FOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS 287 pressure increase qy = Ag at a depth z beneath the loaded area due to base load Q is Q 4-0 = ores 52) a= t= BERET co) which simplifes fora square base (> B) to 2 o- oe a where terms are identified on Fig. 5-1. This: 1 method compares reasonably well with more theoretical methods [see Eq. (5-4)] from z1 = B to about zy = 4B but should not be used in the depth zone from z = 0 to B. The average sess increase in a stratum (H = 29 — 21) is 2 9 542 a ., Bet att (5-26) 1]_ 9° HL B+. 5.3. THE BOUSSINESQ METHOD FOR q, (One ofthe most common methods for obtaining q, isthe Boussinesq (ca. 1885) equation based on the Theory of Elasticity. Boussinesq’s equation considers a point load on the surface of a semi-infinive, homogeneous, isotopic, weightless, elastic half-space to obtain 30 ne where symbols are identified on Fig. 5-2a. From this figure we can also write tan = 1/z, define a new term R? = r? + 22, and take cos 8 = (2/R)S. With these terms inserted in Eq, a. = 2 cos* 0 63) Figure $2 (a) Inensity of pressure q based on Boussinesq approach (6) pressure a point of depth z below the centr ofthe circular area ated on by intensity of pressure ge dQ = god 4A = 2erdr ea “4 2 ¥ @ 6 "The vertical base load uses PV, and Qin this textbook and inthe published literature; similarly, stress increases from the base lad ae q, Aq. p, and Ap.(5-3) we obtain 302 a See o hich is commonly writen as 30 Q Feel + OPI = SA, (5-5) Since the Ap term isa function only ofthe r/z ratio we may tabulate several values as follows: (0.000 0.100 0200 0300 0.400 0.500 0.750 1.000 1.300 2.000 OAT 0466 0833 0385 0.329 0.273 0156 O08 0.025 0.008 mt ‘These values may be used to compute the vertical stress in the stratum as in the following two examples. Example §-1. What isthe vertical stress beneath a point load Q = 225 KN at depths of z = Om, 0.6m, 1.2m, and 3.0m? Solution, We may write q, = (Q/e?)4y = 0.477Q/z? (directly beneath Q we have r/z = 0). Sub- stituting z-values, we obtain the following: earr225ye, ° 7 06 © 298KPa 45 30 9 Example 5-2, What is the vertical stress q. at point A of Fig. B5-2 for the two surface loads Qi and Q:? : = 1000kN so0kN Figure £52FOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS. 289 Solution. de = sumof stresses from the two loads mee a: f-F=1 Ay = 0.088 root re-}e-05 a =028 = $0010.084) , 1000027 w= axe * ax? TSKPA wm Chart Methods ‘The purpose of foundations is to spread loads so that “point” loads with the accompanying very high stresses at the contact point (z = 0 of Example 5-1) are avoided. Thus, direct use of the Boussinesq equation is somewhat impractical until z is at a greater depth where ‘computations indicate the point and spread load stress effects converge. We can avoid this by considering the contact pressure q, to be applied to a circular area as shown in Fig. 5-26 so the load Q can be written as, a= [naa o “The stress on the soil element from the contact pressure q, on the surface area dA of Fig, S2dbis dq = 3,1 aa @ 4° aT OPE butdA = 2mrdr, and Eq, (a) becomes "34nd % Qardr @) |, Fact I Performing the integration and inserting limits, we have 1 Ie = qo4 1.0 ~ —— 5-6) wea { i Faia] a ‘This equation can be used to obtain the stress q, directly at depth z for a round footing of radius 1 (now r/zisadepth ratio measured along the base center). If we rearrange this equation, solve for r/z, and take the positive root, © The interpretation of Eq, (c) is thatthe r/: ratio is also the relative size ofa circular bearing, area such that, when loaded, it gives a unique pressure ratio qu/qo on the soil element at a depth z in the stratum. If values of the qo/4 ratio are put into the equation, corresponding290 rouNDsTION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Influence valve 0005 Figure 5:3 Infocce chart or venta pressure. [fer Newmark (1982)] values ofr/z may be obtained as follows 20 0.100 0.20 0300 0400 0.500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1.00 00 0270 0400 O0518 0637 0.766 0918 1.110 1387 1908 © ‘alay rhe ‘These values may be used to draw the Newmark (1942) chart in Fig, 5-3. The use of the chartis based ona factor termed the influence value, determined from the number of units into ‘which the chart is subdivided. For example, ifthe series of rings is subdivided so that there are 400 units, often made approximate squares, the influence value is 1/400 = 0.0025. In making, a chart it is necessary that the sum of the units between two concentric circles multiplied by the influence value be equal to the change in the qo/qo of the two rings (ie, ifthe change in ‘wo rings is 0.1 qo/4o, then the influence value / multiplied by the number of units M should equal 0.1). This concept enables one to construct a chart of any influence value. Figure 5-3 isFOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS 291 subdivided into 200 units: therefore, the influence value is 1/200 = 0.005. Smaller influence values increase the number of squares and the amount of work involved, since the sum of the squares used in a problem is merely a mechanical integration of Eq. (a). Its doubtful if ‘much accuracy is gained using very small influence values, although the amount of work is increased considerably. The influence chart may be used to compute the pressure on an element of soil beneath a footing, or from pattern of footings, and for any depth z below the footing. Its only necessary to draw the footing pattern to a scale of z = length AB of the chart. Thus, if z= 5 m, the length AB becomes 5 m; if z = 6 m, the length AB becomes 6 m; etc. Now if AB is 20 tm, scales of 1 : 250 and 1 : 300, respectively, wll be used to draw the footing plans, These footing plans will be placed on the influence chart with the point for which the stress Aq(< q,) is desired at the center of the circles. The units (segments or partial segments) enclosed by the footing or footings are counted, and the increase in stress at the depth zis computed as Bq = qoMt 6-7) where Ag ~ increased intensity of soil pressure due to foundation loading at depth z in units of qo qo = foundation contact pressure ‘M = number of units counted (partial units are estimated) = influence factor of the particular chart used ‘The influence chart is difficult to use, primarily because the depth z results in using an odd scale factor based on line AB in the figure. It has some value, however, in cases where access {to a computer is not practical and there are several footings with different contact pressures ‘or where the footing is iregular-shaped and Aq (or 4.) is desired for some point. For single circular footings, a vertical center pressure profile can be efficiently obtained by using Eq, (5-6) on a personal computer. For square ot rectangular footings the concept of the pressure bulb as shown in Fig, 5-4 is useful. The pressure bulbs are isobars (ines of constant pressure) obtained by constructing vertical pressure profiles (using similar to that of Fig. 1-1a) at selected points across the footing width B and interpolating points of equal pressure intensity (0.9, 0.8, 0.7go, etc.) Numerical Methods for Solving the Boussinesq Equation ‘There are two readily available methods to obtain a vertical pressure profile using the Boussi- nesq equation and a computer. The first method is that used in program SMBWVP on you diskette (also applicable to the Westergaard equation of Sec. 5-5) as follows: a. The square or rectangular base (for a round base convert to an equivalent square as. iar) with a contact pressure of qe is divided ito small square (or unt) areas of side dimension a so a series of “point” loads of @ = qoa? can be used. Use side di- mensions a on the order of 0.3 x 0.3 m (1 X 1 ft). Using very small a dimensions does not improve the result. The vertical pressure contributions from several bases can be dbiained. The pressure ata point beneath a base such as the center, mid-side, or corner can be obtained from that footing as well as contributions from adjacent footings.292, FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Swe anand _-Cominvous 158 8 ap Liv n 9g 4o= 99 9A; m 7 1 a5 [9 ly) eh + 6 le 02 be | ss — —_|_—_--—ue ; | | se | | | loos | | oo 1 oo | Ge. | a l t 1 he =| L fee T p al 4 Figure 5-4 Pressure isobars (also called pesture bulbs) based on the Boussnesq equation for square and long footings. Applicable only along line ab from centr to edge of base. 'b. Input the location where the vertical pressure is wanted. Usually the x, z coordinates of this point are taken as the origin. Other bases (and this one if the point is under it) are referenced to the point where the vertical procouro io to be computed by distance DIST (see DTWAL of Fig. 11-192) to the far side of the base and a perpendicular distance DOP [CH to right side of DIST] to the base edge. Other bases that may contribute pressure are similarly referenced but in most cases bases not directly over the point can be treated as point loads. The pressures may be computed at any starting input depth Yo; this may be atthe ground surface or some point below. You can obtain a pressure profile using equally spaced depth increments DY or the vertical pressure at a single depth (DY = 0). For fiveFOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS 293 V the tan™! term is (—-) and it is necessary to add 7. In passing, note that sin“! is an alternate form of Eq. (5-8) (with changes in V) that is sometimes seen. This equation is in program B-3 (SMNMWEST) on your diskette and is generally more convenient to use than Fadum’s charts or Table 5-1, which usually requires interpolation for influence factors. ‘The vertical stress at any depth z can be obtained for any reasonable proximity to or beneath the base as illustrated in Fig. 5-5 and the following examples.TABLE 5-1 Stress influence values 1, from Eq, (5-8) to use in Eq. (5-84) to compute stresses at depth ios M = Biz; N = L/z beneath the corner of a base BX L. |M and N are inverchangeable NX .100.200 300.400 «500.600.700.800 1.005 009.013.017.020 022.024 026 12 1009 018 «026 ©1033 1039 :043 1047 050 3 lo13. 1026 1037 1047 056 1063 1069 073 ‘4 1017 1033 047 1060 1071 080 1087 093, 15 1020 1039 1056 1071 ‘08d 1095 1103 110 +6 022.043.063.080 095.107 125 t7 l024 1047 1069 1087 :103 | 1117 1137 18 1026 1050 1073 1093 1110 1125 i146 "9 1027 1053 1077 1098 1u16 1132, tsa alo 1028055 1079 :101 1120 1136 i160 1.1 029.056 082.104.124.140 +165 lz 1029 1057 1083 1106 1126 1143 hie 123 1030 058 1085 :108 1128 :146 fam ede) 0308 059) 086! | 109) 190) 147) lara iavee | 030) Rowse 110) 193) 249) tae 2.0 032.061 089.213.135.153 169.282 215 1031 1062 ‘089/414 1136 1155 1170 1183 30 1032. 1062 090 1115 1137 1155 1471 18a 50 1032 1062 1090 1215 1137 1186 1172 ‘185 10:0 1032 1062 09011151137 L156 1172 185 WN 1.100 1.200 1.300 1.400 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 ea oe ee oe oe re [2 1056 057 ‘058 1059 059 ‘061 1062 ‘062 ‘062 ‘062 13 l0e2 083 ‘085 ‘086 086 ‘089 1089 090 ‘090 090 4 ln0d 1206 i108 i109 laz0 1123 lang luis laus 1115 [8 lazd 126) faze 1130 11311135 1436 113711371137 +6 140-143-146 1471149153 155.155.156.156 7 tase 1157 [160 1162 luse 1169 1170 1471 1172 1172 18 14650 lies 1172 1174 1176 is1 1183 lisd 1185 © :185, '9 lava aye lie l1e¢ 1186 192 1194 1195 ‘196 ‘196 210 141185 © f1s9 1191 1194 1200 202 1203 204 = :205 1.1 .186 6191 195.198.200.207 209.22 312 91. 1196 1200 1203 1205 1212 1215 1216 113 1195 1200 ‘204 1207 1209 1217 1220 ‘2a1 ea; 1908 #203). #207) 210) 219) #921 22d. 225) 1s 00's a0see 20a fais] aie) 22844721 939) 2.0 207.212.217.221 .224 232.236 1238 2:5 209 1215 1220 1224 1227 1236 «1240 1242 310 12a. 216 1221 1225 1228 1238 1242 1244 5.0 1212 1217 1222 1226 1230 1240 (244 246 10" Obet geadaiat 246 :21 245s 7937) 1230) 1 3401ct ade 407)FOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS 295 . H | q 1 i I i le i 1 ed I e o— 4 (a) Squate loaded area = O'ebd (©) Rectangle with loaded area = O'gbd For point O: use 4 x Oabe For point 0: use Oabe + Oede + 020+ Ofpa. For point 0° use O'ebd. For point O° use O‘abd i T ™ (6) Point outside loaded area = df. (d) Fos loaded ara: kiedgm For point 0: use Objh — Obce — For point O- Obce + Oag/+ Of Oagh + Oade. + 0lkj + Opt — Cade Figure 55 Method of using Bq, (58) t obtain verieal stress at pont indicated, In general use, and as in the following examples, itis convenient to rewrite Eq, (5-8) as Aq = gore (S-8a) where Ja is all terms to the right of qo in Eq. (5-8) as tabulated for selected values of M and Nin Table 5-1 ‘The Boussinesq method for obtaining the stress increase for foundation loads is very widely used for all types of soil masses (layered, etc.) despite it being specifically devel- oped for a semi-infinite, isotropic, homogeneous half-space. Computed stresses have been found to be in reasonable agreement with those few measured values that have been obtained to date. Example 5-3. Find the stress beneath the center (point O) and comer of Fig. $-Sa forthe following data: BXB=2mx2m_ Q= 80OKN Atcomer 2m Atcenter for z = 0.1,2,3, and 4m Solution. Its possible to use Table 5-1; however, program SMNMWEST (B-3) on your diskette is used here for convenience (Table 5-1 is used to check the programming).296 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 1, For the comer at 2 = 2m M=22=N=1 giving the table factor0.175 = ly 2, For the center B’ = 2/2 use 10. oe o © toa 2 os 3 0333 402s ¥ 1 os 0333 02s a= aomi75 = its = 834 1; Li = 22 = 1 and with m = 4 contributions; for M = NV ‘Ag, KPa 200 x 0.250% 4 = 200kPa* 200% 0.175% 4 = 140 200 x 0084%4 = 67 200 005 x4 = 36 200 x 0027 x4 = 22 rate = 0,89 = 200/22) = 200% a Example 5-4. Find te stress at point O of Fig. 5-Se ifthe loaded area is square, with dg = de = 4m,ad = 1m,and ed = 3m for qs ~ 400 kPa and depth z = 2m. ‘Solution. From the figure the stress I, is the sum of Obfh ~ Obce For oof Obce Oagh Oade 5-4 SPECIAL LOADING CASES FOR BOUSSINESQ SOLUTIONS = +0283 “o137 ~on7 +0131 +o010 Oagh + Oade, and m = 1 at On occasion the base may be loaded with a triangular or other type of load intensity. A number of solutions exist in the literature for these cases but should generally be used with caution if the integration is complicated. The integration to obtain Eq, (5-8) is substantial; however, that equation has been adequately checked (and with numerical integration using program SMBWVP on your program diskette) so it can be taken as correct. Pressure equations for triangular loadings (both vertical and lateral) are commonly in error so that using numerical procedures and superposition effects is generally recommended where possible. Equations for the cases of Fig. 5-6 have been presented by Vitone and Valsangkar (1986) seem to be correct since they give the same results as from numerical methods. For Fig. 5-64 we haveFOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS 297 (6) Two-way linear load variation imensity =4qi 4 = 46/2 Figure -6 Special Boussinesq loading cases, Always orient footing for B and Las shown (B may be > or < L). At point A, (5-9) At point C, Ag -10) 2 Bo i(___BL Rr (wr + Re For Fig. 5-6b (there is @ limitation on the intermediate comers that q, = qo/2), we have Biz 2 3) lis mal on ; BL ) sin ‘(ee + RD) a) ee At point A, RoR +42 ‘These equations can be checked by computing the stresses at A and C and summing, The sum should equal that at any depth z for a rectangular uniformly loaded base. This check is illustrated in Example 5-5.298 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Example 5-8. Given the footing example in the ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Divi- sion, vol. 110, No. 1, January 1984, p. 75 (which has an error), find the vertical pressure beneath the comers A and C at z = 10 ft. This footing is L = 8 ft x B = 6 ft with a linearly varying load from 0 at Ato 1 ksf at C across the 6-ft width, Akt 92 oT T 52 5 A] A = tu , Figure ES-5 Solution. We will use dhe Newark Ey. (5-8) and check it using Bys. (5-9) and (5-10). For the ‘Newmark method, draw the side view of the footing as shown in Fig. E5-5 and step the load inten- sity, so we have a series of strips loaded uniformly with the intensity fraction shown, The frst strip is 1 > 8 ft, the second 2 ft 8 ft, etc, so that we will have to subtract from strip after the first @ fraction ofthe previous strip load to obtain the net strip contribution tothe point at depth z = 10 ft ‘We will find the stresses at both A and Cand use the sum as a check since it can be readily seen thatOUNDATION SETTLEMENTS 299 the sum is exactly equivalent to a uniform load of 1 ksf on the footing. Note that J, = constant but Toad intensity varies going from A to C and from C to. A table will be convenient (again refer to Fig. E53) For pin (Ato) For polat (Cw) Stipe M= Be _N=te Te Mae Bea 1 m0 —~Wi0~—«wOaTx WRG = ORI vaa-0 = 006 % L025, ee ey 2 aay 312425 «nS oo12 & ey Ye ea 3 oars s2 00210 ~ ome x 7/30OR 0 = O01318 % Me 4 a0 000831 712 aosas8 = 001179 x sf3T0ON08 = OOn837 ss ano s 6 6.10 ano 0.1245 x 11/12—O.10111 = 0.01320 x 1/12-0.00919 = 0.00120 Total Ag = 0055564Ks¢ Total Ag = 0.069 13 kat Sorin, we have aA and © = 0.05556 + 006913 = 012467 af. Auf lado 1 ha ies Ags = Age = 01247 kat based fon Table Lat Af» 06,0) = 038. Using Ea (59), we have Bp ~ 1414: [Gandy substiaon of values we obtain ‘Mg = 0058 6st for pin A aed 106938 kl fr pit C at Example $6, Let us assume that we ae to redo Example 5-5. We donot have accesso the New- smark methodology of Eq. (5-9) but do have acess to Eq, (5-4). From the data given in Example 5.5 we have B = 6 ft; L = 8 ft; and depth 2 = 10 fe, We ae to use Fps units consistent with both the reference and Example 55. Solution. Refering to Fig 56a, we see the center ofthe resultant sat 2p 2 Loe xaJe-J-s-son y= b-S-40n 2-108 Ry = SPER TE = \EFHS IP = 11.489 8 (0 comer A) Re JP *H+ 1G = 10.954 ft (to comer C) Q = Blg,/2 = (6X8) 12 = 24kips300 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN From Eq, (5-4) we have de ~ Fee ‘Separating terms and computing 303/27, we find 22010 1459.29 ox = 11.459, 129/11.489° = 0.0572 ksf ec = 11459.129/10,9548 = 0.0727 ksi ‘The results from Example 5-5 and this example are next compared: Point Point Boussinesg(Ea.(S-4)} 005720727 kst Example 55 0.0566 0.0681, Difference 0016 0.0035 Refer to Table E5-6 for a complete comparison of pressure profiles. For the computational purist some of the differenees shown in Table ES-6 arc substantial, but may be adequate—even conservative—for design purposes in an engineering office—and certainly the point load equation Eg. (5-4) i the easiest of all methods to use. TABLE B56 Comparison of stress values from the Boussinesq point load equation (Eq. 5-4) and Eq. (5-4) converted to a numerical format using program SMBWVP Refer wo example Fig. ES-5 for location of points A and C- Points for Points for Boussinesq equation ‘numerical method aft A c 4 c 00 ‘0.0000 1.0000" 0.0000 1.0000" 20 ous, 0.0325 0.0879 01972 40 0.859 0.0943, oori0 0.1827 60 0.0649 0.1055 0.0730 o.ti68 80 0.0650 0.0907 0.0654 0.0895 100+ 0.0572 00727 0.0555 0.0691 120 0.0882 0.0375 0.0463 0.0586 140 0401 0.0859 0.0384 0.0437 160 0.0333, oo37t 0.0321 0.0385 180. 0.0279 0.0304 0.0770 0.0293 Depth used in Examples 5-5 and 5-6 mM A SIMPLE METHOD FOR ALL SPECIAL LOADING CASES. Example 5-6 illustrates that when the load pattern is difficult (for example, a base covered with an uneven pile of materialFounparion sermeenrs 301 producing a nonuniform load), the following procedure is adequate for design: 1. Locate the load resultant as best you can so critical footing locations such as corners, the center, and so forth can be located using x, y coordinates with respect to the load resultant. 2, For the case of depth z = 0, use the computed contact pressure as your best estimate. You must do this since z = 0 computes a value of qo = 0 or undefined (~) in Eq. (5-4). 3. For depth z > 0 compute the value R and use Eq. (5-4). For cases where R < z, Eq. (5-4) will not give very good values but may be about the best you can do. In Example 5-6 note that R is not much greater than z, but the answers compare quite well with the known, values. 4. Consider using Table E5-6 as a guide to increase proportionately your Boussinesq pres- sures, as computed by Eq, (5-4), to approximate more closely the “exact” pressure values, “obtained by the numerical method. For example you actually have an R = 2.11 m (which corresponds exactly to the 4.0 ft depth on Table E5-6, so no interpolation is required), and ‘you have a computed qaconp = 9.13 KPa at point A. The “corrected” (or at least more early correct) qe can be computed as follows: 4 Gem Que X daconp Where qm = vertical pressure from numerical method (most correct) vertical pressure from Boussinesq Eq. (5-4) Gob in our case above, we have 0.0710 40 = Gpagg X 9:13 = 154% 9.13 = 1413 kPa Pressures at other depth points would be similarly scaled. You might note that atthe depth ‘of 3.05 m (10 fi) the ratio is 0.0555/0.0572 = 0.970 at point A 5.5 WESTERGAARD’S METHOD FOR COMPUTING SOIL PRESSURES ‘When the soil mass consists of layered strata of fine and coarse materials, as beneath a road pavement, or alternating layers of clay and sand, some authorities are of the opinion the Westergaard (1938) equations give a better estimate ofthe stress 4. ‘The Westergaard equations, unlike those of Boussinesq, include Poisson's ratio 1, and the following is one of several forms given for a point load Q: =-2 va Fad fae OE oe where a = (1 ~ 24)(2 ~ 21) and other terms are the same as in the Boussinesq equation, ‘We can rewrite this equation as de = Shy (5-13) ory