Ms \ SO 0 “ “PETROLEOS MEXICANOS” 0) Ol a (| a Ol 0 n EXPEDIENTE DE: 0 GENERACION Y_ MIGRACION DE LOS HIDROCARBUROS 0 GL-104 0 fi CLASIFICACION Ul 0 0 fl"| Unit I 1 Migration Processes 58 4 * Primary Migration 61 ‘| Secondary Migration 73 4 Summary 79 4 References 83 Further Reading 87 | Questions 89 Appendix A 93 Appendix B97 ‘Appendix C101 SAR a eae| Contents Acknowledgments v Preface vii Instructions to the User ix Legend x Introduction 1 Unit t Formation and Preservation of Organic Matter 2 Diagenesis of Organic Matter 20 Hydrocarbons and Kerogen Type 28 Unit I Chemical Changes with Kerogen Maturation 33 Depth, Temperature and Time in Petroleum Formation 38 Paleothermometry 48 Oil Shale 54 iiiAcknowledgments This manual ang the accompanying video program constitute one mogule of the IHROC Video Library for Exploration and Production Specialists. This module was produced during the first production cycle of the Video Library, which was sponsored in part by the following companies: AGIP S.p.A. : ARAMCO Chevron Corporation = Cities Service Oil ano Gas Corporation Dome Petroleum Ltd. Gulf 011 Corporation Mobil 041 Corporation Phillips Petroleum Company Schlumberger Technology Corporatien Texaco Inc. Their sponsorship does not constitute approval or recommendation of the methocs or procedures contained herein. Anyone using this program does so with the understanding that these companies and IHROC sre to be held harmless from any use or misuse thet may result therefrom. Throughout the production of the Video Library, many companies have proviged technical support, information, ana illustrations. We would like to thank these companies for permission to use their materials in the cevelopment of these modules, Multivision, Inc. Needham, Massachusetts Bay State Gas Brockton, Massachusetts Millipore Corp. Bedford, Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Cambrigge, MassachusettsTHRDC Video Fundamentals au io Boric Concepts of Patroieum Geology aL 102, Physical and Chemica! roperiies of Hydrocarbons 9 103, ‘The Bubsurtace Environment ‘aL {08 ‘Gonsration and Migration of Hyarocebone i 108 The Reservole GL 108 The Trap L107 The Habitat of rocarbons In mentary Basing Basic Skills ou 2 Goologle Crass Sections ou 22 Sunsurlace Mapging Gt 202 Prospect Generation ibrary Modules in a Petroleum Geology Wellsite Geology ai 301 Batic, Dring ana Weil Completion 1 s02 Produstion Technology and Roservolr Management for the Geologiat i303 Sampo ana Core Hanelng ane Analysis ai a0 uctogaing Wireline Well Logging aL ar Introdvotion to ‘Wall Legging fax 402 ately Loge. i 403 Porosity Loge Gt soe ‘Aavanced Wel Logging i 405 ‘The Diomete: Reservoirs aL sor and Methods of face Facies Analyale Gt soe Explain fot Nonmarioe ‘Sandstone Pese~ols Gi. 503 Exploration foe Marginal Matine Sargstone Rasenols OL tos Exploration tor Deepwater Mari Bandatone Recervoire Gt, $05 porotly Evoiuion of Sandstone Reservoirs L505 Extortion for carbonate Reservoirs i, s07 Povosly Evoutlon of Carbonate Reservas Gt so Evapories and ‘Ther iraonance 10 Petfotoum Exporation conces ‘Subeur Structural Geology and Global Tectonics aL oot Structural Gootogy ad Pra Tectonics arc evelopment of seamentery Sesis Gigs ‘Haptat ct Petoieum in Habiat of Fetroleum in convergent Margin Basins Toples sultabe for cross-osciplinery walning purposes are indicated by heavier type. vi Geochemistry au 701 Introduetion to ‘Exploration Geochomisby Gu 192 Aopicalion i Gooehemisiy — 15 Patisioum Bxoioraion. Fetcaum exlraion net | nataesny end'ponte Seng — ete fesnuse imoment | i soe z, sash Aah aos poy ies |sore ad ae Instructions to the User Modules: This video-based instructional series is composed of seven each with e videotape program and manuel. The series cen benefit a variety of industry personnel including: Individuals requiring or seeking only a broad overview of @ topic (e.g-, managerial or administrative personnel, or specialists in geophysics or petroleum engineering) will obtain a general understanding of each topic by viewing the videotape alone. Entry-level geologists requiring 2 more detailed working knowledge of each subject Instructed to view each videotape, so ontGay the accompanying manual, and to answer the questions pertaining to that Module. qo facilitate the learning process, each Module is divided into Iesteuctional units, consisting of about 10-15 minutes of » ioetings AE the eng of each unit, the user ts asked to review yew eo sponding section(s) in the manual, to do some further Feeding, end to answer the questions relevant to the unit. duestions are found at the end of each manual. | This CutStorcement techniaue ensures that the user "internalizes’ reat hesshe hears and sees in the video portion of the Module. To assist IHRDC in assessing the effectiveness of this videocassisted instruction, the user is asked to rate each Module on the attached evaluation form and to submit it to his/her training administrator or to: IHROC E&P Video Library 137 Newbury Street Boston, MA O2116 U.S.A.L eta igneous. Sandstone eee Limestone Sandstone saturated with oil Sees Sandstone saturated with gas FSaF 9] Water ae ° WEEE Shale ee J NOTE: For definitions of geological terms used in this manual, please refer tor Glossary of Geological Terms Second edition Saaeeeeeerierere R.C, Bates and 2.8. Jeckson American Geological Institute | Falls Church, WA | anaIntroduction This manual examines the generation and igretion of o11 and ges. These processes begin with the formation of * organic matter at the earth's surface and with the factors that control the amount ” of preservation of organic matter in sediments. Chemical changes after burial r : convert plant and enimal tissue into complex orgenic molecules that will eventually yield smsller hydrocarbon molecules of o11 or natural gas. The physical end chemical factors that effect the maturation level and geochemistry of the petroleum, and the migration processes that cause the petroleum to be carried from the source beds into permeable See carrier beds and then to entrapment in the reservoir, ere the main topics of this a) manual. amie dean elses 1Unit t Formation and Preservation of Organic Matter In the nineteenth -century, At was widely believed that petroleum had a magmatic origin,and that it migrated from greet depths along subcrustel faults. Vestiges of this theory may still be heard today, but the overwhelming evidence now Suggests that the original source materiel of petroleum is organic matter formed at the earth's surface. The process begins with photosynthe- sis, in which plants, in the presence of sunlight, convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose, water and oxygen (Figure 1). Glucose is:the starting material for the synthesis of more complex polysaccharides and other organic compounds, either in plants or the animals that eat them. Photosynthesis is part of the larger- scale carbon cycle. Ordinarily, most of the organic matter produced by photosynthe- sis gets recycled back to the atmospheresaat ie! Fig. Photosynthetic process. euniignt 6CO, + 12H,0 + C,H,.0, + 6H,0 + 60, (glucose)as carbon dioxide. This cén occur through plant and animal respiration, or through oxidation and bacterial decay when organisms die. Normally this completes the cycle (Figure 2). However, the carbon cycle is not completely efficient. A small amount of organic matter, about 1 part in 1000, escapes recycling and is buried. Over geologic time, this small influx has produced vast quantities of fossil organic material, estimated at about 20 x 101° metric tons (Waples, 1981). However, most of this material is widely dispersed within the sedimentary column, Only about one CO, molecule out of every million initially teken up by photosynthesis is eventually converted into economically exploitable oil, natural gas or coal. The series of events that leads to concentrated accumulations of fossil fuels is, therefore, highly selective.EEE eee He Fig. 2 Carbon cycle. 208% EER om os | 01% formation ‘arning ot il elsThese selective conditions all begin “With the supply of organic matter to sediments, either by marine plants and s ‘animals, or by terrestrial plants. In -- "sandy, current- and wave-agitated ard s :. environments, the organic matter stays in 7 ey suspension or is winnowed away, but it can { settle out in quiet water, low energy environments. Consequently, organic matter is found mostly in fine-grained i rock types, such as shale and lime mud. - These low energy environments are usually found in oceans, lakes, or, in the case of coal, swamps: However, not all shales contain enough organic matter to be good source rocks. Organic-rich shale is favored by both a high rate of production of organic matter, and by a high preservation potential. All organic matter in the ocean is ~ originally formed through photosynthesis. The main producers are phytoplankton,~+ which are microscopic floating plant's such as diatoms, dinoflagellates and the +i" ‘pluesgreen algae. Sottom-dwelling algae are also major contributors in shallow water, shelf environments. : Phytoplankton are at the bottom of st \ the food chain. Their distribution controls the animal forms such as the microscopic zooplankton, as well as the higher animal life, all of which contribute to the ocean's biomass. The production of phytoplankton and ‘algae is related to both physical and chemical variables. Light is particu- larly important, because’ of its role in photosynthesis. The depth penetration of light through the ocean's surface defines the photic zone. The thickness of the photic zone depends mainly on latitude and eS water clarity. In clear, tropical seas, where productivity is often high, the photic zone can extend up to 100 meters below the surface.The second important factor in organic productivity is the rate of nutrient supply to the photic: zone. The most {mportant of these nutrients are phosphates and nitrates. These ere released by bacterial decomposition of organic matter, and are vital for both plant and animal growth. Oxygen, although not importent for phytoplankton, is vital for the existence of animals that form later links in the food chain. Phyto~ plankton increase the oxygen content of surface weters, as a by-product of photosynthesis. Figure 3 shows the areas of high biological productivity in the world's oceans. In the open ocean, zones of high productivity occur st high latitudes of about 60° north and south and along the equator. These are regions in which cold, vertically moving ocean currents bring nutrients and dissolved oxygen from the deep ocean back up to the surface.3 Fig. Productivity of world’s oceans. Darker areas denote highest pro- ductivity. 1 1 (0) ver nos [Gy roseratet an, Eo aero 1 ] | eee | 1 1 1 BeeWithout this resupply, nutrient concentrations in the surface water would become so low that the oceans would become essentially lifeless in less than e year, except near the mouths of lerge rivers. Productivity 4s also very high in the shallow, well-mixed weters over the conts~ nentel shelves, particularly where lerge rivers enter the ocean and supply sbundant nutrients. The same principles which govern the distribution of organic matter in modern oceans must have also pertained in the past. However, it is very diffi- cult to extrapolate this data back into geologic time, since the continents have drifted, ocean circulation patterns have chenged and the diversity of plent anc animal groups hes eltered over tine. Arees of high productivity ere not necessarily those best suited for preservation. Destruction of organic matter must also be prevented. Complete t uogical recycling of organic carbon is retarded by anything that limits the supply of elemental oxygen. This occurs ee| most favorably in either one of two settings: rapid rate of deposition; and stratified, oxygen-poor water bodies with anoxic bottoms. First, rapid deposition may be neces~ sery to keep the organic materisl from being destroyed. In normal oxygensted marine environments, some enimals, such es marine polycheete worms, eat sediment to get at the organic matter it contains. If Geposition is slow, bottom sediments may be eaten many times and most organic matter destroyed. It hes been commonly observed that shales which have a high degree of bioturbation mottiing by deposit-feeders also have low organic contents end are poor petroleum source rocks. pacterie in the sediment will elso destroy organic matter. Aerobic bacteria use dissolved free oxygen diffused from overlying water into the upper sediment layers to convert the organic matter to carbon dioxide end water (Figure 4). Aerobic breakdown is @ highly efficient process, and most of the remains of dead 1"Fig.4 Aerobic bacterial decay. CH,O + O, — CO, + H,0' where CH,O represents all organic compounds | 4 | | 12plents snd enimels ere destroyed by it. In typlegl apershore marine muds, serobic decomposition occurs right st the sediment- water interface, but free oxygen is rapidly used up below the sediment surface. Anaerobic bacteria thet reduce nitrates (Figuresse) Live in the first few centi- meters below the surface; sulfate-reducing bacteria (Figure 5b) occur over the next 100 cm.; and at greater depths anaerobic bacteria breek down organic matter through fermentation, forming biogenic methane or marsh gas. (Figure Sc) (Berner, 1980). However, most of this becterial action which destroys organic matter, both serobic and aneerobic, occurs within the upper 30 to 60 cm. of sediment. Under conditions of rapid deposition, bacteria can ect for only a short time, and decomposition is less complete: preservation is also favored by density stratification, which produces oxygen-poor bottom waters. This occurs mainly {n some lakes and in lagoons ano 3trate reduction, b) sulfate, ceduc- tion, ¢) fermentation, © ‘~~ = + C0, + 3H,0 OO Fig.5 Anaerobic bacterial decay. a) ni? * 3) 5CH,O + 4NO.~—+2N, + 4HCO, clei “' *'s) 20H,0°+ SOF —-+H,S + 2HCO,- «) 2CH,O + 2H,O+CH, + 2H,0 + CO, | where CH,0 represents all organic compounds1 1 1 1 | 1 shallow, restricted seas where fresh river water enters a dense saltwater body- Because of the density contrast, the less dense fresh water floats on seawater. Mixing of waters is greatly inhibited between the two layers. Oxygen produced from photosynthesis, or dissolved in the water from the atmosphere, in the upper layer cannot circulate to the lower layer As a result, in the deeper denser waters where organic detritus stowly setting to the bottom undergoes bio-oxidation, the oxygen supply 4s rapidly used up snd cannot be replaced . goth the bottom waters and the substrate will become anoxic, and the normal processes whereby organic matter drifting down from above is oxidized, will be inhibited. The rate of pfoduction of organic matter in such an environment may be no higher than average, but its rate of decay may be much slower. + These anoxic ocean-floor environments are unable to support the sediment-eating animals and aerobic bacteria that normally cause most organic destruction. In this 15situation, the only bacteria present will = — be anaerobes, which are much less efficient gh tea ae at destroying organic matter than aerobes. a The incomplete breakdown of organic mole- = cules’ by enaerobic becterie actually enhances the trensformation of organic S ree matter into petroleum. Water stratification and oxygen depletion are well known in the modern eee cts Black Sea, (Deuser, 1971, Degens and Ross, 1974) and in the Dead Sea (Neev and Emery, — e . 1967). The Eocene-age lakes of Utah, eee Colorado and Wyoming, in which the Green - River o41 shale formation wes deposited, have been interpreted as seasonally stratified water bodies which et a leter = — stage become permanently stratified (Figure 6). Stratified oxygen-depleted deep waters and sediment substrate occur not only in lakes and inland seas, but also on — broad, flet shelves where circulation may be minimal. In the present-day world's oceans, there is a zone of maximum oxygen 16