FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS - DIAFYM

Profesor : Dr Ever Menacho Casimiro

 Formación de la Tierra y del Sistema Solar

 HipotesisNebular –
Todos los cuerpos del
sistema solar formados
a partir de la nebulosa
 Nebulosa = nube de
gases y polvo estelar
Principalmente
hidrogeno y helio
Hipótesis Nebular
 La gravedad concentra el material en el centro de la nube (Sol)
 Los protoplanetas se forman a partir de concentraciones de
materia más pequeñas (remolinos)
Prototierra
 Más grande que la
Tierra hoy
 Composición
homogénea
 Bombardeado por los
meteoritos
 Luna formada por
colisión con grandes
asteroides
Prototierra
 Calor Radioactivo
Desintegracion espontanea de atomos
Reacciones de Fusion
 El calor de la contracción (el protoplanet se
contrae debido a la gravedad)
 Prototierra se funde parcialmente
 Estratificación de densidad (Tierra en capas)
Estratificación de Densidad

 Alta densidad = pesada por su tamaño

 La Tierra Temprana experimentó la separación gravitatoria.
 Los materiales de alta densidad (hierro y níquel) se asentaron en el
núcleo.
 Materiales menos densos formaron esferas concéntricas alrededor
del núcleo.
Estructura interna de la tierra
Capas defeinidas por:

 Composicion quimica
 Propiedades fisicas
Estructura interna de la tierra
Capas por composicion quimica

 Corteza
Baja densidad, principalmente
minerales silicatos
 Manto
Principalmente (Fe) y (Mg) , minerales
silicatos
 Nucleo
Alta densidad, principalmente Fe y Ni
 Diferenciación química global
Este diferencial químico global se completó hace unos 4.300 millones de
años, y la Tierra había desarrollado un núcleo interno y externo, un manto y
una corteza
 Composición Química de la Tierra
Cada una de las capas principales tiene una composición
química distintiva, con la corteza muy diferente de la Tierra en
su conjunto

Whole Earth: Crust:

Fe+O+Si+Mg = 93% Si+O+Al = 82%
Capas por propiedades fisicas
 Litosfera
 Astenosfera
 Mesosfera
 Nucleo externo
 Nucleo interno
Litosfera
 Rigida
 Incluye corteza y manto superior
 Espesor alrededor de 100 km
Corteza continental vs. corteza Oceanica
Astenosfera

 Relativamente caliente, de plástico

 Flujos con alta viscosidad
 Importante para el movimiento de placas litosféricas
 Una profundidad en base de la litosfera a unos 700 km
Ajuste Isostatico

 Movimiento vertical de la corteza terrestre

 Flotabilidad de la litosfera sobre astenosfera
 La corteza continental menos densa flota más alta que la corteza
oceánica más densa
 Rebote isostático - aumento de corteza antes pesada por hielo
glaciar
 Tiempo Geologico

Geocronología es el estudio del tiempo en relación con la existencia de

la tierra
Datación Relativa
Determina la edad de una roca en relación con su entorno
Datos numéricas
Determina la edad real en años
Estructuras sedimentarias
Un organismo enterrado en un sedimento
Tipos de inconformidades
Vista hipotética de la tierra temprana
Gran Cañon
 Limestone: caliza
Secuencia de rocas sedimentarias Sandstone: arenizca
Shale: esquisto
Hypothetical Landscape
 Datación Relativa.
 INDICE FÓSILES : Especies que tenían amplia distribución
geográfica, pero que vivieron sólo por un breve período de
tiempo
 Disconformidades: Límite entre 2 capas que son de diferente
edad
 Razones:
 Capas de roca eliminadas por erosión
 No hay capas de roca depositadas
MÉTODOS DE CORRELACIÓN:
Semejanzas Paleontológicas
Semejanzas mineralógicas
Método de datamiento numérico
Isotope Dating se basa en la tasa de decaimiento de los
isótopos radiactivos dentro de una roca
 Los isótopos radiactivos tienen núcleos que se
desintegran espontáneamente emitiendo o capturando
una variedad de partículas subatómicas
 Los isótopos isotópicos radioactivos en descomposición
se descomponen para formar isótopos hijos
 La mitad de la vida es el tiempo que tarda la mitad de
los átomos del isótopo parental en descomponerse
Algunos isótopos radiactivos con productos secundarios
 U-238 => Pb-206; K-40 => Ar-40; C-14 => N-14
Los núcleos atómicos inestables se descomponen
Decadencia Beta - núcleos atómicos inestables
Captura de electrones - núcleos inestables
Desintegración radioactiva
Pérdida de isótopos hijos
Metodo de Carbono-14
Correlación de la sección de anillo de árbol
Origen de varvas en lagos
TIEMPO GEOLOGICO
PRECAMBRICO
 Precambrian Time

• 4,600,000,000 YRS AGO TO

570,000,000 YRS AGO

• 85% OF EARTH’S HISTORY!!

• SIMPLE LIFE STARTS IN THE OCEANS

Precambrian
•4.6 billion years to, say, 548 or 544 million years (depending on method).
•Represents 88% of all of the history of the earth.
•Referred to as the Cryptozoic Eon.
–“hidden life”

(no more BIFs)

(prokaryotes)
Growth of Laurentia
Comparison of Atmospheres
First Redbeds
 Growth of the early continents
Island Arcs and other terranes accrete as
intervening ocean crust is subducted
Little Archean ocean crust survives: most subducted
But silica-rich continental crust too buoyant to subduct.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
evolve
 creates energy from photosynthesis
 giving off oxygen gas (beginning to
form the atmosphere of today).
 Form large stromatolites (below)
7% of Earth’s history

Era Paleozoica
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
• Six major Paleozoic continents are
recognized after Rodinia breakup
• Gondwana - S. continents, India
• Laurentia - North America, Greenland,
part Gr. Britain
• Baltica – Northern Europe
• Siberia – Most of Northern Asia
• Kazakhstania – part Central Asia
• China - All of SE Asia and SE China
The base of the Cambrian
 What defines the start of
the Cambrian period?
 Used to be where
trilobites were found, but
“small shelly fauna” (SSF)
was found under the
trilobites
 Ediacaran fauna is gone
Cambrian “explosion”
Cambrian period
Cambrian Period (570-500 MYA)

 Cambrian Explosion – Most major animal phyla are found in the fossil record (mostly
aquatic invertebrates with exoskeletons).

 Burgess Shale – major fossil site located in Canadian Rockies

Ordovician - Silurian

SILURIAN
 Silurian collision of Baltica/Laurentia
Caledonian Orogeny, suturing forms Laurasia
-----------------------------------
ORDOVICIAN
 Ordovician Gondwana moved 40o S to a South Pole
location (Glaciers formed, we find L. Ord. tillites)
 Baltica moved S, then N
 Microcontinent & Island Arcs collided with Laurentia (led to
Taconic Orogeny) narrowing Iapetus
End of Ordovician extinction
• Second largest mass extinction (except for the end of Permian)
• 450 to 440 my
• Cause: massive ice age as Gondwana moves over South Pole
• Sea level falls as glaciers grow, and expose much shelf area
Mid Ordovician to Silurian
Devonian

 Acadian Orogeny in the Appalachians

 Other orogenies: Antler (W. N.Am. Cordillera) and Ellesmere (north
margin of Laurentia)
 Gondwana moves to higher southern latitudes. All other continents at
low northern latitudes.
Devonian Period (395-345 MYA)

 “Age of the Fish” (giant armored fish).

 1st bony fish (scales and swim bladder for buoyancy).

 Paleogeography Early Devonian
Continued collision of Baltica/Laurentia formed Laurasia, closed Iapetus Ocean
Caledonian Orogeny in B/L finishes E. Dev
Acadian Orogeny in the Appalachians
folds older rocks M. Dev.

Antler

Caledonian

Acadian

Other orogenies: Antler (Cordillera) and Ellesmere (north margin of Laurentia)

Gondwana moves to higher southern latitudes.
All other continents at low northern latitudes.
Final Assembly of Pangaea

 After the suturing of Gondwana and Laurasia

(includes Hercynian and Allegheny Orogenies),
 Then:

 Siberia collided with Kazakhstania in the

Pennsylvanian, forming the Altai Mountains.

 Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the

Permian, forming the Ural Mountains.
Paleogeography Late Permian

Allegheny Orogeny Hercynian

N Eur-S Eur
 Permian Period (280-225 MYA)

 Reptiles dominate.
 Pangaea begins to form (Appalachian Mnts; dry climate; ice age in the southern hemisphere)
 Mass Extinction (90% of all species go extinct-mostly marine invertebrates).

Early Permian reptiles, Cacops in front & Casea in The middle Permian reptile, Anteosaurus.
back.
Mass Extinction

One of the Big FIVE Mass Extinctions

Mass extinction at the end of the Triassic – the
least understood of the “Big Five”
The Mesozoic Era
WHEN DINOSAURS RULED THE EARTH
The Mesozoic Era

 Began approximately 245 million years ago after a major mass extinction.
 Is subdivided into 3 periods:
 Triassic
 Jurassic
 Cretaceous
 Ends about 66 million years ago with a major mass extinction
The Triassic Period
245 - 206 million years ago
 Immediately after the Permian Mass Extinction
 Lots of new area is open for animals to live
 Three general types of animals:
 holdovers from before the extinction
 new groups that lasted only a short time
 new groups that lasted a long time
The Triassic World
 Earliest Dinosaurs
(Triassic)

Pisanosaurus
Length:3 feet
Height:1 foot
Weight:15 pounds
Eoraptor:
Length:3 feet
Height:1 feet
Weight:20 pounds Lesothsaurus:
Length:3 feet
Height:1 foot
Weight:15 pounds
The Jurassic Period
206 - 144 Million Years Ago
 Giant plant-eating dinosaurs
 Vicious carnivore dinosaurs
 Oceans full of fish, squid, sharks, etc.
 Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs
 Pterosaurs
 Birds
The Jurassic World
 Ankyloasaurus

Diplodocus
Jurassic Carnivorous Dinosaurs
 Many different forms
 Some were very large:
 Tyrannosaurus Rex
 Allasaurus

 Some were smaller:

 Raptors, and many more
 All had sharp teeth, claws,
and speed
Jurassic Marine Dinosaurs

 Most with similar shapes as

a dolphins or sharks
 Ate fish and other marine
animals
 Some were VERY large Ichthyosaurus
 All could swim VERY fast
The Cretaceous Period
144 - 66 million years ago
 The last period when Dinosaurs lived
 Ends with a mass extinction around 66 million years ago

 First flowering plants!

The Cretaceous World
The Cretaceous Mass Extinction

 Approximately 60% of all species went extinct.

 Affected many land animals/plants
 Affected fewer marine animals
What organisms went extinct?

 All dinosaurs
 All pterosaurs
 All ichthyosaurs
 Many terrestrial plants
 Many marine animals
What organisms survived?

 MAMMALS (!)
 Birds
 Many plants (ferns were the most successful plant for a while)
 Trees with flowers
 Small lizards/crocodiles/alligators/turtles
 Fish, squids, sharks, etc.
What caused the extinction?
 Meteorite impact theory
 66 million years ago, a ~10 km wide meteorite struck the Earth near what is now
Mexico.
Meteorite Impact

 This is an EXAGGERATED view of a meteorite impact

How could a meteorite impact
cause a mass extinction?
 The impact caused shock waves, tidal waves, and sent a
tremendous amount of dust into the atmosphere
 As the dust re-entered the Earth’s atmosphere, it would
have instantly heated the atmosphere causing
tremendous forest fires
 The dust could have caused the Earth’s climate to cool
in the long-run by blocking sunlight
 Plants, animals, etc went extinct due to the climate
changes and competition between organisms
Meteorite Impact Evidence #1

 Unique Quartz Crystals

Very commonly formed under high

pressure/temperature
This quarts was only found in meteorite craters
and nuclear testing sites
Meteorite Impact Evidence #2

 Iridium

An element that is very rare in Earth

rocks and very common in meteorites
The layer of rocks above the last
dinosaur bones contains ~160 times
‘normal’ levels of iridium
Problems with the Meteorite
Impact Hypothesis
 Why were some animals affected, while others were not?
 Why did birds survive, and dinosaurs (a very close relative) not?
 Why did small reptiles survive when small dinosaurs didn’t?
 Why did mammals survive?
Out-dated Hypotheses

 Hay Fever - caused by flowering plants

 Dinosaurs were so big, that they crushed themselves
 Mammals out-competed the dinosaurs
 Mammals ate all the dinosaur eggs
 Cosmic rays killed the dinosaurs
The Cenozoic Era
 Introduction
 The Cenozoic began ~65 mya
and continues until the present
 Cenozoic rocks are more easily
accessible and less deformed
than older rocks

 divided into the Tertiary and

Quaternary
 Cenozoic Tectonic activity concentrated in two areas
 Alpine-Himalayan belt deformation began in the Mesozoic and remains
geologically active.
Isolation of Tethys to form the modern Mediterranean Sea

 circum-Pacific belt deformation occurred throughout the Cenozoic

 Earth’s Major Orogenic Belts

The Circum-Pacific and Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belts, Earth’s present-day

major mountain building belts
 Cenozoic Pacific realm
1. Subduction of the Farallon Plate and its Mid Ocean Ridge
2. Formation of Andean Cordillera San Andreas forms
Antarctica separates from Australia,
heads to the South Pole (Eocene)
 Himalayan Orogeny

Thin-skinned tectonics Subduction

Partly subducted so under AW
 Himalayan Orogeny

Zoomed-in Views AW

FAB
Cenozoic Cooling
Australia separates Central America
construction
(Northern Hemisphere)
Starts see Monterey
Fm.
 Pleistocene Glaciation
 The Pleistocene began about 1.8 – 1.6 mya and ended about
10,000 years ago
 several intervals of widespread glaciation took place, separated by warmer
intervals
Pleistocene Ice Ages and Interglacial Intervals
 The Pleistocene began 1.6 Ma, ended 10,000 years ago

 Four major periods of widespread glaciation occurred, were separated by

warmer interglacial periods
 Causes of Ice Ages

 Plate Tectonics
Moves Continents to Poles
Raises mountains above snowline

 Orbit distance, Axis Tilt and Wobble

 Moderates solar radiation north of 65 N
 Milankovitch Cycles ~ 100,000 years
 Low summertime radiation 65 N, glaciers expand
Milankovitch Cycles
A change in Earth’s orbital eccentricity
occurs every 100,000 years

A 2° change in tilt of Earth’s

axis occurs every 41,000 years

A precession of Earth’s
axis occurs every
23,000 years