CHAPTER 4
Magnetostatic
Fields
The preceding chapter introduced the concept of an electric field on the basis of
{he observation that an electri charge brought into the vicinity of other charges
experiences a force. It can similarly (experimentally) be demonstrated that a
Gurrent clement wil experience a force if itis brought into a region containing
another current. Such a region of forces is termed a region of magnetic field
Another source of a magnetic field is the permanent magnet Because the
‘magnetic field is measured by the forces between current-carrying conductors
Just asthe electri field is measured by forces between charges (Chap 3), we now
proceed to formulate the laws that will enable us to determine these foress and
hence the corresponding magnetic ficlds,
4a
Ampére’s Force Law
In Chap. 3 we saw how Coulomb's law ca
stationary distributions of charges, This
field.
Ampére’s law for forces between current-carrying conductors located in free.
ehace i similar to Coulomb's law for forces between stationary electric charges
Consider two current-carrying elements I, dl, and I, dl, separated by a distanes
Ras shown in Fig. 4.1 It was found experimentally by Ampére that there
seatal force of attraction or repulsion between the two currentecartying
Glements. In terms of the variables shown in Fig. 4.1, the force dF, on the
n be used to determine forees between
led us to the definition of the electric 158 Magnecostatic Fields
ne 7
FIGURE 41
Current elements a and kl, and their espective or
clement 1, dl, interacting with the element Is dls, is proportional to: fy dls,
1, dy, sin, sin 8, and 1/R?, Hence, in vector notation, we have
Tidl, XU dl; x ay) Lidl, x (dl, x (@—F)
R a IrarP
dF, = w
‘The second form of this equation gives a more general form in terms of the
position vectors r and r'. Vector ris directed from the origin to 1, dl, (the field
point) whereas 1’ is directed from the origin to 1; dl, (the source point). Both
forms are similar to Coulomb's iw for electric forces. In (1), the constant of
proportionality, a, in SI units is 1/4, where jo is defined as the permeability of
free space and has value of 4x x 10°" N/A* (or henry/meter, as we shall see
later). Hence, (1) becomes
_ tools dh, x Ua dly % ap)
a 4ak*
Ifthe current elements I, dl, and I, dl, belong to two current loops (Fig. 4.2),
then, from (2), the force F experienced by loop | as a result of the current in
loop 2is given by
obits ff dls x (dla x a9)
e * g, § R |
In the following example we now apply Ampére’s law, as given by (2), to find
the force between two straight conductors.
FIGURE 42
Two current-carrying loops.
159.41 Ampéres For
EXAMPLE 4.1 Two
‘each other, are separat
1 in the directions sho
of the conductors.
Solution Consider
line
where
Hence,
and
and since R*
The direction of I, dl,
Wires. Hence, the direct
FIGURE 43.
Example 4.1, Force exerted or 15941 Ampire's Force Law
EXAMPLE 4.1 Two infinitely long straight conductors, which are parallel to
each other, are separated by a distance b. The conductors carry currents 1, and |
J, in the directions shown in Fig. 43. Determine the mutual force per unit length
of the conductors
Solution Consider (2) term by term, Thi
from Fig. 43. |
Miz dly x ag] = dl, sin g = 1, dl, cos 6
where btano
Henee, dl, = b sec? 00
and
1, dl, ¢08 0 = bl, see 0
and since R? = b? sec? 0,
Irdlycos.0_ In
e
The direction of [3 dl, x ay is perpendicular to the plane containing the two
wites. Hence, the direction of 1, dl, x (I, dl; x a), that is, the direction of the
iGURE 43
Example 41 Force exerted on one current by another. 160. Magnetestatic Fields
force F,, is toward the other wire. In other words, the force is attractive rather
than repulsive, and the magnitude of this force is given by
pol Ta dly cos 0.40
cata 4nb
Integrating over the wire length gives
F,
"2 podta dly cos Odd
deh
Hol I dly
2b
‘Thus, the force per unit length is
Let us now return to (3) and express it in an alternative form. For this
Purpose, we use the vector identity A x (Bx C)= B(A+C)—C(A-B)
(Appendix A) to obtain
dN, X (aly % iy) = dlg(dl, “8g ~ ay(dl, dls) @
‘Substituting (4) in (3) yields
ae
Recalling from Chap. 3 that V(1/R) = (1/R?)ag, we may write the first integral
Sten fafa]
flees
This last result is obtained by applying Stokes’ theorem and using the result
(used repeatedly in Chap. 3) that the curl of the gradient of any scalar field is
zero: V x Vib = 0. Finally, from (5) and (6) we obtain
volta ALA,
6)
Holst ae
F, ae p Fidhval o
161 42 Magnetic Fa De
Proceeding in a similat
42° Magnetic Flux D
Let us recall Ampére’s fore
that
and (2) then becomes
where
The quantity B, is defined w
the current 1s. The units at
Dropping the subscript 2, w
Equation (13) is a matheme
Biot-Savart law states that
magnitude of the magnetic
Proportional to the product
dl, and the sine of the angle bs
the point P to the current ele,
to the square of the distance
Jaw further states that the dine
plane containing dl and P, th:
the direction of ag, Fig. 4.4)
cross product I dl'x ay, and 16142 Magnetic Fx Density and the Biot-Savart Law
Proceeding in a similar fashion, we may show that
42 Magnetic Flux Density and the Biot-Savart Law
Let us recall Ampére's force law as given by (2) and define a quantity dB such
that
= toladh, Xap
4B,
4eR
and (2) then becomes
where
‘The quantity Bz is defined as the magnetic flux density at a certain point due to
the current 1,. The units are webers per square meter (Wb/m*) or tesla (1),
Dropping the subscript 2, we may generalize (9) [or (12)] as
gl dl x ag
$n?
4B aa
Equation (13) is a mathematical form of the Biot-Savart law. In words, the
Biot-Savart law states that due to a differential current element 1 dl, the
magnitude of the magnetic flux density at a point P (Fig. 4.4) is directly
Proportional to the product of the current J, the length of the current element.
di, and the sine ofthe angle between the current element and the line PQ joining
the point P to the current element. But the flux density is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance R between the point and the current element. The
law further states that the direction of the magnetic flux density is normal to the
Plane containing dl and P, that is, into the paper. (Notice that the ficld is not in
the direction of ag, Fig. 44.) This normal is in the same direction as that of the
cross product Jdl x a, and the vectors dl, ty, and dB form a right-handed 162 Magnetostatc Fields
my
e
FIGURE 44
Geometry forthe Biot Savart law
coordinate system. The total magnetic flux density is obtained by integrating
(13) over the path of the current flow and is given by
gt dl x oy
B= [eine 04)
In (14) we chose the origin at Q (Fig. 44). In terms of an arbitrary choice of
origin (Fig. 4.5), (14) can also be written as
[Hol dl x (@—r)
= [eldixe 15
8 er eP 9
Application of the Biot Savart law is illustrated by the following examples.
FIGURE 45,
‘Magnetic thx density at P with reference to a general coordinate system, having the origin
2a
EXAMPLE 4.2 Determine the magnetic flux density, at point P, due to a very
Jong wire carrying a current I. The point P is at a distance r away from the
conductor,
Solution The geometry is shown in Fig. 4.6. According to (13) we have
Bol dl ny
4nR?
163 42 Magnetic Fux
FIGURE 4
Example 42 Magnetic fx de
‘We choose the origin
and a
bol deray
intr
Consequently
which is the required flux ¢ ery
the
| 163 42 Magnetic Fx Density and the Biot Savart Law
FIGURE 46
Example 42. Magnetic ux density due to straight conductor of infinite length
We choose the origin so that the point P is in the xy (
0) plane. In this case
+r
Hol dz rag
- sincea,xa,=0 and a
dre? + 2)
Consequently,
iol
B
which is the required flux density. 164 Magnetostatic Fields
EXAMPLE 4.3 Next we consider a strai
t wire of length { carrying a current
etic lux density Bat
1, shown in Fig, 4.7. The problem is to determine the ma
the point P.
FIGURE 47
Frample 4:3. Magnetic fx density due to a straight conductor of ite leh
Solution Comparing with the last example, we may again use (16) to
express the total flux density as
= [molt 0° a:
alco) }
-! [osha th
4er| Jar Jatt
pa Bel (OA ORY, tel acura ors
* anr\ap~ BP) ~ te
an
Notice that for an infinitely long wire, 2, =0 and 2; — 7, in which case (16)
‘becomes a special case of (17)
EXAMPLE 44 Determine the magnetic fux density at the center of a square
Joop of side I carrying a current I as shown in Fig. 48
165 42 Magnetic Fh
1
FIGURE 4
Example 44.4 square loop
Solution In this pn
we have to determine th
the preceding example,
© Sl? + 2B
The total flux density at
I ape
=a i =
* laa,
a Hod
at
B
Notice that up to this pe
current elements. The fo
distributions. In terms of § 165 42. Magnetic Flux Deity and the BiotSavart Law
FIGURE 4a
Example 44. A square loop of current.
Solution In this problem we make use of the gcometrical symmetry. Thus,
we have to determine the flux density due to each hall-side, Using the results of
the preceding example, we obtain
_ toll dea) x (—xa, + (Wi
ae + 2 PE
_ toll dx
~ Saf? + 2 P*
4B
sincea,xa,=0 and a, xa,=a,
The total ux density at the center then becomes
12 oll dx
a8 ae an
-e x fe sal 42. |
” Laas + dap *” ® Lup 20a.
3)
Notice that up to this point we have considered the Biot-Savart law for linear
current clements. The form (14) is also valid for surface current-density
distributions. In terms of surface current density J,, (14) is written as
i: | tod x and a 166. Magnetostatic Field
FIGURE 4)
Slstation of Amplre’s law: current enclosed by a closed path
43 Ampére’s Circuital Law
‘Consider a very long wire carrying a current J which was considered in Example
42. Evaluate the line integral §B-dl around a circular path of radius r. From
(16) we have
$e a= sega timoB= Bye, andl dla,
(20)
Notice from (20) that the line integral of a static magnetic flux density around
any given closed path must equal the product of ig and the total current
enclosed by that path. The preceding is a statement of Ampére’s circuital law.
Notice that this law is somewhat analogous to Gauss’ law of electrostatics.
Equation (20) may be more formally written as
Grat= [tds rot en
where J is the current density penetrating the surface s (Fig 49). Regarding the
line integral, (21) is valid regardless ofthe path of integration, 1 or 2 in Fig. 49,
fand the sign convention for the current is that the current is positive if it
advances like a right-hand screw rotated in the direction of the path of
integration. The directions shown in Fig. 49 correspond to the positive sense
Before considering the derivation of Ampére's crcuita law, let us consider an
example of its application and discover some new concepts
EXAMPLE 4.5 A straight conductor of eylindrical cross section and of radius a
carties a current J, which is uniformly distributed over the conductor cross
section. Using Ampére's circuital law, find the magnetic flux density within and
‘outside of the conductor,
167 43. Ampéres Cres
Solution Within th
from the axis of the con
b doa, and B= Ba,
f
The right-hand side of (
tol
Hence,
Outside the conductor
(@ <.) from the axis of
have
Obviously the result obta
reduction in the amount 0
compared with the deriv:
possible mainly because 0,
In the preceding discus
Recalling (11), we may wri
where 16743 Ampére's Cicutal Law
Solution Within the conductor, let us locate a point at a radius b (b Hy
Ly [dls x ay
hag Pre reer rere vPrerereren ereerereecreecececreeeeeeereceeeeeee Ee" a
168 Magnetostatic Feds 169 44 Ampines
In (23), Hy is defined as the magnetic field intensity whose units are Amperes per 44° Ampére's Ci
‘meter (A/m). Comparing (12) and (23), we find that ys ¢
eae ea We recall that inthe
and then in differenti
differential form, we |
transformation of An
form, we use the vecte
ot @s) curls defined in tem
In free space, the Biot-Savart law can be written either in terms of B or in area enclosed by the
terms of H. In terms of H, Ampére's circuital law can also be written for free
space by dividing (21) by Ho to yield
Or, dropping the subscripts
26) ;
| gn a= [sus
We might also refer to
zero (or shrinks to a
ireulation isa maximy
taken in the right-hand
seen that (28) is equiva
‘The results above have been obtained for free space in which we may use
cither B or H, converting from one form to the other by using (25). In Sec. 4.6 we
will investigate magnetic fields in magnetic materials. Ferrous materials such as
iron are common examples of such materials, We will find that magnetic
‘materials support bound currents, J,, in addition to free currents, J, which we
have previously considered. These bound currents give rise to magnetic dipoles
jjust as bound charges give rise to electric dipoles in dielectries. We will also find
that the source of H is free current, whereas the source of B (mote properly Ba)
is current of both types, J + J, In this context, an analogy may be drawn
between electric and magnetic lields, wherein E and Bare duals and D and H are
duals with regard to their sources. However, in terms of similarity in units, we
might infer a duality between E and H and between D and B.
In material media other than free space, we will find that B and H are also
‘lated, and this relationship will be written as
where V is the del oper
We may now apply t
” express Ampére's circuit,
Bee en For the sake of illustrate
where jis said to be the permeability of the material. However. for magnetic and (28) we get
materials, this relationship is typically more complicated than the relationship
between D and Ein dielectric materials. 1is typically a nonlinear relation (and, ia
in some cases, anisotropic), so that B = iH is only a symbolic relation, and jis
not a simple, scalar constant, For magnetic materials we will be able to modify
these previous results, derived for free space, in a rather straightforward
fashion
‘We will learn more about the magnetic properties of materials in See. 46, The
magnetic flux density may also be defined as the force on a conductor which is
carrying unit current and which is oriented at right angles to the flux lines.
Although from such a definition we do not gain any additional insight beyond
that contained in the Biot-Savart law or in Ampére's force law, this alternative
definition enables us to determine the force on a current-carrying conductor
located in a magnetic field, as we shall see in Sec. 49.
But As = dx dy in the lin
‘Combining (29) and (31) sper
cr)
es)
or in
x free
6)
y use
Lowe
ich as
gnetic
ch we
ipoles
ofind
Bis)
iawn
Hare
is, we
also
en
ignetic
onship
n(and,
nd is
modify
award
\6.The
ich is
x lines.
beyond
native
aductor
169.44 Ampére’s Ciccstal Law in Point Foc
44° Ampére’s Circuital Law in Point Form
‘We recall that in the last chapter Gauss’ law was frst stated in the integral form
and then in differential (or point) form. In order to go from the integral to the
differential form, we used the concept of divergence. To accomplish a similar
transformation of Ampére's circuital law from the integral to the differential
form, we usc the vector operation —curl, introduced in Chap. 2. Recall that the
curl is defined in terms of a line integral around an infinitesimal path and the
area enclosed by the path:
curl F = tim & Ea
(28)
We might also refer to (28) as the circulation per unit area as the area tends to
zero (ot shrinks to a point), the orientation of the area being such that the
Sirculation is a maximum, As in Ampére’s circuital law, the line integral in (28) is
taken in the right-hand sense for positive unit normal a,. In Chap. 2 it was also.
seen that (28) is equivalent to
=VxF 29)
Where V is the del operator defined in rect
lar coordinates as
‘We may now apply the definition of curl and its mathematical form (29) to
express Ampére'scircuital law given in (26) in terms of H in the differential form,
For the sake of illustration, we let the current be only 2-directed. Thus, from (26)
and (28) we get
cant = tim SHAE sg J ds G0)
ao Os seo As
dx dy in the limiting case (As +0), so that (30) becomes
Jade dy
(curl 1), =
ep
Combining (29) and (31) yields
wx, 170 Magnetos.atic Fields
and similarly for all other components of J. Therefore, in general we have
VxHed @3)
‘This expression is Ampére’s circuital law in the differential (or point) form.
EXAMPLE 4,6 Suppose we wish to produce @ magnetic field of the form
H-=K sinxa,, where K is a constant, Find the current density that will
produce this field,
Solution From (29) and (33) we find that
vx
aya = Ja,
Substituting the given H, above yields
d= K cos xa,
We will refer to Ampére’s circuital law as simply Ampére’s law in all of our
future discussions.
4.
Potentials in Magnetostatics
Tn our diseussions so far, we have defined the static magnetic field, identified the
sources that produce magnetic fields, and formulated mathematical expressions
that relate fields to sources, Thus, using the Biot-Savart law or Ampére’s law, we
were able to find the magnetic field at a point for a given current. We can also
use the coneept of “potentials” to evaluate the fields in a region. In fact, the use
of potential functions offers a very powerful method of solving both static and
dynamic electromagnetic field problems (as demonstrated in later chapters).
We were introduced earlier to the scalar potential to determine the static
electric field. As we will see in the next subsections, in determining the static
‘magnetic fields we may use both scalar and vector potentials. By scalar and
vector potentials, we mean that the potential could be respectively a scalar or a
vector quantity. Why both are feasible and where these are applicable are now
discussed
4.5.1 Magnetic Scalar Potential
Let us consider a source-free region, for which (33) becomes
vx
|
17145. Potentials in Me
This is a relationship
Therefore, we can expr
because
which is a general ident
and (35) we may write
‘The negative sign has t
electrostatic potential ¥,
From (36) we also have’
{In (36) and (37) # has t
ampere-turn (abbreviate,
rise or source of magneti
used for (37), and potenti
in the study of magnetic
To establish another
observe that over a close
where thy is the magnetic
magnetic flux lines if we
‘must all come out, mage
analogous to Gauss’ law
containing a charge, the «
physical magnetic quanti)
have pole pairs called nor
hhas either a north or a s
Equation (38) can b
divergence theorem. Thu:
1 This should be ear by d 171 45_ Potentials in Magnetostatcs
This is a relationship similar to the one we obtained for the electric field
Therefore, we can express the vector H as a gradient of a scalar quantity #,
because
Vx VF =0 @s)
which is a general identity for any scalar field (see Appendix A), Or from (34)
and (35) we may write
He -vF a)
‘The negative sign has been chosen in order to retain the similarity with the
electrostatic potential V. The quantity F is called the magnetic scalar potential
From (36) we also have?
F.-F, ~ [neat Gn
In (36) and (37) F has the dimension of amperes, For most practical cases, the
ampere-turn (abbreviated At) is frequently used as a unit for F. As a potential
fise or source of magnetic field, the term magnetomotive force, or mm, is often
used for (37), and potential drop is expressed as a reluctance drop, as we shall sce
in the study of magnetic circuits in See, 410.
To establish another useful property of the magnetic scalar potential, we
observe that over a closed surface s
Ya= Gf Beds =0 68)
Where iq is the magnetic flux. This relationship is true because in a region of
‘magnetic flux lines, if we consider a closed surface, the ux entering the surface
‘must all come out, magnetic monopoles being nonexistent. Recall that (38) is
analogous to Gauss’ law of electrostatics for a source-free region. In a region
containing a charge, the electric fux lines will terminate on the charge, But no
physical magnetic quantity is analogous to an isolated electric charge. Magnets
have pole pairs called north and south poles, and we do not have a magnet that
has either a north or a south pole.
Equation (38) can be expressed in the differential form by using the
divergence theorem. Thus, we have
Beis
[orp 0)
‘This shouldbe clear by direct analogy tothe electrostatic Bld in which 172 Magnetostatic Fields
In (39) the integrand must be zero, and dv not being zero, we must have
V-B=0 (40)
But, substituting (27) in (40) yields
=0 ab
and combining (36) and (41), we obtain
V-H=V-(-V5) = —v°F = 0
Or, finally,
VF =0 @)
This is Laplace's equation for the magnetic scalar potential in a source-free
region. As we shall sce in Chap. 10, in many problems of practical interest we
can first solve Laplace's equation for the potential function, from which we ean
then obiain the desired field quantitics by the use of the defining equation,
such as (36).
4.5.2 Magnetic Vector Potential
In the preceding discussion we considered a source-free region for which we
Gerived the magnetic scalar potential in order to study the magnetic field in the
region. We were able to derive (36) by virtue of (34), which is a curl equation
valid only if J = 0. If we now consider the divergence equation (40), which is
valid everywhere in a region (with or without sources), and use the vector
idemtity V-V x A= 0, we may write
B=VxA (3)
where A is known as the magnetic vector potential. Here, we wish to point out
that although A has a physical significance, we will be beticr off by considering
Aas a concept in the intermediate step in obtaining the magnetic field than by
wondering about the physical meaning of A. For the time being, we might as
well treat (43) as a mathematical operation,
Writing Ampére’s law in terms of B, we have
Vx B= jgd (4a)
in free space having a source of current density J. Now taking the curl of both
sides of (43), we get (soe Appendix A)
VxVxA=W(V-A)—VA=VxB 43)
173 45. Potentials
In (43) no restriction
constraint on A such
restriction for conver
with (43). Substitutin
which is Poisson's eq
Having established
current density J, and |
then use (43) to find th
following example,
EXAMPLE 47 Ina et
Am ke sinaxa,, wl
magnetic vector potent
density (A/m) of sinuso
Vxa
Therefore, knowing that
The magnetic vector f
obtain an integral relati
intuitively by considering
electric ficld and the stat
Potential V and the magn:
Also, V can be related to
Similar to (48) we let A be 4)
ath
17345 Potentials in Magretostatics
In (43) no restriction was placed on A, except that itis a vector. We may put a
constraint on A such that V+A = 0, Later we will see that itis not an arbitrary
restriction for convenience, rather, it ean be proved that V+ A = 0 is consistent
with (43), Substituting this condition in (45) and combining with (44) yields
VA =~ 16S (46)
which is Poisson's equation for the magnetic vector potential. Clearly, if the
region is source-free, J = 0, and (46) reduces to Laplace's equation
WA=0 “ I
Having established the fact that A satisfies (46) in free space containing a
‘current density J, and (47) in a current-free
then use (43) (o find the magnetic lux density, The process is illustrated by the
following example.
gion, we may solve these for A and
EXAMPLE 4.7 In a certain region the magnetic vector potential is given by
A= ke *sinaxa,, where k and 2 are constants, Find B, This form of a
magnetic vector potential may be produced by a current sheet having a linear
density (A/m) of sinusoidal va
Solution From (43) we have
Baa, + Ba, =
‘Therefore, knowing that 4, = ke™® sin ax, we obtain
B
= hae (in a2 a, + C08 2x a,)
The magnetic vector potential is related to the current by (46). We can also
obtain an integral relationship between A and J, We shall do this rather
intuitively by considering the similarities between equations governing the static
electric ficld and the static magnetic field, Thus, we observe that the electric
potential V and the magnetic vector potential A both satisfy Poisson's equation
Also, V can be related to a volume charge density by
f bed
ve {a8 48)
| src “)
Similar to (48) we let A be related to a current element by 1174 Magnetostatic Files
If this form of A is consistent with the definition of H obtained from the
Biot-Savart law, our conjecture that A is given by (49) is correct. We rewrite (23)
below:
a [ibe
Afr omni, ea (25) and (8)
Ba jgH=VxA 6D ;
[Notice that in (52) we used J de’ to indicate that J’ dv’ is located at some point
(2%, whereas the field His to be found at (x, y,) and Wis a derivative with
respect t0 (x, ys 2). Using the vector idemtity (Appendix A)
Vx GA)=VOXA+ OVA
E[[(@)areteo} 6
), because the partial derivative of a function of (x, 2) with
respect to (x, 952) is zero, which implies that (53) becomes
ne j ; I( 7) x of 4)
Because V(1/R) = —a/R?, (54) can also be written as
[t es
in (52) yields
ae
at: i agx J’
al, R
If" is a line current, we can write J’ dv’ = 1 dl and (55) then becomes,
Notice that (50) and (56) are identical, indicating that A is correctly defined
by (49).
17545. Poteneia
We may now 1
Ampére’s law, ang
Let us consider
where J’ = J(x, y,
‘identity (ee Appen
in (57) 10 obtain
Because Visa partial
Viz) Ved = 0 Thu
Now
Substituting (60) in (5
From the continuity eq
hich can be expres
theorem: ee) 53)
ith
(55)
(66)
ined
17545. Potentials in Magnetostatcs
We may now use the definition of the magnetic vector potential to derive
Ampére’s law, and also show that V+A = 0, as presumed in (45) and (46),
Let us consider the divergence of A first, We have, from (49),
vant vay 67)
where J! = Jv, y,2,A = A(x,
identity (see Appendix A)
and V = V(x, y, 2). We now use the vector
Vea) = AW + YWA
in (67 10 obtain
canto f[y.(y)
vane l Ip (va)
Because Vis a partial derivative with respect to (x,y,z) and
¥,2), Ved! = 0. Thus, (58) becomes
var he 8)
Jisa function of x’,
(59)
i
From the continuity equation, W'+J' = 0, and (61) reduces to
van-B[ (vd
Which can be expressed in the following form with the aid of the divergence
theorem:
hee od Sas
vA ~abee (62) 176 Magnetostatic Felds 177 45_ Potential in May,
Because the surface s must include all currents, there can be no current flow
through the surface. Consequently,
and finally,
VeA=0 (63)
To derive Ampére’s law reconsider (45) as
WoW x H = V(V+A)— VPA (4)
and (63) and (64) give
VAs 1 xt 6s) ricume 410
Returning now to the similarity between static electric and magnetic fields, (48) barele 40 ere
‘and (49), we recall that (48) satisfies Poisson's equation, Thus, by analogy, (49)
must also satisfy Poisson’ equation (in terms of different variables); that is,
If we assume that |< 7
(66)
‘Comparing (65) and (66) yields
VxH=J
From (43) we have
which is Ampére’s law.
Let us summarize the essence of this section. We first introduced the concepts
of magnetic scalar and vector potentials. We saw that in source-free regions both
potentials satisfy Laplace's equation, Both aid in the determination of magnetic
fields. The choice between the scalar and vector potentials depends on the
nature of the problem to be solved. In a source-frec region both potentials are
‘equally applicable, but ina region containing currents the use of vector potential
is necessary. For instance, the correct definition of the magnetic vector potent
led us to the derivation of Ampére’s circuital law.
and
Substituting r= >
some simplification)
EXAMPLE 4.8 Find the magnetic field, at a point P, produced by a curren
clement of length ! and carrying a current /, as shown in Fig. 4.10
Solution This problem can be solved in a number of ways, but we shall use
the magnetic vector potential A to find the fields. From (49) we have
bol a 1
Aan= tal ("de oy
Or, using the geometry
pol
tet 17745. Potential in Magnetostatis
FIGURE 4.10
Example 48. Magnetic feld due to a current element of finte length,
If we assume that | < r, then (67) becomes
(68)
From (43) we have |
@)
2a, |
and 2,-- 70)
Substituting r = /x? + y* + = in 68) and then using (69) and (70) yields (after
Some simplification)
dee (oP,
tl 2aats) o
Or, using the geometry of Fig. 4.10, (71) can be expressed as
Bm ot Sne sng a, + 005 6 a) =
Hi Holl sind
4a ** 178 Magnetosttic Fields
EXAMPLE 4.9 A circular loop of radius a is located in free space and carries a
‘current J. Determine the magnetic vector potential at a point P located at a
distance r from the center of the loop. Given: r > a. Also find the magnetic flux
density at P.
Solution Referring to Fig. 4.11, we pair off current elements at equal
‘Thus, from symmetry in spherical coordinates, A is only q-direoted at the point
P. From (49), therefore,
For simplicity we choose P in the xz plane, for which ¢ = 0. Then
dl, = di cos @ = add cos.
rb + ot — Dar, cos d
Hence, (72) becomes
cA)
gl (* cos $ de
an bol 7
Since r > a and r* > Jar, we may write
"cos 6)
Consequently, (73) becomes
AaB [Ei Seo tya, 00), caleulate the flux density and the magnetic energy stored
in the airgap of the magnetic circuit shown in Fig, 4.19a, which also shows the
various dimensions. Also, draw an electric equivalent circuit for the given
magnetic circuit 192 Magnecostatc Fields
| <= Nonmagnetic sleeve
|
som ~
Po
|
F wy
Example 4.14. (a) A magnetic cicuit and its electrical analogs (6) and (
193410. Magnetic Gr
Solution The elect
the given data, and (10
Airgap reluctance
Sleeve reluctance
Total reluctance
Airgap flux
Airgap flux density
Substituting jy = 4x x
‘The energy stored in the
So far we have consid
‘As mentioned in the begi
is the permanent magnet
given magnetic circuit wi
in Fig. 420. The retentio
4.20, which also shows |
curve measures the effect
Magnetic circuits cont
‘magnetic parts and airgi
permanent magnet depe
Furthermore, the operati
are determined by the p
magnetized before or afte
ing a permanent magnet,
and of the energy-produet 193 4.10 Magnetic Circuits
Solution The electrical analogs are shown in Figs. 4.19b and c. From these,
the given data, and (101) we have
5x 107°
Airgap reluctance Rano
2x 10-9
Hg * 2% 2% 10-4” Gy
Sleeve reluctance
0
Total reluctance &,
ss es Be
400,
Airgap flux 7
¥, 4000
4, 72x 4x 104
Airgap flux density
Substituting jlo = 4n x 10-7 H/m, we obtain
400 x 4x x 10-7
= 00898
Ted x 4 x 1974 ~ 0O8MKT
‘The energy stored in the airgap is thus
ip
Wp = 5 BE x volpy = 010128 J
Ho
So far we have considered only electric currents as sources of magnetic fields.
‘As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, another source of a magnetic field
is the permanent magnet, Permanent magnet excitation is generally chosen for a
given magnetic circuit with the aid of the second quadrant B-H curve, as shown
in Fig. 4.20. The retentvity, or remanent magnetism, is expressed by B, in Fig
420, which also shows the coercive force ~H,. The area OB,H,O under the
curve measures the effectiveness of the magnet.
Magnetic circuits containing permanent magnets usually also contain ferro-
‘magnetic parts and airgaps. In such a circuit, the operating condition of the
permanent magnet depends a great deal on the external magnetic circuit.
Furthermore, the operating point and subsequent performance of the magnet
are determined by the physical installation of the magnet and whether it is
‘magnetized before or after installation. In designing a magnetic circuit contain
‘ng a permanent magnet, we make use of the demagnetization curve (Fig. 4.20)
and of the energy-product curve, which isa plot of the product of B and H versus 194 Magnetostatic Files
FIGURE 420
Second-quadrant 6-1 characteristic ofa permanent magnet
H. A permanent magnet is generally most efficiently used when operated at :
conditions of B and HT that result in the maximum energy product. The concept ;
of leakage factor, which is the ratio of magnetic flux leaving the magnet to the ;
flux in the airgap, is very useful in designing magnetic circuits with permanent
‘magnets. But this factor is calculated by relatively cumbersome empirical
formulas that are not included here. In other words, we shall neglect leakage
fields in our discussions
If we neglect leakage, the magnetic circuit calculations are fairly straightfor-
ward. Consider a simple magnetic circuit containing a permanent magnet
(shown in Fig. 4.21) for which we have, from Ampére's law,
(105)
where Hf is the magnetic field intensity of the magnet, is the length of the
‘magnet, //, is the field intensity across the airgap, I, is the length of the airgap,
and §; is the magnetic potential drop in the iron portion of the circuit, The
‘magnet dimensions are found from (108) and from
Ua =BA= BA, (206)
sectional area
ies. For a first,
where B isthe flux density of the magnet and where A is the cross-
of the magnet. Similarly, B, and 4, correspond to airgap quanti
195410 Magn
Permanent magnet,
FIGURE 4.21
Example 4:15, A mag,
approximation, ,
terms of B, (105) a
which is plotted as
Neglecting the ef
in terms of the airg,
which is obtained
mentioned earlier, t1
when the energy pros
magnet-size calculati
EXAMPLE 4.15 The
having the B-H char,
200m, A = 3.cm?
density and the ene
reluctance of iron,
Solution From (
5-—e
dex at
ept
the
ent
eal
age
106)
area
frst
195 410 Magnetic Greuits
tn a
a
i i 4 4
Saar
Fa
Example 4.15. A magnetic circuit witha permanent magnet.
approximation, §, in (105) may be generally neglected. Thus, solving for H in
terms of B, (105) and (106) yield
Al, 7
~ Are 107)
which is plotted as the straight line OP in Fig, 420.
Neglecting the effect of leakage, the volume Vof the magnet can be expressed
in terms of the airgap dimensions as
BAA,
y — Bally 108:
va eA, (108)
which is obtained by combining (105) to (107), and with
mentioned earlier, the volume of the magnet is a minimum for a given airgap
when the energy product BH isa maximum. We now illustrate the procedure for
‘magnet-size calculations by the following example.
EXAMPLE 415 The magnetic circuit of Fig, 4.21 uses an alnico V magnet
having the B-H characteristic shown in Fig. 422. The various dimensions are:
10om, A = 3.em?, i, = 0.Sem, and 4, = 2.5 em?, Determine the airgap Mux
density and the energy product of the magnet. Neglect leakage and the
reluctance of iron.
Solution From (107)
Gx 10+ x 05 x 10-8
Bm 10-7 DS 10 x 20 x 10?
-23873B 196. Magnetostatc Fields
Nm 50am 90.000 x Tao Toco
FIGURE 4.22
Example 4:15, Demagnetization curve for an alco V magnet
This is plotted as the line OP in Fig, 4.22, from which B=0975T and
H = 23300 Aum.
Energy product 0975 x 23,300 = 22,717
Airgap flux iy = BA = 0975 x 3 x 10-4 = 29.25 mWb
Se
33 10
Lot
Airgap flux densi
Two comments of practical importance relating to the preceding calculations
are in order. First, the B-H characteristics of permanent magnets available from
‘commercial manufacturers are invariably in centimeter-gram-second (cgs) units;
that is, Bis expressed in gauss (G) and H in oersted (Oe). The conversion to ST
units is given by
B: IT =10°G
H: 1 Af = 0,004n Oc
Second, in practical calculations it is important to account for leakage and
fringing factors. Formulas for determining these factors are available in specifi-
197 411 tncictance
| a
_
FacuRE 4.23,
Frample 4.15, A better att
cation and design broet
tion it may be shown th
Fig. 423 in that the lea
4.11 Inductance
‘The concept of inductay
shows a magnetic cire
Permeability «Let an.
According to the laws of
core, as shown in Fig. ¢
Thus, we define the quay
FIGURE 4.24
‘A magnetic circuit with en Ne 1974.11 Inductance
trom t
Magnet
FIGURE 4.23,
xample 4:15. A better ut
ion of the magnet inthe circuit of Fig, 421
cation and design brochures supplied by magnet manufacturers, In this connec-
tion it may be shown that the magnet of Fig. 4.21 is better utilized if located as in
Fig. 4.23 in that the leakage is reduced.
4.11 Inductance
| ‘The concept of inductance can be understood by referring to Fig, 4.24, which
Ff | shows a magnetic circuit of mean length 1, area of cross section 4, and
| permeability, Let an N-turn col be woud on tis cove and cary a curren
According tothe laws ofmagnetic circuits, fit would be established Inthe
core, as showa in Fig, 424. Notice that the ux fins “ink” the Narn eo
Thus, we define the quantity fx inkage 2 by
08)
ons
its
osi
ie tt
a FIGURE 4.24
est
A magnetic cicuit with an N-turn col, 198 Magnetostatic Fields
Inductance L of the coil is then defined as flux linkage per ampere; that is,
Nn
cof
(110)
Using (110) in conjunction with (100), (101), and (104), we can readily veri
the inductance of the N-turn coil is,
that
NPA
i
#
Now consider the magnetic toroid around which are wound n distinct coils
electrically isolated from cach other, as shown in Fig. 4.25, The coils are linked
‘magnetically by the flux yj, Some portion of which links each of the coils. A
number of inductances can be defined for this system:
ffux Linking the ith coil due to the current in the jth coil
current in the jth coil
Mathematically, this can be stated as
cA mis
4
Ly
at)
Where k is the portion of the flux due to coil that links coil i and is known as the
coupling coefficient. By definition, its maximum value is 1.0. A value of k less
FIGURE 425,
Coils (numbered 1,2... poy A) Wound on a tori,
199427 Inductance
than 1.0 is due to leak
coil j. We can now se¢
inductance is termed ;
‘mutual inductance betw
to be symmetrical; tha
From the preceding:
ficld quantities. Thus, a
Circuit is obtained by
corresponding energy st
by considering the conf
First, we know from
inductance L, carrying ¢
Now, from (91) the same
But, for the given probler
or
And the volume of the core
Therefore, (113) to (116) ys
or 199411 Inductance
than 1.0 is due to leakage flux in the regions between the location of coil i and
coil j. We can now see that when the two subscripts in (111) ate identical, the
inductance is termed self-inductance; when different, the inductance is termed
‘mutual inductance between coils j and j. Mutual inductances will later be shown
to be symmetrical; that is,
‘ a2)
From the preceding remarks, itis clear that inductance is related to magnetic
field quantities. Thus, an alternative method of determining the inductance of a
circuit is obtained by equating the energy stored in the inductance to the
corresponding energy stored in the magnetic field, This point can be illustrated
by considering the configuration of Fig, 4.24
First, we know from electric circuit theory that W, the energy stored in an
inductance L, carrying a current I, is given by
any
cy
But, for the given problem,
Heal = (n= Nr
™
or = as)
T
and the volume of the core is
dala (16)
‘Therefore, (113) to (116) y 200. Magretostatic Fields
EXAMPLE 4.16 Determine the inductance of a toroid shown in Fig, 4.24. The
‘mean radius of the toroid is rand its cross-sectional area is A. Assume a uniform
flux density within the toroid,
Solution ‘The flux linkage is
A= Mig = NBA
I NI
and BA ad
‘Thus
AN?
i EXAMPLE 4.17 | We recall from Chap. 3 that capacitance can be determined by
/ cvalting the energy stored inthe electric fi, In tis example we illustrate the
: energy-storage method of finding the inductance of a coaxial cable, per unit
! length, shown in Fig. 4.26
Solution Consider a cable of infinite length. It follows from Ampére’s law
that
} I
Was acre
! 0° er
and the magnetic energy stored per uait of length is
Hol? 6
ol? b
w, SP = a [G29 ine
©
FIGURE 4.26
fxample 4.17, A coasial cable carrying a curtent £
201411 Induct
‘Consequently, the
It can be easily v
‘method used in E}
An alternative +
for filamentary e
‘composed of filam
tance between thes:
Of the current in Io
0 that the mutual |
‘The magnetic flux
Potential via (43):
Substituting (119) into
Using Stokes’ theorem
‘The vector magnetic po 201441 Inductance
Consequently, the per-unit-length inductance is
vane ym
It can be easily verified that the same result is obtained by the flux-linkage
method used in Example 4.16.
An alternative method of computing inductances that is particularly useful
for filamentary conductors is the Neumann formula, Consider two loops
composed of filamentary conductors, as shown in Fig. 4.2. The mutual induc-
tance between these loops is defined by (111). The flux linking loop 2 as a result
of the current in loop 1 is,
Yat f, By, “ds; ay
so that the mutual inductance between the two loops becomes
(1s)
be written in terms of the magnetic vector
‘The magnetic flux density ca
potential via (43):
By, =Vx An (19)
Substituting (119) into (117) gives
Yoar = | (Vx Ags) ds, (120)
Using Stokes" theorem gives
Yas = ip Aaivdl
any
‘The vector magnetic potenti 202 Maypetostatc Fields oa 0
where Roy isthe distance between dl and dl. Substituting (122) into (121) and eee
using (118) gives the Neumann formula ig that D
This clearly shows that La, = Ly. Implictly it has been assumed (1) that J, is
the same at all points around loop 1 and (2) that wis a scalar (isotropic medium)
and independent of position (homogencous medium).
(123)
Saaecm
aa
Thus
EXAMPLE 418 Consider two coaxial loops composed of filamentary condue |
tors, as shown in Fig. 4.27. Determine the mutual inductance between the loops. t
‘Assume that the spacing between the loops, D, is much larger than the loop
radii
Solution ‘The magnetic vector potential at a point P on the second loop due
to the current f, in the first loop is (see Example 49)
4.12 Mechai
Discuss
In Sec. 49 we:
: carrying conduc
formulated the L
a mechanical fo:
shown in Figs. 4
causes them to a
and reducing th
reluctance motor
stator, Quantital
procedure simila:
energy requires ¢
Expressed mathe
AGURE 427
‘Example 418. Determining inductance using the magnetic vector potenti 203412 Mechanical Forces of Electromagnetic Origin: A Further Discussion
‘Assuming that D> r2, rj, we have R~ D, or
—Morirals
1 4p)
‘Thus
4.12. Mechanical Forces of Electromagnetic Origin: A Further
Discussion
In Sec. 49 we saw that interactions between magnetic fields and current-
carrying conductors result in the production of mechanical forces. Thus, we
formulated the Lorentz force equation. Another magnetic field effect resulting in
‘a mechanical force is alignment of flux lines. Examples of “alignment” are
shown in Figs, 4.28a and b. In Fig, 4.28a the force on the ferromagnetic pieces
‘causes them to align with the flux lines, thus shortening the magnetic flux path
‘and reducing the reluctance. Figure 4285 shows an clementary form of a
reluctance motor, in which the force tends to align the rotor axis with that of the
stator. Quantitative evaluation of such a force can be made by following a
procedure similar to that of See, 3.13. Thus, for « lossless system, conservation of
‘energy requires that
Input mechanical increase
clectrie= work + in stored
energy done=—= energy
Expressed mathematically, this is
Idk =F, dx + dW «aay 204 Magnetostatic Fels
Vaan
apni fe ies
Satoranis
stator
Rotor ses
o
FIGURE 428,
‘Aigrement of magnetic flux ines to produce a force la) between two ferromagnetic pieces
and (bn a reluctance motor
where dW, is the increase in magnetic stored energy, 1d/ is the input electric
‘energy, and F, is the force of electromagnetic origin. I we choose the current I to
be the independent variable, then
A
i)
Guta
or a
And Wa = Wall. x)
Wy , OW
or aig = He at + Fe de (126)
205 412 Machani
Substituting (125) +
F, dx
Because di and dx a
the coefficient of dl
which is the force
example,
EXAMPLE 4:19 Ca
4.190.
Solution First,
‘Then, as in Example
Indueta
Now,
and
Substituting these in ¢ pies
electric
rent [to
(125)
205 412 Mechanical Forces of Electromagnetic Origin: A Further Discussion
Substituting (125) and (126) in (124) yields
Because di and dv are arbitrary, F, must be independent of these
the coefficient of di in (127) must be zero, and we finally have
Wal, 2) PHL
Yall), OL)
(128)
which is the force equation. Its application is illustrated by the following
example,
EXAMPLE 4.19 Calculate the foree on the solenoid plunger shown in Fig.
4194,
Solution Firs, let the plunger be at a distance x mm away from the core
‘Then, as in Example 4.14,
_ lox
Bie
x 10-9 0
ox 2x20 10% dy
Se +10
aie
i?
Now,
fou
and Tdj= Tab
Substituting these in (128) yields 206 Magnetostatic Fields
For the given data, therefore,
F,
2d (4x x 10%)
pw Ens)
amex [a oF
For x= 5 mm, we finally obtain
“a8
where the negative sign indicates that the force tends to decrease x.
4.13 summary
In this chapter we considered the production of static magnetic fields by electric
currents and permanent magnets. Similarities with clectrostatic fields were
shown as far as possible, We introduced the concept of magnetic fields through
Ampére’s force law. On this basis, we formulated the Biot-Savart law. We
studied Ampére's circuital law and saw that in certain cases the field calculations
‘are much simpler by Ampére’s law than by the Biot-Savart law. Next, we
‘considered the use of potential functions, such as the magnetic scalar and vector
potentials, in evaluating magnetic fields. We saw that in source-frec regions both
potentials satisfy Laplace's equation. With the aid of the definition of the
‘magnetic vector potential, we derived Ampére’s circuital law. We discussed the
boundary conditions for magnetic fields, and we briefly discussed certain
macroscopic properties of magnetic materials. In this connection, we introduced
properties such as magnetic polarization, susceptibility, and relative permeabi-
lity, Finally, we discussed the topics of force and energy in magnetic fields. We
introduced the idea of a magnetic circuit, and magnetic circuit calculations were
Presented for magnetic circuits having ferromagnetic materials, permanent
‘magnets, and air. Inductance was defined, various methods of its evaluation
Were presented, the relationship between the field concept H and the circuit
concept L was shown, and an alternative form of force production in a magnetic
field was considered.
Problems
41 A square loop measuring 1.5 by 1.8 m carries a 75-A steady current. Choose the
coordinates to locate the loop in the x7 plane, the origin coinciding with a corner
of the square. Calculate the B fleld at a point on the y axis 0,35 m from the origin.
207. Problems
42 Using the E
of a circula
the axis) fc
43° Asemicireu
the magnet
44 A Pleriglass
The disk ie
electric char
Determine
45 From Prob,
loop is given
where = eu
between the «
Determine 2,,
446 Within a cli
decreases with
Determine the
47 Given
Within a solid
conductor
48° A rectangular ie
current ass}
isthe total mag
FIGURE Psa ete
isin
207
43
44
“7
48
Probes
Using the Biot-Savart law, find the magnetic field intensity Hata point on the axis
ofa circular loop of radius a carrying a current 7. The poin is atx distance h (on.
the axis) from the center of the loop.
AA semicircular loop of radius R cartes a current I. The loop is located in air. Find
‘the magnetic field intensity and the magnetic Fux density atthe center of the loop,
A plexiglass disk of eadius R is charged with a uniform surface charge density p,
‘The diskis rotated ata constant speed of NV s/min. Thus, we have circular loops of
ctric charges in motion, which may be considered to be loops of currents
Determine the magnetic field intensity at the center ofthe loop.
From Prob, 4-2 we find that the B field atthe axis of a current-carrying cireular
loop is given by
gla?
2+ ae
where = current in the loop and where 2 =loop radius and is the dist
between the center of the loop and a point located at the atis of the loop.
Determine B
Within a cylindrical conductor of radius a, the curtent density exponentially
decreases with the radius such that J = Ae™",, where A and k are constants,
Determi
c the resulting magnetic fcld intensity everywhere
Given
Within a solid conductor of radius a, determine the current density within the
conductor
AA rectangular loop i placed in the feld of a very long straight conductor eartying
‘current /, as shown in Fig. P48, which also shows the various dimensions, What
is the total magnetic flux passing through the loop?
FIGURE P48 208 Magnetostaic Fields
49° For the air-core toroid shown in Fig. P49,
ff
FIGURE P49
{a) determine the core flux
(b) Ifthe core flux density is assumed to be uniform ancl equal to its value at
the arithmetic mean radius, what percent error would be made in the
‘computation of the core flux by this approximation as compared with the
‘answer to part (a)?
(@) Ithe geometric instead of arithmetic mean radius were used, calculate the
percent error, Illustrate the answers to parts (b) and (@) for r/ry = 2.
4-10 Alternating current flows through a coaxial cable, the inner conductor of which is
solid and is of radius a, Because of the skin effet ((o be discussed in Chaps. 6 and
7) the current-density distribution within the conductor is nonuniform and may
be approximated by J?) = Jge"", where Jp isthe current density atthe surface
‘of the conductor. The return current is through the outer conductor, which
consists ofan infinitely thin eylindreal shell of radius b, Determine the magnetic
field intensity everywhere,
4411 The operation of a magnetic compass depends on the presence of the earth's
‘magnetic field, At a certain location the tangential component of the earth's
magnetic field is 0.02 mT, and this location is under a 345-KV transmission line
carrying a 1000-A current. If the height of the line is 8m, calculate the approxi
‘mate net field affecting the reading of the compass. Consider the extreme case in
‘which the feld of the transmission line is inthe same direction as the direction of
the tangential component of the earth's magnetic field
4-12 An annular eyindrical space has an axial length of land inner and outer radi ofr
‘and r,. The magnetic vector potential inthis region is
= kl ra,
where kis a constant, Determine the total magnetic flux in the annular space.
yy under the poe (in the airgap)
‘As shown in Fig. P413, the magnetic field inter
of an electric motor is given by
Or in2oa, Alm
Hu
209 Problems
FIGURE Pa.13
The axial length of
90° at the axis of ro
414 Within a estndrical
density Jy A/m?, is
field intensity wihir
that obtained from ;
4415. In Prob. 4.14 we ob
potential is valid»
Hod? + Pa)
4416 Find the magneto ve
shown in Fig, P46
(2) Express Aint
curcent Fin
(6) Express A int
(©) Find thefluxe
in the y direct 209 Problems
fl Fhe
LiL
(rm,
‘iran
Ea FIGURE 4.13 |
t a ‘The axial length of the pole is 10 em, and the are of the pole subtends an angle of |
f 90" at the axis of rotation of the motor. Calculate the Mux per pole. |
Bie 4414 Within a eylindrieal conduetor the magnetic vector potential, due to a current of
f density Jy A/m®, is given by A ~ — (ugJp/4) (x? + y")a,- Obtain the magnetic
Ei. field intensity within the conductor, and verify that the result is consistent wit
‘that obtained from Ampére’s law
jand |
a ee eae et ae ee
E potential is valid. Alternatively, show that given the vector potential [A=
Ee Pe nels lia alan in that tees Pos cgution i
Es 4506 Tk enantio ple sch nay lang ni
sows aie Pala
kas |
a
ES
ES
ase in }
beer |
|
iiofr, 1
a
|
a Naa Aa er ir aL NN
|
}
|
| current J in the 2 direction.
(b) Express A in the hole in rectangular coordinates
(©) Find the lux density inthe hole, and show that Bis uniform and isentirely
in the y direction, 210. Magnetostatc Fields
4.17 ‘The magnetic vector potential in a region in space is given by
Amer? cos xa + (1+ sin,
Calculate the magnetic Dux density at the origin
finite blocks are separated from each other by &
toeach
4418 Two infinitely permeable semi-
sistance g the planes constituting the surfaces ofthe blocks being parallel
ther (Fig. Pd.18), With reference to the coordinates shown, the magnetic vector
potential within the airgap is given by
Ae sinh y) sin x
fy cosh y+
Evaluate the constants, and k,,and determine the B field at the center of the
airgap if B, = 08 Wb at y=0.
FIGURE 418
4:19 Magnetic flax lines enter at an angle of 45" from free space into 2 ferromagnetic
region having a relative permeability 20zo, Determine the angle at which the fux
lines would emerge from the interface.
4420 Sometimes the B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material can be expressed by the
Frovlich equation B = ail) + H),wherea and b are constants of the material In
1 particular ease, a= ST and b = 100 A/m. A magnetic cireuit consists of two
parts: lengths f, and f,, and respective cross-sectional areas A, and A. If
Mt, = 2A, = 2Sem? and 21, = lp = 25 m, and ifthe magnetic circuit carries an
‘mmf of 1000 At, calculate the flux through the circuit.
4.21 A composite magnetic circuit of varying eros section, shown in Fig, P4214, made
i of air and iron has the BH characteristic of Fig, P4.21b. Given: NV = 100 turns;
1,
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