capitulo

5
Situ
ació
n
actu
al y
opci
one
s de
las
biot
ecn
olog
ías
en
el
proc
esa
mie
nto
de
alim
ento
sy
en
la
inoc
uida
d de
los
alim
ento
s en
los
país
es
en
des
arrol
lo

Resume
n

El
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
convier
te
materia
s
primas
relativa
mente
volumi
nosas,
pereced
eras y
típicam
ente no
comesti
bles en
aliment
os o
bebidas
potable
s más
útiles,
estables
en
almace
namien
to y
sabroso
s.
Tambié
n
contrib
uye a la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria al
minimi
zar el
desperd
icio y
las
pérdida
s en la
cadena
aliment
aria y al
aument
ar la
disponi
bilidad
y
comerc
ializació
n de
aliment
os. Los
aliment
os
tambié
n se
procesa
n para
mejorar
su
calidad
y
segurid
ad. La
biotecn
ología
utiliza
inocula
ntes
microbi
anos
para
mejorar
propied
ades
como
el
sabor,
aroma,
vida
útil,
textura
y valor
nutricio
nal de
los
aliment
os a
través
de la
ferment
ación,
que
tambié
n se
aplica
amplia
mente
para
produci
r
cultivos
microbi
anos,
enzima
s,
aromas,
fraganci
as,
aditivos
aliment
arios y
una
varieda
d de
otros
product
os de
alto
valor
añadido
. El
procesa
miento
de
ferment
ación
en la
mayoría
de los
países
en
desarro
llo es
más un
arte
que una
ciencia
y, en las
econo
mías de
bajos
ingreso
s, a
menud
o hace
uso de
una
base
tecnoló
gica
rudime
ntaria
con un
control
deficien
te del
proceso
que da
como
resultad
o
rendimi
entos
bajos y
product
os de
calidad
variable
. Las
ferment
aciones
espontá
neas y
las que
utilizan
cultivos
iniciado
res
"apropi
ados"
produci
dos en
gran
parte
median
te
retroces
o (un
proceso
que
utiliza
muestra
s de un
lote
anterior
de un
product
o
ferment
ado
como
inocula
ntes) se
aplican
amplia
mente a
nivel de
hogares
y aldeas
en los
países
en
desarro
llo.
Con el
aument
o de la
investig
ación y
el
desarro
llo (I +
D), se
han
desarro
llado
varias
cepas
de
microo
rganism
os
preculti
vadas,
simples
o
mixtas,
denomi
nadas
"cultivo
s
iniciado
res
definid
os",
que los
pequeñ
os
fabrica
ntes
están
utilizan
do en
sus
operaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
ferment
ación.
Varios
países
en
desarro
llo
tambié
n
importa
n
cultivos
iniciado
res
definid
os para
su uso
en
operaci
ones de
procesa
miento.
Se
pueden
aplicar
método
s
tradicio
nales
de
mejora
genétic
a,
como
la
mutagé
nesis y
la
conjuga
ción
clásicas,
para
mejorar
la
calidad
de los
cultivos
microbi
anos.
La
hibrida
ción
tambié
n se
utiliza
para
mejorar
las
cepas
de
levadur
a. Las
técnicas
de
biologí
a
molecul
ar se
emplea
n
amplia
mente
en I +
D para
mejorar
las
cepas.
Aunqu
e estas
técnicas
son
comun
es en
los
países
desarro
llados,

2
4
0

S
E
C
C
I
Ó
N

1
:

A
n
t
e
c
e
d
e
n
t
e
s

d
e

I
O
t
e
c
h

n
o
l
o
g

e
s

d
e

A
g

U
C
I

l
t
u

r
a

v
í
s
p
e
r
a

l
o
p
m

n
t

que
sólo
ahora
están
empeza
ndo a
aplicar
en los
países
en
desarrol
lo para
la
mejora
y
desarrol
lo de
arranqu
e
culturas
. Por
ejemplo
, en
Tailand
ia se
han
aplicad
o
técnicas
de
ADN
polimór
fico
amplifi
cado al
azar
(RAPD
) en la
tipificac
ión
molecul
ar de
cepas
bacteria
nas
para la
produc
ción de
salchich
a de
cerdo
ferment
ada
(nham),
lo que
ha
llevado
al
desarrol
lo de
tres
cultivos
iniciado
res
definid
os
diferent
es, que
se
utilizan
actualm
ente
para la
produc
ción
comerci
al de
product
os con
diferent
es
caracter
ísticas
de
sabor.
Los
cultivos
microbi
anos
genétic
amente
modific
ados
(GM)
se
utilizan
en la
produc
ción de
enzima
s y
diverso
s
ingredie
ntes de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os. El
cuajo,
que se
usa
amplia
mente
en todo
el
mundo
como
iniciado
r en la
produc
ción de
queso,
se
produc
e
utilizan
do
bacteria
s
transgé
nicas.
Tailand
ia
utiliza
actualm
entetra
nsgénic
a
Escheri
chia
coli
como
inocula
nte en
la
produc
ción de
lisina.
Muchas
enzima
s de
importa
ncia
industri
al,
como la
alfa
amilasa,
la
glucoa
milasa,
la lipasa
y la
pectina
sa, así
como
las
sustanc
ias
química
s finas
de
origen
biológi
co
como
el ácido
láctico,
los
aminoá
cidos,
los
antibiót
icos, el
ácido
nucleic
o y los
polisac
áridos,
se
produc
en en
China
utilizan
do
cultivos
iniciado
res
transgé
nicos.
La
segurid
ad
aliment
aria se
define
como
la
garantía
de que
los
aliment
os no
causará
n daño
al
consum
idor
cuando
se
prepara
ny/o
consum
en de
acuerdo
con su
uso
previst
o, y la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria a lo
largo
de la
cadena
aliment
aria
incluye
las
buenas
práctica
s
agrícola
s que
establec
en los
principi
os
básicos
para la
agricult
ura
(incluye
ndo
acuicult
ura),
manejo
de
suelos y
aguas,
produc
ción de
cultivos
y
animale
s,
manejo
y
tratami
ento
poscos
echa,
buenas
práctica
s de
manufa
ctura
para
almace
namien
to,
procesa
miento
y
distribu
ción al
consum
idor. La
biotecn
ología
se
emplea
amplia
mente
como
herrami
enta de
diagnós
tico
para
monito
rear la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria,
preveni
r y
diagnos
ticar
enferm
edades
transmi
tidas
por los
aliment
os y
verifica
r el
origen
de los
aliment
os. Las
técnicas
aplicad
as en el
asegura
miento
de la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria se
centran
en la
detecci
ón y
seguimi
ento de
peligros
. Los
avances
biotecn
ológico
s han
llevado
a una
amplia
disponi
bilidad
de
método
s de
identifi
cación
que son
más
rápidos
y
menos
costoso
s que
los
basados
en
técnicas
conven
cionale
s. Los
método
s de
reacció
n en
cadena
de la
polimer
asa
(PCR) y
ensayo
inmuno
absorbe
nte
ligado a
enzima
s
(ELISA
) se
aplican
ahora
en la
detecci
ón de
los
princip
ales
patóge
nos
transmi
tidos
por los
aliment
os.
La
informa
ción de
la
secuenc
ia del
genoma
, junto
con el
apoyo
de
técnicas
molecul
ares
avanza
das, ha
permiti
do a los
científic
os
establec
er
estrateg
ias para
protege
r a los
consum
idores
de los
patógen
os y ha
propor
cionado
a la
industri
a
herrami
entas
para
desarrol
lar
estrateg
ias para
diseñar
aliment
os
saludab
les y
seguros
optimiz
ando el
efecto
de las
bacteria
s
probiót
icas, el
diseño
de
cultivos
iniciado
res de
bacteria
s. y
propied
ades
funcion
ales
para su
uso en
el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os.
Estos
avances
, a su
vez,
han
dado
lugar a
herrami
entas
de
diagnós
tico
más
precisas
y a la
capacid
ad de
desarrol
lar
rápida
mente
kits de
detecci
ón
eficient
es,
específi
cos y
sensible
s para
nuevas
cepas
microbi
anas.
En la
actualid
ad,
tambié
n se
dispone
de kits
para la
detecci
ón de
micoto
xinas,
que son
los
princip
ales
peligros
asociad
os con
las
legumb
res y
los
cereales
, las
materia
s
primas
para
una
serie de
aliment
os
ferment
ados
tradicio
nales en
muchas
regione
s en
desarrol
lo. La
identifi
cación
de los
ingredie
ntes
aliment
arios y
el
origen
de los
aliment
os
median
te
estudio
s de
trazabili
dad
tambié
n se ha
mejora
do
median
te
 método
s
molecul
ares.

Capítulo 5 Situación
actual y opciones de
las biotecnologías en
el procesamiento de
alimentos y en la
inocuidad de los
alimentos en los
países en desarrollo
241
5.1
Introduc
ción

El
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os hace
uso de
diversas
operaci
ones
unitaria
s y
tecnolo
gías
para
convert
ir
materia
s
primas
relativa
mente
volumi
nosas,
pereced
eras y
típicam
ente no
comesti
bles en
más
útiles,
estables
y
apeteci
bles
aliment
os o
bebidas
potable
s. El
procesa
miento
contrib
uye a la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria al
minimi
zar el
desperd
icio y
las
pérdida
s en la
cadena
aliment
aria y al
aument
ar la
disponi
bilidad
y
comerci
alizació
n de
aliment
os. Los
aliment
os
tambié
n se
procesa
n para
mejorar
su
calidad
y
segurid
ad. La
segurid
ad
aliment
aria es
una
discipli
na
científic
a que
ofrece
“garantí
a de
que los
aliment
os no
causará
n daño
al
consum
idor
cuando
se
prepara
ny/o
consum
en de
acuerdo
con su
uso
previst
o”1.
La
biotecn
ología
aplicad
a al
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os en la
mayoría
de los
países
en
desarrol
lo
utiliza
inocula
ntes
microbi
anos
para
mejorar
propied
ades
como
el
sabor,
el
aroma,
la vida
útil, la
textura
y el
valor
nutricio
nal de
los
aliment
os. El
proceso
por el
cual los
microo
rganism
os y sus
enzima
s
provoc
an
estos
cambio
s
deseabl
es en
los
material
es
alimenti
cios se
conoce
como
ferment
ación.
El
procesa
miento
de
ferment
ación
tambié
n se
aplica
amplia
mente
en la
produc
ción de
cultivos
microbi
anos,
enzima
s,
aromas,
fraganci
as,
aditivos
aliment
arios y
una
varieda
d de
otros
product
os de
alto
valor
agregad
o.
Estos
product
os de
alto
valor se
produc
en cada
vez
más en
países
en
desarrol
lo
tecnoló
gicame
nte más
avanza
dos
para su
uso en
sus
aplicaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os y no
aliment
os.
Mucho
s de
estos
product
os de
alto
valor
tambié
n son
importa
dos por
países
en
desarrol
lo para
su uso
en sus
aplicaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os.
Est
e
capítulo
describ
e las
perspec
tivas y
el
potenci
al de la
aplicaci
ón de la
biotecn
ología
en las
operaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os y
para
abordar
los
proble
mas de
segurid
ad en
los
sistema
s
aliment
arios
con el
objetiv
o de
abordar
la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria y
respon
der a
las
tendenc
ias
cambia
ntes de
los
consum
idores
en los
países
en
desarrol
lo. Es
importa
nte
señalar
que la
evaluaci
ón de la
inocuid
ad de
los
aliment
os o la
evaluaci
ón de
riesgos
no se
tratan
aquí,
sino
que el
capítulo
se
centra
en el
context
o de las
biotecn
ologías
aplicad
as a la
inocuid
ad de
los
aliment
os.
Las
tecnolo
gías
aplicad
as en el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
deben
asegura
r la
calidad
y
segurid
ad del
product
o final.
Los
aliment
os
inocuos
son
aquello
s en los
que se
present
an
peligros
físicos,
químic
os o
microbi
ológico
s a un
nivel
que no
present
a un
riesgo
para la
salud
pública.
Por
tanto,
los
aliment
os
inocuos
pueden
consum
irse con
la
segurid
ad de
que no
hay
consec
uencias
graves
para la
salud
del
consum
idor.
Las
reciente
s
amenaz
as
aliment
arias,
como la
enferm
edad de
las
vacas
locas y
la
contam
inación
de los
product
os
alimenti
cios
por
melami
na, han
aument
ado la
preocu
pación
de los
consum
idores
por la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria. A
medida
que
aument
an los
ingreso
s, los
consum
idores
están
cada
vez
más
dispues
tos a
pagar
más
por la
calidad,
la
segurid
ad y la
comodi
dad.
Se
aplica
una
varieda
d de
tecnolo
gías a
diferent
es
niveles
y
escalas
de
operaci
ón en el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os en
todo el
mundo
en
desarrol
lo. Las
tecnolo
gías de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
conven
cionales
o de
"bajos
insumo
s"
incluye
n el
secado,
la
ferment
ación,
la
salazón
y
diversas
formas
de
cocción
, como
asar,
freír,
ahumar
,
 cocinar
al
vapor y
hornear
. Es
probabl
e que
las
econo
mías de
bajos
ingreso
s las
emplee
n como
tecnolo
gías
predom
inantes
para el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
básicos.
Mucho
s de los

1
Código
Internaci
onal
Recome
ndado
de
Práctica
s:
Principio
s
General
es de
Higiene
de los
Alimento
s
(Comisió
n del
Codex
Alimenta
rius,
2009)

242 Biotecnologías
para el desarrollo
agrícolamétodo
 SECCIÓN 1:
ANTECEDENTES de

estas
tecnolo
gías
utilizan
unsimp
le y a
menud
o una
base
tecnoló
gica
rudime
ntaria.
Los
niveles
medios
de
tecnolo
gías de
procesa
miento
como
enlatad
o,
secado
en
horno,
secado
por
aspersi
ón,
liofiliza
ción,
congela
ción,
pasteuri
zación,
envasad
o al
vacío,
deshidr
atación
osmótic
a y
cristaliz
ación
de
azúcar
se
aplican
amplia
mente
en las
econo
mías de
ingreso
s
medios
y altos.
Las
tecnolo
gías de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os de
alto
nivel y
más
intensiv
as en
capital,
como la
pasteuri
zación
a alta
temper
atura
por
corto
tiempo
y elalta
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
apresió
n y baja
temper
atura,
se
utilizan
amplia
mente
en las
econo
mías de
ingreso
s
medios
y altos.
Los
aditivos
e
ingredie
ntes
funcion
ales
produci
dos
median
te
proceso
s de
ferment
ación
se
incorpo
ran
general
mente
en
operaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os que
utilizan
tecnolo
gías de
nivel
superio
r.
Los
método
s
tradicio
nales
de
control
de la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria,
como
la
detecci
ón de
bacteria
s
patóge
nas, se
basan
general
mente
en el
uso de
medios
de
cultivo.
Estas
son las
técnicas
preferid
as en
las
econo
mías de
ingreso
s bajos
y
median
os
bajos
que
carecen
de los
recurso
s, la
infraest
ructura
y la
capacid
ad
técnica
para
utilizar
las
biotecn
ologías
modern
as. Los
método
s
conven
cionales
de
detecci
ón de
bacteria
s son
procedi
miento
s de
varios
pasos
que
requier
en
mucho
tiempo.
Se
requier
en al
menos
dos o
tres
días
para el
aislamie
nto
inicial
de un
organis
mo,
seguido
s de
varios
días
para
pruebas
de
confir
mación
adicion
ales.
Los
método
s
basados
en la
biotecn
ología
pueden
propor
cionar
resultad
os
preciso
s en un
período
de
tiempo
relativa
mente
corto.
Los
avances
biotecn
ológico
s han
dado
como
resultad
o la
amplia
disponi
bilidad
dede
bajo
método
s
rápidos
de
identifi
caciónc
osto en
compar
ación
con los
importa
ntes
requisit
os de
costo /
tiempo
de las
técnicas
conven
cionale
s. Las
econo
mías de
ingreso
s
median
os
bajos
aplican
método
s
tradicio
nales y
más
sofistic
ados
para
monito
rear la
calidad
microbi
ológica
de los
aliment
os y su
confor
midad
con las
normas
interna
cionale
s.
En
el texto
se
describ
en
varios
estudio
s de
casos
para
demost
rar la
utilidad
de las
aplicaci
ones
basadas
en la
biotecn
ología
en el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os y la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria.
Estos
estudio
s de
casos
propor
cionan
la base
para el
desarro
llo de
interve
nciones
estratég
icas
diseñad
as para
mejorar
el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os y la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria en
los
países
en
desarro
llo
median
te la
aplicaci
ón de la
biotecn
ología.
Est
e
docum
ento se
divide
en dos
seccion
es
princip
ales:
“Invent
ario:
aprend
er del
pasado
” y
“Mirar
hacia el
futuro:
prepara
rse para
el
futuro”
. En la
primera
sección,
la Parte
5.2
propor
ciona
una
breve
definici
ón de
biotecn
ologías;
La
parte
5.3
ofrece
un
panora
ma
general
del
estado
actual
de la
aplicaci
ón de
biotecn
ologías
en los
países
en
desarro
llo; La
Parte
5.4
propor
ciona
un
análisis
de los
éxitos /
fracaso
s de la
aplicaci
ón de
biotecn
ologías
en los
países
en
desarro
llo y los
factores
causale
s
subyace
ntes; y
en la
Parte
5.5 se
describ
en
algunos
estudio
s de
casos
de
aplicaci
ones en
países
en
desarro
llo. En
la
segund
a
sección,
la Parte
5.6
trata un
tema
clave
en el
sector
donde
la
aplicaci
ón de
biotecn
ologías
podría
ser útil;
La
Parte
5.7
propon
e
opcion
es para
que los
países
en
desarro
llo
tomen
decisio
nes
informa
das
sobre la
aplicaci
ón de
biotecn
ologías
apropia
das; y la
Parte
5.8
present
a las
priorida
des de
acción
de la
comuni
dad
interna
cional.
capítulo 5 Situación
actual y opciones
para las
biotecnologías en la
elaboración de
alimentos y en la
inocuidad de los
alimentos en los
países en desarrollo
243
A.
Invent
ario:
Aprend
iendo
del
pasad
o
5.2
Biotecno
logía:
Definició
ny
alcance
A los
efectos
de este
Capítul
o, la
biotecn
ología
se
define
de
confor
midad
con el
Conven
io
sobre
Biotecn
ología
Diversi
dad
(CBD),
es
decir,
“cualqu
ier
aplicaci
ón
tecnoló
gica
que
utilice
sistema
s
biológic
os,
organis
mos
vivos o
derivad
os de
los
mismos
, para
fabricar
o
modific
ar
product
os o
proceso
s para
un uso
específi
co”.
La
biotecn
ología
en el
sector
de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
utiliza
microo
rganis
mos
para la
conserv
ación
de
aliment
os y
para la
produc
ción de
una
gama
de
product
os de
valor
agregad
o como
enzima
s,
compu
estos
aromati
zantes,
vitamin
as,
cultivos
microbi
anos e
ingredi
entes
aliment
arios.
Las
aplicaci
ones de
la
biotecn
ología
en el
sector
de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os, por
lo
tanto,
se
dirigen
a la
selecció
n y
manipu
lación
de
microo
rganis
mos
con el
objetiv
o de
mejorar
el
control
del
proces
o, la
calidad
del
product
o, la
segurid
ad, la
consist
encia y
el
rendimi
ento, al
tiempo
que
aument
a la
eficienc
ia del
proces
o.
Lo
s
proceso
s
biotecn
ológico
s
aplicabl
es a la
mejora
de
cultivos
microbi
anos
para su
uso en
aplicaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
incluye
n
método
s
tradicio
nales
de
mejora
genétic
a
(“biote
cnologí
a
tradicio
nal”)
como
la
mutagé
nesis y
la
conjuga
ción
clásicas.
Estos
método
s
general
mente
se
enfoca
n en
mejorar
la
calidad
de los
microo
rganism
os y el
rendimi
ento de
los
metabo
litos. La
hibrida
ción
tambié
n se
utiliza
para
mejorar
las
levadur
as
involuc
radas
en la
cocción
, la
elabora
ción de
cerveza
y la
produc
ción de
bebidas
.
LasSac
charom
yces
cerevisi
ae
cepas
de, por
ejemplo
, se han
investig
ado
para
mejorar
las
capacid
ades de
ferment
ación,
procesa
miento
y
biopres
ervació
n, y
para
aument
ar la
salubrid
ad y la
calidad
sensori
al del
vino
 (Pretori
us y
Bauer,
2002).
Los
método
s
emplea
dos en
la I +
D
genétic
a de las
levadur
as
enológi
cas se
describ
en en
detalle
en
Pretori
us
(2000)
y
algunos
se
resume
n en la
Tabla
1.

TABLA 1

Algunos
métodos
empleados
en la I + D
genética de
las
levaduras
enológicas
Método Comentarios

Hibridación Generalmente no se puede utilizar directamente, pero el mé

obsoleto. Se ha utilizado para estudiar el control genético de
absorción de azúcar y la producción de sabor.cruzamiento y
derivados de esporas de S. cerevisiae También se ha logra

Mutación y Por ejemplo, para inducir mutantes autótrofos y desreprimid

selección eficaz del azúcar y tolerancia al etanol.
 Acoplamient Mezcla de cepas no aparentes a alta densidad celular (ca. 1
o raro resultado algunos híbridos verdaderos con núcleos fusionad
(introducción de elementos citoplasmáticos sin fusión nucle
utilizar para impartir actividad asesina (utilizando mutantes d
cariogamia [fusión nuclear]).

Fusión de esferoplasto Los esferoplastos de cepas de levadura de una

o diferentes géneros pueden fusionarse para producir fusibl
interespecíficos o intergenéricos, respectivamente. Existe la
características novedosas en cepas de levadura para vino q
aparearse.

solo Transferencia de unTransferencia de cromosomas completo

cromosoma vino (utilizando la mutación de cariogamia) a cepas genética
cerevisiae.

Transformaci Introducción de genes de otras levaduras y otros organismo

ón

244 Biotecnologías
para el desarrollo
agrícola SECCIÓN 1:
ANTECEDENTES DE

La
tecnolo
gía de
genes
recomb
inantes
se
emplea
amplia
mente
en I +
D para
la
mejora
de
cepas.
La
disponi
bilidad
de
herrami
entas
de
manipu
lación
genétic
a y las
oportu
nidades
que
existen
para
mejorar
los
cultivos
microbi
anos
asociad
os con
las
ferment
aciones
de
aliment
os se
ven
atenuad
as por
las
preocu
pacione
s sobre
los
proble
mas
regulat
orios y
las
percepc
iones
de los
consum
idores.
Sin
embarg
o, los
cultivos
microbi
anos
transgé
nicos se
utilizan
en la
produc
ción de
enzima
s y
diverso
s
ingredi
entes
de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os
como
el
glutama
to
monos
ódico,
los
ácidos
grasos
poliinsa
turados
y los
aminoá
cidos.
La
biotecn
ología
tambié
n se
emplea
amplia
mente
como
herrami
enta de
diagnós
tico
para
control
ar la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria,
preveni
r y
diagnos
ticar
enferm
edades
transmi
tidas
por los
aliment
os y
 verifica
r el
origen
de los
aliment
os. Las
técnicas
aplicad
as en el
asegura
miento
de la
segurid
ad
aliment
aria se
centran
en la
detecci
ón y
seguimi
ento de
peligros
biológi
cos,
químic
os o
físicos.
Estas
aplicaci
ones se
explora
n y
coment
an más
adelant
e.

5.3
E
s
t
a
d
o
a
c
t
u
a
l
d
e
l
a
a
p
l
i
c
a
c
i
ó
n
d
e
b
i
o
t
e
c
n
o
l
o
g
í
a
s
e
n
l
o
s
p
a
í
s
e
s
e
n
d
e
s
a
r
r
o
l
l
o

5.3.1
Métodos
de
inoculaci
ón
microbia
na en
ferment
aciones
de
alimento
s
El
bioproc
eso de
ferment
ación
es la
princip
al
aplicaci
ón
biotecn
ológica
en el
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os. A
menud
o es un
paso en
una
secuenc
ia de
operaci
ones de
procesa
miento
de
aliment
os que
pueden
incluir
limpiez
a,
reducci
ón de
tamaño
,
remojo
y
cocción
. El
bioproc
esamie
nto de
ferment
ación
utiliza
inocula
ntes
microbi
anos
para
mejorar
propied
ades
como
el
sabor,
aroma,
vida
útil,
segurid
ad,
textura
y valor
nutricio
nal de
los
aliment
os. Los
microbi
os
asociad
os con
la
materia
prima
del
aliment
o y el
entorn
o de
procesa
miento
sirven
como
inocula
ntes en
ferment
aciones
espontá
neas,
mientra
s que
los
inocula
ntes
que
contien
en altas
concen
tracion
es de
microo
rganis
mos
vivos,
denomi
nados
cultivos
iniciado
res, se
utilizan
para
iniciar y
acelerar
la
velocid
ad de
los
proces
os de
ferment
ación
en
proces
os no
espontá
neos. o
proces
os de
ferment
ación
control
ados.
Los
cultivos
iniciado
res
microbi
anos
varían
amplia
mente
en
calidad
y
pureza.
El
desarrol
lo y la
mejora
del
cultivo
de
arranqu
e es
objeto
de
mucha
investig
ación
tanto
en
países
desarrol
lados
como
en
desarrol
lo. Si
bien se
está
realizan
do un
trabajo
conside
rable en
el
desarrol
lo de
cultivos
de
iniciaci
ón
transgé
nicos a
nivel de
laborat
orio en
los
países
desarrol
lados,
se han
permiti
do
relativa
mente
pocos
microo
rganism
os
transgé
nicos
en la
industri
a de
aliment
os y
bebidas
a nivel
mundia
l. En
1990, el
Reino
Unido
se
convirti
ó en el
primer
país en
permiti
r el uso
de un
organis
mo
vivo
modific
ado
genétic
amente
(OMG)
en los
aliment
os. Era
una
levadur
a de
panader
ía,
diseñad
a para
mejorar
la
velocid
ad a la
que
aument
a la
masa
de pan
al
aument
ar la
eficienc
ia con
la que
se
descom
pone la
maltosa
. Esta
modific
ación
se
realizó
utilizan
do
genes
de
levadur
a y
colocán
dolos
bajo un
fuerte
promot
or
constit
utivo.
El
Reino
Unido
tambié
n ha
aproba
do una
levadur
a de
cerveza
transgé
nica
para la
produc
ción de
cerveza
. Al
introdu
cir un
gen que
codifica
la
gluco-
amilasa
de
levadur
a, se
puede
obtener
una
mejor
utilizaci
ón de
los
carbohi
dratos
present
es en la
materia
prima
conven
cional,
lo que
 da
como
resultad
o un
mayor
rendimi
ento de
alcohol
y la
capacid
ad de
produci
r una
cerveza
baja en
carbohi
dratos y
de
concent
ración
comple
ta. Más
reciente
mente,
se
autoriza
ron dos
cepas
de
levadur
a GM
para su
uso en
la
industri
a del
vino de
Améric
a del
Norte
(Bauer
et al.,
2007).

capítulo 5 Situación
actual y opciones de
las biotecnologías en
el procesamiento de
alimentos y en la
inocuidad de los
alimentos en los
países en desarrollo
245
La
literatur
a actual
docum
enta los
numero
sos
inform
es de
investig
ación
sobre la
caracter
ización
de
microbi
os
asociad
os con
la
produc
ción de
aliment
os
ferment
ados
tradicio
nales
en los
países
en
desarro
llo.
Relativa
mente
pocos
de
estos
estudio
s
docum
entan la
aplicaci
ón de
herrami
entas
de
diagnós
tico de
la
biotecn
ología
modern
a en el
desarro
llo y
diseño
de
cultivos
iniciado
res. El
desarro
llo y la
mejora
de los
iniciado
res
microbi
anos
han
sido
fuerzas
impuls
oras
para la
transfor
mación
de las
ferment
aciones
aliment
arias
tradicio
nales
en los
países
en
desarro
llo de
un
"arte" a
una
ciencia.
El
desarro
llo de
cultivos
iniciado
res
microbi
anos
tambié
n ha
sido
una
fuerza
impuls
ora de
la
innovac
ión en
el
diseño
de
equipos
adecua
dos
para el
procesa
miento
higiénic
o de
aliment
os
ferment
ados
tradicio
nales
en
condici
ones
control
adas en
muchos
países
en
desarro
llo.
La
mejora
de los
cultivos
iniciado
res,
junto
con la
mejora
y el
desarrol
lo de la
tecnolo
gía de
biorrea
ctores
para el
control
de los
proceso
s de
ferment
ación
en los
países
desarrol
lados,
ha
jugado
un
papel
fundam
ental en
la
produc
ción de
product
os de
alto
valor
como
enzima
s,
cultivos
microbi
anos e
ingredie
ntes
aliment
arios
funcion
ales.
Estos
product
os se
produc
en cada
vez
más en
las
econo
mías en
desarrol
lo más
avanza
das y
los
países
en
desarrol
lo
menos
avanza
dos
importa
n cada
vez
más
como
insumo
s para
sus
operaci
ones de
elabora
ción de
aliment
os.

Inocul
ación
espont
ánea
de los
proceso
s de
fermen
tación
En
muchos
países
en
desarro
llo, los
aliment
os
ferment
ados se
produc
en
princip
almente
en los
hogares
y las
aldeas
median
te
método
s
espontá
neos de
inocula
ción.
Las
ferment
aciones
espontá
neas
son en
gran
parte
incontr
oladas.
Sin
embarg
o, en
muchos
de ellos
se
desarro
lla un
proceso
de
selecció
n
natural
que
finalme
nte da
como
resultad
o el
predom
inio de
un tipo
o grupo
particul
ar de
microo
rganism
os
en el
medio
de
ferment
ación.
La
mayoría
de los
proceso
s de
ferment
ación
de
aliment
os
african
os
utilizan
la
inocula
ción
espontá
nea
(Tabla
2). Las
princip
ales
limitaci
ones de
los
proceso
s de
ferment
ación
espontá
nea
incluye
n su
ineficie
ncia,
bajos
rendimi
entos
de
product
o y
calidad
variable
del
product
o. Si
bien las
ferment
aciones
espontá
neas
general
mente
mejora
n la
segurid
ad de
los
aliment
os
debido
a la
reducci
ón del
pH y a
través
de la
desinto
xicació
n, en
algunos
casos
existen
proble
mas de
segurid
ad
relacion
ados
con los
patógen
os
bacteria
nos
asociad
os con
la
materia
prima o
con
práctica
s
antihigi
énicas
durante
el
procesa
miento.
Cultiv
os
iniciad
ores
“aprop
iados”
como
inocula
ntes de
proceso
s de
fermen
tación
Los
cultivos
iniciado
res
“apropi
ados”
se
aplican
amplia
mente
como
inocula
ntes en
el
sector
de
aliment
os
ferment
ados,
desde el
hogar
hasta el
nivel
industri
al en
econo
mías de
ingreso
s bajos
y
medios
bajos.
Estos
cultivos
iniciado
res se
produc
en
general
mente
median
te un
proceso
de
retroces
o que
utiliza
muestra
s de un
lote
anterior
de
product
o
ferment
ado
como
inocula
ntes
(Holza
pfel,
2002).
Los
cultivos
iniciado
res
apropia
dos se
aplican
amplia
mente
en la
produc
ción de
salsas
de
pescad
o
ferment
adas y
vegetale
s
ferment
ados en
Asia
(Tabla
3) y en
 ferment
aciones
de
cereales
o
granos
en
países
african
os y
latinoa
merican
os
(Tablas
2 y 4).

246 Biotecnologías
para el desarrollo
agrícola SECCIÓN 1:
ANTECEDENTES DE

La
cinta de
inocula
ción
(Holza
pfel,
2002)
utilizad
a en las
ferment
aciones
tradicio
nales
en
África
Occide
ntal
sirve
como
portado
r de
microo
rganism
os
ferment
adores
indefini
dos, y
es un
ejemplo
de
cultivo
de
inicio
apropia
do.
General
mente
consist
e en
una
fibra
tejida,
esterilla
, trozo
de
madera
o
esponja
tejida
saturad
a con
product
o de
alta
calidad
de un
lote
previa
mente
ferment
ado. Se
sumerg
e en un
nuevo
lote
para
que
sirva
como
inocula
nte. El
cinturó
n de
inocula
ción se
utiliza
en la
 produc
ción de
las
papillas
uji y
mawe
ferment
adas
autócto
nas
africana
s, así
como
en la
produc
ción de
la
cerveza
ghanesa
, pito
(Cuadr
o 2).

TABLA 2

Alimentos
fermentado
s africanos
e
información
sobre sus
procesos de
fermentació
n
Materi local Región / país Tipo de Microorganismos
a product fermentac asociados con el
prima o ión proceso de
Nombre fermentación
del

A. Alimentos básicos fermentados con almidón

Yuca Gari África occidental Estado mannihot

y central sólido Corynebacterium,
Geotrichum,
especies de
LactobacillusPla
ntarium,
Lactobacillus
buchnerri,
Leuconsostoc,
especies
Streptococcus.
especies de
 Fufu África sumergi Bacillus Especies
Occidental das de,
Lactobacillus
Especies de tales
como
Lactobacillus
plantarum;
Leuconostoc
mesenteroides;
Lactobacillus
cellobiosus;
Lactobacillus
brevis;
Lactobacillus
coprophilus;
Lactobacillus
lactis;
Lactis Leuconostoc
y
Lactobacillus
bulgaricus,
especies
deKlebsiella,
de
especiesLeuconost
oc,
Corynebacterium
especies dey una
levadura de la
especie Candida.

Lafun, África sumergi Bacillus Especies

Konkon Occidental das de,Klebsiella
te Especies
de,Candida
Especies
de,Aspergillus
Especies de;
Leuconostocmese
nteroides,
Corynebacterium
Manihot,
Lactobacillus
plantarum,
Micrococcus
luteus y
Geotrichum
candidum

chikwan África Central / estado Corynebacterium,

gue Zaire sólido Bacillus,
Lactobacillus,
Micrococcus,
Pseudomonas,
Acinetobacter y
Moraxella

Cingwa Oriente y África Estado Corynebacterium,

da Central sólido Bacillus,
Lactobacillus,
Micrococcus,

capítulo 5 Estado
actual y opciones de
biotecnologías en el
procesamiento de
alimentos y en la
inocuidad de los
alimentos en los
países en desarrollo
247
Materi local Región / país Tipo de Microorganismos
a product fermentac asociados con los
prima o ión de proceso de
Nombre fermentación
del

B. papillas y bebidas que

maíz, Ogi África Submer Lactobacillus

Occidental ged plantarum,
Nigeria Corynebacteriu
m especie,
Aerobacter,
levaduras
Candidamycoder
ma,
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae y
Rhodotorula y
moldes
Cephalosporium,
Fusarium,
Aspergillus y
Penicillium

Sorghu Abreh Sudan sólido Lactobacillus

m Estadoy plantarum
sumergi
do

Mijo Uji África Oriental, sumergi Leuconostoc

Kenia do mesenteroides,
Lactobacillus
plantarum

maíz kenkey, África Estado Enterobacter

Koko, occidental, sólido cloacae,
Akasa Ghana sp.,Acinetobacter
Lactobacillus
plantarum, L.
brevis,
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae,
Candida
mycoderma

C. bebidas alcohólicas

de vinode ÁfricaWest Submer Saccharomycescer

palma Ramos, ged evisiae,
Emu Schizosaccharomy
cespombe,
Lactobacillus
plantarum, L.
mesenteroides

Varios Busa África Oriental, Submer Saccharomycescer

tipos Kenya ged evisiae,
de Schizosaccharomy
cespombe,
de Lactobacillus
África plantarum, L.
de mesenteroides.
cereal
es Mbege Tanzania sumergi Saccharomyces
granos do cerevisiae,
(maíz, Schizosaccharomy
sorgo, ces pombe,
Lactobacillus
mijo) plantarum, L.
mesenteroides.
 Burukut África occidental sumergi Saccharomyces
u do cerevisiae, S.
chavelieri, Candida
sp. y Leuconostoc
meseteroides.
Acetobacter sp.

Pito África occidental sumergi Geotrichum

do candidum,
Lactobacillus sp. y
Candida sp.

248 B IOtech nolog i

es de Ag r UCI ltu ra l
D víspera lopm e nt
SECCIÓN 1:
Antecedentes de

prima local Región / país Tipo de microorganismos

Materi product deferment asociados con el
a o ación proceso de
nombre fermentación
del

D. Pan / panqueques con levadura ácida

Varios Kisra Sudán Sumergi

tipos do
de
african
os
cereal rebobina Etiopía Sumergi
es do do
granos Enjera,
de Tef,
Injera

E. Legumbres y condimentos

Locus Iru , África occidental Bacillus subtilis,

bean, dawada B. pumilus,B.
soja wa, licheniformis y
Etchu Staphylococcus
m, Kal saprophyticus
Soum
bara,
Chu

petróleo Ugba Bacillus subtilis,

africano B. pumilus,
bean B. licheniformis
y Staphylococcus
saprophyticus

melón ogiri, Occidental, de Bacillus subtilis,

semilla Ogili África Oriental B. pumilus,
s, y Central B. licheniformis,
de Staphylococcus
aceite saprophyticus,
de Lactobacillus
semilla plantarum
sricino,
calaba
za,
frijol
sésam
 o

Semillas Owoh África occidental Bacillus subtilis,

de B. pumilus,
algodón B. licheniformis,
Staphylococcus
saprophyticus

F. Productos animales

Leche Ayib África oriental y Canida spp.,

de central Saccharomyces
cabra spp.,
Lactobacillus spp.,
Leuconostoc spp.,

Leche Leben, Norte,central Candida spp. ,

de Lben Áfricaoriental Saccharomyces
vaca spp., Lactobacillus
spp., Leuconostoc
spp.,

Fuente: compilado de
Odunfa y Oyewole
(1997)

Evaluación
*
personal de
datos, literatura,
búsqueda en
Internet y otra
información por
OB Oyewole a
marzo de 2009.
La clave de los
códigos es 1 =
microorganismo
s implicados

conocidos; 2 =
funciones
conocidas de
los
microorganism
os
individuales; 3
= mejora
genética
llevada a cabo
en
organismos; 4
= cultivos
iniciadores
disponibles
para la
fermentación;
5 = variedades
de materias
primas más
adecuadas
para el
producto
conocido; 6 =
tecnología
mejorada
disponible y
adoptada; 7:
producción de
 plantas piloto;
8 = producción
de plantas
industriales.

Capítulo 5 Situación
actual y opciones
para las
biotecnologías en el
procesamiento de
alimentos y en la
inocuidad de los
alimentos en los
países en desarrollo
249
TABLA 3

Ejemplos
de
tecnologías
utilizadas
en los
sistemas
autóctonos
de
producción
de
alimentos
fermentado
s en Asia
Mate Alime País Tipo de tecnología Inóculo biorreac
rial ntos r
de autóct Produc
sustr onos ión de
ato ferme iniciado
ntado por
s
Cultivo natural Só Líq
iniciador Ferment lid id
definido ación o

Soja Salsa Chin Koji Aspergillu

de soja a s
oryzae

Japó Koji y Aspergill

n moromi us sp.,
Sacchar
omyces
rouxii
 Taila Koji Aspergillu ✓
ndia s
flavus var
columnari
s

cerd Nham Tail Definido dede ✓

o andi Las cepas ácido
a, láctico
Viet
nam bacterias
, Staphylo
Lao coccus
y xylosus
Camb
oya

TABLA 4

Ejemplos
de
alimentos
fermentado
sp
Producido
en América
Latina
Sustrato Nombre del País Microorganismos asociados
producto local

Maíz Abati Paragu

ay,
Argent
ina

Maíz Acupe Venezu

ela

Maíz Agua-agria Méxic

o

Arroz Arroz Ecuad Bacillus spp., Aspergillus spp

requemado or Actinomycete spp. *

maíz Atole Méxic Bacterias del ácido láctico

o

negro Atole agrio Méxic

o

MaízMaíz, Cachiri Brasil

manihot o
frutos

250 Biotecnologías
para el desarrollo
agrícola SECCIÓN 1:
ANTECEDENTES
DEL

Sustrato Nombre del País Microorganismosasociados

producto local

Maíz o arroz Champuz Colomb

ia,
Perú

Maíz, yuca, Chicha Arge Saccharomyces spp., Lactoba

mandioca, ntina spp.,
camote , Leuconostoc spp., Acetobacte
, quinua o Boliv Aspergillus spp., Penicillium s
plátanos ia,
maduros Brasil,
Colomb
ia,
Ecuad
or,
Perú

Jarabe de Charagua Méxic

pulque, ají y o
hojas de
maíz
tostadas

Maíz Fubá Brasil

Maíz Jamin-bang Brasil

Maíz Napú Perú

Jugo de maíz Ostoche Méxic

y o
pulque o
panela

Yuca ** Pão de Queijo Brasil Lactobacillus cellobiosus,

Streptococcus lactis,
Corynebacterium spp.

Maíz Pozol Méxic Lactobacillus spp., Leuconosto

o spp., Candida spp.,
Enterobacteriacea, Bacillus ce
Paracolobactrum aerogenoide
Agrobacterium azotophilum,
Alkaligenes pozolis, Escherich
var. napolitana, Pseudomona
mexicana, Klebsiella pneumon
Saccharomyces spp. y mohos

Aguamiel Pulque Méxic Saccharomyces carbajali,

(Agave o Lactobacillus plantarum,
atrovirens y Leuconostoc spp.
A.
americana)

Jugo de Quebranta Méxic

maíz, maíz huesos o
tostado ypirú
frutos de

Maíz y ají rojo Sendechó Méxic

o

Maíz Sora Perú

Maíz, Tepache Méxic Bacillus subtilis, B. graveolus

 piña, o levaduras Torulopsis inscons
manzana Saccharomyces cerevisiae y
o naranja Candida queretana

germinada Tesgüino Mexic Lactobacillus spp., Streptococ

planta de o spp., Leuconostoc spp.,
maíz y Pediococcus spp., Saccharom
cocinado spp.,
con Candida spp., Cryptococcus
fragmentos Hansenula spp., Brettanom
de plantas spp., Pichia spp., Geotrichum
y Penicillium spp.

maíz Tocos Perú

Cebada Zambumbia Méxic

o

La cervezade zarzaparrillaco Méxic

Maíz y rteza de o
zarzaparrilla vino
corteza de

Fuente:Información
adaptada y
modificada de la
FAO (1998 y 1999); *
de Van Veen y
Steinkraus (1970), **
de Ray y Sivakumar
(2009)

capítulo 5 Estado
actual y opciones
para las
biotecnologías en el
procesamiento de
alimentos y en la
inocuidad de los
alimentos en los
países en desarrollo
251
Iku
,
tambié
n
conoci
do
como
iru, es
otro
ejempl
o de un
cultivo
iniciado
r
apropia
do
produci
do por
backslo
pping.
Este
cultivo
iniciado
r se
produc
e a
partir
de
dawada
wa
ferment
ado
concent
rado
(un
product
o de
legumb
res
ferment
adas)
mezcla
do con
legumb
res sin
ferment
ar
molidas
,
verdura
s como
la
pimient
a y
cereales
, como
el maíz
molido.
It is
stored
in a
dried
form
and is
used as
an
inocula
nt in
dawada
wa
ferment
ations
in West
Africa
(Holza
pfel,
2002).
A
range
of
approp
riate
starter
cultures
either
in a
granula
r form
or in
the
form of
a
pressed
cake
are
used
across
Asian
countri
es as
ferment
ation
inocula
nts.
These
traditio
nal
mould
starters
are
generall
y
referre
d to by
various
names
such as
marcha
or
murcha
in
India,
ragi in
Indone
sia and
Malaysi
a,
bubod
in the
Philippi
nes,
nuruk
in
Korea,
koji in
Japan,
and
Loog-
pang in
Thailan
d. They
generall
y
consist
of a
mixture
of
moulds
grown
under
non-
sterile
conditi
ons.

Define
d
starter
culture
s as
inocula
nts of
fermen
tation
process
es Few
defined
starter
cultures
have
been
develop
ed for
use as
inocula
nts in
comme
rcial
ferment
ation
process
es in
develop
ing
countri
es.
Nevert
heless,
the past
ten
years
have
witness
ed the
develop
ment
and
applicat
ion of
laborat
ory
selected
and
pre-
culture
d
starter
cultures
in food
ferment
ations
in a few
develop
ing
countri
es,
primaril
y in
Asia
(Table
3).
Define
d
starter
cultures
consist
of
single
or
mixed
strains
of
micro-
organis
ms
(Holza
pfel
2002).
They
may
incorpo
rate
adjunct
culture
prepara
tions
that
serve a
food
safety
and
preserv
ative
functio
n.
Adjunc
t
cultures
do not
necessa
rily
produc
e
ferment
ation
acids or
modify
texture
or
flavour
but are
include
d in the
defined
culture
owing
to their
ability
to
inhibit
pathog
enic or
spoilag
e
organis
ms.
Their
inhibito
ry
activity
is due
to the
product
ion of
one or
several
substan
ces
such as
hydrog
en
peroxid
e,
organic
acids,
diacetyl
and
bacteri
ocins
(Hutkin
s,
2006).
De
fined
starter
cultures
are
mainly
produc
ed by
pure
culture
mainte
nance
and
propag
ation
under
aseptic
conditi
ons.
They
are
generall
y
market
ed in a
liquid
or
powder
ed
form or
as a
pressed
cake.
Loog-
pang, a
defined
culture
market
ed in
Thailan
d in the
form of
a
pressed
rice
cake,
consists
of
Sacchar
omyces
cerevisi
ae,
Aspergi
llus
oryzae
or
Rhizop
us
sp. and
Mucor.
Loog-
pang
has a
shelf-
life of
2–3
days at
ambien
t
temper
ature
and 5–
7 days
under
refriger
ated
conditi
ons.
Ragi
cultures
are
comme
rcially
produc
ed by
the
Malaysi
an
Agricul
tural
Researc
h and
Develo
pment
Institut
e by
mixing
a
culture
inoculu
m
which
generall
y
consists
of
Rhizop
us
oligosp
orus
with
moiste
ned
sterile
rice
flour,
and
incubati
ng it at
ambien
t
temper
ature
for four
days.
This
starter
has a
shelf-
life of
two
weeks
under
refriger
ated
conditi
ons
(Merica
n and
Quee-
Lan,
2004).
It is
widely
used as
an
inocula
nt in
the
product
ion of
traditio
nal
Malaysi
an
ferment
ed
foods.
Ragi-
type
starter
cultures
for the
product
ion of a
range
of
ferment
ed
Indone
sian
product
s such
as
oncom,
tape
and
tempeh
are
currentl
y
market
ed via
the
Interne
t.
De
fined
starter
cultures
are also
widely
importe
d by
develop
ing
countri
es for
use in
comme
rcial
product
ion of
dairy
product
s such
as
yoghurt
, kefir
and
 cheeses
and for

252 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

alcoholi
c
beverag
es.
Many
of these
cultures
are
tailored
to
produc
e
specific
textures
and
flavour
s. In
respons
e to
growin
g
consum
er
interest
in
attainin
g
wellnes
s
throug
h diet,
many
yoghurt
cultures
also
include
probiot
ic
strains.
Probiot
ics are
currentl
y
produc
ed in
India
for use
as food
additive
s,
dietary
supple
ments
and in
animal
feed.
Method
ologies
used in
the
develop
ment
and
tailorin
g of
these
starters
are
largely
proprie
tary to
the
supplier
s of
these
starters.
Monos
odium
glutama
te and
lactic
acid,
both of
which
are
used as
ingredie
nts in
the
food
industr
y, are
produc
ed in
less
advanc
ed
develop
ing
countri
es using
defined
starter
cultures
.
Th
e use of
DNA-
based
diagnos
tic
techniq
ues for
strain
differen
tiation
can
allow
for the
tailorin
g of
starter
cultures
to yield
product
s with
specific
flavour
s
and/or
textures
. For
exampl
e,
random
amplifi
ed
polymo
rphic
DNA
(RAPD
)
techniq
ues
have
been
applied
in
Thailan
d for
the
molecul
ar
typing
of
bacteria
l strains
and
correlat
ing the
finding
s to
flavour
develop
ment
during
the
product
ion of
the
ferment
ed pork
sausage
, nham
(see
Case
Study
5.5.2).
The
results
of
these
analyse
s led to
the
develop
ment of
three
differen
t
defined
starter
cultures
which
are
currentl
y used
for the
comme
rcial
product
ion of
product
s
having
differen
t
flavour
charact
eristics
(Valyas
evi and
Rolle,
2002).

GM
starter
culture
s
To
date,
no
comme
rcial
GM
micro-
organis
ms
exist
that
would
be
consum
ed as
living
organis
ms.
Produc
ts of
industri
al GM
produc
er
organis
ms are,
howeve
r,
widely
used in
food
process
ing and
no
major
safety
concer
ns have
been
raised
against
them.
Rennet
which
is
widely
used as
a starter
in
cheese
product
ion
across
the
globe is
produc
ed
using
GM
bacteria
. These
are
discuss
ed in
more
detail
below.
Thailan
d
currentl
y uses
GM
Escheri
chia
coli as
an
inocula
nt in
lysine
product
ion.
Many
industri
ally
importa
nt
enzyme
s such
as
alpha-
amylase
, gluco-
amylase
, lipase
and
pectina
se and
bio-
based
fine
chemic
als such
as lactic
acid,
amino
acids,
antibiot
ics,
nucleic
acid
and
polysac
charide
s, are
produc
ed in
China
using
GM
starter
cultures
. Other
develop
ing
countri
 es
which
currentl
y
produc
e
enzyme
s using
GM
micro-
organis
ms
include
Argenti
na,
Brazil,
Cuba
and
India.

5.3.2 Food
additive
s and
processi
ng aids
Biotech
nologie
s are
currentl
y used
for the
produc
tion of
food
additiv
es and
food
process
ing aids
such as
enzyme
s,
flavouri
ng
agents,
organic
acids,
amino
acids
and
sweete
ners.

Enzym
es
Enzym
es
occur
in all
living
organis
ms and
catalyze
bioche
mical
reactio
ns that
are
necessa
ry to
support
life
(Olemp
ska-
Beer et
al.,
2006).
They
are
commo
nly
used in
food
process
ing and
in the
product
ion of
food
ingredi
ents.
The
use of
recomb
inant
DNA
technol
ogy
 chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
253
has
made it
possibl
e to
manufa
cture
novel
enzyme
s that
are
tailored
to
specific
food
process
ing
conditi
ons.
Alpha-
amylase
s with
increas
ed heat
stability
have,
for
exampl
e, been
enginee
red for
use in
the
product
ion of
high-
fructos
e corn
syrups.
These
improv
ements
were
accomp
lished
by
introdu
cing
changes
in the
alpha-
amylase
amino
acid
sequen
ces
throug
h DNA
sequen
ce
modific
ations
of the
alpha-
amylase
genes
(Olemp
ska-
Beer et
al.,
2006).
Bovine
chymos
in used
in
cheese
manufa
cture
was the
first
recomb
inant
enzyme
approv
ed for
used in
food by
the US
Food
and
Drug
Admini
stration
(Flamm
, 1991).
The
phosph
olipase
A1
gene
from
Fusariu
m
venena
tum is
express
ed in
GM
Aspergi
llus
oryzae
to
produc
e the
phosph
olipase
A1
enzyme
used in
the
dairy
industr
y for
cheese
manufa
cture to
improv
e
process
efficien
cies
and
cheese
yields.
Co
nsidera
ble
progres
s has
been
made
in
recent
times
toward
the
improv
ement
of
microbi
al
strains
used in
the
product
ion of
enzyme
s.
Microbi
al host
strains
develop
ed for
enzyme
product
ion
have
been
enginee
red to
increas
e
enzyme
yields.
Certain
fungal
produci
ng
strains
have
also
been
modifie
d to
reduce
or
elimina
te their
potenti
al for
produci
ng
toxic
metabo
lites
(Olemp
ska-
Beer et
al.,
 2006).
Food
process
ing
enzyme
s in the
United
States
derived
from
GM
micro-
organis
ms are
listed in
Table
5.

Table 5

Food
processing
enzymes
derived
from GM
micro-
organisms
Source micro-organism Enzyme

Aspergillus niger Phytase

Chymosin
Lipase

Aspergillus oryzae Esterase-lipase

Aspartic proteinase
Glucose oxidase
Laccase
Lipase

Bacillus licheniformis alpha-amylase

Pullulanase

Bacillus subtilis alpha-acetolactate de

alpha-amylase
Maltogenic amylase
Pullulanase

Escherichia coli K-12 Chymosin

Fusarium venenatum Xylanase

Kluyveromyces marxianus var. lactis Chymosin

Pseudomonas fluorescens alpha-amylase

Trichoderma reesei Pectin lyase

Source: Olempska-
 Beer et al. (2006)

254 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

En
zymes
used in
food
process
ing
have
historic
ally
been
conside
red
non-
toxic.
Some
charact
eristics
arising
from
their
chemic
al
nature
and
source,
such as
allergen
icity,
activity
related
toxicity,
residual
microbi
ological
activity
and
chemic
al
toxicity
are,
howeve
r, of
concer
n.
These
attribut
es of
concer
n must
be
address
ed in
light of
the
growin
g
comple
xity and
sophisti
cation
of the
method
ologies
used in
the
product
ion of
food-
grade
enzyme
s.
Safety
evaluati
on of
all food
enzyme
s
includi
ng
those
produc
ed by
GM
micro-
organis
ms is
essentia
l if
consum
er
safety is
to be
assured
(Spok,
2006).
Enzym
es
produc
ed
using
GM
micro-
organis
ms
wherein
the
enzyme
is not
part of
the
final
food
product
have
specific
ally
been
evaluat
ed by
the
Joint
FAO/
WHO
Expert
Commi
ttee on
Food
Additiv
es
(JECF
A).
Safety
evaluati
ons
have
been
conduc
ted
using
the
general
specific
ations
and
conside
rations
for
enzyme
prepara
tions
used in
food
process
ing
(JECF
A,
2006).
Prepara
tions of
asparag
inase
enzyme
s have
also
been
evaluat
ed by
JECFA
(2008).

Flavou
rs,
amino
acids
and
sweete
ners
Volatile
organic
chemic
als such
as
flavour
s and
aromas
are the
sensory
principl
es of
many
consum
er
product
s and
govern
their
accepta
nce and
market
success
(Berger,
2009).
Flavour
s
produc
ed
using
micro-
organis
ms
currentl
y
compet
e with
those
from
traditio
nal
agricult
ural
sources
.
Accordi
ng to
Berger
(2009),
more
than
100
comme
rcial
aroma
chemic
als are
derived
using
biotech
nology
either
through
the
screeni
ng for
overpro
ducers,
the
elucidat
ion of
metabo
lic
pathwa
ys and
precurs
ors or
through
the
applicat
ion of
conven
tional
bioengi
neering.
Recom
binant
DNA
technol
ogies
have
also
enhanc
ed
efficien
cy in
the
product
ion of
non-
nutritiv
e
sweeten
ers
such as
asparta
me and
thauma
tin.
Market
develop
ment
has
been
particul
arly
dynami
c for
the
flavour
enhanc
er
glutama
te
(Leucht
enberge
r,
Huthm
acher
and
Drauz,
2005)
which
is
produc
ed by
ferment
ation of
sugar
sources
such as
molasse
s,
sucrose
or
glucose
using
high-
perfor
mance
strains
of
Coryne
bacteri
um
glutami
cum
and
Escheri
chia
coli.
Amino
acids
produc
ed
through
biotech
nologic
al
process
 es are
also of
great
interest
as
buildin
g
blocks
for
active
ingredie
nts
used in
a
variety
of
industri
al
process
es.

5.3.3
Curr
ent
stat
us
of
the
appl
icati
on
of
tradi
tion
al
and
new
biot
ech
nolo
gies
in
food
safe
ty
and
qual
ity
impr
ove
men
t in
dev
elop
ing
cou
ntrie
s

Food
safety
issues
and
concer
ns in
food
fermen
tation
process
ing
Microbi
al
activity
plays a
central
role in
food
ferment
ation
process
es,
resultin
g in
desirabl
e
propert
ies such
as
improv
ements
in
shelf-
life and
quality
attribut
es such
as
texture
and
flavour.
Pathog
 enic
organis
ms are,
howeve
r, of
prime
concer
n in
ferment
ed
foods.
Anti-
nutritio
nal
factors
such as
phytate
s,
tannins,
protein
inhibito
rs,
lectins,
saponin
s,

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
255
oligosa
ccharid
es and
cyanog
enic
glucosi
des are
naturall
y
occurri
ng
compo
nents
of raw
materia
ls
commo
nly
used in
food
ferment
ations
in
develop
ing
countri
es.
Conta
minatio
n of the
ferment
ation
process
can
pose a
major
health
risk in
the
final
ferment
ed
product
.
Method
ologies
for
identify
ing and
monito
ring the
presenc
e of
chemic
al
(pestici
de
residue
s, heavy
metals,
trace
element
s) and
bioche
mical
(aflatox
ins)
hazards
in
ferment
ed
foods
are
therefo
re a
critical
need.
Further
more,
with
growin
g
consum
er
interest
in the
credenc
e
attribut
es of
the
product
s that
they
consum
e, and
the
premiu
m
currentl
y being
placed
on
quality
linked
to
geograp
hical
origin,
the
traceabi
lity of
foods
with
selected
propert
ies is of
increasi
ng
importa
nce.

Advan
ces in
microb
ial
genetic
s
In
recent
times,
genetic
charact
erizatio
n of
micro-
organis
ms has
advanc
ed at a
rapid
pace
with
expone
ntial
growth
in the
collecti
on of
genome
sequenc
e
informa
tion,
high-
through
put
analysis
of
express
ed
product
s, ie
transcri
pts and
protein
s, and
the
applicat
ion of
bioinfo
rmatics
which
allows
high-
through
put
compar
ative
genomi
c
approac
hes that
provide
insights
for
further
functio
nal
studies.
Genom
e
sequenc
e
informa
tion
coupled
with
the
support
of
highly
advanc
ed
molecul
ar
techniq
ues
have
allowed
scientis
ts to
establis
h
mechan
isms of
various
host-
defensi
ve
pathoge
n
counter
-
defensi
ve
strategi
es and
have
provide
d
industr
y with
tools
for
develop
ing
strategi
es to
design
healthy
and
safe
food by
optimiz
ing the
effect
of
probiot
ic
bacteria
, the
design
of
starter
culture
bacteria
and
functio
nal
propert
ies for
use in
food
process
ing.
Charact
erizatio
n of the
genome
s of
lactic
acid
probiot
ics has,
for
exampl
e, shed
light on
the
interact
ion of
pathoge
ns with
lactic
acid
bacteria
(de
Vos,
2001).
Nucleo
tide
sequenc
es of
the
genome
s of
many
importa
nt food
microb
es have
recently
become
availabl
e.
Sacchar
omyces
cerevisi
ae was
the first
food
microb
e for
which a
comple
te
genome
sequenc
e was
charact
erized
(Goffea
u et al.,
1996).
This
was
followe
d by
genome
sequenc
ing of
the
related
yeast,
Kluyve
romyce
s lactis
(Boloti
n-
Fukuha
ra et al.,
2000)
as well
as
filamen
tous
fungi
which
are
major
enzyme
produc
ers and
have
signific
ant
applicat
ions in
the
food
process
ing
industr
y.
Ge
nome
nucleot
ide
sequen
ces of
many
Gram-
positive
bacteria
species
have
also
been
comple
ted.
The
Bacillus
subtilis
genome
was the
first to
be
comple
ted
followe
d by
that of
Lactoc
occus
lactis.
Genom
e
sequen
ces of
food-
borne
pathog
ens
such as
Campyl
obacter
jejuni
(Parkhil
l et al.,
2000),
verocyt
otoxige
nic
Escheri
chia
coli
O157:
H7
(Hayas
hi et al.,
2001)
and
Staphyl
ococcu
s
aureus
(Kurod
a et al.,
2001)
have
also
been
comple
ted.
Genom
e
sequen
ces of
microb
es that
are of
importa
nce in
food
process
ing
such as
Lactob
acillus
plantar
um
(Zhang
et al.,
2009)
are
likewise
availabl
e. The
genome
of
Clostri
dium
botulin
um,
respons
ible for
food-
borne
botulis
m, was
also
recently
sequen
 ced
(Sebaihi
a et al.,
2007).

256 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

Detecti
on of
pathog
ens
The
rapid
detectio
n of
pathog
ens and
other
microbi
al
contam
inants
in food
is
critical
for
assessin
g the
safety
of food
product
s.
Traditi
onal
method
s to
detect
food-
borne
bacteria
often
rely on
time-
consum
ing
growth
in
culture
media,
followe
d by
isolatio
n,
bioche
mical
identifi
cation
and,
someti
mes,
serolog
y.
Recent
technol
ogical
advanc
es have
improv
ed the
efficien
cy,
specific
ity and
sensitiv
ity of
detectin
g
micro-
organis
ms.
Detecti
on
technol
ogies
employ
PCR,
where
short
fragme
nts of
DNA
(probes
) or
primers
are
hybridi
zed to a
specific
sequen
ce or
templat
e which
is
subseq
uently
amplifi
ed
enzyma
tically
by the
Taq
polyme
rase
enzyme
using a
thermo
cycler
(Barrett
, Fang
and
Swamin
athan,
1997).
In
theory,
a single
copy of
DNA
can be
amplifi
ed a
million-
fold in
less
than
two
hours
with
the use
of PCR
techniq
ues;
hence,
the
potenti
al of
PCR to
eliminat
e or
greatly
reduce
the
need
for
cultural
enrich
ment.
The
genetic
charact
erizatio
n of
genome
sequen
ce
informa
tion has
further
facilitat
ed the
identifi
cation
of
virulen
ce
nucleot
ide
sequen
ces for
use as
molecul
ar
marker
s in
pathog
en
detectio
n.
Multipl
ex real-
time
PCR
method
s are
now
availabl
e to
identify
the E.
coli
O157:
H7
serogro
up
(Yoshit
omi,
Jinnem
an and
Weagan
t,
2003).
PCR
based
identifi
cation
method
s are
also
availabl
e for
Vibrio
cholera
e
(Koch,
Payne
and
Cebula,
1995)
and for
major
food-
related
microb
es such
as
Campyl
obacter
jejuni,
C. coli,
Yersini
a
enteroc
olitica,
Hepatit
is A
virus,
Salmon
ella and
Staphyl
ococcu
s
aureus
(FDA,
2003).
Sophist
icated
culture
media
such as
chromo
genic
or
fluorog
enic
media
are not
readily
used in
low
income
econo
mies
but are
relativel
y
widespr
ead in
lower
middle
income
and
upper
middle
income
econo
mies.
The use
of
immun
oassays
such as
ELISA
is also
very
limited
in low
income
econo
mies
but is
more
widespr
ead in
the
form of
diagnos
tic kits
in
lower
middle
and
upper
middle
income
econo
mies.
DNA
method
s,
which
require
elabora
te
infrastr
ucture
and
high
technic
al
compet
ence,
find
minima
l
applicat
ion in
lower
income
and
some
lower
middle
income
econo
mies.
Biotech
nologie
s
applied
in food
safety
assays
in
develop
ing
countri
es are
summa
rized in
Table
6.
Th
ere are
movem
ents
toward
implem
enting
safety
control
progra
mmes
such as
the
applicat
ion of
Hazard
Analysi
s and
Critical
Control
Point
(HACC
P) in
food
ferment
ations
in
many
develop
ing
countri
es. A
HACC
P plan
for the
product
ion of
the
Thai
ferment
ed meat
product
nham is
summa
rized in
Table
7. The
applicat
ion of
HACC
P
necessit
ates the
deploy
ment of
good
agricult
ural
practice
s
(GAPs)
, good
manufa
cturing
practice
s
(GMPs
), good
hygieni
c
practice
s
(GHPs)
and the
monito
ring of
critical
control
points
for
potenti
al
microbi
al and
chemic
al
contam
ination
during
bioproc
essing
(FAO,
2006).
Rigoro
us
adhere
nce to
sanitary
practice
s in the
process
ing
environ
ment
necessit
ates
rapid,
dynami
c,
sensitiv
e,
specific
as well
as
versatil
e and
cost-
effectiv
e assay
method
s. The
molecul
ar
approa
ch of
biotech
nology
entails
near-
time or
real-
time
bacteria
l
detectio
n and
offers
levels
of
 sensitiv
ity and
specific
ity
unchall
enged
by
traditio
nal/co
nventio
nal
method
s.

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
257
TABLE 6

Biotechnolo
gies applied
in food
safety
assays in
developing
countries
Food Risk factor Hazard profile Biotechnolog
production
chain
Traditional Ne

I. Pre- Improper Chemical Chromatography Bi

processin practice ❺ Pesticide pe
g of residues ❺ TLC (thin layer m
incoming Unapproved chromatography an
raw material chemotherape m
GC (gas
from utics chromatography) EL
producers af
HPLC (high- na
(farms) performance to
liquid
chromatography
)

Presence of ❺ Heavy Atomic absorption G

contaminant spectrophotometry
s metals
❺ Chromatography
Dioxins

II. Improper Chemical TLC, GC, HPLC M

Processing handling ❺ Undeclared sp
raw (time/temp (M
material erature) additives fo
and
supplements
❺ Economic
 adulteration

Fermentatio Microbial Growth in culture Ch

n media or
in
procedures m
involving
EL
micro An
organisms bi
PC
of
ge

Quality ❺ Biochemical Bi
parameters Consistency and enzyme fe
assays
❺ re
Composition pH measurements en
M
su
alc
or
in
Su
re

III. Contaminati Chemical Chromatography G

Packaging on ❺ Undeclared
and end TLC, GC, HPLC,
product from allergens fast protein liquid
packaging and chromatography
analysis
material additives

Microbial Growth in culture Ch

❺ Non-sterile media or
conditions in
leading to m
microbial EL
growth PC
of
ge

Physical Inspection and M

❺ Pieces, sampling
fragments of
materials

258 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

Mycoto
xin
detecti
on
The
proble
m of
mycoto
xin
contam
ination
in food,
includi
ng
ferment
ed
foods,
is a
global
concer
n.
Mycoto
xin
contam
ination
is
particul
arly
prevale
nt in
tropical
areas
such as
South
Asia
and
Africa.
High-
perfor
mance
liquid
chroma
tograph
y
(HPLC
) and
gas
chroma
tograph
y mass
spectro
metry
(GC-
MS) are
two of
the
most
widely
used
method
s for
the
detectio
n and
quantifi
cation
of
mycoto
xins in
develop
ing
countri
es.
These
method
s,
howeve
r, are
time
consum
ing,
difficult
to use
and
require
laborat
ory
facilitie
s.
Immun
oassays
that are
econo
mical,
sensitiv
e and
easy to
use
would
greatly
facilitat
e the
detectio
n and
quantifi
cation
of
mycoto
xins. A
number
of
ELISA
kits are
now
comme
rcially
availabl
e for
the
detectio
n of
aflatoxi
ns,
deoxyni
valenol,
fumoni
sins,
ochrato
xins
and
zearale
none
(Schma
le and
Munkv
old,
2009).

Detecti
on and
identifi
cation
of
foods
and
food
ingredi
ents
DNA-
based
identifi
cation
systems
rely on
polymo
rphisms
at the
nucleoti
de level
for the
differen
tiation
of
living
organis
ms at
the
variety
and
species
levels.
Current
ly,
PCR-
based
method
s are
used
either
for the
purpos
e of
detectin
g single
nucleoti
de
polymo
rphisms
(SNPs)
giving
rise to
restricti
on
fragme
nt
length
polymo
rphisms
(RFLPs
) or for
detectin
g small
sequenc
e length
polymo
rphisms
(SSLPs)
, often
known
as
variable
number
tandem
repeats
(VNTR
s).
These
method
s
facilitat
e the
identifi
cation
of
unique
polymo
rphisms
of a
variety
of food
commo
dities
and can
be used
to
identify
their
source
or
origin.
These
unique
polymo
rphisms
are
often
referred
to as
DNA
barcode
s
(Teletc
hea,
Maudet
and
Hänni,
2005).
The
DNA
barcode
is used
for the
identifi
cation
of
specific
varietie
s in
food
detectio
n and
in food
traceabi
lity and,
for
exampl
e, for
the
identifi
cation
of
many
product
s for
export
in
countri
es such
as
Argenti
na,
Brazil,
China,
Cuba
and
Thailan
d. The
DNA
barcode
of
microsa
tellite
markers
has also
been
success
fully
used
for
differen
tiating
and
identify
ing
ferment
ed
product
s such
 as
premiu
m
wines,
cheeses
and
sausage
s on the
basis of
their
origins,
as well
as for
differen
tiating
Basmati
rice
varietie
s and
olive
cultivar
s used
in olive
oil
product
ion
(Sefc et
al.,
2000).

5.4
Anal
ysis
of
the
Rea
sons
for
Suc
cess
es/F
ailur
es of
Appl
icati
on
of
Biot
echn
ologi
es in
Dev
elopi
ng
Cou
ntrie
s

Socio-
econo
mic
factors
have
played
a major
role in
the
adoptio
n and
applicat
ion of
microbi
al
inocula
nts in
food
ferment
ations.
In
situatio
ns
where
the cost
of food
is a
major
issue,
uptake
and
adoptio
n of
improv
ed
biotech
nologie
s has
been
generall
y slow.
Deman
 d for
improv
ed
inocula
nts and
starter
culture
develop
ment
has
been
triggere
d by
increasi
ng
consu
mer
income
,
educati
on and
new
market
opport
unities.

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
259
Socio-
economi
cs of the
consum
er base
The
consum
er base
of
traditio
nally
ferment
ed
staple
foods
in most
develop
ing
countri
es is
largely
poor
and
disadva
ntaged.
Price,
rather
than
food
safety
and
quality,
is
therefo
re a
major
preocc
upation
of this
group
when
purchas
ing
food.
Fermen
ted
foods
provide
that
target
group
with an
afforda
ble
source
of food
and
make a
substan
tial
contrib
ution
to their
food
and
nutritio
nal
security
. These
foods
are
generall
y
produc
ed
under
relativel
y poor
hygieni
c
conditi
ons at
the
househ
old and
village
levels.
Fermen
tation
process
ing is
practise
d
largely
as an
art in
such
context
s.
Int
erventi
ons
designe
d to
upgrad
e
process
es used
in the
product
ion of
these
traditio
nally
ferment
ed
staples
have
been
largely
carried
out
through
donor-
funded
projects
and
have
focused
primaril
y on
reducin
g the
drudger
y
associat
ed with
the
ferment
ation
process
es.
Improv
ements
have
also
targete
d the
upgradi
ng of
hygieni
c
conditi
ons of
ferment
ation
process
es and
the
introdu
ction of
simple
and
“appro
priate”
method
ologies
for the
applicat
ion of
inocula
nts
such as
the use
of
backslo
pping.
While
the
uptake
of
simple
backslo
pping
technol
ogies at
the
househ
old
level
has, in
general,
been
very
good
by that
target
group,
the
uptake
of
defined
starter
cultures
has
been
less
success
ful
owing
to cost
conside
rations.
Case
Study
5.5.3
on the
househ
old
level
product
ion of
Som
Fug in
Thailan
d
highlig
hts the
poor
uptake
of
improv
ed
starter
culture
technol
ogies
by
househ
old-
level
process
ors,
primaril
y on
the
basis of
cost.
Wit
h
growin
g
income
s and
improv
ed
levels
of
educati
on in
urban
centres
across a
number
of
develop
ing
countri
es,
dietary
habits
are
changin
g and a
wider
variety
of
foods is
being
consum
ed.
Fermen
ted
foods
are no
longer
the
main
staples
but are
still
consum
ed as
side
dishes
or
condim
ents by
that
target
group.
The
deman
d of
that
target
group
for safe
food of
high
quality
has
begun
to re-
orient
the
traditio
nal
ferment
ed food
sector
and led
to
improv
ements
in the
control
of
ferment
ation
process
es
through
the
develop
ment
and
adoptio
n of
defined
starter
cultures
, the
implem
entatio
n of
GHPs
and
HACC
P in
food
ferment
ation
process
ing, and
the
develop
ment of
bioreac
tor
technol
ogies,
coupled
with
approp
riate
downst
ream
process
ing to
termina
te
ferment
ation
process
es and
thus
extend
the
shelf-
life of
ferment
ed
foods.
The
packagi
ng of
ferment
ed
product
s has
also
improv
ed.
Case
Study
5.5.1
on soy
sauce
product
ion in
Thailan
d
highlig
hts an
exampl
e of
how
starter
culture
develop
ment
coupled
with
bioreac
tor
technol
ogy has
improv
 ed
yields
and the
efficien
cy of
ferment
ation
process
es,
while
Case
Study
5.5.2
highlig
hts
how
consum
er
deman
d for
safe
food
led to
R&D
into
starter
culture
develop
ment
designe
d to
improv
e the
safety
of
nham
in the
marketi
ng
chain.

Changin
g
consum
er
demand
trends
Apart
from
 their
changin
g
dietary
pattern
s and
their
deman
d for
safety
and
quality,
higher
income
consu
mers
deman
d
conven
ience
and are
increasi
ngly
concer
ned
about
derivin
g
health
benefit
s from
the
foods
they
consu
me.
Many
of
these
consu
mers
also
show a
prefere
nce

260 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
 D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

for
shoppi
ng in
superm
arkets.
Consu
mer
deman
d for
derivin
g
wellnes
s
throug
h food
consum
ption
has
stimulat
ed the
develop
ment of
industri
al
ferment
ation
process
es for
the
product
ion of
functio
nal
ingredie
nts
such as
polyuns
aturate
d fatty
acids
and
probiot
ic
cultures
for use
as food
ingredie
nts in
develop
ing
countri
es.
These
functio
nal
ingredie
nts are
currentl
y
applied
in the
fortifica
tion of
ferment
ed
foods
as well
as in
the
product
ion of
dietary
supple
ments
in
countri
es such
as
India.
Th
e
growth
of
superm
arkets
in
develop
ing
countri
es has
promul
gated
the
need
for
standar
dized
product
s of a
reasona
ble
shelf-
life that
meet
safety
and
quality
criteria.
Packag
ed
ferment
ed
product
s such
as
kimchi,
miso
and
tempeh
, for
exampl
e, are
widely
availabl
e in
superm
arkets
across
Asia.
The
product
ion of
traditio
nal beer
in a
powder
ed
format
and in
ready-
to-
drink
contain
ers in
Zambia
is a
good
exampl
e of
product
develop
ment
that has
taken
place in
respons
e to
consum
er
deman
d for
conveni
ence,
both in
local
and
export
markets
.
Shi
fting
consum
er
prefere
nces in
South
Africa
away
from
basic
commo
dity
wine to
top
quality
wine is
yet
another
exampl
e of
how
market
deman
d has
led to
researc
h and
biotech
 nologic
al
innovat
ion in
the
wine
industr
y.
Biotech
nologic
al
innovat
ions in
that
country
are
currentl
y
focused
on the
improv
ement
of
Sacchar
omyces
cerevisi
ae
strains
to
improv
e
wholes
omenes
s and
sensory
quality
of
wines.

The
enabling
environ
ment for
starter
culture
develop
ment
A
conside
rable
amount
of
researc
h in
develop
ing
countri
es has
focused
on the
identifi
cation
of
starter
micro-
organis
ms
associat
ed with
the
ferment
ation of
staple
foods.
The
greatest
strides
in
starter
culture
develop
ment
have,
howeve
r, been
realized
in
countri
es that
have
prioriti
zed the
develop
ment of
technic
al skills,
the
infrastr
uctural
support
base
and
funding
support
for
researc
h into
the
upgradi
ng of
ferment
ation
process
es.
Linkage
s
betwee
n
researc
h
instituti
ons and
the
manufa
cturing
sector
have
also
been
critical
to the
success
ful
introdu
ction of
starter
cultures
. Case
Study
5.5.1
on soy
sauce
product
ion
exempli
fies
how
success
was
achieve
d
throug
h such
collabo
ration.
Case
Study
5.5.2
on
nham
product
ion in
Thailan
d also
highlig
hts
how
collabo
ration
betwee
n the
manufa
cturing
sector
and
public
sector
researc
h
instituti
ons
resulted
in the
develop
ment of
improv
ed
starter
cultures
and the
uptake
of these
cultures
by
nham
manufa
cturers
to
assure
product
safety.
 Col
laborati
ve
initiativ
es
among
researc
h
instituti
ons
have
also
had a
major
positive
impact
on
biotech
nologic
al
develop
ments
in
develop
ing
countri
es.
Collabo
ration
among
African
instituti
ons and
their
counter
parts in
the
North
has
greatly
facilitat
ed
improv
ements
in
biotech
nologic
al
researc
h and
capacit
y
develop
ment in
the area
of food
biotech
nology
on the
contine
nt. One
success
story in
this
regard
has
been a
series
of
collabo
rative
projects
on
traditio
nal
African
ferment
ed
foods
involvi
ng
researc
h
instituti
ons in
Africa
and
Europe
(Mengu
, 2009).
The
progra
mme
facilitat
ed the
typing
and
screeni
ng of
microbi
al
cultures
 chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
261
associat
ed with
ferment
ed
African
foods
as a
basis
for
starter
culture
develop
ment,
and
results
of this
work
led to
improv
ements
in the
product
ion of
gari, a
ferment
ed
cassava
product
, and
dawada
wa, a
ferment
ed
legume
product
.
Iss
ues
related
to the
protecti
on of
intellect
ual
propert
y rights
 (IPR)
are of
growin
g
concer
n with
respect
to
starter
culture
develop
ment.
Case
Study
5.5.4,
describi
ng
flavour
product
ion
using
alkaline
-
ferment
ed
beans
highlig
hts the
critical
importa
nce of
IPR in
referen
ce to
process
es
applied
in the
product
ion of
traditio
nal
ferment
ed
foods.

Proactiv
e
industria
l
strategie
s
Biotech
nology
develop
ments
have
been
most
success
ful in
areas
where
proacti
ve
approac
hes are
taken
by
industr
y. The
Thai
food
industr
y
success
fully
creates
perceiv
ed
quality
by
launchi
ng new
product
logos
and
associat
ing
these
new
product
s with
biotech
nology
or with
the fact
that
they
 were
develop
ed
using
traditio
nal
biotech
nology
such as
starter
cultures
. The
goal of
the
industr
y is to
project
an
image
of itself
as
produci
ng
product
s of
superio
r
quality
and
safety
that
represe
nt
progres
s based
on a
higher
level of
technol
ogy.

Export
opportu
nities for
ferment
ed
products
Increasi
ng
travel
due to
globaliz
ation
has
change
d the
eating
habits
of
consum
ers
across
the
globe.
Export
markets
for
ferment
ed
foods
have
grown
out of
the
need to
meet
the
require
ments
of the
develop
ing
country
diaspor
a in
these
markets
as well
as to
satisfy
growin
g
internat
ional
demand
for
niche
and
ethnic
product
s.
Indone
sian
tempe
and
Orienta
l soy
sauce
are well
known
exampl
es of
indigen
ous
ferment
ed
foods
that
have
been
industri
alized
and
markete
d
globally
. The
need to
assure
the
safety
and
quality
of these
product
s in
complia
nce
with
the
require
ments
of
importi
ng
markets
has
been a
driving
force
for the
upgradi
 ng of
starter
cultures
as well
as for
diagnos
tic
method
ologies
for
verifyin
g their
quality
and
safety.
Growin
g
interest
and
trade in
ferment
ed food
product
s is also
likely to
lead to
the
greater
use of
the
DNA
barcode
for
identify
ing the
origins
of
specific
ferment
ed food
product
s
produc
ed in
develop
ing
countri
es.

5.5
C
a
s
e
S
t
u
d
i
e
s
o
f
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
o
f
B
i
o
t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
i
e
s
i
n
D
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
g
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s

5.5.1
Ferment
ed soy
sauce
producti
on
This
Case
Study
on the
product
ion of
soy
sauce
highlig
hts
success
in the
applicat
ion of
starter
culture
technol
ogy and
the use
of
improv
ed
bioreac
tor
technol
ogy. It
exempli
fies the
transiti
on of a
craft-
based
product
ion
system
to a
technol
ogy-
based
product
ion
system.
Researc
h
leading
to these
develop
ments
was
support
ed by
an
internat
ional
organiz
ation,
followe
d by
funding
support
from
the
Govern
ment of
Thailan
d and
the
Thai
soy
sauce
262 B iotech nolog i
es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

industr
y.
Develo
pments
of the
process
were
largely
driven
by the
deman
d pull
created
by a
soy
sauce
industr
y
consort
ium in
Thailan
d in
order
to meet
market
require
ments.
Soy
sauce
product
ion
involve
s a two-
step
ferment
ation
process
that
makes
use of
koji
inocula
nts in
the
initial
phase
followe
d by
morom
i
inocula
nts in
the
second
phase.
The
initial
phase
of the
ferment
ation
involve
s the
soaking
of
soybea
ns in
water
for 1–2
hours,
boiling
for
approxi
mately
17
hours
to
hydroly
ze the
protein
comple
x, and
the
additio
n of the
koji
culture
Aspergi
llus
oryzae
for
proteol
ysis of
the soy
protein
s. Using
this
traditio
nal
method
of
product
ion, the
process
of
proteol
ysis
takes
betwee
n 40
hours
and
seven
days
dependi
ng on
the
method
and the
conditi
ons
used.
The
second
phase
of the
ferment
ation
process
,
referred
to as a
morom
i
ferment
ation,
involve
s the
additio
n of
brine
solutio
n to the
koji.
Sacchar
omyces
rouxii,
a salt-
tolerant
yeast, is
the
predom
inant
micro-
organis
m in
this
phase
of the
ferment
ation
which
lasts as
long as
8–12
months
.
Morom
i
ferment
ations
are
traditio
nally
conduc
ted in
earthen
ware
jars,
which
often
pose a
limitati
on to
the
manufa
cturers
both in
terms
of
expansi
on and
in
terms
of
product
ion
capacity
(Valyas
evi and
Rolle,
2002).
The soy
sauce
industr
y has
moved
up the
ladder
of
develop
ment
from
an “art”
to a
technol
ogy-
based
process
through
the
introdu
ction of
defined
starter
cultures
and
improv
ements
in the
control
of the
ferment
ation
process
.
Physica
l and
biologic
al
parame
ters of
the
ferment
ation
process
are
controll
ed
through
the use
of koji
and
morom
i
cultures
and
koji
and
morom
i
ferment
ors.
Us
e of the
koji
starter,
Aspergi
llus
flavus
var.
column
aris,
was
found
to
enhanc
e
product
safety
and
unifor
mity.
The
introdu
ction of
pressur
e
cookers
as an
innovat
ion for
hydroly
zing the
soybea
ns
reduced
the
time
require
d for
solubili
zation
from
17
hours
to 2.5
hours.
Moreov
er, the
use of
starter
culture
technol
ogy
facilitat
ed the
develop
ment of
ferment
ation
chambe
rs with
controll
ed
temper
ature
and
humidit
y
conditi
ons,
which
resulted
in
shorten
ing the
duratio
n of the
ferment
ation
process
. The
resultin
g soy
sauce
had a
higher
(6
percent
 )
soluble
protein
content
than
that
derived
from
boiled
soybea
ns.
These
develop
ments
resulted
in
econo
mic
gain for
the soy
sauce
industr
y and
greater
value
added
to the
product
in
terms
of
quality
and
safety.

5.5.2
Tradition
al
ferment
ed pork
sausage
(nham)
This
Case
Study
demon
strates
how
consum
er
deman
d for
safe
food
resulted
in the
comme
rcial
use of
defined
starter
cultures
, with
the
collabo
ration
and
support
of
govern
ment
agencie
s. The
diagnos
tic role
of
biotech
nology
in
starter
culture
develop
ment
for the
tailor
making
of
cultures
is also
highlig
hted.
Nh
am is
an
indigen
ous
ferment
ed pork
sausage
produc
ed in
Southe
ast
Asia. It
is
prepare
d from
ground
pork,
pork
rinds,
garlic,
cooked
rice,
salt,
chili,
sugar,
pepper
and
sodium
nitrite.
It is
traditio
nally
consum
ed as a
condim
ent in
the
uncook
ed state
in
Thailan
d. It is
generall
y
produc
ed
using
an
uncontr
olled
ferment
ation
process
.
Fermen
tation
of the
product
 chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
263
occurs
during
transpo
rtation
from
the
manufa
cturer
to the
point
of
retail.
The
product
is
generall
y
retailed
under
ambien
t
conditi
ons.
Traditi
onally
produc
ed
nham is
conside
red
high
risk by
the
Thai
health
authorit
ies,
who
require
a
warnin
g label
on the
packag
e
stating
that the
product
“must
be
cooked
before
consum
ption”.
Th
e first
step in
the
transiti
on to
science-
based
technol
ogy for
nham
ferment
ations
was the
develop
ment of
a
starter
culture.
This
starter
was
subseq
uently
adopte
d by a
nham
manufa
cturer
who
also
implem
ented
HACC
P in his
operati
on to
assure
safety
and to
satisfy
the
compul
sory
standar
d
require
ments
of
GMP
in the
food
process
ing
industr
y
impose
d by
the
Thai
Food
and
Drug
Admini
stration
. A
microbi
ological
hazard
profile
was
develop
ed for
nham
by the
manufa
cturer
in
collabo
ration
with
scientis
ts from
the
Ministr
y of
Science
, who
establis
hed
that the
prevale
nt
pathog
ens in
nham
were
Salmon
ella
spp. (16
percent
),
Staphyl
ococcu
s
aureus
(15
percent
) and
Listeria
monoc
ytogen
es (12
percent
)
(Paukat
ong
and
Kunaw
asen,
2001).
Nitrite,
an
additive
used in
nham
product
ion,
was
identifi
ed as a
chemic
al
hazard
and the
metal
clips
used
for
closing
the
package
were
identifi
ed as
physical
hazards
. A
HACC
P plan
which
include
d four
critical
control
points
was
develop
ed for
nham
(Table
7).
Th
e
critical
control
point
on
nitrite
was
monito
red by
checkin
g the
pre-
weighe
d nitrite
prior to
adding
it to the
product
formula
tion.
Scientif
ic data
from
studies
on
starter
cultures
showed
that a
rapid
increas
e in
acidity
within
36–48
hours
of
ferment
ation
inhibite
d the
growth
of
bacteria
l
pathog
ens
such as
Staphyl
ococcu
s
aureus
and
Salmon
ella
spp.
(Paukat
ong
and
Kunaw
asen,
2001;
Chokes
ajjawate
e et al.,
2009).
With
the
applicat
ion of
these
starter
cultures
, the
final
product
was
sent to
retailers
after
the
ferment
ation
reached
its end-
point
(pH<
4.5).
An
innovat
ive pH
indicat
or
which
underg
oes a
colour
change
on
attainm
ent of
the
end-
point
of the
ferment
ation
process
(pH<4.
5) was
include
d in the
package
. With
these
innovat
ions
and the
implem
entatio
n of a
HACC
P plan,
local
health
authorit
ies
waived
the
require
ment
for the
warnin
g “must
cook
before
consum
ption”
on the
package
. This
authori
zation
was
seen by
the
public
as an
endorse
ment of
product
quality
and
safety
by the
health
authorit
y.
Subseq
uently,
three
mediu
m-sized
manufa
cturers
followe
d suit
in
adoptin
g the
improv
ed
technol
ogy.
Recogn
ition of
the
starter
culture
technol
ogy as a
food
safety
measur
e by the
health
authorit
y was,
of
itself,
an
effectiv
e public
awaren
ess
campai
gn.
RA
PD
marker
s were
used
for
molecul
ar
typing
of
approxi
mately
100
bacteria
l strains
at 12-
hour
interval
s
during
nham
ferment
ations.
These
studies
resulted
in the
develop
ment
and
comme
rcializat
ion of
three
differen
t starter
formula
 e for
use by
larger
manufa
cturers
of
nham.
These
starter
cultures
are
market
ed in a
liquid
form
which
require
s
refriger
ation.
Dried
starter
cultures
have a
shelf-
life of
one
month
at
ambien
t
temper
ature.
Further
innovat
ions

264 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

have
led to
the
incorpo
 ration
of local
yeast
extracts
into
starter
culture
develop
ment,
resultin
g in a
20 to
30 fold
reducti
on in
cost.
The
adoptio
n of
starter
culture
technol
ogy in
nham
ferment
ations
has had
a
positive
impact
on the
industr
y in
terms
of
safety
assuran
ce to
consu
mers
and
product
consist
ency.

5.5.3
Traditional
fermented
fish paste –
Som Fug
Som
Fug is a
traditio
nal
ferment
ed
minced
fish
cake. It
is
conside
red a
healthy
and
highly
nutritio
us
product
and is
an
excelle
nt
source
of
protein
(protei
n
content
: 15.7
percent
, fat:
3.2
percent
and
total
carboh
ydrates:
4
percent
). It is
produc
ed
using a
sponta
neous
microbi
al
ferment
ation
process
similar
to that
used
for
produci
ng
nham
and
many
other
Southe
ast
Asian
ferment
ed
foods.
This
Case
Study
demon
strates
that the
uptake
and use
of
starter
culture
technol
ogies is
still
largely
conting
ent on
cost
conside
rations
and
consu
mer
appreci
ation of
the
nutritio
nal
value
of the
product
.

TABLE 7
 HACCP
plan for the
production
of nham
Process step Hazard Critical limits Monitoring Co
procedures ac

Weighing Improper 100 ppm < The quality Su

nitrite nitrite initial control re
weight: if too nitrite level (QC) ev
high - < 200 ppm supervisor nit
chemical randomly las
hazard, if checks sa
too low - the pre- ch
may result in weighed re
microbiologi nitrite de
cal according to re
hazard appropriate we
sampling ba
frequency

Stuffing Failure to No metal in Line worker to Lin

remove product visually no
metal clips inspect each su
nham se
may co
product
contaminate during d
product stuffing. pr
Change se
worker every me
30 re
minutes de

Labelling Failure to Label to Line worker Lin

provide contain randomly no
microbiologica information checks the su
label on rec
l such nham nh
safety as “safe if products pro
information cooked lab
to the before pro
consumer consumption rec
” on each de
nham
product

Fermentation Inadequate The pH of QC worker QC

fermentation nham randomly no
resulting in product monitors pH su
growth of lower than of nham in ho
pathogens 4.6 each lot pro
fer
an
de

Source: Paukatong
and Kunawasen
(2001)

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
265
 Co
mpositi
onally,
Som
Fug
consists
of
minced
freshwa
ter fish
(mud
carp,
Cirrhin
a
microle
pis) 84
percent
(by
weight),
garlic 8
percent
, water
4
percent
, salt 2
percent
, boiled
rice 1
percent
,
sucrose
0.1
percent
and
black
pepper.
It is
ferment
ed for
about
2–4
days at
ambien
t
temper
ature.
Lactic
acid
bacteria
are the
domina
nt
microfl
ora
associat
ed with
the
ferment
ation
(Paluda
n-
Muller,
Huss
and
Gram,
1999).
RAPD-
PCR
analyse
s
determi
ned
that the
garlic-
ferment
ing
lactic
acid
bacteria
associat
ed with
Som
Fug
ferment
ations
belonge
d to
Lactob
acillus
pentos
us and
Lact.
plantar
um
(Paluda
n-
Muller
et al.,
2002).
Further
more,
the
studies
conclud
ed that
fructan
s from
garlic
are
importa
nt
carbon
sources
which
catalyze
the
ferment
ation.
The
studies
on Som
Fug
illustrat
e the
high
discrimi
natory
power
of
biotech
nology
in
differen
tiating
lactic
acid
bacteria
at the
strain
level.
The
Som
Fug
industr
y did
not see
the
benefit
of
implem
enting
starter
culture
technol
ogy.
Althou
gh the
importa
nt
micro-
organis
ms for
Som
Fug
ferment
ation
had
been
identifi
ed,
there
were no
attempt
s to
develop
starter
cultures
. One
major
reason
for the
lack of
develop
ment of
starter
culture
technol
ogy was
the
widespr
ead
product
ion of
Som
Fug at
the
househ
old
level.
Househ
old
manufa
cturers
do not
 see the
benefit
of
starter
culture
technol
ogy but
rather
view
starter
cultures
as a
burden
to the
cost of
product
ion.
Moreov
er,
there is
no
scientifi
c
informa
tion to
substan
tiate the
nutritio
nal
value of
Som
Fug
and
hence
there is
very
little
public
awaren
ess of
the
nutritio
nal
value of
the
product
.

5.5.4
Flavour
producti
on from
alkaline-
ferment
ed
beans
This
Case
Study
on the
indigen
ous
ferment
ation of
the
locust
bean is
a classic
exampl
e of
how
traditio
nal
ferment
ations
can be
exploite
d for
the
product
ion of
high-
value
product
s such
as
flavour
compo
unds.
The
work,
howeve
r, was
underta
ken by
a large
corpora
tion
with
little
involve
ment of
local
researc
hers.
Returns
on
comme
rcial
success
es
derived
from
this
study
did not
go back
to the
people
who
invente
d the
traditio
nal
method
of
produci
ng this
indigen
ous
ferment
ed
food.
This
Case
Study,
therefo
re,
serves
to
highlig
ht the
critical
issue of
IPR in
traditio
nal
product
ion
systems
.
Da
wadawa
is
produc
ed by
alkaline
ferment
ation of
the
African
ferment
ed
locust
bean
(Steinkr
aus,
1995).
It is an
importa
nt
condim
ent in
the
West/
Central
African
Savann
ah
region
(Odunf
a and
Oyewol
e,
1986).
Similar
ferment
ed food
product
s can
be
found
throug
hout
Africa
with
regiona
l
differen
ces in
the raw
materia
ls used
as
process
ing
inputs
or in
post-
process
ing
operati
ons.
Similarl
y,
ferment
ed
product
s are
referre
d to as
kinda
in
Sierra
Leone,
iru in
coastal
Nigeria,
soumba
ra in
Gambi
a and
Burkina
Faso,
and
kpalugu
in parts
of
Ghana
(Odunf
a and
Oyewol
e,
1986).
Foods
produc
ed by
alkaline
ferment
ation in
other
 parts of
the
world
include
natto in
Japan,
thua
noa in
Thailan
d and
kinema
in India
(Taman
g,
1998).
These
are
mainly
used to
enhanc
e or
intensif
y
meatine
ss in
soups,
sauces
and
other
prepare
d
dishes.

266 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

Th
e
product
ion of
dawada
wa
involve
s
extensi
ve
boiling
and
dehulli
ng of
the
beans
followe
d by
further
boiling
to
facilitat
e
softeni
ng.
Sponta
neous
ferment
ation of
the
softene
d beans
is
subseq
uently
allowed
to take
place
over 2–
4 days.
Micro-
organis
ms
associat
ed with
the
ferment
ation
include
Bacillus
subtilis
(Ogbad
u and
Okagb
ue,
1988),
B.
pumilu
s
(Ogbad
u and
Okagb
ue,
1988),
B.
lichenif
ormis
(Ogbad
u,
Okagb
ue and
Ahmad,
1990)
and
Staphyl
ococcu
s
saprop
hyticus
(Odunf
a,
1981).
During
the
ferment
ation
process
, the
pH
increas
es from
near
neutral
to
approxi
mately
8.0,
temper
ature
increas
es from
25 oC
to 45
o
C and
moistur
e
increas
es from
43 to
56
percent
(Odunf
a and
Oyewol
e,
1986).
At the
same
time, a
five-
fold
increas
e in
free
amino
acids
takes
place,
and
glutama
te, a
flavour
enhanc
er,
increas
es five-
fold
during
the
process
.
Mecha
nisms
of
flavour
product
ion
during
the
ferment
ation
process
as well
as
flavour
principl
es
generat
ed
during
dawada
wa
ferment
ation
process
ing
have
been
studied
by
internat
ional
food
manufa
cturers
and
used as
a basis
for the
develop
ment of
flavour
s for
incorpo
ration
in
bouillo
n-type
product
s
(Beaum
ont,
2002).
 chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
267
B.
Lookin
g
Forwar
d:
Prepar
ing for
the
Future
5.6
E
m
e
r
gi
n
g
P
a
t
h
o
g
e
n
s:
A
K
e
y
Is
s
u
e
w
h
e
r
e
t
h
e
A
p
pl
ic
a
ti
o
n
o
f
B
io
t
e
c
h
n
ol
o
gi
e
s
C
o
ul
d
b
e
U
s
e
f
ul

The
identifi
cation
of
infectio
us
agents
requires
high-
end
technol
ogies
which
are not
usually
availabl
e in
develop
ing
countri
es.
Develo
ping
countri
es must
therefo
re seek
assistan
ce from
countri
es with
higher
calibre
technol
ogies in
order
to
charact
erize
infectio
us
agents,
put in
place
surveill
ance
and
monito
ring
systems
and
develop
strategi
es to
contain
the
disease(
s).
Biotech
nology
can
play a
key role
in
facilitati
ng the
charact
erizatio
n of
new
emergi
ng
pathoge
ns.
Tra
ditional
cultural
method
s for
the
detecti
on and
enumer
ation of
microbi
al
pathog
ens are
tedious
and
require
at least
12–18
hours
for the
realizati
on of
results.
By that
time,
the
food
product
s would
have
been
distribu
ted to
retailers
or
consum
ers.
Immun
oassay
diagnos
tic kits
facilitat
e near-
real-
time
monito
ring,
sensitiv
ity,
versatili
ty and
ease of
use.
The
emerge
nce of
multi-
antibiot
ic
resistan
ce traits
is
prevale
nt in
intensiv
e
farming
in
develop
ing
countri
es due
to the
abuse
of
antibiot
ics. The
spread
of
multi-
antibiot
ic
resistan
t micro
organis
ms
poses
public
health
concer
ns
because
pathog
ens
exhibiti
ng such
resistan
ce
would
be
difficult
to
control
with
the use
of
currentl
y
availabl
e
antibiot
ics. The
rapid
detecti
on of
these
pathog
ens
with
high
sensitiv
ity is
one
way of
monito
ring
and
contain
ing the
spread
of
multi-
antibiot
ic
resistan
t traits.
A
strategi
c
approa
ch
 being
employ
ed by
some is
the
develop
ment
of
affinity
biosens
ors
with an
antibiot
ic
resistan
t
nucleot
ide
sequen
ce as
the
detecti
on
probe.

5.7
Identifyi
ng
Options
for
Developi
ng
Countrie
s

It is
importa
nt that
countri
es
recogni
ze the
potenti
al of
ferment
ed
foods
and
prioriti
ze
actions
to
assure
their
safety,
quality
and
availabi
lity.
Based
on the
stockta
king
exercise
in this
Chapte
r, a
number
of
specific
options
can be
identifi
ed for
develop
ing
countri
es to
help
them
make
inform
ed
decisio
ns
regardi
ng
adoptio
n of
biotech
nologie
s in
food
process
ing and
in food
safety
for the
future.
Regulat
ory and
policy
issues
❾
Go
ver
nm
ent
s
mu
st
be
co
m
mit
ted
to
pro
tect
ing
co
nsu
me
r
hea
lth
and
int
ere
sts,
and
to
ens
uri
ng
fair
pra
ctic
es
in
the
foo
d
sec
tor.
❾
Th
ere
has
to
be
co
nse
nsu
s at
the
hig
hes
t
lev
els
of
go
ver
nm
ent
on
the
im
por
tan
ce
of
foo
d
saf
ety,
an
d
the
pro
visi
on
of
ade
qua
te
res
our
ces
for
this
pur
pos
e.
268 B iotech nolog i
es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

❾
Go
ver
nm
ent
pol
icy
mu
st
be
put
in
pla
ce
tha
t is
bas
ed
on
an
inte
gra
ted
foo
d-
cha
in
app
roa
ch,
is
scie
nce
-
bas
ed,
tra
nsp
are
nt
and
incl
ude
s
the
 par
tici
pati
on
of
all
the
sta
keh
old
ers
fro
m
far
m
to
tabl
e.
❾ The
im
por
tan
ce
of
the
regi
ona
l
and
int
ern
atio
nal
di
me
nsi
ons
of
usi
ng
bio
tec
hn
olo
gie
s in
foo
d
pro
ces
 sin
g
and
saf
ety
mu
st
be
rec
og
niz
ed.
❾
Pri
orit
y
mu
st
be
acc
ord
ed
to
pro
mo
tin
g
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds
in
the
foo
d
sec
urit
y
age
nd
as
of
co
unt
ries
.
❾
Go
ver
nm
ent
s
mu
st
als
o
pro
vid
e
an
ena
bli
ng
env
iro
nm
ent
tha
t is
sup
por
tive
of
the
gro
wt
h
and
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
ups
tre
am
fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses
suc
h
as
the
pro
duc
 tio
n
of
hig
h-
val
ue
fer
me
nte
d
pro
duc
ts,
suc
h
as
enz
ym
es,
fun
cti
ona
l
foo
d
ing
red
ien
ts
and
foo
d
add
itiv
es.

Inter
natio
nal
coop
erati
on
and
har
moni
zatio
n
❾ The
org
ani
zati
on
and
im
ple
me
nta
tio
n
of
regi
ona
l
and
inte
rna
tio
nal
for
a
are
crit
ical
req
uir
em
ent
s
for
the
enh
anc
em
ent
of
nati
ona
l
org
ani
zati
ona
l
cap
abil
ity
and
per
for
ma
nce
and
to
faci
litat
e
inte
rna
tio
nal
coo
per
atio
n.
Fur
the
r,
the
sett
ing
up
of
ad
mi
nist
rati
ve
str
uct
ure
s
wit
h
cle
arly
def
ine
d
rol
es,
res
po
nsi
bili
ties
and
acc
ou
nta
bili
 ties
cou
ld
effi
cie
ntly
gov
ern
pro
ces
sed
foo
ds
and
saf
ety
issu
es.
❾
Bio
tec
hn
olo
gy-
bas
ed
sta
nda
rd
ope
rati
ng
pro
ced
ure
s
(S
OP
s)
for
foo
d
saf
ety
sho
uld
als
o
be
doc
um
 ent
ed
for
use
in
aut
hor
ize
d
lab
ora
tori
es.
❾
Na
tio
nal
foo
d
con
trol
dat
aba
ses
for
the
syst
em
atic
coll
ecti
on,
ana
lysi
s
and
rep
orti
ng
of
foo
d-
rela
ted
dat
a
(fo
od
ins
pec
tio
n,
ana
lysi
s,
etc.
)
wit
h
set
reg
ulat
ion
s
and
sta
nda
rds
bas
ed
on
sou
nd
scie
nce
and
in
acc
ord
anc
e
wit
h
inte
rna
tio
nal
rec
om
me
nda
tio
ns
(Co
dex
)
are
key
req
uir
em
ent
 s.

Educatio
n policy
While
the
consum
ption
of
ferment
ed
foods is
growin
g in
popular
ity
among
higher
income
consum
ers
thanks
to
increasi
ng
interest
in
wellnes
s
throug
h diet,
the
consum
ption
of
ferment
ed
foods
by
lower
income
consum
ers in
many
develop
ing
countri
es is
perceiv
ed to
be a
backwa
rd
practice
.
❾
Str
ate
gie
s
sho
uld
the
ref
ore
be
dev
elo
ped
for
the
dis
se
mi
nati
on
of
kn
owl
edg
e
abo
ut
foo
d
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy
and
par
ticu
larl
y
fer
me
nte
d
foo
 ds.
Tar
get
ed
con
su
me
r
edu
cati
on
on
the
ben
efit
s
of
con
su
mi
ng
fer
me
nte
d
foo
d
pro
duc
ts
and
on
app
lyin
g
go
od
pra
ctic
e in
thei
r
pro
duc
tio
n is
req
uir
ed.
❾ Food
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy
sho
uld
be
incl
ude
d
in
edu
cati
ona
l
cur
ric
ula
in
ord
er
to
im
pro
ve
the
kn
owl
edg
e
bas
e in
cou
ntri
es
on
the
con
trib
uti
on
of
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds
to
foo
d
and
nut
riti
ona
l
sec
urit
y
and
to
gen
era
te
aw
are
nes
s
of
the
gro
win
g
ma
rke
t
op
por
tun
itie
s
for
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds
and
hig
h-
val
ue
pro
duc
ts
der
ive
d
fro
m
 fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses.

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
269

Informati
on-
sharing
Access
to
speciali
zed
technic
al
inform
ation
on
biotech
nology
and
biotech
nologic
al
develop
ments
in the
food
process
ing
sector
are
critical
and
necessa
ry
inputs
and
 support
systems
for
guiding
and
orientin
g the
researc
h
agendas
of
countri
es. The
necessa
ry
inform
ation
systems
should
therefo
re be
develop
ed to
facilitat
e rapid
access
to
inform
ation
on
biotech
nologic
al
develop
ments
across
both
the
develop
ed and
the
develop
ing
world.

Legislati
on and
policy
on
technolo
gies
Experti
se in
legislati
on and
technol
ogy
licensin
g as
well as
knowle
dge
about
how to
nurture
innovat
ion and
turn it
into
busines
s
venture
s are
critical
require
ments
for
develop
ing
countri
es.
Success
ful
technol
ogy
transfer
requires
all of
these
element
s and
an
environ
ment
that is
conduci
ve to
innovat
ion.
 Govern
ment
policy
in
develop
ing
countri
es
should
therefo
re
prioriti
ze
technol
ogy
transfer
that
helps
create
new
busines
s
venture
s, an
approa
ch that
requires
govern
ment
support
such as
tax
incentiv
es and
infrastr
ucture
investm
ent.

Intellect
ual
property
rights
❾
Ma
ny
of
the
tra
diti
ona
l
fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses
app
lied
in
dev
elo
pin
g
cou
ntri
es
are
bas
ed
on
tra
diti
ona
l
kn
owl
edg
e.
En
han
ced
tec
hni
cal
and
scie
ntif
ic
inf
or
ma
tio
n is
req
uir
ed
to
clai
m
ow
ner
shi
p
of
the
tra
diti
ona
l
kn
owl
edg
e
un
der
pin
nin
g
the
cra
ft
of
ind
ige
no
us
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds.
Lac
k
of
tec
hni
cal
kn
owl
edg
e
and
offi
cial
doc
um
ent
atio
n
has
res
ulte
d
in
the
fail
ure
to
real
ize
the
ben
efit
s of
the
ind
ust
riali
zati
on
of
ind
ige
no
us
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds
by
ind
ivid
ual
s
wh
o
are
the
rig
htf
ul
ow
ner
s of
the
 tec
hn
olo
gy.
❾
Gr
eat
er
foc
us
is
als
o
req
uir
ed
on
issu
es
of
rele
van
ce
to
IP
R
and
on
the
cha
ract
eriz
atio
n
of
mic
rob
ial
stra
ins
inv
olv
ed
in
tra
diti
ona
l
fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses.
Em
pha
sis
mu
st
be
pla
ced
on
IP
R
edu
cati
on
for
scie
ntis
ts.
Na
tio
nal
gov
ern
me
nts
sho
uld
put
in
pla
ce
the
req
uisi
te
infr
astr
uct
ure
for
IP
R
to
faci
litat
e
the
pro
ces
s.
At
the
inst
itut
ion
al
lev
el,
this
infr
astr
uct
ure
wo
uld
incl
ude
tec
hn
olo
gy
ma
nag
em
ent
offi
ces
for
assi
stin
g
scie
ntis
ts
in
pro
ced
ure
s
rela
tin
g
to
IP
ma
tter
s.
Th
e
pro
ces
ses
use
d
in
the
mo
re
adv
anc
ed
are
as
of
agri
cult
ura
l
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy
are
gen
eral
ly
cov
ere
d
by
IP
R
and
the
rig
hts
are
gen
eral
ly
ow
ned
by
par
ties
in
dev
 elo
ped
cou
ntri
es.

Commu
nication
and
consum
er
percepti
ons
❾
Co
m
mu
nic
atio
n
bet
we
en
vari
ous
sta
keh
old
ers
is
crit
ical
in
pro
acti
vel
y
eng
agi
ng
wit
h
con
su
me
rs.
Co
m
mu
nic
atio
n
mu
st
be
est
abli
she
d
wit
h
the
pu
blic
at
larg
e
on
pro
ces
sed
foo
d
and
ass
oci
ate
d
haz
ard
s.
Co
m
mu
nic
atio
n
gra
dua
lly
bui
lds
con
fid
enc
e
and
will
be
crit
ical
to
adv
anc
ing
the
app
lica
tio
n
of
bio
tec
hn
olo
gie
s in
foo
d
pro
ces
sin
g
and
saf
ety.
Th
e
pri
ma
ry
rol
e
of
co
m
mu
nic
atio
n
in
this
res
pec
t is
to
ens
ure
tha
t
inf
 or
ma
tio
n

270 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

and
opi
nio
ns
fro
m
all
sta
keh
old
ers
are
inc
orp
ora
ted
in
the
dis
cus
sio
n
and
dec
isio
n
ma
kin
g
pro
ces
ses.
Th
e
nee
d
for
spe
cifi
c
sta
nda
rds
or
rela
ted
tex
ts
and
the
pro
ced
ure
s
foll
ow
ed
to
det
er
mi
ne
the
m
sho
uld
als
o
be
cle
arly
out
line
d.
Th
e
pro
ces
s,
the
ref
ore
,
sho
uld
be
tra
nsp
 are
nt.
❾
Pu
blic
aw
are
nes
s
an
d
ed
uca
tio
n
are
crit
ical
to
the
suc
ces
s
of
foo
d
bio
pro
ces
sin
g
an
d
foo
d
saf
ety
in
dev
elo
pin
g
co
unt
ries
.
❾
Greater
attentio
n must
be
directe
d
toward
underst
anding
consu
mer
and
produc
er
(proces
sor)
percept
ions on
food
safety
and
quality
in
develo
ping
countri
es. ❾
If
foods
are to
be
promot
ed as
being
safe
and
healthy,
their
nutritio
nal and
safety
attribut
es must
be
transpa
rently
demon
strated
by
present
ing
scientifi
c data
to
substan
 tiate
the
nutritio
nal and
health
benefit
s and
by
applyin
g good
manufa
cturing
/hygien
e
practice
and
HACC
P as
safety
measur
es to
ensure
that
issues
of
consu
mer
concer
n are
address
ed.

Technic
al
capaciti
es and
technolo
gy
transfer
❾
Tra
diti
ona
l
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds
sho
uld
be
vie
we
d
as
val
uab
le
ass
ets.
Go
ver
nm
ent
s
sho
uld
cap
itali
ze
on
the
se
ass
ets
and
add
val
ue
to
the
m
by
sup
por
tin
g
res
ear
ch,
edu
cati
on
and
dev
elo
pm
ent,
 whi
le
buil
din
g
on
and
dev
elo
pin
g
the
ind
ige
no
us
kn
owl
edg
e
bas
e
on
foo
d
fer
me
nta
tio
ns.
❾
Go
ver
nm
ent
age
nci
es
in
dev
elo
pin
g
co
unt
ries
sho
uld
foc
us
on
 the
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
tec
hni
cal
cap
acit
ies
to
dea
l
wit
h
em
erg
ing
tec
hni
cal
iss
ues
.
❾ The
tec
hni
cal
cap
acit
ies
of
aca
de
mic
and
res
ear
ch
inst
itut
es
sho
uld
be
stre
ngt
hen
ed
in
the
fiel
ds
of
foo
d
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy,
foo
d
pro
ces
sin
g,
bio
pro
ces
s
eng
ine
eri
ng
and
foo
d
saf
ety
thr
oug
h
trai
nin
g
and
exc
han
ge
pro
gra
m
me
s
for
res
ear
che
rs.
Suc
h
pro
gra
m
me
s
sho
uld
em
pha
size
coll
abo
rati
on
wit
h
bot
h
dev
elo
ped
and
dev
elo
pin
g
cou
ntr
y
inst
itut
ion
s
eng
age
d
in
wo
rk
on
foo
d
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy,
star
 ter
cult
ure
dev
elo
pm
ent,
bio
pro
ces
s
eng
ine
eri
ng
and
foo
d
saf
ety.
❾
Tra
inin
g
cap
abil
itie
s in
foo
d
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy
and
foo
d
saf
ety
sho
uld
be
dev
elo
ped
wit
hin
dev
elo
pin
g
cou
ntr
y
inst
itut
ion
s
thr
oug
h
the
intr
od
ucti
on
of
deg
ree
cou
rses
in
ord
er
to
bro
ade
n
the
in-
cou
ntr
y
tec
hni
cal
sup
por
t
bas
e
for
foo
d
bio
pro
ces
s
dev
elo
pm
ent.
Giv
en
the
sim
ilari
ties
am
ong
fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses
acr
oss
regi
ons
, an
inv
ent
ory
of
inst
itut
ion
s
eng
age
d
in
foo
d
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy
in
dev
elo
pin
g
cou
ntri
es
wo
uld
be
an
ass
et
in
faci
litat
ing
net
wo
rki
ng
am
ong
inst
itut
ion
s.
Fo
od
pro
ces
sor
s,
poli
cy-
ma
ker
s
and
equ
ip
me
nt
ma
nuf
act
ure
rs
sho
uld
als
o
be
inte
grat
ed
int
o
the
net
 wo
rki
ng
acti
viti
es.
❾ The
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
app
rop
riat
e
lev
els
of
bio
rea
cto
r
tec
hn
olo
gy
wit
h
con
trol
bio
pro
ces
s
par
am
ete
rs
will
be
nec
ess
ary
to
im
pro
ve
the
hyg
 ieni
c
con
diti
ons
of
the
fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses.

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
271
❾
Res
ear
ch
and
infr
astr
uct
ura
l
dev
elo
pm
ent
to
ena
ble
the
cos
t-
eff
ecti
ve
pro
duc
tio
n
of
def
ine
d
star
ter
cult
ure
s in
a
sta
ble
for
ma
t
(ie
cult
ure
s
whi
ch
do
not
req
uir
e
refr
iger
atio
n
and
hav
e
pro
lon
ged
she
lf-
live
s
un
der
am
bie
nt
con
diti
ons
)
sho
uld
 be
pri
orit
ize
d.
❾
Inf
rast
ruc
tur
e
dev
elo
pm
ent
to
faci
lita
te
the
tra
nsf
er
and
ada
pta
tio
n
of
fer
me
nta
tio
n
tec
hn
olo
gie
s
dev
elo
ped
at
the
lab
ora
tor
y
lev
el
to
 the
ho
use
hol
d
and
vill
age
and
,
wh
ere
nec
ess
ary,
the
ent
erp
rise
lev
el
sho
uld
be
pri
orit
ize
d.
❾
Ap
pro
pri
ate
lev
els
of
equ
ip
me
nt
will
als
o
be
req
uir
ed
to
faci
lita
te
 the
do
wn
stre
am
pro
ces
sin
g
of
the
se
pro
duc
ts.
❾
Tracea
bility
systems
that
facilitat
e the
differe
ntiation
and
identifi
cation
of food
produc
ts
should
be
prioriti
zed in
order
to
broade
n
market
opport
unities
for
these
produc
ts. ❾ A
food-
chain
approa
ch to
assurin
g food
 safety
should
be
prioriti
zed by
govern
ments.
❾ Food
safety
manage
ment
systems
should
be
strengt
hened
by
implem
enting
systema
tic
foo
d
saf
ety
me
asu
res
suc
h
as
G
HP
,
G
MP
and
H
AC
CP
in
foo
d
fer
me
nta
tio
n
op
era
tio
ns.
Dia
gn
osti
c
kits
are
im
por
tan
t
too
ls
for
mo
nit
ori
ng
and
ver
ifyi
ng
the
lev
el
of
san
itat
ion
in
pro
ces
sin
g
pla
nts.
H
ighl
y
sen
siti
ve
and
rap
id
dia
gn
osti
c
kits
are
inv
alu
abl
e
for
mo
nit
ori
ng
and
rap
idly
det
ecti
ng
che
mic
al
and
mic
rob
iol
ogi
cal
haz
ard
s
wit
h
hig
h
pre
cisi
on
and
sen
siti
vity
tha
t
pos
e
thr
eat
s to
hu
ma
n
hea
lth.
Th
e
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
low
-
cos
t
dia
gn
osti
c
kits
suit
abl
e
for
use
by
sm
all
pro
ces
sor
s
wo
uld
gre
atly
faci
litat
e
foo
d
saf
ety
mo
nit
ori
ng.
De
vel
op
me
nt
sho
uld
tar
get
the
real
izat
ion
of
mu
ltip
lex
dia
gn
osti
c
syst
em
s
wit
h
the
cap
acit
y
to
det
ect
sev
eral
pat
ho
gen
s or
ma
ny
che
mic
al
con
ta
mi
nan
ts
usi
ng
a
sin
gle
dia
gn
osti
c
kit.
Th
e
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
dia
gn
osti
c
kits
at a
nati
ona
l
lev
el
cou
ld
furt
her
red
uce
thei
r
cos
t of
pro
duc
tio
n.
Gi
ven
the
regi
ona
l
spe
cifi
city
of
bac
teri
al
pat
ho
gen
s at
the
spe
cies
and
sub
spe
cies
lev
els,
suc
h
dia
gn
osti
c
kits
sho
uld
be
dev
elo
ped
wit
h
spe
cifi
city
and
sen
siti
vity
to
the
spe
cies
or
sub
spe
cies
tha
t
are
pre
val
ent
in a
spe
cifi
c
regi
on.
Inv
est
me
nt
is
the
ref
ore
nee
ded
for
the
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
exp
erti
se,
faci
litie
s
and
infr
astr
uct
ure
for
the
ma
ss
pro
duc
tio
n
of
anti
bo
die
s,
cell
cult
ure
tec
hn
olo
gy
and
for
the
for
ma
tio
n
of
tec
hni
cal
kn
ow
-
ho
w
on
ass
em
bli
ng
the
req
uisi
te
co
mp
one
nts
of
dia
gn
osti
c
kits
.
T
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
nati
ona
l
haz
ard
pro
file
dat
aba
ses
tha
t
doc
um
ent
the
pre
val
ent
pat
hog
ens
in
diff
ere
nt
regi
ons
will
be
crit
ical
.
Suc
h
inf
or
mat
ion
wo
uld
be
use
ful
for
furt
her
res
ear
ch
int
o
the
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
dia
gno
stic
kits
wit
h
hig
h
pre
cisi
on
and
sen
siti
vity
and
in
im
ple
me
nti
ng
HA
CC
P
as
wel
l as
risk
ass
ess
me
nt
res
ear
ch.
Th
e
cult
ure
coll
ecti
on
of
ide
ntif
ied
infe
ctio
us
age
nts
in
the
haz
 ard
pro
file
s
cou
ld
pla
y
an
im
por
tan
t
rol
e
for
pro
duc
ing
spe
cifi
c
anti
bo
die
s
for
use
in
dev
elo
pin
g
im
mu
noa
ssa
y
dia
gno
stic
kits
.

272 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
 D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

5.8
Identifying
Priorities
for Action
for the
Internation
al
Community

The last
decade
has
witness
ed
conside
rable
change
with
respect
to the
applicat
ions of
biotech
nology
in food
process
ing and
food
safety.
Market
forces
have
been
the
major
drivers
of
change
in the
food
sector
of
develop
ing
countri
es.
Moder
n
biotech
nologic
al tools
are
likely to
play a
greater
role in
the
develop
ment of
efficien
t
science
-based
process
es for
food
process
ing and
safety
in
order
to
respon
d to
consum
er
deman
d. The
product
ion of
high-
value
ferment
ed
product
s such
as
enzyme
s,
functio
nal
food
ingredi
ents
and
food
additive
s is
likely to
continu
e to
increas
e in
develop
ing
countri
es.
Th
e
internat
ional
commu
nity
(FAO,
UN
organiz
ations,
NGOs,
donors
and
develop
ment
agencie
s) can
play a
major
role in
assistin
g
develop
ing
countri
es to
maximi
ze the
benefit
to be
derived
from
food
bioproc
essing.
The
adoptio
n of
biotech
nology-
based
method
s in
food
process
ing and
for
food
safety
and
quality
monito
ring is
depend
ent on
several
factors
that
include
capacit
y
buildin
g in
technic
al and
regulat
ory
areas,
policy
formula
tion,
regulat
ory
framew
orks
and
regional
networ
ks.
Bas
ed on
the
analysis
in this
Chapte
r, a
numbe
r of
priority
 areas
are
identifi
ed for
support
by the
internat
ional
commu
nity.
These
are:

Capacity
building
and
human
resource
develop
ment
❾
support
basic
and
advanc
ed
educati
on;
❾
prioriti
ze
specific
areas
for
invest
ment;
❾
dev
elo
p
pol
icy
opt
ion
s,
pri
orit
ies
and
acti
on
 pro
gra
m
me
s
tha
t
pro
mo
te
foo
d
fer
me
nta
tio
n
as
a
me
ans
of
add
res
sin
g
foo
d
sec
urit
y;
❾
sup
por
t
hu
ma
n
res
our
ce
dev
elo
pm
ent
in a
ran
ge
of
scie
ntif
 ic
dis
cipl
ine
s–
foo
d
bio
tec
hn
olo
gy,
foo
d
saf
ety,
bio
eng
ine
eri
ng
and
enz
ym
e
tec
hn
olo
gy;
❾
sup
por
t
cap
acit
y
buil
din
g
init
iati
ves
for
ho
use
hol
d-
lev
el,
sm
all-
 and
me
diu
m-
scal
e
pro
ces
sor
s of
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds;
❾
support
IPR
develo
pment.

Technol
ogy
transfer
and
support
for R&D
❾
im
pro
ve
the
rele
van
ce
of
nat
ion
al
res
ear
ch
to
the
nee
ds
of
the
foo
 d
sec
tor
in
dev
elo
pin
g
cou
ntri
es;
❾
enh
anc
e
co
mp
etit
ive
nes
s
and
the
cre
atio
n
of
an
ena
bli
ng
env
iro
nm
ent
tha
t is
con
duc
ive
to
pri
vat
e
sec
tor
inv
est
me
nt
in
 res
ear
ch,
dev
elo
pm
ent
and
inn
ova
tio
n
for
the
upg
rad
ing
of
foo
d
fer
me
nta
tio
n
pro
ces
ses
to
res
po
nd
to
ma
rke
t
de
ma
nd;

chapter 5 Current
Status and Options
for Biotechnologies in
Food Processing and
in Food Safety in
Developing Countries
273
❾
est
abli
sh
and
stre
ngt
hen
the
res
ear
ch
and
infr
astr
uct
ura
l
sup
por
t
bas
e
for
wo
rk
on
star
ter
cult
ure
dev
elo
pm
ent,
bio
rea
cto
r
des
ign
and
for
the
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
dia
gn
osti
c
test
s
and
equ
ip
me
nt
for
mo
nit
ori
ng
foo
d
saf
ety
and
trac
eab
ility
.
Thi
s
infr
astr
uct
ura
l
sup
por
t
bas
e
wo
uld
incl
ude
lab
ora
tori
es,
lab
ora
tor
y
equ
ip
me
nt
 and
cell
ban
k
faci
litie
s
for
the
pro
per
pre
ser
vati
on
and
sto
rag
e
of
mic
rob
ial
cult
ure
pre
par
atio
ns;
❾
dev
elo
p
sci
ent
ific
dat
a
to
exa
mi
ne
the
nut
riti
on
al,
hea
lth
an
d
 hea
lth-
be
nef
it
clai
ms
ass
oci
ate
d
wit
h
fer
me
nte
d
foo
ds;
❾
est
abli
sh
pil
ot
pro
ces
sin
g
faci
litie
s
for
the
sca
lin
g-
up
an
d
test
ing
of
tec
hn
olo
gie
s
to
faci
lita
 te
the
ir
ad
opt
ion
.

Networki
ng and
clusters
❾
support
the
develo
pment
of
regulat
ory
framew
orks
for
food
safety;
❾
sup
por
t
No
rth
-
So
uth
and
So
uth
-
So
uth
trai
nin
g
and
exc
han
ge
on
foo
d
bio
tec
 hn
olo
gie
s,
bio
pro
ces
s
eng
ine
eri
ng
and
foo
d
saf
ety;
❾
promot
e and
facilitat
e
networ
king
among
scientis
ts,
researc
hers,
small-
and
mediu
m-scale
food
process
ors and
the
retail
sector
to
facilitat
e
knowle
dge
and
inform
ation-
sharing
; ❾
support
leveragi
 ng the
traditio
nal
knowle
dge
base in
the
upgradi
ng of
food
fermen
tation
process
ing
operati
ons.

274 B iotech nolog i

es for Ag r icu ltu ra l
D eve lopm e nt
SECTION 1:
BACKGROUND TO

5.9
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