19,111

13 Kinross Canada 31.3 29.4 1,600

14 Buenaventura Peru 23.6 28.5 1,800 c

15 Newcrest Australia 26.3 27.9 na

a Number of employees in Rio Tinto’s gold mining interests in Kennecott Minerals (US), Kelian (Indonesia), Lihir (Papua New Guinea), Morro do Ouro (Brazil), Peak (Australia), and Rio Tinto (Zimbabwe). b Includes

employees from the company’s copper production. c Includes employees from the company’s silver and other precious metals production. Source: Gold Fields Mineral Services (2001); company annual
reports.
MMSD THE FINAL REPORT

Box 5–3. South African Gold Mining at least in industrial countries with effective savings alternatives to
holding gold – is a nonutilitarian end, despite the seemingly universal
human desire to be decorated and to decorate possessions.They
argue this purpose could be served by other materials that have less
ly 17% of all newly mined gold in 2000. Its share of the total has shrunk dramatically, however, from a peak of more than 70% in the 1960s and 1970s as other producers have grown in
environmental and social impact from production. 20

They believe that people have a duty to be responsible


consumers in the interest of sustainable development, and that
high levels of personal gold consumption are inconsistent with
known global reserves, but much of the more accessible gold has been mined, leaving reserves that are deeper, of lower grade, and more expensive to extract, though change in operations and the exchange rate have kept man
that objective.

Those who feel that consumers should prefer other materials


have just as much right to make that argument as theWorld Gold
Council has to convince consumers to use more gold, though
they may have fewer resources at their disposal. In May 2001,
the World Gold Council, an industry-sponsored organization,
launched a
US$55-million campaign to ‘remind consumers that gold’s intrinsic
value extends beyond fashionability, leading it to be revered by
almost every culture for its radiance, beauty and spiritual richness’. 21 Independent
of theWorld Gold Council, the Gold Marketing Initiative is asking gold
ed fell to 257,000 (including 130,000 non-South Africans) in 1998. Gold exports fell from US$6.3 billion in 1994 tocompanies producing
an estimated US$4.4 billion inmore than 100,000
1998. Because ounces
of gold mining’s a year
links with othereventually to it is estimated th
sectors, however,

contribute US$4 per ounce of annual production to gold promotion. 22 Since


no nation seems ready to adopt eco-efficiency policies to restrain gold
consumption, the jury in this case will be the world’s consumers.

perception that jewellery –

Source: Gold Fields Mineral Services Ltd (2001); CRU International (2001); Chamber of Mines of South
Africa, personal communication (2001).

Gold may also be disproportionately important at the


exploration stage. Certainly, artisanal and small-scale
prospectors have been over a good part of Earth’s surface. So
have junior exploration companies and others with more
sophisticated techniques.The western world has been spending
several billion dollars per year on gold exploration – substantially
more than is spent looking for copper, zinc, and nickel combined. 19

Overconsumption of Gold?

As with all minerals, there are arguments that current levels of


consumption by some consumers are excessive. In part, this is the

THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

1
CASE STUDIES ON MINERALS
CHAPTER 5

The other argument, which has long raged


among economists without any sign of abating, is
whether gold should continue to be used to back
world currencies or whether this role is outmoded,
with gold now a ‘barbarous relic.’ It is not hard to
see how some have agreed with British economist
John Maynard Keynes, who said ‘the form of
digging holes in the ground known as gold mining…
not only adds nothing to the real wealth of the world
but involves the disutility of labour’. 23 ( Even Keynes,
however, acknowledged gold had ‘played its part in
progress’ and was an effective means of
generating employment.) For Keynes, it is
intuitively odd that so much human labour and
capital goes into producing a product that

is then often kept underground in vaults where no


one does anything with it.Yet eminent economists
argue that gold will have a continued role as a
reserve asset ‘for a long time to come’. 24

Underconsumption of Gold?

How, besides providing livelihoods, can gold help meet

MMSD THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

1
the needs of the world’s poor? As in the case of lead, there is a
Box 5–4. The Indian Experiment With Gold Banking
single dominant use.Although there may be other ways in which
the needs of the poor could be met by access to gold-containing
products, there is one use that is most important simply in terms
India’s experiment with its gold bank is an attempt to get privately held gold
of quantity: gold in jewellery (and some other forms) is the store
into the banking system, where it could be an effective source of
of value that in many societies has long been the principal
development capital. Through the Reserve Bank of India, the government
hedge against currency depreciation for those without access
itself holds just 400 tonnes, in contrast with 12,000–13,000 tonnes thought to
to other reliable means of saving. Quite simply, if the poor had be in private hands. In January 1999, the government more than doubled
enough income enhancement to be able to save, they might the customs duty to try to curb the outflow of funds for gold purchases. At
very likely save in the form of gold. the same time, the finance minister set out the blueprint for a new strategy,
to be implemented through a Gold Deposit Scheme to bring gold back
into circulation. The intention was to reduce the country’s reliance on
imports and provide owners of bullion with some additional income.

This, however, can create problems for broader economic


development. If these savings are not banked, they cannot back the
expansion of credit and availability of capital. (See Box 5–4.)
The scheme also freed owners from the problems of storage, transport,
Other macroeconomic effects could also be considered
and security. The depositor earned interest on an otherwise unproductive
undesirable: in 1998 alone, India imported more than 600 tonnes
asset by lodging it with approved banks, and was also able to collateralize
of gold, at a cost of almost US$7 billion – a big component in
that asset.
the soaring cost of
non-oil imports.

An example of a typical gold deposit scheme was that launched by The


State Bank of India in November 1999. An individual, family, trust, or
company could deposit as little as 200g of gold, for three to seven years,
The Future of Gold as a Reserve Asset and the Future Price of Gold in return for a gold certificate that pays tax-free interest of 3–4%. At
the end of the term the certificate can be exchanged for an equivalent

Taking into account variations since the 1960s, gold prices have amount of gold, or the market value of the gold, with no capital gains

been relatively stable in recent years despite their general tax.

decline. (See Figure 5–7.)

The certificates are transferable, and can be used as security for a loan.
The future of gold as a reserve asset of central banks will be
Gold deposited can be withdrawn early, but with an interest penalty. Banks
a major factor in the future of the market and price. But it is
offering deposit schemes lend the gold to local jewellers at an interest of
not the only factor. Others are the extent to which gold is still
9–10%, less than the cash borrowing rate. The interest spread pays for
recognized and used by individuals as an inflation hedge or
assaying, refining, paying local tax, and hedging against the risk that the
store of value, whether uses other than jewellery grow, and bank will not be able to lend out all its gold for periods to match the
whether individual consumers decide to increase or decrease deposits. Initial targets for the scheme were ambitious. The State Bank
the amount of gold jewellery that they buy. announced a goal of 100 tonnes in the first year, which would mean a
saving of about US$1.2 billion in foreign exchange.

Central Bank Gold Policy Central banks together still hold a very substantial fraction of
The extent to which gold still serves to stabilize the world above ground stocks. Much depends on
monetary system is hotly debated, and the signs are
mixed.Taken together, central banks have become net sellers of
gold.The modest rise in gold prices after the events of 11
September 2001 was a clear sign – there was no flight to gold. It
is also possible that gold played a role in limiting the economic
crisis in Argentina in 2002.
The gold deposit scheme targets households in the hope that they
will take advantage of the opportunity to earn interest on their gold.
The scheme is not without its obstacles, however. Most of the gold
in India is in the form of jewellery, which would have to be melted
down to bullion on deposit, destroying the value of the work, which is
usually about 10–15% of the retail value. A more serious difficulty is
that much of the gold in private hands has been bought with non-
declared income, which its owners are reluctant to declare for
fear of investigation by tax officials. By January 2001, the
designated banks had succeeded in raising only 6179kg of gold. The
State Bank of India had raised the bulk – about 5800kg, which is
nowhere near what it had originally projected.

Source: World Gold Council (2001) p.17; Economic Times of India, March 20, 2001.
MMSD BREAKING NEW
GROUND

Figure 5–7. The Gold Price, Average London Fixing, 1968–2000


Source: CRU International

US$ per700
ounce

600

500

400

300

200

100

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Real terms Money of the day

whether these institutions as a group are net buyers or net On September 26, 1999, the Central Bank Gold Agreement
sellers, and on what scale. Of the 170 countries reporting to the (also known as theWashington Agreement orWashington Accord)
International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the late 1990s, 70% was announced. 28 A group consisting of the members of the
declared some gold as part of their reserve assets.Ten countries European Monetary Union, the European Central Bank, the UK,
reported that they definitely did not hold any gold; another 41 did and Switzerland, with the tacit agreement of the US Federal

not declare either way. 25 The US holds around three-fifths of its Reserve, the Reserve Bank of Canada, and the Bank of Japan,

foreign reserves in gold.The European Union has about 27% of its agreed on a programme to stabilize the gold market.Together with

reserves in gold.At current market prices, the international the IMF, these participants control well over 20,000 tonnes of

average is about 16%. gold reserves. 29

The main provisions of the agreement were a freeze


In the 1990s it became clear that the commitment of some on any additional lending by the signatories and a limit on gold
governments to maintaining gold as a store of value was sales to 2000 tonnes over five years, with no more than 400
declining.The drop in official purchases of gold and the increase tonnes to be sold in any one year.What happens at the end of
in sales indicated that some bankers thought it time to the initial five-year term of the agreement in 2004 is still
change policy.This caused concern to the gold producers and uncertain.As a group, central banks have not returned to the
other governments. The world’s key financial organizations market as buyers of gold in any significant quantities and they
(official institutions and the IMF) hold the equivalent of 15 remain sizeable net sellers.The increasing reliance on the US
years of mine output. 26 As there was no coordinated approach to dollar, notably in Latin America, has been accompanied by gold
gold sales by either miners or central banks, there was growing sales.The emergence of currency blocs, such as in the European
fear of a collapse of the gold price. When prices fell, much of the Union, has meant the pooling of reserves.
loss affected countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Gold mining
employment in South Africa alone is said to have declined by
some 300,000, in what is known there as the Gold Crisis. 27

Future agreements affecting the gold market will be of key


concern.While central banks as owners have to

THE MINING, MINERALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT MMSD

1
decide what is in their interest, these decisions are fraught with
While these concerns are not unique to gold, they may be
consequences for others and should be made in an atmosphere of
of particular importance for this commodity.
consultation and transparency.

Second, the ratio of the volume of waste to the volume of


product will continue to attract attention. Calculations can be
Availability of Gold
done many ways, but all concur that for low-grade gold
Total world geological resources of gold are estimated to be about
deposits, some number of tons of waste – and correspondingly
100,000 tonnes, including 15–20% in the form of by-product
high amounts of energy and water – may be needed to
resources. 30 ( See Table 5–5.) 31

produce a relatively small and simple gold object.This will


Some of the 9000 tonnes in US resources would be recovered
continue to strike some people as wasteful, and some of them will
as
link this concern to the question of whether use as jewellery or
by-product gold.At the current production rate, these resources
bullion in bank vaults is somehow less utilitarian than the
would last about 25 years.
industrial uses more common for other metals.

As with the other metals studied, physical availability is in the short


and intermediate term less of an issue than are environmental,
social, and political challenges to producing these reserves.The
gold industry faces challenges at the market level, as indicated.
Third, for whatever reason, a number of the highly
For aluminium, energy requirements for smelting are a key issue.
publicized accidents and failures of recent years that have
For copper, smelter emissions are a major problem. For gold, there
fuelled public concerns over safety and environmental protection
are somewhat different issues.
have occurred at gold sites, from Baia Mare and Merrespruit to
Summitville and Omai. Ensuring that all who are mining have
the capacity for sound environmental management is a
challenge for all of industry; clearly not all do.
First, given the gold industry’s focus on exploration and the
multiplicity of the people and companies that explore for gold,
the issues of land rights will be prominent.These include the
Finally, using cyanide to extract gold is the technology of choice
important question of acceptability to indigenous and
for larger gold companies; mercury is still the agent of choice
aboriginal
for a large part of the artisanal sector. Both of these
technologies have caused significant environmental
communities and the continued debate over what areas
concern.The extent to which the new cyanide code (see
are or should be ‘off limits’ to exploration and mining.
Chapter 10) or other steps will improve both management and
perceptions, and continued progress in controlling mercury use,
Table 5–5. Estimated Gold Reserves and Resources (excluding will both be important concerns.
some by-product reserves)

Country Gold Reserves Gold Resources

(tonnes) (tonnes)

S outh Africa 19,000 40,000


Fuels and Industrial Minerals
United States 5,600 6,000

Uzbekistan 5,300 6,300 Coal

Australia 4,000 4,700 Need and Availability

Russia 3,000 3,500 Coal has been an important energy source for centuries. 32 In

Canada 1,500 3,500 2000 it provided 24.9% of the world’s primary energy

Brazil 800 1,200 requirements. 33 In addition to being used to generate electricity,

Other Countries 9,300 11,800 coal is used directly for heating.This includes important industrial

World Total a 49,000 77,000 processes such as steel and cement manufacture. Coal, when
processed into coke, is also important in production of iron and
a May be rounded. steel.
Source: US Geological Survey, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/ gold/300300.pdf

(11 December 2000).


The types of coal may be ranked in order of increasing
carbon content and decreasing moisture content:
lignite (brown coal), sub-bituminous, bituminous, and
Like gold, coal is relatively easy to identify, and often fairly
anthracite.The last three are known as ‘black coal’ and the last
accessible to exploitation by basic technologies. This means that in
two as ‘hard coal’. Most types of this mineral have specific
many regions of the world production of coal by small and medium-
uses.Among the hard coals, steam
scale enterprises is fairly common. For the same reasons, there
or energy coal is used for electricity generation or
is considerable
conversion into other forms of secondary energy. Although all
small-scale and artisanal activity in several countries, notably China.
categories of coal can be used for electricity generation,
power plants have to be designed to handle specific types
of this material. A plant designed to burn bituminous coal,
for example, cannot burn brown coal. Coking coal is
Some types of coal are traded internationally for specific uses,
always bituminous.
particularly the sub-bituminous and bituminous types. For instance,
about 39% of coking coal (192 million tones) was traded
internationally in
2000. In contrast, the 574 million tonnes of hard coal traded
Coking coal is used by the steel industry in the stage
internationally represented only 16% of the total world production
involving production of blast furnace iron.While all coking coals
of this type. Due to the high moisture content of brown coal,
can be burnt in suitably designed power plants to generate
it is uneconomic to transport this type over long distances. In
electricity, the reverse is not true in that bituminous steam coals
the three largest coal-consuming and -producing economies
cannot all be converted into coke.An important feature of coals
(China, US, and India), over 95% of production is used
used by the steel industry is that they should have as low a level
domestically.
of ash and sulphur as possible.Coal is also used to produce liquid
fuels, chemicals, polymers, and plastics.

For coal that is traded by sea, the patterns of supply differ by


region and by category of coal.The major suppliers of steam coal
Significant deposits of coal exist on all continents, meaning that into the Pacific region are Australia, China, and Indonesia, whereas
availability at the global level is not currently a critical issue. the major suppliers into the Atlantic region are South Africa,
Coal is produced in over 50 countries. Known total reserves of Colombia, and Russia.The major suppliers of coking coal into the Asian
coal are shown in Table 5–6. In 2000, a total of 3639 million market are Australia and Canada, while in the Atlantic it is Australia,
tonnes of hard coal were produced, along with 895 million the US, and Canada.
tonnes of brown coal. 34 On this basis, the world has more than
200 years of coal reserves. It is important to remember that
while coal production in Europe is declining rapidly, this is Over 80% of the world’s coal production is used in its country
not true in all industrial countries. US production, for instance, of origin. In some countries, coal is a particularly important
increased from 710 million tonnes in 1980 energy source. Poland, South Africa,Australia, and China all
to 899 million tonnes in rely on coal to produce over 75% of their electricity, since
they have limited alternative fossil fuel energy sources. In
many countries, coal is a key fuel for domestic heating and
2000. Most important, not all types of coal are suitable for all cooking.
purposes. Nor are all types found at comparable grades all over
the world.

Table 5–6. Known Reserves of Coal Changes in the demand for coal are affected by global
competition from other fossil fuels such as oil and gas. With
the exception of Japan and the US, the demand for steam coal
Reserves Share of total for electricity generation in many industrial countries is
(billion tonnes) (per cent) decreasing. In Europe, the availability of cheap natural gas has
resulted in the output of coal-fired power stations being reduced and
North America 256.5 26.1
smaller, less efficient stations being closed.An additional factor
Europe 122.0 12.4
affecting coal production in Europe has been the higher costs
Former Soviet Union 230.2 23.4
than new mines in countries such as Colombia,Australia, and
Asia Pacific 292.3 29.7
Indonesia. Subsidies to support coal mining in Europe are being
Rest of World 83.2 8.4
reduced and coal production is declining, even though imports

Source: BP Energy Statistics, June 2001


into the major European nations are increasing.
A key area for growth in coal production is the Pacific region.
combustion for electricity generation.Technologies have been
Unlike in Europe, the ability to develop gas infrastructure is
developed to address these, many of which are relatively well
limited in many parts of the Pacific. As a result, coal-fired power
established in industrial countries. An example is systems to remove
stations are seen as being needed to meet the surge in
sulphur from flu gases in power stations (although this requires
electricity demand associated with industrial growth and rising
limestone to be mined).The concept of clean (or cleaner) coal
living standards.
technology incorporates numerous innovations that reduce
emissions and use coal more efficiently. One example is fluidized
bed coal combustion, which reduces emissions of nitrous oxides and
leads to the efficient capture of sulphurous gases.
Factors Affecting Future Coal Use
A key factor affecting demand for coal is the technologies
employed in its use. Despite an increase in the production of pig
iron between 1990 and 2000, total world production of coking
Emissions of carbon dioxide are now widely acknowledged as one
coal declined from 548 million tonnes to 497 million
underlying cause of global climate change and may therefore have
tonnes.This is partly due to an increase in the efficiency of blast
significant effects on future coal use. 35 Coal has the
furnaces, but also to more stringent environmental controls.
highest
Demand for coking coal is linked closely to pig iron output
carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of any fossil fuel and therefore
across the world.
produces a higher proportion of carbon dioxide than fuels such
as oil or natural gas. Conventional modern coal-fired power
stations operate at efficiencies of approximately 38%,
compared with advanced ‘combined-cycle’ gas-fired plants that
Steel companies have introduced equipment that injects coal
operate at 55% or more. Older coal-fired plants operate at much
directly into the blast furnace as a substitute for coke. It is
lower efficiencies. Some modifications can raise efficiencies
estimated that currently
(the conversion of the chemical energy present in coal to
32 million tonnes of coal are being injected into blast
electricity) up to 40%.The next step in
furnaces worldwide. Coal for injection purposes does not
coal-fired technology is to convert coal into gaseous form and
require coking properties. It does, however, need the same levels
then burn it in a combinedcycle gas plant. Overall efficiency levels
of chemical purity as coking coal.The technology of coke making
in the region of 50% may be achieved. Clearly, a key area of
has developed so that poorer coking coals can be used at
concern to industry, governments, and other actors is the
increasing levels in the mix of coals being fed to coke ovens.
transfer of these technologies to countries where coal use for
Currently this technology is used mainly in Asia and South
electricity generation is increasing rapidly.
America.These coals are often the same as those used for
injection and have resulted in a second category of coking coal
being established.This category is often referred to as semi-soft
coal in contrast to high-quality coking coals, referred to as hard
coking coals.

including emissions of polluting gases associated with iron and


steel production and direct

As with other carbon fuels, policies set by governments and


producers have always had significant implications for coal use.
For instance, following the oil price shocks of the 1970s, electric
utilities turned from oil to coal, and by 1983 the trade in steam
coal exceeded that of coking coal. Energy policy is now
increasingly influenced by environmental concerns, which may
have significant implications for the way in which coal is used
and overall demand.

There are numerous environmental concerns relating to coal use,


Obviously the contribution of coal combustion to carbon
dioxide emissions needs to be evaluated alongside other
sources and other gases (such as methane from reservoirs for
hydroelectric power plant). 36 The Kyoto Protocol (part of the
1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change) or subsequent
agreements may cause many governments to change their
policies in order to create incentives for alternative energy
sources. Carbon taxes and emission permits both within and
between countries may affect the price of energy and thus the
demand for coal.This topic is already the subject of an established
debate with regard to energy policy and sustainable
development.The European Union is currently one of the most
sensitive markets with regard to the regulation of coal usage.
Potash

Approximately 95% of the current global consumption of potassium is


used for fertilizers; the remainder is used in various industrial
applications, including the manufacture of caustic potassium and
other
intermediate chemicals important to industry. Potash is the trade
term that refers to fertilizer materials containing potassium.
Potassium is essential for plant and animal life. Many soils lack
sufficient quantities of available potassium for the demands of crop
yield and quality.As a result, available soil potassium levels are
commonly supplemented by potash fertilization to improve the
nutrition of plants, particularly for sustaining production of high-
yielding crop species and varieties in modern agricultural
systems. 37

Potassium is present in all types of rocks, but mining of potash ores


with consumption of 21.9–22.8 million tonnes.
is mainly restricted to two types of sedimentary deposits:
In 1998 and 1999, potash usage of 11.1–11.4 million tonnes in
deposits of marine origin that are found at depths typically
industrial countries was only slightly higher than usage in
ranging from 400 to more than 1000 metres below the surface, and
developing countries of 10.5–10.9 million tonnes.
surface brine deposits associated with saline water bodies (such as
the Dead Sea, the Great Salt Lake, and China’s Qarhan
Lake).World resources of potassium bearing
There are only 14 producers in the world potash market. Four
countries account for three-quarters of global output: Canada,
sedimentary deposits are immense and are reported to total 17
Russia, Germany, and Belarus. Canada has the largest known
billion tonnes. 38 Of this, 8.4 billion tonnes of reserves are categorized
reserves of potassium. These extensive, consistent, and high-
as commercially exploitable. 39

grade potash deposits represent more than 50% of estimated


With current annual global consumption of about 25.8 million tonnes,
world reserves.The sizeable potash deposits in the former Soviet
both economic reserves and the resource base are sufficient to
Union contain large amounts of ore, but these are of a type
meet world demand for centuries.
that has higher refining costs.Thailand has 10 billion tonnes of
potash consisting of a mixture of ore types.

Potash ores situated at depth are mined mainly by million tonnes yearly, compared
conventional mechanized methods. Solution mining is used
when underground extraction is no longer technically feasible.
Solar evaporation of brines that naturally contain potassium is
the third method of obtaining potash ore.

The processing of potash ores normally results in large volumes


of waste materials, including brines, slimes containing clay, and
salt tailings.The disposal of saline wastes, including the
rehabilitation of land after mining, has been a key issue in
the environmental management of the potash industry. 40

World production of potassium fertilizer salts has grown


significantly in the last century to meet the growing
requirements of intensive agriculture. From 1998 to 2001,
potash production varied in the narrow range of 25.4–25.8
Major consuming regions, such as Asia and Latin
America, will continue to depend substantially on
imports, due to the resilient imbalance in the
supply/demand situation and the sustained growth in
demand. Exporting regions such as North
America, East Europe/Central Asia, and the Near
East will expand their capabilities to meet world
requirements for potash in growing and emerging
markets.

Four countries currently account for close to 53% of


global potash usage.The US is the largest
consumer, typically accounting for about 20% of
the world total. China, Brazil, and India represent
approximately 15%, 10%, and 7%, respectively,
of world consumption. Western Europe is also an
important consuming region, using about 17.5%
of the total in recent years.
Potash demand is determined largely by the
Endnotes
requirements for fertilizer production, which is forecast to reach 25
million tonnes by 2005.The most fundamental factors 1 H. Murray, Indiana University, Industrial Clays.This study will be published

determining long-term demand for potash will be developments with the MMSD working papers.
Unless otherwise indicated, the data in this chapter are supplied by CRU
in agricultural techniques and patterns of food production to meet
2

International. Information is also provided by McCloskey Coal, Gold Fields Mineral


a growing world population. Future need for potassium fertilizers Services, the International Iron and Steel Institute, the United Nations, the
will also depend on a number of specific factors, including: U.S. geological Survey, and the World Bureau of Metal Statistics.

3 In Table 5–1, aluminium consumption refers only to primary metal produced


from bauxite; all scrap-based aluminium consumption is separate and in addition to
• the extent and severity of potassium deficiency in cropland, this figure. Copper consumption refers to refined copper, of which 86% in the
western world is produced from ore and concentrate, while 14% is produced
from scrap; in addition, a large amount of scrap is recycled as alloy
• the introduction of new or improved crop varieties with (notably brass). Lead consumption refers to refined lead, of which 60–62% in
greater potassium requirements,
the western world is now produced from scrap and the remainder from ores
and concentrates. In addition, a small amount of lead is recycled in the form of
• shifts in demand for agricultural products, alloys. Steel consumption refers to carbon steel, of which over 50% is
• the profitability of potassium fertilization to farmers, produced from scrap in the western world. In addition, stainless steel scrap is
recycled as stainless steel. Production statistics are for 2000.
• prices for agricultural products and other fertilizers,
• government crop production or restriction
programmes, and
4 World Aluminium Institute at http://www.world-

• weather conditions (including those associated with aluminium.org/production/recycling/index.html.


climate change). 5Defined as the US, Canada,Western Europe, Japan,Australia, and New Zealand
in

the statistics shown in this chapter.


Data from GFMS, IMF, CRU.
The correct availability of potassium in the soil (of which fertilizer is
6

For Iceland, see Norsk Hydro Ices Aluminum Smelter,


one source) is important in plant resistance to drought, frost,
7

Environment News Service, 4 April 2002, at


and a number of diseases and pests.The element is essential
http://www.corpwatch.org/news/PRT.jsp?articleid=2270; see ‘World Bank in India,
for the development of the root system and fosters nitrogen Car Culture Pushes Privatisation,’ AidWatch,
at http://www.aidwatch.org.au/news/15/10.htm; see ‘Chile Green Groups Question Aluminum
fixation of leguminous crops, and it improves the size, colour, and
Plant Comment,’ Planet Ark,
sugar content of fruit crops. Natural reserves of soil potassium 3 December 2001, at http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/
diminish with each successive crop.This withdrawal or ‘soil mining’ newsid/13528/story.htm.
8 World Commission on Dams (2000).
is greatly increased and accelerated by higher yields and more
9 Data for secondary recovery of aluminium are much less complete than those
intensive cropping. for primary consumption.The major form of secondary production is the re-
melting of scrap to produce alloy ingots.This is reasonably well recorded,
but there are undoubtedly some small secondary smelters that do not report
production. There are also producers of billet from scrap (with some primary
additions). Production from these plants is much less well recorded in

The decision to use potash in agriculture depends on the Europe.Then there is scrap that is directly re-used in semi- fabricating plants
that have their own casting facilities.This scrap can arise within the plant or
relationship between the cost of fertilizer and the return on yield. be bought in from scrap merchants. This recycled material is not fully
It also depends on the level of technology associated with the recorded and in some countries is not recorded at all. Finally, some pure
aluminium scrap is melted in the casthouses of primary smelters and cast into
production system in question.The debate about the role of
products that are sold as primary aluminium. How this metal is recorded, if at
fertilizer in supplying plant nutrients is linked to concerns about all, is uncertain.All that can be said with confidence is that the volume of
the environmental and social impacts of modern agricultural aluminium recycled is greater than the volume recorded.This should be borne in
mind when considering any calculations about the amount of aluminium scrap
production systems. In many industrial countries, there is an
that is lost in landfills and could in theory have been recycled.
increasing focus on organic farming practices, which place
greater emphasis on the recycling of organic matter. Even so, the
International Guidelines covering organically produced foods do
allow for potassium to be used where adequate crop nutrition 10 The process uses laser induced optical spectroscopy. Each piece of scrap

and soil conditions cannot be achieved through the recycling of is sampled by means of a laser, identified, and then separated by alloy. If
commercially proven, the process would enable much more of the value of
organic materials alone. 41
aluminium scrap from shredded automobiles to be retained.The process is being
tested by the HuronValley Steel Corporation and is being promoted by the Auto
Aluminium Alliance and the Aluminium Association; see US Department of
Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies (2001); Comments of International
Recycling on Draft Report.

Potassium fertilizer (and therefore the requirement for potash


mining) will continue so long as modern agricultural practices are 11 MacMillan (2000).
the basis for meeting the world’s food requirements.
12 See ‘Zambian Copper Chokes Miners’, Electronic Mail &
Guardian, 29 January 1997, at
http://www.mg.co.za/mg/news/
97jan2/29jan-zamcopper.html.A list of smelters is available at
http://www.ame.com.au/smelters/cu/smelters.htm. 34 IEA Coal information (2001).
13 A standard automotive SLI (Start, Light and Ignition) battery is composed 35 Houghton et al. (2001).
largely of lead and sulfuric acid. 36 Ibid.;World Commission on Dams (2000).
The mobility study now being supported by theWorld Business Council
This section is based largely on data provided by the International Fertilizer Industry
14
37

for Sustainable Development may shed some light on these


Association, Paris.
questions. 38 US Geological Survey (2000a).
39 Measured in terms of the mass of potassium oxide.
15 Gold Fields Mineral Services Ltd. (2001).Total includes fabricated items as well as
40 UNEP (2001b).
bar hoarding and net producing hedging and investment.
41 FAO/World Health Organization (1999).
16 World Gold Council (2001) p.17.
17 Wedepohl (1995) estimates that there are 2.5 parts per billion of gold in Earth’s

continental crust.
18 Gold Fields Mineral Services. Of this, some 70,000 tonnes are said to be
held in the form of jewellery, and 30,000 tonnes in official institutions. Ibid.;
ICMM comments on draft report.
19 Otto (2002).
20 See http://csf.colorado.edu/bioregional/apr99/ 0015.html and

http://www.rainforestjukebox.org/ gold/platform.htm.
21 World Gold Council, London, press release, 10 May 2001.
22 This organization should not be confused with the Global

Mining Initiative.
23 Keynes (1936), p.129.

24 Robert A. Mundell, quoted in Gold Institute comments on MMSD draft

report.
25 World Gold Council.
26 Ibid.
27 Total number of employees in South African Gold Mines fell from 474,851
in 1990 to 197,537 in 2000 (Chamber of Mines of South Africa).

28 Orellana (2001).
29 World Gold Council, at

http://www.gold.org/finalgold/gold/Gra/Pr/Wr991006.htm.
30 This refers to gold recovered as a by-product in the mining and
extractive metallurgy of other metals.The gold (or any other saleable element)
is classed as a by-product if it is not the main source of revenue for the
facility producing the metals concerned. The main source of by-product gold is
the copper industry. Other sources include platinum producers, silver mines,
and, on a very small scale, lead and zinc mines.

31 In Table 5–5, ‘reserves’ refers to that part of the reserve base that could be
economically extracted or produced at the time of determination.The term need
not signify that extraction facilities are in place and operative. Reserves include
only recoverable materials; thus terms such as ‘extractable reserves’ and
‘recoverable reserves’ are redundant and are not a part of this classification
system. ‘Resources’ refers to that part of an identified resource that meets specified
minimum physical and chemical criteria related to current mining and production
practices, including those for grade, quality, thickness, and depth.The reserve base
is the in-place demonstrated (measured plus indicated) resource from which
reserves are estimated. It may encompass those parts of the resources that
have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning
horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics.The
reserve base includes those resources that are currently economic (reserves),
marginally economic (marginal reserves), and some of those that are currently
subeconomic (subeconomic resources).The term ‘geologic reserve’ has been
applied by others generally to the reserve-base category, but it also may include
the inferred-reserve- base category; it is not a part of this classification
system.

32 This section is based on information provided by McCloskey


Group, supplemented by information available from theWorld Coal
Institute at http://www.wci-coal.com.
33 British Petroleum (2001).

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