—— the CHAPTER 8: FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT PERFORMANCE In this chapter, the fundamentals needed for calculating in-flight performance characteristics of airplanes will be derived and discussed. Before doing this certain conventions for axes and angles must be introduced. That is accomplished in Section 8.1. Next, the fundamental aspects of in-flight airplane performance characteristics will be presented in the corresponding sections: n-powered flight 8.3 Steady, powered, flight 84 tcady, powered, level flight ‘The methods in this chapter are concemed primarily with the level flight performance of air- planes. Methods to calculate climb performance, fieldlength performance, cruise and endurance performance and maneuvering performance are presented in Chapters 9 through 12 respectively. 8.1 DEFINITION OF ANGLES AND AXIS SYSTEMS Figure 8.1 shows how the most important angles and axis systems are defined. ‘The reader should carefully note the meaning of several key words in the title of Figure 8.1 * ‘The word steady implies that no accelerations act on the airplane Exceptions to this will be noted in Chapter 12. The word symmetrical implies that the flight takes place at zero sideslip. The words straight line imply, that only straight line Might paths are assumed. Exceptions to this will be noted in Chapter 12. ‘The meaning of the symbols in Figure 8.1 should be clearly understood: U is the st dy speed of the airplane relative to the air x, is the body fixed X-axis which points through the c.g. The selection of the orientation of this axis relative to the airframe is arbitrary. Th transport airplane the X-axis is usually selected to be parallel to the cabin floor. Z, is the body fixed Z-axis which points throngh the c.g. and is perpendicular to Xy, Chapter 8 331Fundamentals of Flight Performance © 0 is the pitch attitude angle © wis the angle of attack © + is the Might path angle Horizon to the XZ plane and is not shown Figure 8.1 Definition of Angles, Axes and Velocities in Steady, Symmetrical, Straight Line Flight X, is the stability X-axis which points through the c.g. and points along the steady state velocity vector, U Zs is the stability z-axis which points through the c.g. and is perpendicular to X, ‘The following angles are of key importance to in-flight performance: ct is the airplane angle of attack, defined as the angle between X,and U, 0 isthe airplane pitch attitude angle, defined as the angle between X,and the horizon y is the flight path angle, defined es the angle between U, and the horizon A very important relationship, which is always satisfied and should be memorized is: O@-a+% 6.0 It should be noted, that the angles a, y, and @ as shown in Figure 8.1, are positive 7 vy, ¢ following velocity components are of key importance to it-flight performance: RC __ isthe vertical velocity component, also called the rate-of-climb, RC. Lf the rate of climb is negative, it is called the rate-of-descent, RD. Note that if RC is negative, the flight path angle, y, is also negative. Vi, is the horizontal velocity component. The following relationship between specd, U . flight path angle, y, and rate~of-climb, RC, must also be kept in mind: RC = U; siny (8.2) maFundamental of Flight Performance A fundamental assumption which will be made in all performance discussions in this and subse- quent chapters is that the airplane is trimmed about all axes X, Y and Z in Figure 8.1. This means that the total pitching moment, rolling moment and yawing moment which act on the airplane are assumed to be zeto. ‘The drag effect of this was discussed in Chapter 5, Sub-section 5.2.10. Tt will also be assumed that the airplane does not undergo any acceleration in the Y-axis direc- tion, The net result of all this is that only equations in the X and Z axis directions are needed to de- scribe the performance characteristics of an airplane. Finally, :he airplane is assumed to have no angular rates, with exceptions noted in Chapter 12 From a Newtonian viewpoint, the airplane is therefore treated as a point-mass madel on which only forces (and no moments) can act. For amore general treatment of the equations of motion, the reader is referred to Chapter 1 of Reference 8.1 Figure 8.2 provides a definition of all forces which act on the airplane in steady, un-accelerated flight. Observe especially the thrust force at an inclination angle, y. For most airplanes this angle is very small. Obviously, when thrust vectoring is used, it is not small, Note the body-fixed axis and the stability axis notations. Remember that stability axes are also body-fixed axes R is the resultant aerodynamic force Figure 8.2 Definition of Forces in Steady, Symmetrical, Straight Line Flight Chapter 8 333Fundamentals of Flight Performance It can be seen from Figure 8.2 that a condition for in-flight equilibrium is: R+T+W-=o (8.3) For analytical purposes Eqn (8.3) is normally split into its two component forms in the stability axis system: Tcos(a + dy) — D — Wsiny = 0 (8.4) and Tsinta + p,) + L — Weosy = 0 (8.5) Substitution of the standard form for expressing lift, L and drag, D yields: Testa + gy) — CpqS — Wsiny = 0 (8.6) and Tsin(a + py) + CLgS — Weosy = (8.7) Eqns (8.6) and (8.7) have seven variables which together completely define a steady state flight condition. These variables are: W, hf (altitude through 9). a, gp. Vy, and T In nearly all real world situ: ions, the variables W, oy and h (altitude) will be pre-selected. That leaves four variables in Eqns (8.6) and (8.7). Of these four variables, two must be arbitrarily se- lected, before the other two can be solved for from Eqns (8.6) and (8.7). Example cases of practical interest are: + Levelflight(y = 0)atagiven speed, V. The magnitudes of required thrust, T, and the angle @, follow from Eqns (8.6) and (8.7). * Flight at a given thrust, T, and any desired flight path angle, y,. ‘The variables speed, V, and angle of attack, a, follow from Eqns (8.6) and (8.7). Itis instructive to examine first the case of un-powered flight. As will be seen (and totally ex- pected), in un—powered flight, maintaining aititude at constant speed is not possible. ‘This yields the important glider design problem of finding that aerodynamic design which results in the lowest pos- sible rate-of-descent, RD. Un-powered flight is discussed in Section 8.2 while powered flight is discussed in Section 8.3, Ee 334 Chapter 8Findenmensns oriinrdieeiennence 8.2 Th PRD NOul NosPO-WELEDD (G02 18.11) can also be obtained from Egns (8.6) and (8.7) by simply substituting: T=0. Roe eee ae EEN ON ive as shown in Figure 8.3, iis useful to introduce Figufe 8:3 .Shows the forces which act on an airplane in un—powered flight. The angles sKovn? in Finan SB hevaden exazepaich fedoloniyy nSinsadl dain this easeoFRig® Bigldgs. 10) and (8.11) can be re-written as R+W=0 (8.8) Sh0'R & the Feddltant of lif, L , and drag, BD, itis possible to write: 6.13) and Cs were STH) Observe, that there are five vatyables Pr these two equations: W, bh (eltitde through @ Since (in the absence of thermals' altitude will in fact vary. However, speaking Httitious 8 ess remain, ont oKyhgah 2p The eee Gigiae 8 Porees Abding ou oa Allplane tt Un powered Fight oe SPe° E=OR-DESCENT AND SPEED (8.9) 8.20, 983 1S 4'NCLE, wherd\ RP Ni rll edit eHi deal deft” be recovered from Eqn (8.13) and (8.14) by division: ‘Thmyeotor Bationship of Eqn (8.8) can be written in component form as: (8.15) FID specWisinht: gtid®, V, can be solved trom Eqn (8.9) a (8.10) and (Bel 1b) Chifter 8 ‘Chapsess