CHAPTER 5 CO Maxwell's Equations The study of static electric ficlds in Chap. 3 pertained to the fields due to Stationary charge distributions, although the concept of a current as charge ‘movement was briefly considered. In Chap. 4 we studied static magnetic helds duc to a steady movement of charge (a steady current). We will now consider a ‘more general case of fcids resulting from charge movement in which the charge movement (and the resulting fields) may vary with time. This will lead to the Propagation of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves (discussed in subsequent chapters) We found in Chap. 3 that stationary distributions of charge, p, produce only {wo of the four basic field vectors, E and D. In Chap. 4 we observed that the steady movement of charge, current density J, resulted in the other two basic Nectors, H and B. The equations governing these sutic field veetors were found to be:t Gea-n vuseo ty vas [sous VxH=J (iby Deds V-D=p (te) fae =o v-B=0 aa 1 We will we the symbol» to denote volume charge density unless spected otherwise,OO 216 Maxwells Equations Note that for the static case, each of the field vectors appears in only one equation; thus, the field vectors K and D and the field vectors H and B are uncoupled sets. Ifa 0, then J = oF and Eq. (1b) becomes V x H = J = oF. In this case, H and E appear (o be coupled. However, a static electric field in a region with ¢ # 0 will cause a current to flow, and this current will then produce 4 magnetic field. Nevertheless, the static electric field can be completely determined from the static charge distribution, and the magnetic field is a consequence. For time-varying fields, we will find that the field vectors are always coupled and that each one affects the others In this chapter we will find that, in the general case of time-varying charge movement, the equations of the Static field must be modified. These field equations for the general time-varying ease are collectively known as Maxwell's equations after James Clerk Maxwell, « Scotish physicst und mathematician of the 1800s, who is credited with their compilation. Actually, Maxwell did not “discover” these equations. He compiled the known resulls obtained by Ampére, Faraday, Gauss, Coulomb, and others and made an important addition to one of these results (Ampére’s law). ‘We will ind that certain properties of the static field are no longer true when the field is time-varying For example, it was found in Chap. 3 that the electrostatic field is conservative; that i, the line integral of E around any closed path is zero, as shown in (1a). This permitted the unique definition of voltage as the line integral of E-between two points independent ofthe path taken. We will find thatthe time-varying electric fel is no longer necessarily conservative and that voltage cannot, in general, be uniquely defined in a fashion similar to the static eas. Similar properties ofthe magnetostatic field—in particular, Ampére's Taw given in (15) —must also be modified. However, these modifications are not out benefit since they lead to many interesting and useful phenomena and devices that are not possible with static fields. These will be discussed in subsequent chapters, We will find in Chap. 6 that Maxwell's equations prediet the transmission of energy in the form of waves. Means of guiding oF focusing electromagnetic waves will be considered in Chap. 7 ("Transmission Lines"), Chap. 8 ¢* Waveguides”), and Chap. 9 (“Antennas”). 5.1. Maxwell's Equations We will use a boldface seript notation for the time-varying field vectors: (x,y 2.0) D(X, ¥, 2, 0, ICY, ¥, 2, 2), aNd BL, yz, £). The argument lists of these ‘vectors include the dependence on time ¢ as well as the spatial dependence in terms of rectangular coordinate system variables x, y, and 2. Similar notations ‘may be used for other coordinate systems. The static field vectors are denoted in the previous fashion as nonscript quantities. Table 5.1 summarizes the notation 207 51 Maxwells TABLE 5.1 Quantity Electric fed intensity Electr fux density Magnetic field intensity Magnetie ux density Current density Volume ch den 4 The symibel p will be 5.1.1 Faraday's In Chap. 3 we foun charge and terminate ¢ this section we will fin electric field and that t! varying fields it is no 1 end on charges, We found in Chap. « In 1831 Michael Far Produces a current in @ circular loop of wire an surface bounded by the the wire loop, and thi magnetic field, that I the reverse were true, that aids, which woul and so on. Thus, cons, ‘magnetic flux penetratit in the loop, and this en ig. 5.1b, this emt will terminals. This relation direction of the inducee ccurrent in the closed loc original magnetic field Faraday’s law relates penetrating the loop as 1 Faraday actually observe, toroid produces a defection of From this we infer tht exrentbare Ein ina etely nage field wells anof Snot d by tant when i the losed igeas tewill eand tothe pire’s renot aand wd in redict cusing ines"), ectors these enoe in tations oved in nation. 217 5.1 Mawwlls Equations TABLE 5:1 Quantity Time-Varying Field Static Field SU Units Electric field intensity x,y, ex, y vim Electric ux density De», Cien* Magnetic field intensity HG, x2) Alm Magnetic flux density Bex, y,2) Whim? or T Current density Sem ye) Alm? Volume charge density oh, ¥.2) Chm? +The symbol p willbe used to denote Both state nd time-varying charge denis 5.1.1 Faraday's Law In Chap. 3 we found that the electrostatic field fines originate from positive charge and terminate on negative charge and thus do not close on themselves. In this section we will find that a time-varying magnetic field will also produce an clectric field and that these electric field lines close on themselves, Thus, for time- varying fields itis no longer correct to say that all electric field lines begin and. end on charges. ‘We found in Chap. 4 that a steady electric current produces a magnetic field. In 1831 Michael Faraday observed that a time-varying magnetic field also produces a current in a closed loop of wire. Consider Fig. 5.14, which shows a circular loop of wire and a time-varying magnetic ficld $8 that penetrates the flat surface bounded by the loop. The changing magnetic fied induces a current fin the wire loop, and this current has a direction such that it induces another ‘magnetic field 8, that tends to oppose the change in the original magnetic field. Ifthe reverse were true, the induced current would induce a magnetic field Bing that aids, which would induce an additional current that would further aid 3s, and so on. Thus, conservation of energy would not result, The time-varying ‘magnetic flux penetrating the loop is said to induce an electromotive force (emf) in the loop, and this emf drives the current. If we open the loop as shown in Fig. 5.16, this emf will appear in the form of a separation of charge at the terminals. This relationship between the direction of the induced emf and the direction of the induced current is referred to as Lem’ aw; the emf induces a current in the closed loop, whose magnetic field then opposes the change in the original magnetic ficld Faraday’s law relates this emf to the rate of change of the magnetic UX Yj, penetrating the loop as @ {Faraday actually observed that a sudden interruption of the magnetic ed linking the cols of toroid produces edefiscton ofa galvancmetervolttr) attached tothe ends ofthe toro wires From this we infer that current would be passed through a oad attached to these ends ofthe wie,218 Maxwells Equations cdecresing) nansressae) @ = ba Lr ‘The rms in Faraday la ate ent= fea ® and Ve (>. ds @ .nd the loop and the open surface sis bounded by c. Thus, ‘ frend [sa 6 ‘Although stated for the specific case of a wire loop, Faraday’s law applies to more general contours. The contour c and surface s are related as shown in Fig 52. Anillustrative example isto think of eas the mouth of a balloon and sas the Surface area of that balloon, As we inflate the balloon, the surface area changes but the contour ¢ remains the same. The total magnetic flux penetrating the surface s remains the same regardless of its shape so long as the contour ¢ remains fixed. In addition, we need to fix the direction of this open surface s. This is done with the right-hand rule, If we place the fingers of our right hand in the the direction of our thumb will define the direction of ds where contour cis arour Faraday’s law becomes direction of contour ¢, i I 21951 Mawalls FIGURE 52 Muastration ofthe relat lave, or, equivalently, the restriction on the siz, closed contour that arbitrary, ¢ and s ar Faraday’s law inc surface s produces (i exert a force on any not have to be prese time-varying magnet as the wire loop) but with an infinitesima exerts a force on the the terminals of the g we find that the only along the conductin across the terminals The direction of tt the following manner the COmtOUF, Ye is i negative—whereby & and of the right-han¢ Wn is decreasing with in the direction of thy with Lenz’ law by in electric field producehis 219-5 Manvel’ Equations FIGURE 52 Iustration ofthe relationship between the contour c and the open surfaces in Faraday's law of, equivalently, the unit normal to the surface, a,, where ds = ds a,, There is no restriction on the size or shape of the contour or surface. However, cmust be the closed contour that bounds the open surface s; thus, even though either one is arbitrary, ¢ and s are intimately related. Faraday’s law indicates that a time-varying magnetic field & penetrating a surface s produces (induces) an electric field 6 along a closed contour c that will exert a force on any charges q that may be present along the contour. Charges do not have to be present along c; an electric field & is nevertheless the result of a time-varying magnetic field ®, Therefore, ¢ need not be a physical contour (such as the wire loop) but may be an imaginary contour. In the case of the wire loop With an infinitesimal gap, as shown in Fig. 5.1D, this induced electric field & exerts a force on the free electrons of the wire, resulting in a charge separation at the terminals of the gap. Integrating (3) around the wire loop and across the gap, we find that the only contribution is across the gap since the total electric field along the conducting wites is essentially zero. Thus, the induced emf appears across the terminals of the gap as a separation of charge. The direction of the induced emf or induced electric field & can be obtained in the following manner. For a contour ¢ (physical or imaginary), ifthe fux linking the contour, Yip, is increasing with time, —di//dt is negative; thus, the emf is nnegative—whereby & is opposite the direction of the contour c [as shown by (5)] and of the right-hand rule relating contour ¢ and surface s. On the other hand, if Yn is decreasing with time, —dyg/dt is positive and the induced electric field & is in the direction of the contour c, Alternatively, this direction of & can be found with Lenz’ law by imagining a closed wire loop along contour c. The induced electric field produces a force F = q & on positive charges along the contour220 Maxwell’ Equations 22151 Maxwells) (- F on the free electrons of the wire); thus, & isin the direction of the resulting induced current (direction of net positive charge movement). At this point we may be tempted to conclude that a unique voltage for time- varying fields may be related to the line integral of & between two points in the vollmetcr atin same fashion that potential (voltage) was defined for static fields as the line they measore ial integral of E. We will now show that such a definition depends, in general, on the they are eflectively o path of integration between the two points: an important distinction beween time-varying fields and static fields. Consider Fig. 5.3, in which a closed contour consists of two sections ¢, and c; such that ¢ = ¢, ~ cy. Faraday's law shows Consider the enls Place two voltmeter voltmeter are conne: to determine the req that the voltmeter re the closed contour ¢ that Joop (€), we obain fea={ ea ea= 2 © 7 es a a wef Therefore, where Asis the sure - the surface bounded [ tale [ at o ce the voltmeter Je Je ‘conducting wires, & ¢ unless the magnetic flux penetrating the surface bounded by ¢ does not vary with time. Hence, a definition of voltage as the line integral of & between two points depends on the path chosen. ‘Consider the wire loop of Fig. 5.1b. The emf between the two terminals of the gap can (under certain conditions) be interpreted as a voltage in the same fashion as for static fields. However, we saw that for time-varying fields, the definition of voltage as the line integral of & between two points is not unique, but depends on the chosen path. We, of course, use voltmeters to provide reliable readings in ac circuits, but if we accept the fact that voltage for time- varying circuits is not unique, then this use of voltmeters in ae circuits must rely ‘on Some approximations and therefore imposes some limits on its validity 8 Votinetr esis) FIGURE 53 FIGURE 5.4 ltustration of the dapendence of voltage dentions on the chosen path for time-varying lustration ofthe dependen ma for time-varying fsing the ine the our © 2215.1 Maxwell’ Equations Consider the enlarged view of the wire loop shown in Fig. $4, Suppose we place two voltmeters across the terminals of the gap. The leads (wires) of the voltmeter are connected to the gap terminals, and we will assume that the actual voltmeters are infinitesimal in size. The voltmeters are considered ideal in that they measure the integral { f+ dl between their respective terminals and in that they are effectively open ciruits, thus drawing negligible eurrent. We would like to determine the required conditions on the positions ofthe voltmeter leads s0 that the voltmeter readings will be nearly identical. Applying Faraday’s law to the closed contour consisting of the first voltmeter, its leads (c,), and the wire Joop (0), we obtain bale t bedl= - ala ' ja 4) w where As is the surface between the two positions of the voltmeter leads und s is the surface bounded by the wire loop and the leads of the second voltmeter, Since the voltmeter leads and the wire loop are considered to be perfectly conducting wires, & along the wire surfaces is zero and this result reduces to 4 ({. d+ [a-s) o D+ Voltmeter leas (nize) Se FIGURE 54 lustration ofthe dependence of measured valtage on the positions of the voltmeter leads for time-varying lds222 Maxwells Equations Similarly, forthe second voltmeter, we obtain a = [ona 10 v, ali os io) Combining these results, we obtain »,-m.2-£ fe eo Thus, ‘V, ~ Vz if As is “small enough” or the time variation of is “small enough.” This explains why the positions and lengths of the voltmeter leads become more important in ac circuits with increasing frequencies. Perhaps a more illustrative example is shown in Fig. 55, In Fig. 5.5a a wire Joop with voltmeter leads is arranged so that the closed loop encircles some time-varying magnetic field B. The voltage that the voltmeter reads is given by w+ fafa 4 five [iva thn dt (12) FIGURE 55 station of the dependence of voltage on the path for time-varying eds, 22354 Mowe the leads are ar this closed loop i voltmeter leads i The integral fo also obtain a poi time derivative w fe Ithe surface sis and thus we may j ‘The case of moving the end of this cha throughout the ret and (14) becomes AAs the surface s bee which isthe point for of Faraday’ law in( in (tay. PXAMPLE 5.4 Supp 4 cylindrical coordin as shown in Fig. $6, of spatial coordinates as + ‘dependence snd the oxina223 5:1 Manwols Equations Ifthe leads are arranged as shown in Fig, 5.5b, the net magnetic flux penetrating this closed loop is zero and the voltmeter reads zero, Clearly, the position of the voltmeter leads is important for the time-varying ease The integral form of Faraday’s law in (5) applies to a region of space. We may also obtain a point form of Faraday’s law in the following manner. Take the time derivative under the integral to obtaint fra--[faw--(Carsi4) oo I the surface sis stationary, 0 ds/@i 0. an (13) reves peat=— [em a4) and thus we may interchange the order of integration and differentiation of B. ‘The case of moving contours is considered in Appendix B and in the problems at the end of this chapter. We will restrict our discussions {o stationary contours throughout the remaining chapters. Stokes’ theorem allows us to write pea= [orxerw= | [As the surface s becomes infinitesimally small, we obtain (Wx E)eds as) and (14) becomes. sds (16) am - an vx S which is the point form of Faraday’s law. For static fields, both the integral form of Faraday’s law in (5) and the point form in (17) reduce tothe static case given n (Ia) EXAMPLE 5.1 Suppose that a time-varying magnetic field is defined in space in a cylindrical coordinate system as {Bosinuta, rrp eG r>r as shown in Fig. 5.6, Determine the induced electric field via Faraday’s law: ‘Note that a partial derivative with respect to ime, 2, is equiedin (13) since Shs Function of spatial coordinates as well as of time. In (5), the integral of B overs removes this spatial ‘dependence and the ordinary derivative dit i salienta 224 Maxwaifs Equations FIGURE 56 Fxample 5:1. Determination of induced electic field due to a time-varying magnetic field Solution Note that the magnetic field is uniform for r-To Using the form of V x & in cylindrical coordinates (Appendix: A), the reader can (and should) show that this field satisfies the point form of Faraday’s law in (17). ‘The direct application of Faraday’s law is also possible in the case of moving contours: moving with respect 10 $8, The following example illustrates this. EXAMPLE 5.2 A pair of perfectly conducting parallel wires in the xy plane forms a set of rails along which a shorting bar moves with velocity u, as shown in.226 Mawel’ Equations cae geese ait Trample 52. lustration of induced voltage caused by moving contours Fig, 5.7. the structure is immersed in a de magnetic field that is perpendicular to the xy plane and given by Boa, Wb/m? nduced across a determine the voltage , with polarity as indicated, that is small gap in the wires Solution In applying (5), we choose the contour ¢ to be along the rails and the shorting bar, as shown in Fig. 57. The surface s is chosen to be the flat surface bounded by ¢, as shown, The total magnetic flux penetrating s is Yn joe = Bout Wb ds = dx dya, emf 227 5. Maxwells ‘Cleat, ifthe loop ¥ the direction of Th induced voltage wou 51.2 Gauss i: Gauss’ laws for ele ‘remain the same for Electric flux fines tha Equation (18) is a sir flux form closed path statement of this obs It is important to density) may be gen: Faraday’s law. Thus, begin and terminate produced by a time-v: electric charges do ne 513) Ampares First consider Am use this for time-vary If we take the diverge 1 Its not customary to law. We wil, however, releular sa 22751 Maxwell's Equations Clearly, ifthe loop were closed, a current would flow in a direction opposite to the direction of c. Thus, positive charge would accumulate at terminal a and the induced voltage would be VU = — Bolu 5.1.2 Gauss’ Laws for Elect and Magnetic Fields + Gauss’ laws for electric and magnetic fields for the static case in (1¢) and (1d) remain the same for the time-varying case; that is, [ew (18) ope» fo VB=0 pBds=0 as) Flectric flux lines that begin on positive charges terminate on negative charges Equation (18) is a simple statement of this fact. Similarly, the lines of magnetic flux form closed paths with no known sources or sinks. Equation (19) is a simple statement of this observation, It is important to note that lines of electric field intensity (or electric flux density) may be generated by a time-varying magnetic field, as is clear from Faraday's law. Thus, it would be incorrect to state that all electric fild lines begin and terminate on electric charges. Those electric field lines which are produced by a time-varying magnetic field form closed paths; those produced by electric charges do not. 5.13 Ampére's Law and Displacement Current First consider Ampére’s law for static fields given in (1b). Suppose we try to use this for time-varying fields vx la Qo) IF we take the divergence of both sides of 20), we obtain Vw x3) =0 ava en 1 Ti not customary to refer to (19) a8 one law, We wll, however, rls to both as Gauss Gouss laws Striety speaking only (18) is Gass ow for easy reference228 Maxwell's Fquations since we have the vector identity that the divergence of the curl of any vector field yields zero (Chap. 2). This result, however, requires that the divergence of the current density vector be zero, which is obviously incorrect for time-varying fields since the continuity equation shows that op (22a) a va= Gam=— 5, fra (2») ‘That is, the divergence or net outflow of J from some region is the rate of decrease of charge contained in the region, which is necessarily zero only for static currents, ie, V-J = 0. ‘Thus, «term is missing from (20). Obviously, this term should be the time rate of change of some vector field so that, for static fields, the new equation would reduce to (1b). Perhaps Maxwell's most important contribution was the determination of this missing term. Maxwell modified (20) by adding C/c« to the right-hand side so that, 9 VxK= 3+ 23) where ® is the electric flux density vector, so no inconsistency results. We can sve this by again taking the divergence of both sides of (23), resulting in ) O=V-34" a =v-3+ Sq-m) 4) since space derivatives (V+) and time derivatives (0/ét) are interchangeable, Substituting (18) into (24), we obtain the continuity equation in (22a) and no inconsistency results. Equation (23) is Ampére’s law in point form. The integral form of this law is obtained by integrating both sides of (23) over some open surface s ds 5) fore a= [a {2 ‘and applying Stokes’ theorem to yield Ampére’s law in integral form: fea fras [Pa es 229 51 Maxwelts If we assume a ste integrand, resulting Clearly, the first ¢ conduction or conve The other term also t of displacement curre stil spenkng th dees not epee we inert ts qu First ts net Faraday’ law. thea ‘lated by he eka im Ampere’ ann (2 Totter he me shown in Pl 3808 paral lt capt Sth The fist suan, The ond sur plates Note cure the wie As the pla transfered oa sue 5 and aed where 3 is the density duction current in the Againstor eof 12a) 225) o, able. \dno 2295.1 Maxwel’s Equations If we assume a stationary contour ¢, then d integrand, resulting in may be removed from the ears’ fon e Clearly, the first portion of the right-hand side of (27) is free current (either conduction or convection current), which we denote by 1.3 ie a ‘The other term also has the unit of current, and this term will be given the name of displacement curreat Ly ‘ toh faa 7 Strictly speaking, the displacement current is not a current —in the sense that it does not represent the flow of free charge through the surface s. How, then, do wwe interpret this quantity? First let us interpret Ampére’s law in the integral form given in (27), As with Faraday’s aw, the closed contour ¢ bounds the open surface s, and dl and ds are related by the right-hand rule, as shown in Fig. 584, The contour ¢ and surface s in Ampére’s law in (27) are again intimately related. To interpret the meaning of displacement current, consider the clectr shown in Fig. 5.8b consisting of a sinusoidal voltage source connected to a parallel-plate capacitor. Construct two “balloonlike” surfaces, as shown in Fig, 5.8b. The fist surface s, has the wire and consequently free current (conduction ‘current in this case) penetrating it, and the related contour ¢ encircles the wire The second surface s; is constructed so that it encloses one of the capacitor plates, No free current penetrates this surface, but the contour ¢ again encircles the wire. As the polarity of the sinusoidal generator changes, free charge will be transferred to and from each capacitor plate via the wires of the circuit. For surface s, and related contour ¢, we observe that reuit fx al= [ eus=1 G0) where J is the density of this free current in the wire and J, refers to con duction current in the wite. Now consider surface s and related contour ¢ fea239 Mowwel’s Equations 23151 Marvels que 2 be developed between t! Sa, thus pen srtces ‘Thus, it would appear capacitor plates is intin Hence, is often referre * electric flux is referred t Note that the contou be the same. Ifthe displa side of the equation for tency; choosing the two results. Therefore, we ew cireuit;” where conduct complete the circuit. EXAMPLE 5.3. Comp in copper (€ = ¢, w= Repeat for Teflon, whic I Miz, Solution Assuming: oe where «= 2nf and f w FIGURE 58 Hustation of Ampare's law and displacement current: (a) relation of contour cand open surface 5; ) continuity of conduction and displacement currents. ‘The displacement current But over the surface sy ; j Beds =0 2 as free charge is being since no free current penetrates this surface. However, as free char stored and removed from each capacitor plate, a time-varying field D= ¢ will@) being, 231 51. Maxwells Equations be developed between the plates. These ines of electric flux penetrate the surface sy thus fod ede [>* (G3) Thus, it would appear that the rate of change of in the region between the capacitor plates is intimately related to the “displacement” of electric charge, Hence, is often referred to as the displacement vector. and the rate of change of clectrig flux is referred to as a displacement current density, ie..d4 = 0D/0t ‘Note that the contours bounding the two surfaces in Fig. 5.8h are chosen to ‘be the same. Ifthe displacement current term were not present on the right-hand side of the equation for Ampére’s law, we would have an immediate inconsis- tency; choosing the two surfaces having the same contour would yield different results. Therefore, we can consider the displacement current as “completing the ircuit;” where conduction current ends, displacement current takes over to complete the circuit EXAMPLE 5.3 Compare the conduction and displacement current densities in copper (¢ > Cay H~ Hos and a = $.8 x 107 S/m) at a frequency of | MHz Repeat for Teflon, which has €~2¢p, 4 Ho, and @=3 x 10°* Sim at 1 MHz Solution Assuming sinusoidal variation of the eleetrc field in the material, =F sinot (0%, the conduction current density is where w = 2ef and f 3. = 08 ok, sinat — Ajm? ‘The displacement current density is a wn a a =oxky coset —Ajm232 Macwotfs Equations ‘The ratio of the magnitudes of these currents is Wl (31 oe For copper at 1 MHz, we find « 58x 107 we 7 Bex 10® x 36x x 10? = 108 Even if the frequency is raised to an extremely high value (for example, 100 GHz or 10 Hz), the conduction current dominates the displacement current by an enormous amount. Thus, for copper (and most other “conductors’) it is reasonable to noglect displacement current, For Teflon at 1 MHz, we find that He 3x 10-* _ we ~ ex 108 x 21 x 136m x 10% = 257 x 10° Consequently, in Teflon, a reasonably good insulator, at 1 MHz the conduction current may be neglected. However, at much lower frequencies the ratio o/ox may approach unity, and the conduction and displacement currents may become comparable 5.14 Summary of Maxwell's Equations ‘The results of combining Faraday’s law, Ampéze’s law, and Gauss’ laws are referred to as Maxwell's equations: os 7 4a) R a aa—4{ wa ta $e a vx gua ‘ a [rard( am vxccael® om [ow VD=— (te) ad) ‘These deceptively simple equations are the result of many years of research and. study of the phenomena associated with electricity and magnetism. Although these equations have not been derived analytically, they are reasonable and no But according to the 2339.1 Maxwells experiments have sh may accept them a: However, these equ: compared to atomic Associated with | relating mechanical ‘The quantity F is th ‘a magnetic field &. T vector in the diretio: of charge, p C/m’, th where fis the force 5 charge distribution © ‘The equation of cont is also implicit in Ma It should be notec independent. For ex: Faraday’s law in (34a since V-(V x &) =0, In the absence of proot this constant to be zen the point form of Amy233, 5 Maxwell's Equations experiments have shown them to be invalid, In the absence of any such data, we may accept them as a valid characterization of electromagnetic phenomena. However, these equations are applicable only where the dimensions are large compared to atomic dimensions. Associated with Maxwell’s equations, we have the Lorentz force equation 18 mechanical and electromagnetic phenomena: rel FaqhtuxB) N a5) ‘The quantity F is the force exerted on a point charge q by an electric field & and ‘a magnetic field $B The charge q is moving with velocity u, and wis the velocity vector in the direction of movement ofthe charge. For a continuous distribution 3 fob+0x 9) Nim 00) wheres the fore vector per unit volume, Noting that the movement of his | charge dntbuton constitutes acurent 3 pa, we also obtain P= pE49XB Nim? Gr) | ion ‘The equation of continuity or conservation of chars | my 38) | is also implicit in Maxwell's equations, as was shown in Sec. 5.1.3 It should be noted that the four equations of Maxwell in (34) are not all | Bare independent. For example, if we take the divergence of the point form of Faraday’s law in (34a), we find that 4 fem -o since V-(V x &) = 0. This implies that V- is independent of time, ot (34h) V-S= a constant (40) | Inthe absence of proof ofthe existence of any isolated magnetic sources, we take | this constant to be zero and we obtain (Sd) Similarly, taking the divergence of 1 ‘the point form of Ampére’s law in (34b), we obtain, since V+(V x J) = 0, (34d) | Fe and | -5(V-D) But according to the continuity equation in (38), this implies (34c),234 Maxwell’ Equations 5.2 Constitutive Properties of the Medium We have considered the properties of linearity, isotropy, and homogeneity of a ‘material medium in previous chapters in discussions of static fields. For time- varying fields, there are essentially no changes in these definitions or ideas Although the free current density 3 in Maxwell's equations could be either conduction current (in a conducting material) or convection current (as in a vacuum), we will henceforth consider 3 to denote only conduction current. Maxwell's equations in (34) contain 12 unknowns: 8, 6.5 Ka, Ky. &. Dg, D,. D., B,,‘B,, and .. Since only the curl equations (34a) and (346) are independent, we have six equations (each vector equation contains three scalar cquations in terms of components). Thus, we need six additional equations relating these components. These are provided by the constitutive relations ofthe medium: D= fy (b) (39a) B= fa) (39) Each equation relates three field vector components, giving a total of six equations, The type of medium will determine these specific functional relation- ships. In addition, if we treat 9 in (34) as unknown, we introduce three additional unknowns, §,, 9,, and 9,. Thus, we need three additional equations siven by B= fy) 39) The material medium determines these specific functional relationships between the various field vectors. Throughout the remainder of this text we will consider only media that are linear, homogeneous, and isotropic such that D-& (40a) Ba We (400) G=o8 (400) Such media are said to be simple. The scalars « (permittivity), 1 (permeability), and ¢ (conductivity) in (40) aze assumed to be constants For sinusoidal variation of the felds in linear, homogeneous, and isotropic ‘media, we will find that these scalars often depend on frequency {so that we would write «), w(/), and ¢( In this case it would be improper to write (40) as shown, since the field vectors there are time-domain quantities: i, ‘DG, y,£ Dele. In later sections we will concentrate on sinusoidal variation of the fells and will investigate phasor ficld vectors. In this case, (40) will relate : } 235 52 Consiay those phasor field w Parameters. In futu understanding. ‘A medium is said the magnitudes, or k ferromagnetic materi 4 nonlinear, hysteres) An isotropic medit and 3 is parallel to directions. An anisotr related to those of & | A homogeneous mex at all points in the example, ¢ 4, and a fr and a(x, y, 2). Specification of ¢ ar ‘characterizing the mec where is the electric vector. Furthermore, wi where z- and 7, are the: ‘D and Kconsist of the s and the contributions di in terms of the electric. dipole moment per unit homogeneity of the med For example, a materi independent of the appli same direction and Mea homogeneous if z, and yar %) ips sill tu) ie aof 235. 52. Constitutive Properties ofthe Medium those phasor field vectors and it would be proper to use frequency-ependent Parameters. In future we will continue to write (40) as shown, with this understanding, ‘A medium is said to be linear if the above relationships are independent on the magnitudes, or levels, of the fields. An example of a nonlinear medium is a ferromagnetic material in which the relationship between ‘Band X is specified by 4 nonlinear, hysteresis curve instead of by a scalar constant An isotropic medium is one in which D is parallel to &, $B is parallel to X, and J is parallel to f. Isotropic media exhibit the same properties in all directions. An anisorropie dielectric would have each of the components of related to those of & by a 3 x 3 matrix BI ls A homogeneous medium is one in which the medium properties are the same at all points in the medium. An inhomogeneous medium would have, for example, 4, and « functions of the spatial parameters: e..,c(x, y,2) (x,y and o(x, Specification of ¢ and yas in (40a) and (40h) is not the only possible way of characterizing the medium. In Chaps. 3 and 4 we wrote a Dats (420) x-3 (428) io where isthe electric polarization vector and bis the magnetic polarisation vector. Furthermore, we may write B78 (43a) Me = yh (435) where z, and z,, are the electric and magnetic susceptibilities, respectively. Thus, ‘® and Konsist of the superposition of free space contributions, ¢o6 and B/siy, and the contributions duc to the dipoles (electric and magnetic) of the material in terms of the electric dipole moment per unit volume, #, and the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, .M. The properties of linearity, isotropy, and homogeneity of the medium could then have been related to $ and se For example, a material is linear ifthe susceptibilities z, and z._ are constants independent of the applied fields, A material is isotropic if # and & are in the same direction and Mand $B are in the same direction, Finally, a material is homogeneous if z, and 7 are independent of position in the medium,236 Maxwells Equations However, we will use the simpler relations in (40) throughout the remainder ‘of this text with no loss in generality, Our future interest will be in examining the ‘behavior of fields in material media, not in the characterization of those media. For 1 linear, isotropic, homogeneous medium, Maxwell's equations reduce, by substituting (40) into (34), to Integral form Point form r a a cite — pf seas Vegas pea wef ds y = (44a) Vata ob +e % (ashy veteak (44e) veK=0 (44d) ‘and only two of the four general field vectors need be determined. | EXAMPLE 5.4 In later chapters we will find that an important class of waves whose propagation is predicted by Maxwell’s equations have the following form. Thus, show that the following field vectors in free space (1 = 7 =0, 9 =0, and 3 = 0) satisfy all of Maxwell's equations: bos = Eo, | b= Ecos (ot — he, | E == cos (ot — 7 os (ot B Solution From Faraday’s law we must have Vx 8 =~ Expanding the curl (using the simple mnemonic device described in Sec. 2.12), we obtain Ves 237 52. Constitute since & has only an Also, In order for Farada requires that Thus, B and » are rel Expanding the curl, w since J€ is in the y di Forming the right-hani In order for Ampére's | requires that Thus, f and » must also $0 that 7 must beEEE Lh i) i) 4) 4a) 212), 237 52. Constitutive Properties of the Mediums since & has only an x component and is independent of the x and y coordinates, Also, Keno Hote sin (ut — fa, (46) In order for Faraday’s law to be satisfied, (45) and (46) must be equal, which requires that p= che a ” Thus, f and 1 are related by (47). Ampére’s law is vax, Eo = Penton Poe as since X is in the y direction and is independent of the x and y coordinates. Forming the right-hand side of Ampére’s law, we obtain a Eo sin (ot ~ Re 9) In order for Ampére’s aw to be satisfied, (48) and (49) must be equal, which requires that B= oon (50) ‘Thus, f and » must also satisfy (50). Combining (47) and (50), we obtain or so that must be238 Maxwells Equations Substituting 7 into (47) or (50), we find that must be B= toV/ioeo (2 We finally check Gauss’ laws. First VD =o E=0 ae, ay * ae which we observe to be true since the only component of &, &,, is independent of x. Similarly, let us check the other law of Gauss: VB yVIE=0 or ‘We find this to be true since the only component of X, &,, is independent of y ‘Therefore, the fields are valid ones—but only ify and f satisty the constraints in (St) and (52) 5.3 Boundary Conditions on the Field Vectors ‘The relations between the corresponding field vectors in two different media at the boundary between the two media are essentially unchanged from the static case. For example, Fig. 59a shows a cross section of the boundary between two media. Applying Faraday’s law in integral form to a small contour c, which consists of sides A! and Ah and which bounds the flat surface s, at the contour, we obtain odie —4 [was 53) at), § In the limit as Ah +0, the area of s, will become vanishingly small, so that gs-aqo ‘which is identical to the static case. Consequently, the boundary condition on & is that the tangential components must be continuous across the boundary: & (sd) 239 53 8 — "( @, ® | cunt 59 stration of the vectors at an int239. 53. Boundary Conditions on the Field Vectors f TT) wom u( x te, i \ . E E E Mediuen 2 ‘Medium 1 wal bbe, { ‘ FIGURE 5.9 stration of the boundary conditions relating the tangential components ofthe eld ic veciois at an ineriace240 Maxwells Equations ‘Similarly, apply Ampére’s law in integral form to this contour: a gua j, gas | Deas 55) Note that in the limit as Ah— 0, a Lf mano with the resulting equation being identical to Ampére’s law for the static case, Consequently, the boundary condition on the X field is identical to the static case: Ha— Ky eK Am (56) where is any linear current density existing at the interface, as discussed in Chap. 4. Since the direction of the contour ¢y is taken to be counterelockwise in Fig, 59, the direction of X. is out of the paper. A simple mnemonic device for remembering the direction of Kis obtained from the following: The direction of the static magnetic field H about a wire carrying a static electric current is related to the current direction in the wire by the familiar right-hand rule, as shown in Fig. 9b. Now consider Fig. 59¢, in which X, is shown to be larger in magnitude than 3, For this case, there will be a net circulation of Hat the boundary in the clockwise direction. The linear current density % is then into the paper and is given by = €,. — Xj. This corresponds analogously to the case of a current-carrying wire in Fig, 599, Now consider the case shown in Fig. 594, in which there isa net circulation of Xin the counter-clockwise direction at the boundary. In this case, the linear current density is directed out of the page and is given by K= X,) — Kuz "The derivation leading to (56) was performed for one possible cross setion of the boundary. To investigate other cross sections, define the unit normal vector ‘a, perpendicular to the interface and pointing into medium 2, as shown in Fig. 59a, Consider the contour cy and surface s, rotated 90° about a,. If we again apply Ampére’s law to this new contour, we obtain a relationship that is of the form of (56) and which characterizes the discontinuity of the tangential components of X in this plane, which is perpendicular to the plane used to derive (36). Combining these two results, which are orthogonal, we may write a general expression for the boundary condition on X.at the interface: 4, x — RK wn whore X€, and X, are the magnetic field intensity vectors at (but not necessarily tangent 0) the interface, The quantity a, x (J€; — 3€,) gives the net resultant 241 53 Bou magnetic field ‘numerically eq) linear current ¢ according to t relationship on be obtained by at the surface. ‘Note that tin of Gauss’ laws: ‘Thus the bound derived from th varying case. A the boundary (¢ where p, is the f component of t directed away fr flux density vec boundary, as sh ‘magnitude of th electric flux den boundary. Thus. to and directed charge density (608) states that ‘normal to the bt Equations (6¢ where a, is the» region 2, as sho) static (56) sed in in Fi, ie for tion of| rent is ule, a8 ger in rat the en into ro the a) cssarily esultant 2415.3. Boundary Conditions on the Feld Vectors ‘magnetic field tangent to the boundary (magnitude and direction), which is numerically equal to the vector linear current density at the boundary. This linear current density is perpendicular to the plane containing X, — X, and a, according to the right-hand rule. In a similar fashion, the general vector relationship on continuity of the tangential components of the electric field can be obtained by rotating the contour in Fig. 59a by 90° about a, resulting in In X (B — &) (58) at the surface, Note that time va of Gauss" laws ions of the field vectors do not change the forms of either VD=p (59a) VB=0 (596) ‘Thus the boundary conditions on the normal components of and Sthat were derived from these two laws for the static case are unchanged for the time- varying case. Applying Gauss’ laws to an infinitesimal, rectangular volume at the boundary (as shown in Fig. 5.10a), we obtain, as Ah 0, Da Di=e, Ch (60a) Bir —Brs (60d) where p, isthe free surface charge density at the boundary. Note that ,2 is the component of the electric flux density vector in region 2 that is normal to and directed away from the boundary and that ‘D,, is the component of the electric ffux density vector in region I that is normal to and directed toward the boundary, as shown in Fig. 5.10a, These directions serve to fix the sign and ‘magnitude of the surface charge. Note that —D,, is the component of the electric flux density in region 1 that is normal to and directed away from the boundary. Thus, Eg. (60a) simply states that the net electric flux that is normal to and directed away from the boundary is equal to the net positive surface charge density at the boundary. An example is shown in Fig. 5.10b. Similarly, (60b) states that the components of the magnetic flux density vector that are normal to the boundary are continuous across the boundary. Equations (60 and 6) may be written in equivalent forms: a,(D;—D,)= (ta) a,-(B; —B,)=0 (616) where a, is the unit normal perpendicular to the interface and pointing into region 2, as shown in Fig. 5.10a, Note that a,-‘D, is the component of D,242 Maxwel's Equations Media 2 o FIGURE 5.10, Mastration of the boundary coneltions relating the normal components ofthe field vectors normal to the boundary and pointing away from the boundary, Similarly, ,-D, is the component of 3, normal to and pointing toward the boundary. ‘The boundary conditions on the normal components of D and & in (612) and (61b) were obtained from the divergence equations in (34c) and (34d), Similarly, the boundary conditions on the tangential components of & and X€ in (58) and (57) were obtained from the curl equations (34a) and (34b). However the divergence and curl equations are not independent, as was shown previously; thus, we expect that the above four boundary conditions are not all indepen- dently specifiable—and thus we cannot independently specify all four boundary conditions, or else contradictions will result. For the time-varying case, the condition on tangential & is equivalent to the condition on normal®, Similarly, the condition on tangential J€ is equivalent to the condition on normal D: therefore, specifying tangential J€ and normal D could result in contradictions, Similarly, specifying tangential & and normal 8 could result in contradictions. EXAMPLE 5.5. The may ‘two materials is given by tic flux density in region 1 of an interface between B,=06a,+ Lila, Whim? 243 53. Boum ‘The permeabili field in region : Solution F Next, we use th must be continu tangential comp bbe said in Seo, 5 the interface isi and But so that Consequently, The above bo restrictions on th ment. These bow equations. There ceases that deserve boundary conditc 5.3.1 Bound ‘The special cas. the conductivity j permeability 1, ho243. 53. Boundary Coneltions on the Field Vectors The permeability of region 1 is 4, and that of region 2 is 1,. Determine the ® field in region 2 just across the interface. The interface is in the xz plane. Solution From = :X and the given 3 field in region 1 we have Next, we use the continuity conditions. The normal components of the & field ‘must be continuous: 8,; = 3}. Assuming no linear current at the boundary, the tangential components of the X field must be continuous: Je,» = 3, (More will besaid in Sec. 5.3.1 about omitting the surface current at the boundary.) Because the interface isin the xz plane, B, corresponds to B,. Hence, and But so that Consequently, a6 at Lia, Whim? The above boundary conditions are quite general in the sense that no restrictions on the properties of the two media were imposed in the develop- ment. These boundary conditions were simply a consequence of Maxwell's ‘equations. There are, however, important and frequently encountered special cases that deserve repeated emphasis. The majority of our applications of the boundary conditions will be for these special eases. 5.3.1 Boundary Conditions for Perfect Conductors ‘The special case of primary interest is that of a perfect conductor for which the conductivity is assumed to be infinite, ¢ = co, The permittivity ¢ and permeability 1, however, are taken to be finite. A perfect conductor is not so 4 on _— oo ,244 Maxwel’s Equations ideal as it may seem. For example, there exist materials which, when cooled to temperatures approaching absolute zero (0 K, or —273°C), exhibit an abrupt drop in their resistivity (the inverse of conductivity) to a value of zero. These ‘materials are called superconductors. For our discussions, however, we will use the term perfect conductor simply to mean an idealized material having an infinite conductivity. Alternatively, we will see that a perfect conductor is an idealized material that may support a linear current density 3 on its surface In the case of static electric fields, we determined that there can be essentially no net free (mobile) charge within a conductor that has a finite but nonzero conductivity. Free charge will certainly exist within these conductors, but any excess charge will move by mutual repulsion to the surface of the conductor. The time required to establish equilibrium within the conductor is related to the relaxation time, t= c/o, as discussed in Chap. 3. For the case of a good ‘conductor, such as copper, this relaxation time is on the order of 10-"'s. The relaxation time is the time required for the excess charge density to decay to Ie, or 37 percent, ofits original value; therefore, strictly speaking, the excess charge will require infinite time to decay to zer0. However, for a good conductor, equilibrium would essentially be established in a relatively short time. For a perfect conductor with o = 2, equilibrium would theoretically be established immediately. Once equilibrium is established, there will be no net free charge in the interior of the conductor to establish an electric field, and thus E = 0 within the conductor. For time-varying fields, we may also show that the electric ficld 6 within a perfect conductor is zero, To do this, let us presume that the conductivity again relates the current density 9 to the electric field & within the perfect conductor as a = 3/6. Ifo = co, then either 3 is infinite or & is zero. An infinite current density is not reasonable, since this would imply either that an infinite amount of charge is being transported in a finite time or that a finite amount of charge is being transported in zero time. Thus, we conclude that & =0 within a perfect conductor. If we presume that D = c& within the perfect conductor with «finite, then we observe that D = 0 within a perfect conductor also. From a practical standpoint, we may approximate conductors as perfect conductors so long as the rate of change of the field is slow compared to the inverse of the relaxation ; time, ‘Now consider Faraday’s law within this perfect conductor Vxe= a 0 within the perfect conductor, we see that Therefore, $B in the perfect conductor must be independent of time—and consequently there can be no time-varying magnetic field within perfect 24553 ‘conductor within a p with ye ini Therefe electric fie conductor well, as we depth. Cor perfect con In this eas, EXAMPLE £ shown in F where Cis as of the waveg satisfy all of the walls, ang 1 Experiment245. 53 Boundary Conditions on the Feel Vectors conductor. There remains, however, the possibility of a static magnetic field ee within a perfect conductor + Assuming that = jo in this perfect conductor, pene with inte, we also obtain 9 ~ 0. pe These “Therefore, ina perfect conductor, ll ime-varying fields are zero, and the static e will use i electric field is zero. This may also be thought of as the definition of a perfect os conductor, Good conductors, however, approximate perfect conductors quite oe well, as we shall sec in Chap. 6, See. 6.4, where we consider the concept of skin eae depth, Consider the boundary between two different media, one of which is a pecially perfect conductor; suppose that medium 1 is the perfect conductor, ie, Lama In this ease, the boundary conditions become stor. The ted to the fa=0 Ma good Kank cay 0 I/e, (62) ess charge | Oat ons Ba=0 siabished — = i = - e charge in EXAMPLE 5.6 The electromagnetic fields ina rectangular waveguide (Chap. 8) Oithin shown in Fig. 5.11 are given by 6 within a &=0 ity again oe 8, = cM sn e ) sin (or atof charge a we is being ° 1a perfect, } vith finite, ‘a practical so fong as | relaxation i K,=0 | | : | | Con) cos on ~ fi) where C isa constant and w = 2af, with f the frequency of excitation. The walls fof the waveguide are assumed to be perfect conductors. Show that these fields satisfy all of Maxwell's equations within the guide, the boundary conditions on the walls, and determine the surface charge densities and currents on those walls. nd =246 Masoots Equations FIGURE 5.17 Example 56. Application of the boundary conditions to eld within a waveguide, Solution First we check Faraday’s law: We obtain pce in (soto) od oo @) sin (ot ~ f2) ax, a = R= age @) £08 (wt ~ f) =H He = es 00s( *) sin (ot — 2) Matching components, we sce that Faraday’s law is satisfied. Checking Am- pers law (3 =0). Vx ace a om, a, ae Py 247 53° Boundary We obtain Matching y compont for Ampére’s law to t Checking Gauss’ law This we see 10 be t independent of y, Simi is also satisfied since247 53 Boundary Conditions on the Field Vectors We obtain # an (8) oon) Matching components wet wen ve = one! poe for Ampére’s law to be satisfied, This requires that p be Checking Gauss’ law for the electric field (p = 0), V(b) =0 This we sce to be true, since the only nonzero component of & &,, is independent of y. Similarly, we may show that Gauss' law for the magnetie field V-(uoX) = 0 or Am- | is also satisfied since | 7a = —Cheos (%) sin on — coon(S) nto -89248. Maxwel's Equations ‘The boundary conditions are that tangential & equal zero and that normal ‘equal zero along the (perfectly conducting) walls of the waveguide. The tangential 3€ condition gives a linear current that we do not know but will ater determine. Similarly, the normal condition gives a surface charge density that we do not know but will also later determine, Thus, we can only check tangential & and normal’B. Since & only has a y component, we check that itis zero along the top (x ) walls: 0 Substitution of x =O and x = a into the field equation for &, docs indeed yield 2210, so this boundary condition is satisfied, Similarly, the magnetic flux density $= ygX has only x and 2 components. The only component normal toa walls the x component. Thus, we check Substitution of x = 0 and x =a into the field equation for X€, shows that those boundary conditions are satisfied. Thus, the boundary conditions are satisfied. ‘The linear current density on the walls is numerically equal to the compo- nent(s) of X€ tangent to the walls, Along the left (y = 0) and right (y = b) walls, the total tangential field is the sum of the x and z components evaluated on those walls. On the left wall (y = 0) xa—x,| 4% = cf sin %) sin cor — form, +08 @) £0 (ot — 249 53. Box Note the use direction of th ‘, and , ar ‘Note that this result of the fa net circulation ‘Along the top that ‘Along the bott ‘Once again, not of the tangentia The surface + nent of D = efaSSSSsSsSsSssssseoaxX~”"—-—-—~—~—Ct™CF ‘24953. Boundary Conkitions on the Feld Vectors the use of the right-hand rule discussed previously for determining the nlB Note Tie re oti curentOn the ght wally = b) we havea similar resol since hae Se, and ae independent of stat ces mits xox] ax = Msn (sin cor — fem, = C008 (eos (ot — ‘Note that hn cutent is opposite in diestion to that om the et wall. eyed afin fact tht the els are onthe neo walls and that we regi the oe we ieuton cused by te tangential elds on each sie of he boundary et mate top wall (2 a only the 2 component of His tangent (the wal $0 | that x-x| 4, = Cos or =f ‘Along the bottom wal («= 0 ra tose x se | compe | bp walls, = — Coos (ast — fz)a, iste 08 ‘Once again, note the use ofthe right-hand rule in determining the net circulation of the tangential field and the resulting direction of the surface current ‘The surface charge density on the walls is numerically equal to the compo- ) ont of D = éq6 normal to the wall. Along the left wall (y = 0) Coto sin () sin (wt — 2)250 Maxwell's Equations ‘Along the right wall (y= 5) “4 cen sin) tee ‘Along the top wall (x = a) 5.3.2 Boundary Conditions for Material Media (On the other hand, suppose that both media have finite conductivity. In this cease, current cannot exist solely on the boundary but will penetrate into the media, Thus, we presume that there can be no isolated, linear current density on the boundary between two media both of which have finite conductivity, and we obtain tae Ke 4,05 finite @) Dyz — Dy = Ps By, —By = 0 One additional point should also be noted. The discontinuity in the normal components of is the free surface charge density at the boundary. If both media are perfect dielectrics, this surface charge could not have arisen without hhaving been intentionally placed on the boundary. So we conclude that in the absence of any intentionally placed charge, Dy = De (4) 251 54 Power Fow EXAMPLE 5.7. Ap charge Q uniformly tions, determine the Gauss’ law that the Solution Since surface charge densi resides on the surfae by the boundary co) Gauss’ law may be sphere. Enclosing tt obtain or, by symmetry, Evaluating this just 5.4 Power Flow The units of & are Therefore, the prod Ajm = VA/m?, or distribution of powe interest in our future field vectors? Shout Although it may sethis the you dwe (@) mal both hout n the (ot) 251 54. Power Flow and the Poynting Vector EXAMPLE 5.7 A perfectly conducting sphere of radius R in free space has a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface. Utilizing the boundary condi- tions, determine the electric ficld at the surface of the sphere. Show by using Gauss’ law that the result is correct. Solution Since the charge Q is uniformly distributed over the surface, a surface charge density of resides on the surface. At the perfectly conducting surface, the electric field must, by the boundary conditions given in (62), be normal to the sphere and equal to ine Gauss’ law may be utilized to obtain the electric field at points away from the sphere, Enclosing the sphere with a spherical gaussian surface of radius r, we obiain fut-ie=0 or, by symmetry, Freor’™ ing this just off the surface, we obtain our previous result 54 Power Flow and the Poynting Vector The units of & are volts per meter and the units of are amperes per meter. Therefore, the product of their magnitudes, |& |X), has the units of V/m- A/m=VA/m?, or watts per square meter. Thus, this product implies a distribution of power in the field over some surface area: an item that will be of interest in our future investigations. How shall we define the product of the two field vectors? Should we use the dot product & +3 or the cross product & x 3? Although it may seem that the dot product of the two vectors would be a252 Maxwel’s Equations possibility, we will actually be interested in the flow of power, and & 3 has no direction. Thus, let us define the power density vector as 8=Exx% Wim? (65) and show that this vector relates to power. This vector is given the name of the Poynting vector after an English physicist, John H. Poynting, who is eredited with the following development. Note that the units of the Poynting vector are watts per square meter and that the direction of 8 is perpendicular to the plane containing & and 3€(and according to the right-hand rule for the cross product) Since the Poynting vector seems to indicate a power flow, we are naturally led to investigate the divergence of this vector, V-8. To compute this quantity, we ‘make use of the vector identity (Appendix A) Ve(A x B)=Bs(V x A) — As(V xB) (66) We therefore obtain VG xX) =K(V x 6) (WV x36) (67) Substituting (34a) and (346) into (67) yields (os) or V8 8-54 (02 wim? @) which is known as the point form of Poynting’s theorem. Integrating both sides of (69) over some volume v and applying the divergence theorem, we obtain the integral form of Poynting’s theorem; that is, ~§8-ds=ft-aars | (6 Pose) dow (70) , ; Je ae 7 ar ‘The term on the left of (70) is the net inward flux of § into the volume v. ‘Therefore, (70) indicates that the net flux of 8 into some volume is the sum of ‘two contributions. The first term on the right-hand side of (70) w= fe-3a a 253 54 Power isa power dissipe by the electric fi containing conve where p* and u containing only ¢ which clearly ind The second in change. For an ig, and similarly since for any veete We saw in previous and€ has no 5) ne of the credited eclor are he plane sroduct), sally led atiy, we (66) en) (68) @ sides of bain the (79) volume 0 be sum of 253 54 PowerFlow and the Poynting Vector is a power dissipation term in that it represents the rate of expenditure of energy by the electric field in moving the charges of the current density. In a region containing convection currents, piu + pow my where p* and u* are the density and velocity of + charges, For a medium containing only conduction currents, 3 = 08, and (71) becomes Sain [sea am which clearly indicates an ohmic power dissipation. The second integral on the right-hand side of (70) involves a time rate of change. For an isotropic medium in which D = cf, and $= ua, we obtain 4) and similarly 5) since for any vector A, ne 76) 2a : We saw in previous chapters that w= 467 Sim? cn) sue)?254 Maxwell's Equations 255 54 PowerFlow: represent electric and magnetic energy densities in the field, respectively. Therefore (74) and (75) ate the time rates of change of energy stored inthe field: Determine the Poynth by) the antenna, am ag Bee Solution These a a the @ direction. Thus, ‘Therefore, the integral form of Poynting’s theorem given in (70) states that Bae the net inward flux of the Poynting vector through some closed surface is the sum of the power dissipated in the volume enclosed by the surface and the rate of change of energy stored in the volume enclosed by the surface. The Poynting vector seems to indicate power flow. It should be emphasized, however, that the Poynting vector only implies a distribution of power in the field. We cannot ‘The power leaving the pinpoint the precise location of this power with any more confidence than we suitably chosen close can pinpoint gravitational energy. Equation (70) shows only that if we integrate appropriate choice of t 8 over some closed surface, we will obtain the power dissipated and the rate of simply ‘change of stored energy in the region enclosed by that surface. EXAMPLE 5.8 An antenna in free space (Chap. 9) is centered at the origin of a z spherical coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 5.12. The fields produced by the : antenna at a radial distance r are given by nf snasneds thu Valeo sin O sin of: a) . The average power radi: period of the sinusoid: FIGURE 5.12 Example 58. Uustration of the Poynting vector and power flow for an antenna. since sin?fa the 255 5.4 Power Flow and the Poynting Vector Determine the Poynting vector and the total average power leaving (or radiated by) the antenna, Solution The electric field is in the @ direction and the magnetic field is in the @ direction. Thus, the Poynting vector is in the radial direction B=bxK ES sin? @sin? of sa, Pilea ‘The power leaving the antenna can be obtained by intesrating §,8 cs over some suitably chosen closed surface s. Since 8 is in the radial direction, the appropriate choice of this surface isa sphere of radius R so that 8 ds becomes simply Es ? onl 8) nt dip d yaa (: 4.) sin do The power radiated by the antenna then becomes = Biante 2) [ff amrnaea aes en en The average power radiated is obtained by time-averaging this result over one period of the sinusoid: since sin? 4 = 4(1 — cos 24) and the integral of cos 24 over 2n rad is zero,256 Maxwells Equations EXAMPLE 5.9 Consider a wire of conductivity ¢ and radius r, carrying a de current J, as shown in Fig, 5.13. Determine the net power entering a wire of length L by integrating the Poynting vector over the wire surface. Show directly that this is the power dissipated by the wite resistance, Also compute the volume integral of J-E to verify the previous result. Solution We center the wire on the zaxis ofa cylindrical coordinate system. Since J,=oE, and J, = 1/A, where A nr3 is the area of the wire end, we obtain 4a ‘Also from Ampére's law, the magnetic field intensity on the wire surface is H=Hya, Ex H 1 i Aa ™ Der, 8% @ ” FIGURE 5.13, Example 59. tstration of power flow in a resistor. 257 55. The Sinus The Poynting veetc volume enclosed b: Where the resistance This result can be dissipated from (71) Pp as before 5.5 The Sinusoi ‘The major emphasis | will be concemed wit, For this case, the feke provide a considerab)———————————————_—-- 25755. The Sinusoidal Steady State E ‘The Poynting vector is tangent to the end caps. Thus, the net power entering the Rinse eaclted bythe ids of he wie and the end cap i 4 : ne P —pS-ds L ~ [sn [sta . P2ereL Dera vt se Ao rR Ww where the resistance of the wire is R = L/As. ‘This result can be obtained in an alternative fashion by computing the power sate jee - j ole? de =o i 1dr do de Pos as before. 5.5 The Sinusoidal Steady State ‘The major emphasis in this study of Maxwell’s equations for time-varying fields will be concerned with the sinusoidal, steady-state behavior of the field vectors. For this case, the field vectors will be written in the form of phasors, which will provide a considerable simplification of many of the mathematical details.258 Manwels Equations ‘To illustrate this important concept, let us consider the electric field intensity vector written in terms of components as BHD = B65, Day + BC 952 Om, + 6.6 92,08, (78) ‘Suppose that each of these components has a sinusoidal time variation (which we will arbitrarily take to be cosinusoidal) of the form 6 s (or +8) (792) 8, = E,€08 (ut + 0,) b) 8, = E, cos (ut + 0,) (19¢) where the magnitudes E.,, F,, E, and phase angles 8,, 0,. 0, of the components fare independent of time ¢ but may depend on the spatial coordinates, ¢.8. Es Ys 2), O( 32). Each of these time forms will be written in phasor form by defining complex phasor quantities (denoted with a “hat,” or care), For example, the phasor form of &, becomes B.=£, Mg (80) and similarly for the phasors B, and £,. The time-domain forms of the tomponents ean then be found from the phasor forms by multiplying by &™ and taking the real part of the result = Re (Ee) = Re(E,etor*s) = E, cos (ot +0,) en) where Re (-) denotes the real part of the enclosed complex quantity The complete field vector may be written in a similar manner as 8(s, 9, 5.1) = Ey c08 (ot + Oa, +B, €08 (ot + 0,)a, + £, cos (ot + 0,)a, = Re (Eo, + Boma, + Beta.) = Re ((E,a, + Ba, + E,ae"] (82) From this result we may define the phasor form of the complete field vector & as te (83) 25955 TheSi and (82) may bi In order to we replace the { Note that differe ‘multiplying the This very imp: solution of these Maxwell's equa equations result Inte The product composed of tw:259 55. The Sinusoidal Steady State and (82) may be written as B(x, 9,2, = Re (Rem) (say In order to solve problems involving sinusoidal variation of the field vectors, we replace the field vectors with their phasor forms multiplied by e (85a) (856) B(x, y, 2,1) > Bx y, ze (BSc) DO, 9,2. = Dex, 2)" (85a) Note that differentiation of the forms in (85) with respect to time is equivalent to ‘multiplying the form by jo; that is, (86) This very important property allows a considerable simplification in the solution of these problems. Substituting the forms of the ficld vectors in (85) into Maxwell’ equations and canceling the e™" term common to both sides of the equations results in Integral form Point form Jo [as Vx B= —joh (87a) GAeat~ [3-430 [Ba VxA=3+job (87) pB-ds=0 v-B=0 (se) ia-fpo ‘The product of each phasor field veetor and ean be viewed as being composed of two parts, Fr example, the x component of Be can be written as (87a) Bet = = Re (Pel) + jm (Exe) 8) 1-605 (ct + 8,) + JE, sin (ot + 8.)EE ee ee ewel’s Equations 260. Marsel’s 261° 55 The Simsow Where Im (-) denotes the imaginary part of the enclosed complex quantity. Thus, Be is the sum of two terms: Conver Belt = Re (Bel) + j Im Be) (89) Since each of Maxwell's equations is linear, euch equation in (87), when ‘multiplied by e*, may be factored into the sum of two such equations: one for the Re (-) parts (the parts we desire) and the other for the j Im (+) parts. Thus, we solve (87) and use the desired portion of the solution. Therefore, solving (87) for the complex phasor quantities B, , B, B, we obtain the time-domain forms of the solutions simply by multiplying each phasor by e! and taking the real part of Checking Furaday’s the result. If the medium is linear, homogeneous, and isotropic (which we assume throughout the remainder of this text), (87) becomes: we form Integral form Point form I vl eat = Ki [ras Vx B= —joft (20a) firat=te-+100 [Boas VxA=(o+jook (00h) = =i The right-hand side of) fa-ano v=o (006) i B-ds=* [ p ae (004) pEnds= In order for Faraday’ b Here the permittivity, permeability, and conductivity may be functions of frequency [i «(/), wf) and of)}, as they usually are for material media. We will use the hat (*) notation to designate not only the complex phasor quantities but also other quantities that are complex. This will serve to Which we obtained in Ex distinguish between complex quantities and real quantities. EXAMPLE 510 Rework Example 5.4 by using phasors; that is, show that the following field vectors in free space (11 = fp, ¢ = Co. = 0, p = 0, 9 = 0) satisfy all of Maxwells equations: we obtain 6= Fo cos (or ~ fz)a, Z X= [cos (ot — fda, "EE rr tt—“‘OSCO~— 261 55. the Sinusoidal Steady Stat iy yn Converting to phasors, we obtain poe, ®) Pere ben 1” for ws, Checking Faraday’s law 87) 2 sof Vx B= —jo8 = ~jop ft . we form 900) ~ip.yea, on (900) “The right-hand side of Faraday’s law becomes (908) mB 7 P —jeopglt = =u #22 ¢-e 2 " (oo) In order for Faraday’s law to be satisfied, (91) and (92) must be equa, thus ms of te (93) lia. 4 ior which we obtained in Example 4, Sinan, checking Ampére's Iaw Ve BaF jorok rat the we obtain ‘sais 4) Jone = jorea Ege a, 05)OSE A'SS” "==" 262 Maxwel's Equations ‘Thus, (94) must equal (95) for Ampére’s law to be satisfied, and we obtain B= cn 06) which was also obtained in Example 5.4, Similarly, we find that Gauss’ laws are satisfied: VD = QVk and ve The constraints on f and 7, a= Veo are obtained once again. Although the computational details involved in sorking inthe time domain in Example 5.4 or with phasors asin this example ate about the same, we will encounter numerous other eases in which the us of phasors provides a considerable simplification over working directly i the time domain, For the sinusoidal steady state, we can also define a phasor form of the Poynting vector. The Poynting vector 8, derived in the previous section, represents instantaneous power. In sinusoidal, steady-state problems, we will be interested in average power rather than instantaneous power. To determine the average power flow, we define the phasor Poynting vector as S=fx Ar on where the complex conjugate ofa phasor 4 is denoted by 4*. We will now show that the density of average power is given by s, PReS W/m? = fRe(B x AY) =} Re (B+ x A) 8) 263 55 TheSin The reader will ot cateulation in sin 2 Re (Fi*), where two-terminal cire power delivered te To show that ( where we have arby (99) is true, let us ec which is equivalen obtained by substity S=6x9 = 18x Since (Bx AY)* =f ‘ where M=B x Ae, 8 The first term on the second term can be w i The density of average where Tis the period 0 the result in (98) sinceSSS” Lin aple wot {the tion, ethe on show (98) 26355. The Sinusoidal Steady State “The reader will observe that (98) is the veetor counterpart to the average power calculation in sinusoidal, steady-state cieuit-analysis problems; that is, yx {Re (VT*), where Pand Tare the phasor voltage and current associated with & iwo-terminal circuit element (or portion of a circuit) and P,, is the average power delivered to the element (or portion ofthe circuit). TTo show that (98) is true, we write Re (Be xe = Re (Fle) = {fie + fee ) + Bre) (69a) ) (09) where we have arbitrarily assumed cosinusoidal field variation. To show that {09) is tre, le us consider the complex number C = A + jB. The real partis A, Which is equivalent 10 }(C-+C*)~ 4. The instantaneous power flow is Obtained by substituting (69) into (6): S-txe (8 x Fae 4 2 A) + MB x ete + Be x Fe 2) (100) since (E x A)* = £* x Aland B* x AY = (E x At, (100) may be written as 8 = JO + MA) + UNem" + Nite“ (101) where MI = £ x A* and S x Aland we obtain 8 =4ReM + FRE (Me) = | Re (Bx Fit) + £Re (Bx Fle) (102) ‘The first term on the right-hand side of (102) is independent of time, and the second term can be written as 4 Re (Ne) = AEN, cos Zot + Olay +N, cos Qot + 6,)a, +N, cos Quot + 6,)8,] (103) ‘The density of average power is rad 8, 7 |,24 (104) where Tis the period of the sinusoid, ie, T= 1/f: Applying (104) to (102) yields the result in (98) since the time average of the second term in (102) is zero.264 Maxwells Equations EXAMPLE 5.11 Suppose that the fcld vectors of a wave in free space are given by woeas(or+s)p, Vn where o = 2nfand f= 200 MHz. Determine the direction of power flow and the average power crossing the surface area bounded by y =2m, y=0,2=2m, and 2 = 0, Solution In phasor form, the field vectors become B= 100049, 100 a ig, ‘The phasor Poynting vector is 8 so that power flow is in the negative x direction. The average power density vector is and the average pov 265. 55 Theseus where we have tak direction. Thus 53. x direction. EXAMPLE 5.12, Re following fields, de radiated by the ant Solution In ph In this problem, ‘The phasor Poyntin265 55. The Sinusoidal Steady State where we have taken the unit normal to the surface to be in the negative x eare given direction. Thus 53.04 W is the average power crossing the surface in the negative x direction. 8 phasor notation; that is, for the following fields, determine the Poynting vector and the total average power radiated by the antenna: tflow and the & Pind sino — Pay Vim =0,=2m, r Wak anon oft i Alm Solution In phasor form, the field vectors become Ey Fo sn be-snna, sin Oe", J Holo In this problem, & = Im (Be) pover density X= Im fhe") ‘The phasor Poynting vector becomes S=fx Ar 5 sin? Oa, | Piolo and the average power density vector is sReS B266. Maxwells Equations Integrating S,,ds over a sphere of radius R, we obtain the total average power radiated by the antenna: sin? 6 40 dg fr. as before, EXAMPLE 5.13 For the waveguide problem in Example 5.6, determine the average power density Poynting vector and the total average power in the 7 direction (the guide axis) over the guide cross section. Solution The phasor forms of the field vectors are B.=0 tet nm A= con (“em The average power density Poynting vector is S,,=}Re(E x BY =| Re(E, Alta, — B, Ata.) S)on(S)s cE ae] 267 55 these ‘Therefore, averay average power it guide cross sectie Asan example, and 6 = 044 in (10 the electric fcld is so that Using the result ob} we find that Substituting numeric:ower 267. 55. The Sinusoidal Steady state ‘Therefore, average power flow is only along the axis of the guide. The total Crome (re AAs an example, consider a typical guide with dimensions a = 0.9 in (2.29 cm) and 6 = 0.4 in (1,02 em) operated at a frequency of 7 GHz. If the amplitude of the electric field is 1000 V/m, then ~s10 sin (=) a so that Corte — 1699 Using the result obtained for f in Example 5.6, py we find that a) 40H = coo /2-(2) Vito \oHoa, Substituting numerical values, we obtain =546mW268. Maxwel’s Equations 5.6 Summary ‘The topics considered in this chapter form the basis, or cornerstone, for all our subsequent studies. Any valid electromagnetic field must satisfy Maxwell's equations (all of them simultaneously) and the associated boundary conditions. Faraday’s law, Ampére’s law, and the two laws of Gauss are therefore essential ingredients in our further studies. ‘The reader should show that the fields in Example 5.1 satisfy only three of the four equations of Maxwell: Faraday’s law and the two laws of Gauss. They do not satisfy Ampére’s law and are therefore not valid fields, However, ifthe time variation of the field is small enough, they represent first-order approximations Fields of this type are referred to as quasi-static fields, such as are typically assumed in the analysis of lumped electric circuits at requencies other than de. On the other hand, the field vectors in Examples 5.4, 56, 5.10, and 5.11 satisfy all of Maxwell's equations, as we have seen, and therefore represent a valid electromagnetic field The concept of power flow and the Poynting vector illustrate the distributive nature of the fields problem. In lumped electric circuit, this distributed nature of the field is neglected on the assumption that the electrical dimensions (a topic considered in subsequent chapters) are small. The lumped-

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