CHAPTER 10 Two-Phase Flow 10.1. INTRODUCTION In this chapter, a necessarily very brief discussion of two-phase flow is given. Two-phase flow occurs, by definition, in all condensers and vapor generators. It is also important in a variety of other equipment and in pipelines. A knowledge of two-phase flow is important in determining the pressure losses in the units, in determining limits such as the critical flow limit, and in forming a basis for a number of aspects of heat transfer coefficient calculation, ‘The chapter starts by discussing two-phase flow regimes and their calculation in both vertical and horizontal tubes, and in cross-flow. There then follows a discussion of the basic equations for the calculation of two-phase flows and the application of the homogeneous model. Correlations are then presented for separated flow friction and void fraction, and, finally, a very brief review is made of the problem of two-phase critical flow, 10.2 TWO-PHASE FLOW PATTERNS 10.2.1 Vertical Round Tubes ‘The flow patterns encountered in vertical round tubes are illustrated in Figure 10.1. The respective flow patterns defined for vertical flow are as follows: 1. Bubble flow. Here, the liquid phase is continuous and contains a dispersion of bubbles. 2. Slug or plug flow. Here, characteristically “bullet-shaped” bubbles are formed that may be separated by regions where there is a dispersion of smaller bubbles. 3. Churn flow. With increasing flow velocity, a breakdown of the slug flow bubbles occurs and leads to an unstable regime in which there is, in wide bore tubes, an oscillatory motion of the liquid upward and downward in the tube; thus the name “churn flow”. For narrow bore tubes, the oscillation may not occur and a smoother transition between slug flow and annular flow may be observed. 4, Annular flow. Here, the liquid flows on the wall of the tube as a film and the gas phase flows in the center. Usually, some of the gas phase is entrained as small droplets in the gas core and it also is possible, though less common, for bubbles to be entrained in the liquid film, 5. Wispy annular flow. As the liquid film flow rate is increased, the concentration of drops in the gas core increases and, ultimately, droplet coalescence occurs, which leads to large lumps or streaks or “wisps” of liquid in the gas core. This regime is characteristic of flows with high mass flux. Data for flow patterns are often represented in terms of “flow pattern maps” in which the regions of operation of each of the flow patterns is indicated, Various coordinates have been suggested for these maps; a typical (and reasonably general) map is that of Hewitt and Roberts (1969), which is reproduced here as Figure 10.2. Here, the plotting coordinates are the superficial momentum fluxes of the respective phases. The parameters used in Figure 10.2 are, respectively, the mass flux rit, the quality x, and the densities of pc and p,, of the gas and liquid phases, respectively. The maps shown in Figure 10.2 do not apply to downward flow; for this case there is greater preponderance of the annular flow regime. A further discussion on vertical regimes is given by Hewitt (1982). 10.2.2 Flow Patterns in Horizontal Tubes ‘The flow patterns in horizontal tubes are illustrated in Figure 10.3 and are defined as follows: 1, Stratified flow. Here, the gravitational separation is complete: liquid flows along the bottom of the tube and gas flows along the top. 31392 Process Heat Transfer Bubble Slug or Churn Annular Wispy-annular flow plug flow flow flow flow Fig. 10.1 Two-phase flow pattern in vertical tubes. 2. Stratified wavy flow. As the gas velocity is increased in stratified flows, waves are formed on the gas-liquid interface and give the stratified-wavy or wavy flow regime. 3, Dispersed bubble flow. Here, the bubbles are dispersed in a liquid continuum. In horizontal flow, the bubbles tend to congregate near the top of the tube as illustrated. At high system velocities, the bubbles may be more uniformly distributed and appear as a froth. 4, Annular-dispersed flow. Here, the pattern is similar to that observed in vertical flow with the exception that the film thickness is nonuniform: the film is much thicker at the bottom of the tube. 5, Intermittent flows. A variety of complex intermittent flows can exist in horizontal tubes, and it is often appropriate to treat all such flows as a single generic type of flow regime. However, this class of intermittent flows can often be divided conveniently into a further three subdivisions: (a) Plug flow. Here, as in vertical flow, the characteristic bullet-shaped bubbles are observed, but they tend to move along in a position closer to the top of the tube as illustrated. (b) Slug flow. This is characterized by the passage along the channel of frothy “slugs,” in which the liquid phase is continuous, but in which a large amount of gas bubbles is entrained. (c) Semislug flow. Here, the frothy slug takes the form of a wave on the surface of the stratified layer at the bottom of the tube. This wave does not actually touch the top of the tube. For the prediction of flow pattern in horizontal flow, the semitheoretical method of Taitel and Dukler (1976) is recommended. Essentially, the flow pattern map is represented in terms of the following four dimensionless parameters: es 0.1 re ‘Dg cos a ? DU, [ (10.2) 1 , 12 r= | —ee_ 0.3) Co = pa)8 08 (dp/dz), / 4) (dp/dz)g .Two-Phase Flow 393 108 ————_—_—-? _——r 108 105 108 mex/o, 10# 104 103 103 Annular 102 a 102 eee ee Chum_ Parr 10 i 10 : Bubbly” \ \ \ 7 1 , ‘ / Bubbly Slug 7 Slug 10-" 10 E toe & = kg/(s2-m)10 102 103 10% 105 108 3 102 108 10¢ rn2(1—x)2/0. Fig. 10.2 Flow pattern map for vertical upward flow in tubes. (From Hewitt and Roberts, 1969. With permission.) 1 tbi(s2-tt) 10 108 108 where Uz = the superficial velocity of the gas phase U,, = the superficial velocity of the liquid phase D = the tube diameter g = the acceleration due to gravity a = the angle of inclination of the channel (the Taitel-Dukler analysis applies quite well to small angles of inclination) the gas density the liquid density Po PL v, = the kinematic viscosity of the liquid phase (dp/dz),, = the frictional pressure gradient for the flow of the liquid phase alone in the channel (dp/dz)z, = the frictional pressure gradient for the flow of the gas phase alone in the channel X = the widely used Martinelli parameter.394 Process Heat Transfer Flow direction Q D bubble flow flow 3 i wavy flow Plug to = CEEFREES sem s Sep tow tons Cri Revi) Slug 6 EPS tow Annular }, dispersed flow Fig. 103 Flow patterns in horizontal tubes. ‘The Taitel-Dukler map, represented in terms of the preceding dimensionless parameters, is illus- trated in Figure 10.4, 10.2.3 Flow Patterns in Inclined Tubes Information on inclined tube flow patterns is reviewed by Hewitt (1982). The transition that is most sensitive to tube inclination is that between stratified and intermittent flows. Work by Barnea et al. (1980) shows that even small tube inclinations can dramatically affect this transition as illustrated in Figure 10.5. For this particular transition, the effects of tube inclination are reasonably well predicted by the Taitel and Dukler (1976) analysis, but this analysis does not predict the relative insensitivity to tube inclination of some of the other transitions. A generalized flow pattern map for tubes of any inclination is discussed by Barnea (1987). 10.2.4 Flow Patterns in Cross-Flow and in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Flow patterns for ideal cross-flow over tube banks were defined by Grant (1975) and are illustrated in Figure 10.6. Flow pattern maps introduced by Grant for vertical and horizontal flows over banks of tubes are shown in Figure 10.7. Here, the superficial velocities are defined in terms of the average cross-sectional area for flow. ‘Although the map shown in Figure 10.7 can be used to give a general indication of the flow patterns in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the actual flow conditions are very complex. An exampleTwo-Phase Flow 395 101 1 TF Annular-Dispersed Liquid 8 Dispersed Bubble i. ~~ 10° L B >On. — rN ~b Stratified Wavy ~ w 102 101 5 e L ‘a Intermittent kK 1011 10-2 L cert en i 27” Stratified Smooth ~ co. 109 = 103 103 102 10-7 100 10! 102 103104 x Curve: A&B c D Coordinate: Fvs. X Kvs x Tvs X Fig. 10.4 Flow pattern map for horizontal flows. (From Taitel and Dukler, 1976. With permission.) — 10 Above Lines: Intermittent Below Lines: Stratified Vi (mis-") of 0.01 Ve (mis) 10.5 Effect of tube inclination on stratified /intermittent transition. (Reprinted from Barnea et al. 1980. With kind permission from Pergamon Press Ltd., Headington Hill Hall, Oxford 0X3 0BW, UK.)396 Process Heat Transfer of the complicating features is that of flow separation as the flow passes from one balfle space (through the window flow zone) into another. A separation “bubble” tends to occur downstream of the baffle. 10.3 BASIC EQUATIONS Derivations of the basic equations for two-phase flows are given in many of the standard textbooks (Gee, for instance, Hewitt and Hall-Taylor, 1970, Collier, 1972, Lahey and Moody, 1977, and Hewitt, 1983). It is not the objective here to repeat these detailed descriptions, but merely to indicate how the equations are derived and to state them in a convenient form. 10.3.1. Definitions ‘The following main parameters are used repeatedly in subsequent text: Mass rates of flow (kg/s) Total M Gas Mg Liquid M, Mass flux (kg/s m?) m Densities (kg/m’) Gas PG Liquid 1 Specific volumes (m* /kg) Gas XG Liqui OL Viscosities (Ns/m*) Gas MG Liquid Mm Surface tension (N/m) o ‘The quality is defined as the fraction of the total flow that is in the vapor phase. Thus, (10.5) For thermodynamic equilibrium, the quality can also be calculated from the two-phase enthalpy /tsr and saturation liquid and gas phase enthalpies, /,, and hg, as - fap Ay . (10.6) ean ky ) ‘The two-phase enthalpy is given by Iiqp = hig + £ (10.7) where hig = the inlet enthalpy (J/kg) Q = the rate at which heat is added (J/s or W) ‘A = the cross-sectional area of flow (m*) “The void fraction, és defined as the volume fraction of the gas phase present in the channel or the area of the cross section occupied by the gas phase (these two ways of expressing the definition are assumed equivalent for the purposes of this chapter). Defining the mean velocities of the two phasesTwo-Phase Flow 397 Liquid Droplets in Gas Liquid Droplets in Gas Gas Bubbles inUquid ———_| © Oy ome Out Gas co —_——o oF Liguia Fig. 10.6 Two-phase flow patterns for cross-flow over tube banks defined by Grant. (a) Spray flow; (b) bubbly flow (vertical and horizontal), (c) chugging flow (vertical); (d) stratified-spray flow; (e) stratified flow. (From Grant, 1975, With permission.) aS ug and u,, respectively, a slip ratio S can be defined as (10.8) where Ug and U,, are the superficial gas and liquid velocities (i.e., volume fluxes of the phases per unit cross sectional area). It follows from the preceding definition that, for thermodyna between the phases, x “7550 —-Dee 40.9) ‘The two-phase density is defined as Pre = (1 = &) pL + € Po (10.10) The sotal volume flux is given the symbol U; note that x (=x) U = Ug + U, = ml — + 10.11) Po398 Process Heat Transfer Chugging Flow 104 b yes) pa! PL 10-2 Us( Vertical Flow ‘Spray Flow Bubbly Flow Spray Flow Stratified Flow Stratified-Spray Flow 10-1 L Horizontal Flow 10-2 a 10° y, (oud (NWS) o Fig. 10.7 Two-phase flow pattern maps for cross-flow over tube banks Bubbly Flow 101 (From Grant, 1975, With permission.)Two-Phase Flow 399 10.3.2 Balance Equations for Homogeneous Flow In the homogeneous model for two-phase flow, it is assumed that the two phases are traveling at the same velocities. It thus follows that ug =u, =U (40.12) s-2 (10.13) a Se (10.14) So 54 —x)pG/M, PaPt. =e 10.15) Pw eae PH (10.15) r= py (10.16) where pj, is called the homogeneous density. The balance equations for the homogeneous model are derived by considering a channel element as illustrated in Figure 10.8a. The continuity equation follows from a mass balance over the element as follows: Rate of Mass Mass Mass creation | = | outflow | — | inflow | + | storage i) (10.17) of mass. rate rate rate Applying this balance and simplifying leads to the equation a pu) Soa) + AS PE = 9 10.18) and for steady flow with a constant cross-sectional area, the continuity equation is (py) — din Ze (10.19) The momentum equation for homogeneous flow is obtained by carrying out a momentum balance Z ZS Gaueean 07 , Area A CON ra 7 @ ) Fig. 10.8 Balance elements for homogeneous and separated flow equations. (a) Homogeneous model; (b) separated-flow model.. 400 Process Heat Transfer cover the element as follows: Rate of Sum of forces creation} = | acting on control of momentum volume Momentum Momentum Momentum ={- outflow |-| inflow | + | storage (10.20) rate rate rate Carrying out this balance, and simplifying, we have the homogeneous flow momentum equation arn 1 ACA/ PH) ap 1].P _— — sina - — 10.21 | ae aa 92 7 8eusin a 0.21) Where 1p is the wall shear stress and P the channel periphery. For steady-state flow in ducts of constant cross section, Equation 10.21 reduces to dp P .,,dl/Pn) @ art" Iz + gpy sin @ (40.22) which isthe equation for pressure gradient using the homogeneous flow model. The three terms on the right-hand side of Equation 10.22 are often designated, respectively, the frictional (dp,/d=) ine elerational (dp,/dz), and gravitational (dp,/dz) components of pressure gradient. Thus, dp . 10.23) 7 (10.23) 10.3.3 Balance Equations for the Separated-Flow Model Here, the basic assumption is that the two phases flow in separate Zone (which may interact with weet other), Typically, this could be in the form of an annular flow as illustrated in Figure 10.8. Tchiled derivations of the balance equations are given by Hewitt and Hall-Taylor (1970), Collier (G57. and Lahey and Moody (1977). Equations can be written for each phase or, alternatively, they an be added together to give combined equations. It is the latter form we shall use for pressure drop car recociated calculations in this book. Carrying out a balance in the form indicated by Equation 10.17 leads to the separated-flow continuity equation: a a FAlecpa + (= €o)oe) + Fina) = (10.24) and for steady-state flow in a constant area duct, it follows that wm 9 (1025) ie “The separated flow momentum equation is obtained by carrying Out @ momentum balance in the form indicated by Equation 10.20, which leads to the result at 1 8 | nag -x¥ aw Ce ee a ’ qt AG “|e - 6) Pata op -=- sin a — 9g betTwo-Phase Flow 401 For ducts of constant cross section and for steady flows, it follows that 24 | G=s) mee dz} p,— € + Bl pcec — p(l ~ ea) (10.27) Paka where the three terms on the right-hand side may, again, be described as frictional, accelerational, and gravitational pressure gradients (see Equation 10.23), 10.4 PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS BASED ON THE HOMOGENEOUS MODEL 10.4.1 Frictional Pressure Drop Calculation for In-Tube Flow From Equation 10.22 and 10.23, we have dpe oP ee 10.2 aa 40.28) For round tubes, are (10.29) A” aD*/4 D where D is the tube diameter. A two-phase friction factor may be defined as (10.30) and hence, (40.31) An expression is required for fyp and the normal practice is to calculate it as a function of the two-phase Reynolds number: mD Reqp = — (10.32) TP from the single-phase friction factor /Reynolds number curve. Various definitions have been given for the two-phase viscosity yp, perhaps the most commonly used being that of McAdams et al. (1942): (=x) ™ (10.33) The homogeneous model gives a rather poor representation of pressure drop data for tubes, except at high pressures. It is not, therefore, recommended, but has been stated here for reference purposes. 10.4.2 Use of the Homogeneous Model for the Calculation of Pressure Differences across Changes of Cross Section and around Bends Reviews of calculation methods and experimental data for pressure losses in changes of cross section, valves, bends, etc. are given by Hewitt and Hall-Taylor (1970), Collier (1972), Chisholm (1967a, b, 1969, 1983) and Hewitt (1984). For the present purposes, it is sufficient to consider the cases of a sudden enlargement, a sudden contraction, and a 90° bend. These are illustrated in Figure 10.9, which defines the various parameters. The respective equations for the prediction of pressure changes402 Process Heat Transfer Pa | a= | | | 5 . . ~~. | 7 ltg—e fy oe ae. | | 7c | Ps hae A t I \ \ ps ‘a Pia Ay Ay Ap PA @) (b) (ec) Fig. 10.9 Process changes at changes of cross section. (a) Sudden enlargement; (b) sudden contraction; (c) 90° bend. using the homogeneous model are as follows: Sudden enlargement: P2-Pi= 034) Sudden contraction: Pi-P2 (10.35) 90° bend: 2 p= ke| |v (10.36) where «= A,/Aq, C. is the coefficient of contraction given by Chisholm (1983) as 1 c — (10.368) 0.639[1 — (1/o)] +1 yr is the homogeneous multiplier given by : in| +1( 2% . 4| (1037) Pa and k, is a loss coefficient for the bend, often taken as 0.15, although, in fact, it varies with bend radius, ratio, and Reynolds number (see Hewitt, 1984). The homogeneous model predicts the experimental data for sudden contractions much better than does the separated-flow model (see Section 10.5.3), although the latter is better for sudden enlargements. Pressure drops in bends are generally underpredicted by Equation 10.36, and the methods given in Section 10.5.3 are recommended rather than the homogeneous model.Two-Phase Flow 403 10.5 FRICTIONAL PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION METHOD BASED ON THE SEPARATED-FLOW MODEL 10.5.1 Definitions ‘Two-phase pressure drops are often expressed in terms of the two-phase multipliers defined as (ape/dz) p= Pela) bs Ea, (10.38) (dpp/dz) i - 39) rea Cpp/d2o (10,39) app/de) ik gee 10.40) 10 Cbg /tei9 a where the subscripts L, G, and LO refer, respectively, to the flow of the liquid phase alone in the channel, gas phase alone, and the total flow having the liquid properties. Parameters often used in the correlation of two-phase pressure drop are those of Martinelli, (dpp/dz), Se a 10.41) (dpg/dz)g oy and Chisholm, dp,/d: 2, Pr/de)oo (10.42) * @r/@ 19 where (dp,/dz)go is the pressure gradient for a flow of the same mass velocity as the two-phase flow, but having the physical properties of the vapor phase, X and Y are primarily functions of the fluid physical properties and quality. 10.5.2 In-Tube Separated-Flow Friction Pressure Drop Correlations The classical correlation of two-phase frictional pressure drop in tubes is that of Lockhart and Martinelli (1949), who related g and @, to the parameter X (Equation 10.41). Their correlation is illustrated in Figure 10.10. The secondary subscripts ¢ and vu refer to the state of flow of the phases alone (¢ = turbulent, » = laminar). The liquid flow state is indicated first. The curves shown in Figure 10.10 have been fitted by Chisholm (1967b) by the equations: Cc 1 opm 1+ cu (10.43) 3 = 1+ CX +X? (10.44) where C is an empirical parameter given by Chisholm as follows: Liquid Gas Abbrev. = C turbulent turbulent 20 viscous turbulent ot 12 turbulent viscous w 10 viscous viscous w 5 Noting that the Lockhart and Martinelli correlation gave incorrect values for high pressures, Martinelli and Nelson (1948) produced pressure-corrected multipliers for steam-water flows as404 Process Heat Transfer bo soeveeS, © 1 001 2 8 4 567890.10 2a 4 8 78ST 00 F Parameter X 10 3456788 100 Fig. 10.10 Pressure drop multiplier correlation of Lockhart and Martinelli, (From Lockhart and Martinelli, 1949. With permission.) illustrated in Figure 10.11. These multipliers have sometimes been applied to other fluids at identical reduced pressure (i.c., ratio of pressure to critical pressure). Although the Lockhart-Martinelli correlat they do not represent two-phase are demonstrably functions of the mass flux, tions are still widely used, it must be recognized that pressure drop data closely. Specifically, the pressure drop multipliers and large systematic errors occur with respect to the Martinelli correlations. Also, they do not adequately represent the physical property effects. 10,000 1,000 14.7 psia 100] o Parameter ¢, 14.7 psia 7, 500 1000 1/1500 10 WY, 2000 XE SX 2208 SS 0.07 OF 1 10 Parameter X,_ Fig. 10.11 Martinelli-Nelson correction to the Lockhart-Martinelli pressure drop correlation. (From Martinelli and Nelson, 1948. With permission.) 0.4 0.01 0.001 0.001 (1&6) ParameterTwo-Phase Flow 405 Since the publication of the Martinelli correlations, a very large number of alternative correla- tions have been published. Often, the physical justification for these correlations is obscure and, at best, many of them can be regarded as simple data fits. Here, we will mention two alternative published correlations, namely, those of Chisholm (1973) and Friedel (1979). ‘The Chisholm (1973) correlation is big = 1+ (Y? = 1) Bee-/2(1 — gO? 4 Pm 40.45) where 1 is the power to which Re is raised in the friction factor /Reynolds number relationship (0.25 for Blasius). The parameter B is given by B=S5/n'?— (0< ¥ < 95) (10.46) =520/(Yn'?) (9S < ¥ < 28) (10.47) = 15,000/(¥7m'/?) 8 < ¥) (10.48) where it is the mass flux in kilograms per square meter per second. ‘The Friedel (1979) correlation is 2, 324 fe- 2+ ome (10.49) where E=(-xf +27 (10.50) F=x°%(1 — x) (0.51) ost re (4) ( (10.52) Pa ie ira (10.53) piv eD r= —— (10.54) Pree where fq and f,o are the friction factors for the total mass flux flowing with gas and liquid properties, respectively. For this particular correlation, x d-x]" Prep = |— + (10.55) Pa PL The foregoing correlation is for vertical upward flow and horizontal flow. A slightly different correlation is used for vertical downflow. If surface tension data are available, it is recommended that the Friedel correlation be used; if not, then Chisholm correlation should be used. ‘Comparisons between the Friedel and other correlations and a data bank of 25,000 data points are reported by Friedel (1979) and are exemplified by Figure 10.12. Notwithstanding the complexity of the Friedel correlation, considerable scatter occurs when it is compared with the data bank. There would seem to be an irreducible inaccuracy, and the only way of progressing significantly might be to take account of the detailed flow pattern occurring. The development of pressure drop prediction methods on a flow pattern basis is proceeding (see Hewitt, 1992, for instance); already, these methods are producing more accurate predictions, but at the expense of more detailed stepwise calculation,406 Process Heat Transfer 1 10 100 1000 Frored @) ) al 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000 Rorea Proved © @ Fig. 10.12 Comparisons between the Friedel correlation and two-phase pressure drop data for various situations (a) Single component horizontal and vertical upflow; (b) two component vertical upflow; (c) two component horizontal flow; (d) single and two component downflow. (Friedel, 1979) Example 10.1 A mixture of heptane and octane containing 25% mass fraction of octane flows in a horizontal 2.21-cm bore tube at a mass flux of 407 kg/(m? s) and a pressure of 310 kPa. If the quality is 10%, calculate the pressure gradient in the tube using the Lockhart-Martinelli, Friedel, and Chisholm correlations. The accelerational pressure drop may be assumed to be small and (for the horizontal tube) the gravitational pressure gradient is zero. The following physical properties should be used: TAC MN: 8)/1 ny, = 156 (@N- 8)/m? @=81mN/m Method. The methods are as described in Section 10.5. The relevant frictional pressure gradient for the respective single-phase flows are first calculated (Section 10.5.1) and the Martinelli and Chisholm‘Two-Phase Flow 407 parameters (Equations 10.41 and 10.42) are estimated. ‘The friction pressure gradients for the Lockhart-Martinelli, Chisholm, and Friedel correlations are then calculated as indicated in Section 10.5.2. Solution. The solution proceeds as follows: 1. Calculate pressure gradients for equivalent single-phase flows. (a) Calculate equivalent Reynolds numbers: m1 —x)D — 407 x (1 ~ 0.1) x 0.0221 n= > = 519 x 10 et 7. 156 x 10> M07 X01 X 00221 ae gs 1.206% 71x 10°* nD . Repo = — = 5.77 X 10 ™, mD Rego = — = 1.26 x 10° Ne (b) Calculate friction factors (for simplicity, the classical Blasius equation is used here): i= .079 Re; “4 = 0.079 x 0.0663 = 0.00523 fe = 0.079 Reg'/4 = 0.079 x 0.0531 = 0.00419 fro = 0.079 Re; J/* = 0.079 x 0.0645 = 0.00510 foo = 0.079 Regiy* = 0.079 x 0.0298 = 0.00234 (©) Caleulate equivalent pressure gradients: 2fqr?x? — 2 x 0.00419 x 407? x 0.17 ane ~ [ 0.0221 x 18.1 atc Rafa 2 x 0.00510 x 407? Von O.02a1 x 567 ~ ‘1483 Paym : 2 x 0.00234 x 407? ian nee oe aan (d) Calculate parameters X and Y (Equations 10.41 and 10.4: dy dpe on (%) 2), ~ V3a70 = 1-796 dp, dp [1938 de az 134.83 = 3.80408 Process Heat Transfer 2. Calculate two-phase frictional pressure gradients using parameters evaluated in Step 1 (a) Lockhart-Martinelli correlation. (i) Select value of C (See Section 10.5.2). For liquid alone and vapor alone turbulent, c=2. Gi) Calculate $7: ajo 1.796 * (1.796) = 1+ 11.13 + 0.310 = 12.44 ii) Calculate (dp,/dz): (dpe) 2( Pe _ - —) =12.44 er i a ), 12.44 x 112 = 1393 Ib,/(ft? ft) (b) Friedel correlation. (i) Calculate E: 567 * 0.00234 18.1 x 0.00510 = 0.9? x or| = 0.810 + 0.144 = 0.954 ii) Calculate F: F = x97 - x) : = 0.1978 x 0.99% = 0.166 x 0.975 = 0.162 Hera tal Pa 1 ™h (2 0 71 «10-8 PPT 7x 10-8 |" ~ i) 156 x 10-° ~ 156 10-* Gii) Calculate H: = 22.97 x 0.556 x 0.968 = 12.36 (iv) Calculate pyp: x a=] fee | = (0.00552 + 0.00159] -* = 140.6 kg/m*Two-Phase Flow 409 () Calculate Fr and We: pre igs °" @Dpke 9.81 x 0.0221 x 140.67 meD 407? x 0.0221 We = a Pret = 140.6 x 8.1 x 10-3 = 3214 (vi) Calculate $75: ; 3.24FH Pio = E+ Gomis gi o.954 4 324 X 0.162 x 12.36 . (38.65)" "(3214)" = 0.954 + 4.147 = 5.101 (vii) Calculate (dp,/dz): app) _ 42 [4Pr (Z)- (Tn = 5.101 x 134.83 = 687.8 Pa/m (©) Chisholm correlations. (i) Select equation for B and calculate. Because Y <5, B is calculated from the Equation 10.46, B= 55/m'/? = 55/(407)"”* = 2.73 Gi) Calculate }7o taking n = 0.25 (Blasius equation): bBo = 1+ CY? = 1) BeO-/24 = gO 4 may = 1 + G80? — 1)(2.73 x 0.1% 48 90] — 9.1)?" Y* + oe) = 1+ (14.44 — 1)(0.332 + 0.018) = 5.70 (iii) Calculate (dp,/dz): —(dpp/dz) ~ bo(dpe/d2) 19 = 5.70 x 134.83 = 768.5 Pa/m It will be seen that the predicted pressure gradients are in the ratio 1:1.12:2.03 for the Friedel, Chisholm and Lockhart-Martinelli correlations, respectively. The first two correlations agree within the expected data scatter whereas the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation is very different!410. Process Heat Transfer 10.5.3 Use of the Separated-Flow Model for the Calculation of Pressure Difference across ‘Changes of Cross Section and around Bends For the separated-flow model, the homogeneous multiplier yj, used in Equations 10.34 to 10.36 is replaced by the separated-flow multiplier y,, which follows from the separated-flow momentum equations when the effects of gravity and wall shear are neglected. It is given by Hewitt (1984) as GQ=x) px? < 10.55a) "Ge * pees (10554) An alternative expression for w, is given by Chisholm (1973): = [1+ (2 -1}tasa - +2} (10.556) which is a reduced form of the equation for flow in channels (Equation 10.45). For B = 1, Equation 10.55b reduces to the homogeneous flow model, Equation 10.37. For a sudden enlargement, Chisholm (1983) suggests B = 0.25, although the normal separated-flow mode! (Equation 10.5Sa) may be preferable for a sudden enlargement if the void fraction ¢g is known, For a sudden contraction, the homogeneous model (Equations 10.35 and 10.37) should be used. For 90° bends, Chisholm (1983) suggests the use of Equation 10.55b with B calculated from the expression 22 B= ——_—_—— 10.55 1+ Fp + RD) 0.32) where kpzo = the loss coefficient for the bend calculated for the total flow flowing with the liquid phase properties R. = the bend radius of curvature D = the tube diameter For bends of other angles, Chisholm suggests that B = B, be calculated from the expression k. By = 1 + [Beg — 11 (10.55) ko where Bog is value of B calculated from Equation 10.55c, and kop and ky are the kpzo values calculated for bends of 90° and 6°, respectively. Example 10.2 ‘The fluid specified in Example 10.1 flows through the following sequence of pipes and fittings: ‘A sudden contraction from a 4- to a 2.21-cm-diameter pipe ‘A straight 5-m-long 2.21-cm-diameter horizontal pipe ‘A.90° bend with center line radius (R,) of 20 cm. A straight 5-m-long 2.21-cm-diameter horizontal pipe ‘A sudden expansion into a 4-cm-diameter pipe The flow has a mass flux of 407 kg/(m?-s) in the 2.21-em pipe and has a quality of 10%. Calculate the total pressure drop assuming that the physical properties remain constant and as specified in Example 10.1. Method. ‘The sudden contraction pressure loss is calculated using the homogeneous model. The straight pipe pressure losses are as calculated in Example 10.1 (j.c., those calculated from the FriedelTwo-Phase Flow 411 method) and the 90° bend loss is calculated by the Chisholm method assuming a value of kyo = 0.15. Finally, the sudden expansion pressure change is calculated using the Chisholm method with B = 0,25. Solution. The solution proceeds as follows. 1. Calculate the pressure losses for the fittings for the total flow flowing with liquid phase properties. For the sudden contraction, From Equation 10.36a we have 1 1 C.= ————___,,— = ——_________ = 062 © 0.6391 — (/o)}'7 +1 0.639 x [1 — 173.276]? + 1 : me [1 ‘ . _ - =o! |(= a) 41- Pio aH IG ie 407? 1 2 ~ 2x 567 ~ (oan ~ ‘| . = 146.07 x 1.191 = 174.1 Pa For the bend, Apo = 0.15| 2 Pio = 0.15] >= 407? = 0.15 x | ———— | = 21.9 Pa 2x 567 For the sudden enlargement, Ay _22P yy on eo mio (lo) ~ APLo = a — 407? x 0.305 x (1 — 0.305) LDF OF 2. Calculate the pressure loss for the sudden contraction using the homogeneous model. Calculate the homogencous multiplier y,, (Equation 10.37): aa] 1 oa( er A} = 4.032 = fis 0a( - ) = 403 ov= fio412 Process Heat Transfer Calculate the two-phase pressure change: =A Peon = Uy APio = 4.032 x 174.1 = 701.9 Pa 3, Calculate the pressure losses in the straight pipe sections using the Friedel correlation. The pressure gradient (—dp,/dz) was calculated in Example 10.1 as 687.8 Pa/m. Thus, the total pressure loss for the pipe sections is =APrpipes = (5 + 5) X (-= = 10 X 687.8 = 6878 Pa de 4, Calculate the pressure loss for the bend using the Chisholm method. From Equation 10.55c, a 22 =1+-—— Kero + R,/b) 22 =1 = 2327 * 01s x @ + 20/722) From Equation 10.556, (1 + (% . 1)tac =») +i} Po 567 = (i + (a - \)toanr x 01x (= 0.1) +o} = 7.654 Calculate the two-phase pressure change: Pena = Vy APio = 7.654 X 21.9 = 167.6 Pa 5. Calculate the pressure change for the sudden enlargement using the Chisholm method. For a sudden enlargement we take B = 0.25, Thus, wa (te (2 =a} 9 +2) Pa 567 = {1 + (iar = i)t0.2s x 01x C= 0.1) + ox} = 1.986 ‘The pressure loss is calculated as —APan = —% APLo = 1.986 X 61.9 = ~ 122.9 Pa 6. Calculate the total pressure loss in the sequence of pipes and fittings: ~ AP = —APcon ~ APpipe ~ AP end ~ 4 Pent = 701.9 + 6878 + 167.6 — 122.9 = 7625 Pa 10.5.4 Pressure Drop Correlation for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Measurements and correlation of pressure drop in shell-and-tube heat exchangers are discussed by Grant (1975). Detailed descriptions of shell-and-tube heat exchangers are given in Chapters 4 and 6. The flow may be regarded as flowing over the tubes in cross-flow in the zones between the baffles and then turning in the “window zone” to flow between the next pair of baffles. For the cross-flow zone, Grant suggests the use of the Chisholm (1973) correlation (Equation 10.45) with the following valuesTwo-Phase Flow 413 for Band n: Flow Type B n Vertical up-and-down spray and bubbly 1 037 Horizontal side-to-side spray and bubbly 0.75 0.46 Horizontal side-to-side stratified and stratified spray 025 0.46 For the window fiow zone, Grant (1975) suggests the following expression for the pressure drop multiplier: bio = 1+ (Y? — DIB — x) + x7] (10.56) where B = 0.25 for vertical up-and-down flow and B = 2/(Y + 1) for horizontal side-to-side flow. 10.6 VOID FRACTION CALCULATION The simplest method of calculating void fraction is to assume homogeneous flow (see Section 10.3.2), which gives a "y40-Daa =a) aa/ol (10.57) & Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) correlated €; in terms of their parameter X and the correlation is illustrated in Figure 10.10. A pressure-corrected version of this correlation was produced by Mar- tinelli and Nelson (1948) and is shown in Figure 10.11. The Lockhart and Martinelli correlation is well fitted by the expression (for the f region (10.58) =F L where ¢,, may be estimated from Equation 10.43. Systematic deviations occur between the Lockhart and Martinelli correlation and experimental data and, again, a simple correlation in terms of X scems inadequate. A number of alternative empirical correlations are available for void fraction, and one that covers a reasonably wide range of data for vertical pipes is that of Premoli el al. (1971). This is in terms of the slip ratio (the void fraction being calculable directly from Equation 10.9): 2 ) ~ JE, | (10.59) where 7 =% = volume flow ratio = 54 SC —x)pG/P, 0.1 0.1 + 1.682 x (1 = 0.10) x 18.1/567 = 0.674 . Compare void fraction calculations. The calculations for « are compared as follows: Homogeneous model = 0.777 Lockhart and Martinelli model & = 0.716 Premoli et al. correlation &G = 0.674 ‘The homogeneous model predicts the highest value, as expected, The other two models differ by about 6%. However, it should be noted that the two-phase density (prp = p; (1 — €¢) + Poa) differs by 14% for the two separated-flow models; the Premoli et al. model is preferred. . Calculate the gravitational and total pressure gradients using the void fraction calculated from the Premoli et al. correlation. (a) Gravitational pressure gradient ap, aa = gl p(1 — €g) + peeg! = 9.81[567 x (1 — 0.674) + 18.1 x 0.674] = 1933 Pa/m416 Process Heat Transfer (b) Total pressure gradient dp az From Example 10.1, step 2(b) (Friedel correlation), dpe GE 7 878 Also, assume that —dp,/dz = 0. Thus dp = = 687.8 + 1933 = 2621 Pa/m 10.7 CALCULATION OF CRITICAL MASS FLOW RATE ‘Two-phase flows combine the features of high density and high compressibility, and the critical mass fluxes are, therefore, much lower than those for the corresponding single-phase flows. Reviews of critical mass flow prediction are given by Saha (1978) and Henry (1979). Amongst the types of models used are the following: 1. Homogeneous equilibrium models. Here it is assumed that the flow is homogeneous but that thermodynamic equilibrium is maintained (by evaporation of the liquid) as the pressure falls through to the outlet. 2. Homogeneous “frozen” models. Here it is assumed that no evaporation of the liquid takes place during the passage of the fluid through to the choked flow point where the flow becomes critical. This model seems to be much closer to reality than that assuming equilibrium. 3. Slip models. Here account is taken of the difference in velocity between the two phases. It is possible to use steady-state void fraction correlations to predict this difference, but, more usually, special slip ratio correlations are developed. Examples of this kind of approach are the methods of Moody (1965) and Henry and Fauske (1971). ‘The homogeneous frozen model is sufficiently accurate to give a reasonable indication of the critical mass flux rit,, which is calculated from the expression (Henry and Fauske, 1971) 12x 2p sale = roy? (1065) vp ly-l the where y= the isotropic expansion coefficient p = the upstream pressure Pg = the upstream gas density and where v (the two-phase specific volume at the critical zone) and » (the critical pressure ratio) are given by any (10.66) (10.67) Example 10.4 For the mixture of heptane and octane described in Example 10.1, calculate the critical mass flux assuming a vapor isentropic expansion exponent, = 1.08.Two-Phase Flow 417 Method. The criti calculated from Equi Equation 10,65. ‘al pressure ratio and the two-phase specific volume at the critical plane are ions 10.67 and 10.66, respectively. The critical mass flux is then calculated from Solution. ‘The solution proceeds as follows. 1. Calculation of critical pressure ratio (Equation 10.67): 2 por» [4 2 980.081) E [ | = 0.589 1.08 +7 2. Calculation of two-phase specific volume: v= =20/—, +39 7/pG = (1 = 0.1) /576 + 0.1 x 0.589-171/18.1 = 0.01058 m3/kg 3. Calculate critical mass flux: 12 =1(22( 1 gran Ul pa \y-1 1 [pause 1.08 wr . (1.08 ~1)/1.08 0.01058 18.1 1.08 = 1 Ju - i 1 12 = dorasy (3425 % 13.5 x 0.03845) 3985 kg /(m?- s) 10.8 FLOODING Falling films can exist only if the upward gas velocity over them is relatively small. In annular flow, on the other hand, there exists a climbing film; climbing films can exist only if the gas velocity over them is sufficiently high. The transitions between these two extreme cases is illustrated in Figure 10.13. As the gas flow is increased, the system passes from one of falling liquid film flow (Figure 10.13a) through the “flooding” transition at which liquid begins to travel upward (Figure 10.13b), to simultaneous upward and downward liquid flow (Figure 10.13c and d), to climbing film flow (Figure 10.13e). When the gas flow is reduced, a point is reached at which liquid begins to creep below the injection point, and this is termed flow reversal. The flooding transition has industrial relevance in a number of contexts, which include the following areas: 1, Falling-film mass transfer equipment. In this case, it is economical to operate the equipment with a countercurrent (rising) gas flow, and again flooding is a limitation. A similar phe- nomenon limits the countercurrent operation of packed towers. 2. Reflux condensation. Here, the condensation rate is limited because, for a too high input vapor flow, flooding occurs, The technical importance of flooding has led to a wide range of studies and the development of a number of alternative correlation forms. Correlating parameters that are fairly widely used for418 Process Heat Transfer (@ ) © @ © o ® Liquid (Constant Rate) ; 1 ' ' t 1 Gas (Flooding) (Flow Reversal) Increasing Gas Rate Decreasing Gas Rate Fig. 10.13 Flooding and flow reversal flooding are those due to Wallis (1961): UE = Us e8LgD( pr ~ pe)? (10.68) Us =U, pl[gD(p, - pad? (0.69) where U, and Ug = the liquid and gas superficial velocities (volume flux per unit area) pr, and pc, = the densities of the liquid and gas phases D = the tube diameter the acceleration due to gravity ‘Wallis correlated flooding data with a relationship of the form ug)'? + Up? =c (10.70) where C is a constant whose value is on the order of unity. ‘Actually, flooding is a very complex phenomenon, and a relationship as simple as Equation 10.70 cannot be expected to give an adequate representation. This can be illustrated by considering two cases of flooding in vertical tubes with air-water flow, as illustrated in Figure 10.14. In both cases, the water is smoothly injected through a porous section in the channel wall. In case 1, the falling film is removed, after moving distance L, through another porous wall section. In case 2, the liquid leaves the channel by moving directly into a chamber from which air is passing into the tube. In the first case, the flooding phenomenon is due to developing wave growth on the film interface; the waves grow larger as the distance from the injection point increases. Thus, the onset of flooding is sensitive to the length of the film, In the second case, which is more representative of that occurring in a reflux condenser, the flooding rates are much lower and are insensitive to the length of the film, as shown. In this case, flooding is caused by the buildup of a wave at the position at which the air enters the tube, For this latter case, which is representative of reflux condensers, a reasonably conservative value for C would be 0.75. A review of recent information on flooding is given by Hewitt (1989). Example 10.5 In a reflux condenser, pentane vapor condenses totally inside the tubes of a vertical shell-and-tube heat exchanger, where the tubes have an inside diameter of 3 cm. What is the vapor mass flux entering the tube for the condition at which flooding of the tubes just commenced? The density of the pentane vapor is 19 kg/m? and that of the saturated condensate is 529 kg/m’.Two-Phase Flow 419 Y O& roel fe Sy we t A 1 ai “' J® O (002 0d 006 0.08 O10 O12 014 046 Gas Superficial Velocity at Flooding (m/s) Liquid Superficial Velocity at Flooding (m/s) Fig. 10.14 Flooding in air-water flow in vertical tubes. -, L = 1.22 m; x, L = 2.44 m, (Data from Harwell Laboratory, England.) Method. ‘The vapor mass flux entering the tube (vi) is equal to the liquid mass flux leaving the tube because the vapor is totally condensed in the reflux mode. Thus, m m — and Y= — Pa PL Substituting these identities into Equation 10.68 and 10.69, we have oe m 1/2 UE = sled p, - 20)! Pa * 1, Uz = yl aD(p, ~ pe)! PL and making the further substitution into Equation 10.70 and rearranging, . _ CAgDC p, ~ pa)? tin = ee oN U/pe/* + 1/p}/*7 0.5625[ gD( py, — pg ))'? U/olf' + 1/o)/4P if C = 0.75, as is appropriate for a sharp-edged entrance.420. Process Heat Transfer Solution. The solution is obtained by substitution of the phase densities and tube diameters into the preceding formula: 0.5625 gD( pr. ~ pa)l'® a4 Ae +o 47 0.5625 x [9.81 x 0.03 x (529 ~ 19)}'”* [9-4 + 520-47" 14.6 kg/(m?- s) Problems 1. A saturated steam-water mixture at 570 K flows through a horizontal 5-cm-diameter tube at a mass flux of 1000 kg/(m?+s) and a quality of 0.3. Calculate the pressure gradient using the Lockhart-Martinelli, Friedel, and Chisholm correlations, respectively, and compare the an- swers. 2. A saturated steam-water mixture at 570 K flows through a pipeline system consisting of the following elements: @ A sudden contraction from a 10-cm-diameter pipe to a S-cm-diameter pipe © A straight 20-m-long, 5-cm-diameter horizontal pipe © A 90° bend with center line radius (R.) of 20 cm © A straight vertical pipe, 20 m long and 5 cm diameter © A sudden expansion into a 10-cm-diameter pipe The mixture has a quality of 0.3 and is flowing at a mass flux of 1000 kg/(m?-s) in the 5-cm-diameter pipe. Calculate the pressure changes that occur along the system, 3. Calculate the void fraction for the flow of a saturated pentane vapor-pentane liquid mixture with a quality of 0.3 and a pressure of 492 kPa flowing in a horizontal 4-cm-diameter tube at a mass flux of 200 kg/m? -s). 4. Calculate the critical mass flux of a steam-water mixture flowing at a quality of 0.5 and having an upstream pressure of 18 bar. The homogencous frozen model should be used. 5. Isopentane is condensed at 217 kPa pressure inside the tubes of a vertical shell-and-tube heat exchanger in the reflux condensation mode. The tube diameter is 4 em. What is the maximum vapor mass flux for reflux operation, before flooding occurs? References Barnea, D., Shohan, O,, Taitel, ¥., and Dukler, A. E. (1980), Flow pattern transition for horizontal and inclined pipes; experimental and comparison with theory, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 6,217 Barnea, D. (1987) A unified model for predicting flow pattern transitions for the whole range of pipe inclinations. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 13, 1. Chisholm, D. (1967a), Pressure losses in bends and tees during steam-water flow, Report 318, National Engineer- ing Laboratory, East Kilbride. Chisholm, D. (1967b), A theoretical basis for the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation for two-phase flow, Report 310, National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride. (see Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 10, 1767). Chisholm, D. (1969), Theoretical aspects of pressure changes at changes of section during steam-water flow, Report 418, National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride. Chisholm, D. (1973), Pressure gradients due to friction during the flow of evaporating two-phase mixtures in smooth tubes and channels. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 16, 347. Chisholm, D. (1983), Two-Phase Flow in Pipeline and Heat Exchangers, Pitman Press Ltd., Bath, England. Collier, J. G. (1972), Convective Boiling and Condensation, McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Ltd., Maidenheed. Friedel, L. (1979), New friction pressure drop correlations for upward, horizontal and downward two-phase pipe flow. Presented at the HTFS Symposium, Oxford. (Hoechst AG Reference 372217/24 698).Two-Phase Flow 424 Grant, |. D. R. (1975), Flow and pressure drop with single-phase and two-phase flow on the shell side of segmentally baffled shell-and-tube exchangers, in Advances in thermal and mechanical design of shell-and- tube exchangers: Report of a meeting at NEL, Report 590, National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride. Henry, R. E. (1979), Calculational technique for two-phase critical flow, Proceedings of the Japan-US Seminar on Two-Phase Flow Dynamics, Inter-University Seminar House, Kansai, Japan, paper D2, p. 367. Henry, R. E. and Fauske, H, K. (1971), The two-phase critical flow of I-component mixtures in nozzles, orifices and short tubes, Trans. ASME. J. Heat Transfer, 93, 179. Hewitt, G. F. (1982), Gas-liquid flow, in Handbook of Multiphase Systems, Hemisphere Publishing, New York, chap. 2. Hewitt, G. F. (1984), Two-phase flow through orifices, valves, bends and other singularities, Proceedings of the 9th Lecture Series on Two-Phase Flow, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, p. 163. Hewitt, G. F, (1989), Counter current two-phase flow, Invited Lecture, Fourth International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Reactor Thermal-Hydraulies, Karlsruhe. Hewitt, G. F, (1992), Two-phase flow in vertical and horizontal pipes. Lectures presented at Workshop on Multiphase Flow and Heat Transfer: Bases, Modeling and Applications, ETH Zurich. Hewitt, G. F, and Hall-Taylor, N. $. (1970), Annular Two-Phase Flow, Pergamon Press, Oxford, Hewitt, G. F. and Roberts, D. N. (1969), Studies of two-phase flow patterns by simultaneous X-ray and flash Photography, Report AERE-M2159, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell. Lahey, R. T. and Moody, F. J. (1977), The thermal hydraulics of a boiling water nuclear reactor, Ame: Society monograph. Lockhart, R. W. and Martinelli, R. C. (1949), Proposed correlation of data for isothermal two-phase two-compo- nent flow in a pipe, Chem. Eng. Prog., 45, 39. Martinelli, R. C. and Nelson, D. B, (1948), Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation boiling of water, Trans. ASME, 70, 695. McAdams, W. H., Woods, W. K., and Heroman, L. C. (1942), Vaporization inside horizontal tubes. II: Benzene-oil mixtures, Trans. ASME, 64, 198. Moody, F. J. (1965), Maximum flowrate of a single component, two-phase mixture, Trans. ASME. J. Heat Transfer, 87, 134, Premoli, A., Francesco, D., and Prina, A. (1971), A dimensionless correlation for determining the density of two-phase mixtures, La Thermotecnica, 25, 11. Saha, P. (1978), A review of two-phase steam-water critical flow models with emphasis on thermal non-equi ibrium, Report NUREG /CR-0417 (BNL-NUREG-50907.R-4), Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washing, ton, D.C. Taitel, Y. and Dukler, A. E, (1976), A model for predicting flow regime transitions in horizontal and near horizontal gas-liquid flow, AIChE J., 22, 47. Wallis, G. B. (1961), Flooding velocities for air and water vertical tubes, Report AEEW-R123. 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