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Distribucin
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Enfoques y polticas
Marta Novick y Soledad Villafae

(Eds.)
NDICE
PRLOGO ....................................................................................................................................9
INTRODUCCIN ........................................................................................................................... 13
Marta Novick y Soledad Villafae
I. DISTRIBUCIN DEL
DESDE EL SUR
INGRESO.
ENFOQUES Y POLTICAS PBLICAS
Tendencias y perspectivas de la pobreza y la equidad

1
CRECIMIENTO, POLTICAS MACROECONMICAS Y REDUCCIN DE LA

CHINA E INDIA: UNA COMPARACIN DE TENDENCIAS RECIENTES ........ 31
POBREZA EN
Jayati Ghosh
2 REGMENES POLTICOS, SHOCKS EXTERNOS Y DESIGUALDAD DE

INGRESOS: AMRICA LATINA DURANTE LAS LTIMAS TRES DCADAS ........................ 67
Giovanni Andrea Cornia
3 LA
CRISIS FINANCIERA GLOBAL Y LOS PASES EN DESARROLLO ................................107
Jan Kregel
Macroeconoma, estructura productiva y empleo:

por qu observar la desigualdad?
4 DISTRIBUCIN DEL
INGRESO Y ANLISIS MACROECONMICO: UN REPASO
DE LA LITERATURA Y DE LOS DESAFOS DE LA POLTICA ECONMICA ......................123
Martn Abeles y Fernando Toledo
5 CONTEXTO MACRO Y ESTRUCTURA MICRO: RGIMEN CAMBIARIO,

ESTRUCTURA DE MERCADO Y DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO EN LA
ARGENTINA....... 157
Emmanuel Agis y Daniel Kostzer
6 EL VNCULO ENTRE DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO Y ACUMULACIN.

REVISIN TERICA Y PRESCRIPCIONES DE POLTICA ....................................................181
Fernando Porta y Carlos Bianco
7 DISTRIBUCIN DEL
INGRESO Y DESARROLLO ECONMICO.
UNA NUEVA
MATRIZ DISTRIBUTIVA REQUIERE UNA NUEVA MATRIZ PRODUCTIVA ......................... 209
Matas Kulfas
II. POLTICAS DE
INGRESOS Y DESAFOS A FAVOR DE LA IGUALDAD
Impacto distributivo de las instituciones laborales

8 DINMICA DISTRIBUTIVA Y POLTICAS PBLICAS: DOS DCADAS DE
CONTRASTES EN LA ARGENTINA CONTEMPORNEA ................................................. 227
Luca Trujillo y Soledad Villafae
9 SALARIOS,
SINDICATOS Y REPRESENTACIN SINDICAL EN LA EMPRESA:
UNA ESTIMACION DE LA BRECHA SALARIAL EN
ARGENTINA .....................................263
Carla Borroni y David Trajtemberg
La cuestin de la igualdad en los sistemas de proteccin social

10 SISTEMA PREVISIONAL Y EQUIDAD.................................................................................289
Fabio Bertranou
11 GLOBALIZACIN Y DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO: LA IMPORTANCIA DE LA

PREVIDNCIA RURAL Y DE LOS BENEFCIOS DE PRESTAO CONTINUADA
EN BRASIL ........................................................................................................................ 303
Helmut Schwarzer y Rogrio Costanzi
12 DEBATES DE POLTICAS SOBRE EL BIENESTAR, LA EQUIDAD Y LA

INCLUSIN SOCIAL: AMPLIACIN DEL SISTEMA DE PROTECCIN
SOCIAL EN LA ARGENTINA .............................................................................................323
Marianela Sarabia, Diego Schleser y Clarisa Soto
13 EL BANCO DE PREVISIN SOCIAL DE URUGUAY

(INSTITUTO DE SEGURIDAD SOCIAL) ............................................................................353
Ernesto Murro
Polticas de transferencias monetarias: disminuyendo la inequidad

14 TRANSFERENCIAS
MONETARIAS A LA NIEZ.
A PARTIR DE LA EXPERIENCIA DE
ALGUNAS REFLEXIONES
AMRICA LATINA...................................................363
Roxana Maurizio y Brbara Perrot
15 LA
DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO Y LOS PROGRAMAS DE TRANSFERENCIAS:
UNA COMPARACIN ENTRE
BRASIL, CHILE Y MXICO ...............................................395
Sergei Soares, Fbio Veras Soares. Rafael Osrio, Marcelo Medeiros
Impacto distributivo del rgimen tributario

16 IMPACTO DISTRIBUTIVO DEL SISTEMA IMPOSITIVO
Y DE LA SEGURIDAD SOCIAL ..........................................................................................419
Roberto Pereyra y Paula Vijoditz
Sobre los autores ..........................................................................................................449

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1 En el estudio se concluye que la inmigracin ha demostrado ser uno de las principales fuentes de igualacin de la
distribucin del ingreso global y nacional en los pases pobres en el ltimo siglo.
2 En general en las fases de ganancias, ests son fundamentalmente privadas; mientras que en las declinantes
o de estallidos de burbujas especulativas, suelen implementarse medidas que implican la socializacin de esas
prdidas.
3 En el captulo 3 Kregel realiza un anlisis sobre las causas nancieras de la crisis, centrado en cuestiones institucionales, que resulta sumamente interesante.
14
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4 Informe Nacional del Impacto Social de la Globalizacin MTESS-OIT 2009.
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5 Pases y subregiones, sobre todo en el Caribe, han sufrido ms los efectos de la crisis y se encuentran en un proceso de reactivacin muy dbil con indicadores laborales todava deteriorndose. (CEPAL/OIT, 2010)
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De los principales contenidos de este libro

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6 Durante los primeros aos de recuperacin de la crisis del 2001/2 parte de la poltica de ingresos se bas en
aumento de sumas jas ( un monto similar para todos los trabajadores) que se constitua claramente en aumentos
signicativos para los salarios ms bajos
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Distribucin del ingreso.
Enfoques y polticas
27
Tendencias y perspectivas
de la pobreza y la equidad
1 CRECIMIENTO, POLTICAS MACROECONMICAS Y REDUCCIN DE LA POBREZA
EN CHINA E INDIA: UNA COMPARACIN DE TENDENCIAS RECIENTES
Jayati Ghosh
2 REGMENES POLTICOS, SHOCKS EXTERNOS Y DESIGUALDAD

AMRICA LATINA DURANTE LAS LTIMAS TRES DCADAS
DE INGRESOS:
3 LA CRISIS FINANCIERA GLOBAL Y LOS
PASES EN DESARROLLO
Jan Kregel
29
1
CRECIMIENTO, POLTICAS MACROECONMICAS Y REDUCCIN DE LA
POBREZA EN CHINA E INDIA:
UNA COMPARACIN DE TENDENCIAS RECIENTES1

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1 Artculo recibido en septiembre de 2009.

2 Casi todos los estudios que hallaron que las desigualdades globales disminuyeron durante la globalizacin (Dollar y Kraay,
2002; Surjit Bhalla, 2003; Sala-i-Martin, 2003, entre otros) se basaron sustancialmente en el incremento del PBI per cpita
de China e India que en conjunto representan alrededor de un tercio de la poblacin mundial- para sacar sus conclusiones.
De forma inversa, aquellos que han sido ms escpticos sobre el impacto de la integracin econmica global en la
desigualdad han tendido a observar los patrones de desigualdad dentro de estos dos pases (Cornia, 2003; Milanovic, 2004; Reddy, 2003, etc.) para encontrar crecientes diferenciaciones econmicas (incluyendo el incremento de
desigualdades urbano-rurales) y, muchas veces, la mayor vulnerabilidad de los pobres en estos pases (minimizado
por las cifras del PBI per cpita), alterando las conclusiones con respecto a las desigualdades globales.
31
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3 Libro anual de estadsticas de China, varios aos.

4 Este rol no debera ser exagerado: Alemania todava es el mayor exportador mundial de manufacturas por un
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34
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36
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37
Jayati Ghosh
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(QWpUPLQRVJHQHUDOHVVHSRGUtDDUJXPHQWDUTXHODUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DHQ&KLQD
HVWXYRPiVIXHUWHPHQWHUHODFLRQDGDDORVFDPELRVHQODHVWUXFWXUDHFRQyPLFD\HQOD
GHVLJXDOGDGTXHDOFUHFLPLHQWRHQVtPLVPRGHO3%,6LHVWRHVDVtODFDSDFLGDGGH
&KLQDSDUDVRVWHQHUHOULWPRGHUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DGHSHQGHUiGHVXFDSDFLGDG
SDUDFRQVHUYDUVXVSROtWLFDVUHFLHQWHVGLULJLGDVDUHGXFLUODGHVLJXDOGDGFRPRWDP
ELpQ D DVHJXUDU TXH ORV FDPELRV HVWUXFWXUDOHV SHUPDQH]FDQ SRVLWLYRV \ GLQiPLFRV
(VWR WDPELpQ HVWi HQ FRQVRQDQFLD FRQ OHFFLRQHV GHO SHUtRGR DQWHULRU D OD UHIRUPD
&KLQDVHEHQHFLySRUXQDFRPELQDFLyQGHXQDGLVWULEXFLyQHTXLWDWLYDGHWLHUUDV\VX
H[SHULHQFLDFRQODVFRPXQDVIRUPDVGHRUJDQL]DFLyQFROHFWLYDV\FRRSHUDWLYDVTXH
JDUDQWL]DURQXQQLYHOGHHTXLGDGGHLQJUHVRV\D\XGDURQDOLEHUDU\UHXQLUPDQRGH
REUDSDUDHPSUHQGHUDFWLYLGDGHVQRDJUtFRODVDGPLQLVWUDGDVHQFRQMXQWRFRQHODSR\R
GHO (VWDGR (Q OD PHGLGD HQ TXH ODV UHIRUPDV HFRQyPLFDV VRFDYDQ HVWD LJXDOGDG \
DIHFWDQDGYHUVDPHQWHHOFUHFLPLHQWRGHODVLQLFLDWLYDVORFDOHVWDPELpQUHWUDVDUtDQOD
UHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]D
La reduccin de la pobreza en India

0LHQWUDVTXHODH[SHULHQFLDUHFLHQWHGHFUHFLPLHQWRGH,QGLDIXHPHQRVHVSHFWDFXODU
TXHODGH&KLQDDXQTXHUHVXOWyH[WUHPDGDPHQWHLPSDFWDQWHFRPSDUDGDFRQORVHVWiQ
GDUHVGHODPD\RUtDGHORVSDtVHVHQGHVDUUROORGXUDQWHHOPLVPRSHUtRGR\WDPELpQHQ
FRPSDUDFLyQFRQVXSURSLRSDVDGROD7DEODPXHVWUDTXHODVWDVDVGHFUHFLPLHQWRGHO
3%,UHDODXPHQWDURQDXQQLYHOPiVDOWRHQODV~OWLPDVGRVGpFDGDV/RVLQFUHPHQWRV
HQHOLQJUHVRSHUFiSLWDIXHURQD~QPiVPDUFDGRVGHELGRDODFDtGDHQODWDVDGHFUH
FLPLHQWRGHODSREODFLyQ
(VWR IXH DVRFLDGR HQ DOJXQD PHGLGD FRQ HO FDPELR HVWUXFWXUDO DXQTXH WDO YH] QR
WDQWRFRPRVHKXELHUDHVSHUDGR&RQHOWLHPSRODWDVDGHLQYHUVLyQVHLQFUHPHQWyOR
FXDOVyORVHHVSHUDHQODVHFRQRPtDVHQGHVDUUROORDOFDQ]DQGRWDVDVGHFUHFLPLHQWR
GHOLQJUHVRSHUFiSLWDPiVDOWDVTXHDVFHQGLHURQHVSHFLDOPHQWHUiSLGRHQODGpFDGD
DFWXDODOFDQ]DQGRXQHQHVWHPRPHQWR0LHQWUDVWDQWRODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHOD
DJULFXOWXUDHQHO3%,FD\yVLJXLHQGRXQDWUD\HFWRULDSUHGHFLEOHHQHOFXUVRGHOGHVD
UUROORSHURKXERSRFRLQFUHPHQWRHQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHOVHFWRUVHFXQGDULRHOFXDOQR
FDPELyHQDEVROXWRGHVGHSULQFLSLRVGHORVDxRVQRYHQWD(QVXOXJDUODSDUWLFLSDFLyQ
48
Tabla 2. Tasas de crecimiento anual del ingreso nacional (porcentajes)

3RUFHQWDMHGHO3%,
3HUtRGR
SURPHGLRGHDxRV 7DVDVGHLQYHUVLRQHV

1RWDV
(O3%,\HO3URGXFWR1DFLRQDO1HWR311VHPL
GHQHQSUHFLRVFRQVWDQWHVGHOSHUtRGRFRQOD
H[FHSFLyQGHORVDxRVHQDGHODQWHSDUDORV
FXDOHVORVGDWRVHVWiQHQSUHFLRVGHO
3ULPDULR 6HFXQGDULR

7HUFLDULR

/DV WDVDV GH FUHFLPLHQWR VRQ WDVDV DQXDOHV FRP

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)XHQWH2FLQD&HQWUDOGH(VWDGtVWLFDV&62SRUVXV
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YDULRVHMHPSODUHV
GHOVHFWRUWHUFLDULRDXPHQWyGUDPiWLFDPHQWHDWDOSXQWRTXHDKRUDUHSUHVHQWDDOUHGH
GRUGHODPLWDGGHORVLQJUHVRVQDFLRQDOHV
7DOHVFDPELRVHQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHOSURGXFWRQRIXHURQDFRPSDxDGRVSRUFDPELRV
VLPLODUHVHQODGLVWULEXFLyQGHODIXHU]DGHWUDEDMR/DSURSRUFLyQGHWRGRVORVWUDEDMD
GRUHVGHGLFDGRVDODDJULFXOWXUDFRPRRFXSDFLyQSULQFLSDOSHUPDQHFLyHQFLPDGHO
GHIRUPDSHUVLVWHQWHDSHVDUGHOIUDFDVRHQODJHQHUDFLyQGHHPSOHRDJUtFRODHQODGp
FDGDPiVUHFLHQWH\ODFDtGDGHODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHODDJULFXOWXUDHQHOLQJUHVRQDFLRQDO
&RPR VH PHQFLRQy DQWHULRUPHQWH OD WDVD GH LQYHUVLyQ PiV DOWD GH ODV ~OWLPDV GRV
GpFDGDVQRJHQHUyXQDPD\RUH[SDQVLyQGHODLQGXVWULD6LQHPEDUJRHVWXYRDVRFLDGD
FRQXQDDSDUHQWHH[SORVLyQHQVHUYLFLRVXQVHFWRUTXHDEDUFDXQSRFRGHWRGR\FRP
ELQDDFWLYLGDGHVGHDOWD\EDMDSURGXFWLYLGDG(VWDVWHQGHQFLDV\SDUWLFXODUPHQWHODV
HVWUXFWXUDVGHHPSOHRWXYLHURQXQHIHFWRVLJQLFDWLYRHQODLQFLGHQFLDGHODSREUH]D
La desigualdad de ingresos y la pobreza en India
/DHYLGHQFLDVXJLHUHTXHODVGHVLJXDOGDGHVHFRQyPLFDVDXPHQWDURQHQ,QGLDHQHOSH
UtRGRSRVWHULRUDODUHIRUPD/DPD\RUSDUWHGHORVHVWXGLRVXWLOL]DURQYDULDVURQGDVGH
HVWDGtVWLFDVGHJDVWRVGHFRQVXPRSURYHQLHQWHVGHOD(QFXHVWD1DFLRQDOSRU0XHVWUHR
166SRUVXVVLJODVHQLQJOpVSDUDFDOFXODULQJUHVRVSHUFiSLWD\FRHFLHQWHV*LQL
(QFXDQWRDODGHVLJXDOGDGVHFRQRFHELHQTXHOD166FRQXQOtPLWHLQIHULRUUHODWL
YDPHQWHEDMRSDUDVXUDQJRGHJDVWRVPiVDOWRVQRFDSWDDGHFXDGDPHQWHHOFRQVXPR
GHOJUXSRFRQLQJUHVRVPiVHOHYDGRV&RQUHVSHFWRDODVHVWLPDFLRQHVGHOFRQVXPR
49
Jayati Ghosh
Grco 3. Cambio estructural en India

3DUWLFLSDFLyQGHOVHFWRUSULPDULRHQHO3%,
3DUWLFLSDFLyQGHOVHFWRUSULPDULRHQHOHPSOHR
3DUWLFLSDFLyQGHOVHFWRUPDQXIDFWXUHURHQHO3%,
3DUWLFLSDFLyQGHOVHFWRUPDQXIDFWXUHURHQHOHPSOHR
3,%SHUFiSLWD
)XHQWHEDVHGHGDWRVGHHFRQRPtDWRWDO*URQLQJHQKWWSZZZFRQIHUHQFHERDUGRUJHFRQRPLFVGDWDEDVHFIP
VHSUHVHQWDXQSUREOHPDGHIDOWDGHFRPSDUDELOLGDGGHODVHVWDGtVWLFDVGHO166HQWUH
ODHQFXHVWDFRQPXHVWUDVJUDQGHVTXLQTXHQDOHVSDUDURQGD\ODVRWUDV
DQWHULRUHV 6HJ~Q 6HQ \ +LPDQVKX HVWR UHGXMR ODV PHGLFLRQHV GH SREUH]D
UXUDOHQFDVLPLOORQHVGHSHUVRQDVHQ,QGLD\WDPELpQDIHFWyODVPHGLFLRQHVGHOD
GHVLJXDOGDG
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WRQ\'UH]H6XQGDUDP\7HQGXONDUDE\6HQ\+LPDQVKX
8QD REVHUYDFLyQ JHQHUDO GH HVWRV HVWXGLRV LOXVWUD TXH DXQTXH ORV GDWRV QR DMXVWD
GRVPXHVWUDQTXHVHUHGXMRODGHVLJXDOGDGHQWUHODVURQGDV\VLVHXVDQGDWRV
FRPSDUDEOHVDMXVWDGRVODGHVLJXDOGDGUXUDOHQUHDOLGDGVHLQFUHPHQWyHQWUH
6 Como seala Sen (2000), los perodos de referencia en la Encuesta de Gastos de los Consumidores de la 55
Ronda de la NNS tuvieron modicaciones en el perodo de consideracin uniforme de 30 das utilizado previamente, pasando a preguntas que abarcan perodos de entre 7 y 30 das para alimentos y bebidas y de 365 das para
artculos de indumentaria y calzado, educacin, gastos relacionados a instituciones mdicas y bienes durables.
50
URQGD\URQGD/DHYLGHQFLDVRUSUHQGHQWHVREUHORVLQFUHPHQWRV

GHODGHVLJXDOGDGHQ,QGLDGXUDQWHHOSHUtRGRSRVWUHIRUPDSURYLHQHGH6HQ\+LPDQ
VKX$QDOL]DQGRORVtQGLFHVGHOJDVWRSHUFiSLWDUHDOSURPHGLR03&(SRU
VXVVLJODVHQLQJOpVFRQXQSHUtRGREDVHGHUHIHUHQFLDXQLIRUPH853SRUVXVVLJODV
HQLQJOpVSRUTXLQWLOHVPLHQWUDVTXHHOQLYHOGHFRQVXPRGHODFRODVXSHULRUGHOD
SREODFLyQLQFOX\HQGRHOVXSHULRUGHODSREODFLyQUXUDOVHHOHYDQRWRULDPHQWH
GXUDQWHORVDxRVQRYHQWDHOFRQVXPRGHOUHVWDQWHLQIHULRUGLVPLQX\yGXUDQWH
GLFKRSHUtRGR*UiFR(VWHJUiFRPXHVWUDFODUDPHQWHTXHODGLVSDULGDGGHLQ
JUHVRVFRQVXPRHQWUHORVULFRV\ORVSREUHV\HQWUH,QGLDXUEDQD\UXUDODXPHQWDURQ
GXUDQWHORVQRYHQWD
Grco 4. ndices del ingreso per cpita real por quintiles

5DQJRXUEDQRVXSHULRU
5DQJRUXUDOVXSHULRU
5DQJRXUEDQRPHGLR
5DQJRUXUDOPHGLR
5DQJRXUEDQRLQIHULRU
5DQJRUXUDOLQIHULRU
)XHQWH6HQDQG+LPDQVKX
+XERWDQWRXQLQFUHPHQWRHQODGHVLJXDOGDGUXUDOXUEDQDGHOJDVWRSHUFiSLWDHQWRGD
,QGLDFRPRPD\RUGHVLJXDOGDGUXUDOXUEDQDHQWUHHVWDGRVHQHOSHUtRGR\
'HDWRQ\'UH]H\2FLQD&HQWUDOGH(VWDGtVWLFDV(O3,1SHU
FiSLWDXUEDQRHQVHJ~QHVWLPDFLRQHVFDVLWULSOLFDEDHOGH,QGLDUXUDO(O
FRFLHQWHHQWUHHOFRQVXPRSHUFiSLWDXUEDQR\HOUXUDOEDVDGRHQORVGDWRVGHOD166
VHLQFUHPHQWyFRQWLQXDPHQWHGHHQDHQDHQ
7 Estos hallazgos estn basados en encuestas de muestras pequeas de la NSS, relevadas anualmente desde e
1986. Estas encuestas no son tan comprehensivas como las rondas exhaustivas del NSS o las encuestas de muestras
grandes o robustas, pero proporcionan estimaciones sucientemente buenas en el nivel nacional. Adems, estos resultados de muestras pequeas son comparables entre encuestas sucesivas ya que emplean el mismo cuestionario.
51
Jayati Ghosh
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ORVRUSUHQGHQWHHVTXHDGLIHUHQFLDGH&KLQDODWDVDGHXUEDQL]DFLyQSDUHFHKDEHUVH
GHVDFHOHUDGRHQHOSHUtRGRGHDOWRFUHFLPLHQWRFRQFLXGDGHV\SXHEORVTXHVHWRUQDQ
PHQRVDELHUWRVDUHFLELUPLJUDQWHVUXUDOHV.XQGX
/DVGLIHUHQFLDVUHJLRQDOHVGHLQJUHVRVVHLQWHQVLFDURQFRQXQFRHFLHQWH*LQLGHOLQ
JUHVRSHUFiSLWDHQWUHORVHVWDGRVLQGLRVHQDXPHQWR6HQ\+LPDQVKXWDPELpQ
HQFXHQWUDQTXHDOLQWHULRUGHORVHVWDGRVORVFRHFLHQWHV*LQLUXUDOHV\XUEDQRVDMXV
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3DUDWRGD,QGLDHO*LQLUXUDODXPHQWyGHXQDXQ\HO*LQL
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TXHVHVDEHTXHODHQFXHVWDVXEHVWLPDORVH[WUHPRVGHODGLVWULEXFLyQ(OGHFLOLQIHULRUGH
ODSREODFLyQUHSUHVHQWDVyORXQGHOFRQVXPRWRWDOHVWLPDGRPLHQWUDVTXHHOGHFLO
VXSHULRUUHJLVWUDHO2UJDQL]DFLyQ1DFLRQDOGH(QFXHVWDVSRU0XHVWUHR
/RVGLIHUHQFLDOHVGHLQJUHVRVUXUDOHVXUEDQRVVRQJUDQGHVHOFRQVXPRSHUFiSLWDXU
EDQRHVPiVGHGRVYHFHVHOGHODViUHDVUXUDOHV166\ODVEUHFKDVGHO3%,SHU
FiSLWDVRQD~QPD\RUHVVHJ~QHVWLPDFLRQHVSDUDHOLQJUHVRXUEDQRSHUFiSLWD
HVDSUR[LPDGDPHQWHWUHVYHFHVPD\RUTXHHOUXUDO6HQ\+LPDQVKX/DVGLIH
UHQFLDVUHJLRQDOHVWDPELpQVRQVLJQLFDWLYDV\DXPHQWDURQUHFLHQWHPHQWHHOFRFLHQWH
HQWUHHO3URGXFWR,QWHUQR*HRJUiFR3,*SHUFiSLWDGHOHVWDGRSULQFLSDOPiVULFR
3XQMDE\HO3,*GHOHVWDGRSULQFLSDOPiVSREUH%LKDUDXPHQWyGHHQD
HQ3DO\*KRVK
/DVHVWLPDFLRQHVRFLDOHVGHODOFDQFHGHODSREUH]DSRUHMHPSORHOtQGLFHGHLQFL
GHQFLDGHODSREUH]DIXHWHPDGHPXFKRGHEDWH8QSUREOHPDUHFLHQWHFRP~QPHQWH
FLWDGRVHUHODFLRQDFRQODSRVLELOLGDGGHFRPSDUDUODVHVWLPDFLRQHVGHJDVWRGHFRQ
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SDUDORVWUDEDMDGRUHVLQGXVWULDOHVHQiUHDVXUEDQDV
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FRQVXPRFDPELDQWHIUHQWHDQHFHVLGDGHVH[SOtFLWDVHLPSOtFLWDVLQFOX\HQGRORVFRVWRV
GHDWHQFLyQPpGLFD\GHHQHUJtDTXH\DQRWLHQHQLQJXQDUHODFLyQFRQODLQJHVWDGH
FDORUtDVUHDOHVTXHIXHUDODEDVHSDUDGHWHUPLQDUODOtQHDRULJLQDOTXHQRVLHPSUH
DVHJXUDTXHORVKRJDUHVHQHOQLYHORSRUHQFLPDGHODOtQHDGHSREUH]DSXHGDQDGTXLULU
DOLPHQWRVVXFLHQWHVSDUDVDWLVIDFHUORVUHTXLVLWRVFDOyULFRVDORVSUHFLRVYLJHQWHV
52
1RREVWDQWHD~QFXDQGRHVWRVGDWRVRFLDOHVRIUHFHQXQDUD]yQSDUDFRQWHPSODUOD
WDVDGHUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DPiVOHQWDHQHOSHUtRGRUHFLHQWHFRQUiSLGRFUHFLPLHQ
WRHFRQyPLFR(O*UiFRPXHVWUDHOtQGLFHGHLQFLGHQFLDGHODSREUH]DHQ,QGLDUXUDO
\XUEDQD(VHYLGHQWHTXHODSREUH]DGHODPDQHUDGHQLGDRFLDOPHQWHHVWXYRFD
\HQGRFRQWLQXDPHQWHGHVGHSULQFLSLRVGHORVDxRVVHWHQWD6LQHPEDUJRORGHVWDFDEOH
HVTXHHQHOSHUtRGRUHFLHQWHFXDQGRODVWDVDVGHFUHFLPLHQWRDXPHQWDURQODWDVDGH
UHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DVHGHVDFHOHUyHVSHFLDOPHQWHHQ,QGLDUXUDO
(VWRVHFRQUPDHQOD7DEODTXHPXHVWUDODVWDVDVDFWXDOHVGHUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH
]DVHJ~QODVHVWLPDFLRQHVRFLDOHVDORODUJRGHORVGRVSHUtRGRVTXHSXHGHQVHUFDUDF
WHUL]DGRVGHPDQHUDJHQHUDOFRPRSUH\SRVWOLEHUDFLyQHFRQyPLFD(VHYLGHQWH
TXHODUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DUXUDOHQSDUWLFXODUIXHPXFKRPiVUiSLGDHQHOSHUtRGR
SUHYLRFDUDFWHUL]DGRSRUXQFUHFLPLHQWRUHODWLYDPHQWHPiVOHQWR\XQDLQWHUYHQFLyQ
S~EOLFDSHUPDQHQWHHQORVVHFWRUHVSURGXFWLYRVGHODHFRQRPtD
Grco 5. India: estimaciones ociales de la pobreza

8UEDQD
5XUDO

)XHQWH&RPLVLyQGH3ODQLFDFLyQ*RELHUQRGH,QGLD
2WUDVHVWLPDFLRQHVWDPELpQPXHVWUDQTXHODLQFLGHQFLDGHODSREUH]DIXHPDUFDGD
PHQWHSHUVLVWHQWHHQ,QGLDUXUDOHQSDUWLFXODUDGHPiVGHPXFKRPiVDOWDTXHODVHV
WLPDFLRQHVLQGLDVRFLDOHV/DVHVWLPDFLRQHVPiVUHFLHQWHVGHO%DQFR0XQGLDO&KHQ
\5DYDOOLRQXVDQGRXQOtPLWHGH86'SRUGtDHQ33$GHOUHYLVDGR
HOQ~PHURGHSHUVRQDVDEVROXWDPHQWHSREUHVHQHOIXHGHPLOORQHVHQ,QGLD
VLJQLFDWLYDPHQWH PD\RU TXH ORV PLOORQHV TXH HVWLPy HO SURSLR JRELHUQR SDUD
6HJ~QHVWDVHVWLPDFLRQHVHOtQGLFHGHLQFLGHQFLDGHODSREUH]DWRWDOHQ
53
Jayati Ghosh
Tabla 3. Tasas de reduccin de la pobreza

,QGLD5XUDO
,QGLD8UEDQD
5HGXFFLyQDQXDOGHODSREUH]D
HQSXQWRVSRUFHQWXDOHV
D
D

5HGXFFLyQDQXDOGHODSREUH]D
QRUPDOL]DGDDODxRLQLFLDOSRUFLHQWR
D
D
)XHQWH&RPLVLyQGH3ODQLFDFLyQ*RELHUQRGH,QGLD
,QGLDGLVPLQX\yGHOHQDOHQ\DOHQ3RUOR
WDQWRVHJ~QHO%DQFR0XQGLDOODWDVDGHUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DVHGHVDFHOHUyGH
SXQWRVSRUFHQWXDOHVDQXDOHVGXUDQWHDVyORGXUDQWH
6LJXLHQGRHVWDVWHQGHQFLDV,QGLDQRDOFDQ]DUtDODV0'00HWDVGH'HVDUUROORGHO
0LOHQLRGHUHGXFLUODLQFLGHQFLDGHODSREUH]DDODPLWDGSDUDHO
/DHVWLPDFLyQGHOQ~PHURGHSREUHVHQ,QGLDUHDOL]DGDSRUHO%DQFR$VLiWLFRGH'HVD
UUROOR%$'HVPiVGHOGREOHGHODHVWLPDFLyQRFLDOLQGLDGHHQWUH\
PLOORQHV/DHVWLPDFLyQPiVDOWDVHGHEHDTXHHO%$'XWLOL]yXQDOtQHDGHSREUH]D
DVLiWLFDPiVDOWDGH86'HQ33$GLDULRVSRUSHUVRQDHQOXJDUGHODGH86'
HPSOHDGDSRUHO%DQFR0XQGLDO7DPELpQWUDWyGHPHMRUDUODVHVWLPDFLRQHVGHO%DQFR
0XQGLDOXWLOL]DQGRGDWRVGHSUHFLRVSDUDELHQHV\VHUYLFLRVDGTXLULGRVSRUORVSREUHVHQ
OXJDUGHODVFRPSDUDFLRQHVXVXDOHVGHO3URJUDPDGH&RPSDUDFLyQ,QWHUQDFLRQDO,&3
SRU VXV VLJODV HQ LQJOpV UHODFLRQDGDV FRQ XQ SDTXHWH WRWDO GH FRQVXPR +LPDQVKX
(VWROHRWRUJDD,QGLDHOVHJXQGRPD\RUtQGLFHGHSREUH]DGHGHWRGRV
ORVSDtVHVDVLiWLFRVFRQVLGHUDGRVSRUHO%$'SRUGHEDMRVyORGH1HSDOGH\
PiVDOWRTXHHOGH%DQJODGHVK&DPER\D)LOLSLQDV3DNLV
WiQH,QGRQHVLD'HEHUtDREVHUYDUVHTXHSRUVXSXHVWRODGHWHUPL
QDFLyQWDQWRGHODOtQHDGHSREUH]DFRPRGHODVPHGLFLRQHVHQ33$HPSOHDGDVSRUHO
%DQFR0XQGLDO\SRUHO%$'IXHURQFULWLFDGDV5HGGX\3RJJH5HGG\
GDGRTXHQRDQFODQODOtQHDHQQLQJ~QFRQMXQWRGHQLGRGHUHTXHULPLHQWRVSDUDODYLGD
KXPDQD\TXHORVIDFWRUHVGHFRQYHUVLyQGHO33$VRQSUREOHPiWLFRVHQVtPLVPRVSRU
HVWDUEDVDGRVHQGDWRVLQDGHFXDGRV\HQXQDSHUFHSFLyQLQPXWDEOHGHODVQHFHVLGDGHV
GHFRQVXPRHQHOWLHPSR6LQHPEDUJRORVGLIHUHQWHVFRQMXQWRVGHGDWRVVHxDODQOD
PLVPD FRQFOXVLyQ TXH OD UHGXFFLyQ GH OD SREUH]D LQGLD IXH UHODWLYDPHQWH OHQWD \
PXFKRPHQRUGHORTXHVHHVSHUDEDSRUODUDSLGH]GHOFUHFLPLHQWRGHOLQJUHVRHQORV
~OWLPRVTXLQFHDxRV
54
La pobreza humana en India

(Q,QGLDODVPHGLFLRQHVGHSREUH]DKXPDQDVXJLHUHQUHVXOWDGRVD~QSHRUHVDORVGH
SREUH]DSRULQJUHVRV,QGLDQXQFDIXHXQSDtVFRQEXHQGHVHPSHxRHQWpUPLQRVGH
GHVDUUROORKXPDQRDSHVDUGHDOJXQRVPHMRUHVLQGLFDGRUHVHQFLHUWRVHVWDGRVSDUWL
FXODUPHQWHHQ.HUDOD(QJHQHUDOORVLQGLFDGRUHVWDQWRGHVDOXGFRPRGHHGXFDFLyQ
TXHGDURQEDVWDQWHSRUGHEDMRGHORVGHRWURVSDtVHVFRQQLYHOHVGHGHVDUUROORHLQJUH
VRVSHUFiSLWDVLPLODUHV3HURODSREUH]DDOLPHQWDULDIXHGHSDUWLFXODUSUHRFXSDFLyQ
(VWXGLRVUHFLHQWHVLQGLFDQQLYHOHVDODUPDQWHVGHKDPEUHRLQGLJHQFLDHVSHFLDOPHQWH
HQFLHUWRVHVWDGRVGH,QGLD(VWXGLRVUHDOL]DGRVSRUHO,QVWLWXWR1DFLRQDOGH,QYHVWLJD
FLRQHVVREUH3ROtWLFDV$OLPHQWDULDV,)35,SRUVXVVLJODVHQLQJOpV\HO,QVWLWXWRSDUD
HO(VWXGLRGHOD6DOXG\GHODV(QIHUPHGDGHV,6+,SRUVXVVLJODVHQLQJOpVFLWDGRV
HQ%DQHUMHHVXJLHUHQTXHODPD\RUtDGHORVHVWDGRVHQ,QGLDHVWiQFODVLFDGRV
MXQWRFRQORVSDtVHVSREUHVGHO6XE6DKDUD3XQMDE.HUDOD$QGKUD3UDGHVK\$VVDP
WLHQHQXQQLYHOVHULRGHLQGLJHQFLD0DVK\D3UDGHVKDIURQWDHOSHRUFRVWRHQODH[
WUHPDPHQWHDODUPDQWHFRKRUWHGHODLQGLJHQFLD7RGRVORVRWURVHVWDGRVHVWiQFDOL
FDGRVFRQXQQLYHODODUPDQWHGHLQGLJHQFLDTXHHVWDPELpQODFDOLFDFLyQJHQHUDO
SDUDWRGRHOSDtV0iVDWUR]D~QODVLWXDFLyQSDUHFHHPSHRUDUHQHOSHUtRGRUHFLHQWH
GHUiSLGRFUHFLPLHQWRHFRQyPLFR/D166VHxDODXQDGLVPLQXFLyQHQHOFRQVXPRGH
FDORUtDVSHUFiSLWDQRVyORSDUDODSREODFLyQWRWDOVLQRWDPELpQHQWUHORVFXDUWLOHV
LQIHULRUHVSDUDORVFXDOHVHOFRQVXPR\DHUDEDVWDQWHLQDGHFXDGRVHJ~QORVHVWiQGDUHV
LQWHUQDFLRQDOHVFRPRVHGHWDOODHQOD7DEOD
Tabla 4. Insuciencia calrica en India (porcentaje de la poblacin)

.FDOSRUGtD
.FDOSRUGtD
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2WURVLQGLFDGRUHVGHQXWULFLyQ\VDOXGWDPELpQVRQH[WUHPRV/D(QFXHVWD1DFLRQDO
GH6DOXG)DPLOLDUPiVUHFLHQWHSDUDHOPXHVWUDTXHODSURSRUFLyQGHQLxRV
GHPHQRVGHFLQFRDxRVFRQSHVRSRUGHEDMRGHOQRUPDOHUDGHXQHQ,QGLD
UXUDO\GHXQHQ,QGLDXUEDQDFDVLVLQLQGLFDUFDPELRVFRQODHQFXHVWDSUHYLD
UHDOL]DGDRFKRDxRVDWUiV0iVGHXQWHUFLRGHODSREODFLyQUXUDOWDPELpQWHQtDXQSHVR
SRUGHEDMRGHOQRUPDO/DDQHPLDPXFKDVYHFHVXQEXHQLQGLFDGRUGHSULYDFLyQ
QXWULFLRQDOWDPELpQHUDH[WHQGLGDVHHQFRQWUyTXHHOGHORVQLxRVGHD
PHVHV\HOGHODVPXMHUHVHQWUHORV\DxRVTXHVHFDVDEDQWHQtDQDQHPLD
/DVDOXGWDPELpQHUDXQDJUDQIXHQWHGHGHVLJXDOGDG\SREUH]D/RVVHUYLFLRVGHVDOXG
HQ,QGLDHVWiQFDGDYH]PiVFDUDFWHUL]DGRVSRUXQDGXDOLGDGH[WUHPDFRQORVULFRV
55
Jayati Ghosh
RSWDQGRSRULQVWLWXFLRQHVGHOXMRFRQXQDLQIUDHVWUXFWXUDGHSULPHUQLYHO/RVSREUHV
VHYHQREOLJDGRVDXWLOL]DUORVVHUYLFLRVS~EOLFRVDEDUURWDGRV\FRQUHFXUVRVLQVXFLHQ
WHVRDFRQFXUULUDFRQVXOWRULRVPpGLFRVGRQGHUXWLQDULDPHQWHVHDSURYHFKDQGHHOORV
\PXFKDVYHFHVVHOHVEULQGDXQDDWHQFLyQLQDGHFXDGD/DFRQWULEXFLyQLQDGHFXDGD
GHOJRELHUQRVLJQLFyTXHORVJDVWRVGHEROVLOORSDUDODVDOXGHQ,QGLDUHSUHVHQWHQ
HOGHOJDVWRGHVDOXGWRWDOXQDGHODVSURSRUFLRQHVPiVDOWDVHQHOPXQGR9DQ
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GHODVSURSRUFLRQHVPiVEDMDVHQHOPXQGRHQGHVDUUROOR8QQ~PHURGHJRELHUQRV
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UHHMDGDHQSROtWLFDVGHLGHQWLGDGTXHFRQGXMHURQDTXHHOSURFHVRSROtWLFRHQIDWLFHOD
GLVFULPLQDFLyQSRVLWLYDSRUHMHPSORDWUDYpVGHFLHUWRVFXSRVRUHVHUYDV/DVFDVWDV
56
UHFRQRFLGDV&5GHODSREODFLyQ\ODVWULEXVUHFRQRFLGDV75IXHURQ

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SDUD756LQHPEDUJRVXSDUWLFLSDFLyQDFWXDOHQDPERVFRQWLQ~DEDMDEDVWDQWH
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YDPHQWHFXPSOLGRV\ODGLVFULPLQDFLyQSRVLWLYDQRWRPyQLQJXQDRWUDIRUPDFRPROD
UHGLVWULEXFLyQGHDFWLYRVRODJDUDQWtDGHXQDEXHQDFDOLGDGHGXFDWLYDHQODVHVFXHODV
TXHD\XGDUtDPiVTXHORVEHQHFLRVSURSRUFLRQDOHVDWDOHVJUXSRV0iVUHFLHQWHPHQWH
VHDGMXGLFDURQFXSRVDRWUDVFDVWDVWDUGtDVWDQWRHQHOHPSOHRJXEHUQDPHQWDOFRPRHQ
OD HGXFDFLyQ VXSHULRU DXQTXH OD SROtWLFD VLJXH VLHQGR FDOXURVDPHQWH FRQWURYHUWLGD
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KD\DLQWHQWRVGHHQPHQGDUHVWRDWUDYpVGHODSROtWLFDRFLDOHQHOIXWXURGHKHFKR
DOJXQRVHVWDGRV\DLPSOHPHQWDURQDOJXQDVPHGLGDV
Factores detrs de las tendencias de la pobreza en India
4XpH[SOLFDHVWDSHUVLVWHQFLDGHODSREUH]D\ODDSDUHQWHPHQWHSDUDGyMLFDGLYHUJHQ
FLDHQWUHODWDVDGHFUHFLPLHQWR\ODUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]D"(YLGHQWHPHQWHODFUH
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HOSDWUyQTXHVHGHVFULEHDTXtWDPELpQKDFHKLQFDSLpHQODLPSRUWDQFLDFUXFLDOGHOD
QDWXUDOH]DGHOFUHFLPLHQWR3RUORWDQWRHOSHUtRGRDSUHVHQFLy
XQDUiSLGDUHGXFFLyQGHODSREUH]DUXUDOGHELGRDTXHODHVWUXFWXUDGHFUHFLPLHQWRHV
SHFLDOPHQWHHQORVDxRVRFKHQWDLQYROXFUyXQFDPELRPDUJLQDOGHOJDVWRS~EOLFRSDUD
ODViUHDVUXUDOHVJHQHUDQGRHIHFWRVPXOWLSOLFDGRUHV\PiVHPSOHRORFXDOEHQHFLy
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$ GLIHUHQFLD GH &KLQD ORV WpUPLQRV GH LQWHUFDPELR GHVHPSHxDQ XQ URO PiV FRP
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57
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UHDOHV\HPSHRUDUtDODSREUH]D
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PiVFRPSOHMDGHELGRDOHIHFWRGHRWURVIDFWRUHVHVSHFLDOPHQWHHPSOHR\VDODULRV(Q
JHQHUDOODJHQHUDFLyQGHOHPSOHRSURGXFWLYRHVXQHVODEyQGHFLVLYRHQWUHHOFUHFL
PLHQWR\ODSREUH]DDXQTXHHOOLQNQRHVDXWRPiWLFRGDGRTXHODUHPXQHUDFLyQDO
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Grco 6: Tasas anuales de crecimiento del empleo para ocupados
regulares (%)

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FODVHVGHHPSOHRVDVDODULDGRV0LHQWUDVTXHHOHPSOHRSRUWLHPSRLQGHWHUPLQDGRIXH
58
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DOJ~QWLHPSRH[FHSWRSDUDODVWUDEDMDGRUDVXUEDQDVODSURSRUFLyQGHOHPSOHRDVDOD
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RSRUSOD]RGHWHUPLQDGR([FHSWRSRUOD~OWLPDURQGDGHODHQFXHVWDTXHVXJLHUHTXH
HOHPSOHRHYHQWXDOFD\yFRPRSURSRUFLyQGHOHPSOHRWRWDO
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HFRQyPLFRDFHOHUDGRORVRFXSDGRVH[SHULPHQWDURQPD\RUGLFXOWDGSDUDHQFRQWUDU
WUDEDMRVUHPXQHUDGRV\DVHDSRUFRQWUDWRLQGHWHUPLQDGRRHYHQWXDO(OHPSOHRDJUt
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Q~PHURGHRFXSDGRVHQHOVHFWRUGXUDQWHORVDxRVQRYHQWD3DUWHGHHVWRVHGHELyD
FDPELRVHQORVSDWURQHVWHFQROyJLFRV\GHFXOWLYRTXHUHGXMHURQODGHPDQGDGHWUDEDMR
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HOHVWDQFDPLHQWRGHORVSUHFLRVGHVXVFXOWLYRV\DTXHHVWRVWLHQGHQDHPSOHDUWUD
EDMRIDPLOLDUXVDQGRPDQRGHREUDGHPDQHUDPiVLQWHQVLYDTXHORVDJULFXOWRUHVTXH
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IRUPDOIXHHOHOHPHQWRPiVGLQiPLFRHQHOFUHFLPLHQWRGHOLQJUHVRQDFLRQDO(VWR
VHGHELyDODFDtGDHQHOHPSOHRGHOVHFWRUS~EOLFRTXHQRIXHFRPSHQVDGRSRUXQ
DXPHQWRHQHOHPSOHRGHOVHFWRUSULYDGRIRUPDO0iVD~QYDULDVPHGLGDVGHUHIRUPD
HFRQyPLFDFRPRORVRQODOLEHUDOL]DFLyQGHOFRPHUFLRODUHGXFFLyQGHODDVLJQD
FLyQGHOFUpGLWRSDUDVHFWRUHVSULRULWDULRV\ODHOLPLQDFLyQGHYDULRVWLSRVGHDSR\R
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FXHQWDSURSLDHQWUHWRGDVODVFDWHJRUtDVGHRFXSDGRVHQ,QGLDVLHQGRHOPiVEUXVFR
HQWUHODVPXMHUHVUXUDOHVHQWUHTXLHQHVHOWUDEDMRSRUFXHQWDSURSLDUHSUHVHQWDDKRUD
FDVLGRVWHUFLRVGHORVHPSOHRV3HURWDPELpQHVQRWDEOHHQORVWUDEDMDGRUHVXUEDQRV
SXHVWDQWRKRPEUHVFRPRPXMHUHVORVFXHQWDSURSLDVFRQVWLWX\HQXQDOWRSRUFHQWDMH
GHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVFRQHPSOHRVUHJXODUHVSDUDKRPEUHV\SDUDPXMHUHV
3RUORWDQWRDOUHGHGRUGHODPLWDGGHODSREODFLyQDFWLYDHQ,QGLDHQHVWHPRPHQWRQR
8 Dentro del sistema de clasicacin del NSSO, trabajadores regulares son clasicados como ocupados segn su
condicin de actividad con relacin a un perodo anual (en lugar de semanal o diario). _Dicho enfoque considera
tanto ocupaciones primarias como secundarias. Ver Ministerio de Trabajo de India http://labour.nic.in/.
9 La nica caracterstica positiva en la estructura del empleo fue el incremento de oportunidades para los grupos
educados, relacionada en gran parte con la expansin de los servicios que ofrecen las TIC en reas metropolitanas
y en otras reas urbanas. Sin embargo, mientras que esta caracterstica, en conjunto con el desarrollo de software,
recibi mucha atencin internacional, todava sigue siendo demasiado insignicante en la economa agregada para
tener demasiado impacto en el empleo total.
59
Jayati Ghosh
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ORVKRPEUHV\FDVLGRVWHUFLRVGHODVPXMHUHVHQWUHORVFXHQWDSURSLDVUHSRUWDURQUH
PXQHUDFLRQHVPHQVXDOHVPX\EDMDVPX\SRUGHEDMRGHORVVDODULRVPtQLPRVRFLDOHV
HQODPD\RUtDGHORVHVWDGRV
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SOHRVFRQUHODFLyQGHGHSHQGHQFLDGHELHQGRLQFOXLUVHORVWUDEDMRVSRUFXHQWDSURSLD
HQJHQHUDOSUHFDULRV\PDOUHPXQHUDGRV(VWRDVXYH]UHTXLHUHXQUHSODQWHRVLJQL
FDWLYRGHODPDQHUDHQTXHORVDQDOLVWDV\ORVSROLF\PDNHUVHQWLHQGHQODQRFLyQGH
WUDEDMDGRUHV(PHUJHQYDULRVQXHYRVSUREOHPDVGHSROtWLFDODGLFXOWDGGHDVHJXUDU
FRQGLFLRQHVGHFHQWHVGHWUDEDMRFXDQGRODDXVHQFLDGHXQHPSOHDGRUGLUHFWRVLJQLFD
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2
REGMENES POLTICOS, SHOCKS EXTERNOS Y DESIGUALDAD DE
AMRICA LATINA DURANTE LAS LTIMAS TRES DCADAS
INGRESOS:
Giovanni Andrea Cornia1
1. Introduccin
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1 La tercera parte de este estudio se basa en parte en Cornia (2009). El autor quiere reconocer los comentarios de
versiones anteriores de este estudio hechas por Francois Bourguignon, Guillermo Cruces, Michael Grimm, Rafael de
los Hoyos, Sal Keifman, Stephan Klasen, Juan Carlos Moreno-Brid, y participantes de las conferencias organizadas
en la Universidad de Montevideo (30 de septiembre de 2008), la Casa de las Naciones Unidas en Asuncin (2 de
octubre de 2008) y Ecineq Buenos Aires (18-19 de julio de 2009). El autor tambin agradece a Bruno Martorano su
excelente asistencia en la investigacin.
67
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2. Las causas estructurales de la desigualdad y su evolucin

en las dcadas de 1980 y 1990

2.1. Condiciones iniciales e impacto de las polticas basadas en el
modelo de industrializacin sustitutivo de importaciones (ISI) en la
desigualdad
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68
Regmenes polticos, shocks externos y desigualdad de ingresos: Amrica latina...
Tabla 1. ndice Gini de la distribucin de la tenencia de la tierra en pases en

vas de desarrollo desde la dcada de 1960 a la dcada de 1990

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Figura 1. Relacin entre los Coecientes Gini de concentracin de la

tenencia de la tierra y la desigualdad de ingresos rural durante la dcada
de 1980
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70
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71
2.2 Regmenes polticos y distribucin de ingresos desde

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2 Entre 1980 y 1989 el FMI negoci por lo menos 107 programas de ajuste en Latinoamrica.
72
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73
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Figura 2. Cambios en los Coecientes Gini de distribucin del ingreso per
cpita de los hogares, de principios a nes de los 90, y de principios a
mediados de los aos 2000.

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74
Tabla 2. Relacin entre el ndice de salario mnimo y el salario promedio

(1980 = 100)

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3 Para una discusin ms detallada de las vas por las cuales la liberalizacin del mercado de trabajo, el comercio
internacional, las IED, y las nanzas domsticas e internacionales afectaron la desigualdad en los pases en vas de
desarrollo, consultar Cornia, 2004, Koujianou Goldberg y Pavenik, 2007 y, para Argentina, Maurizio, 2009 y Keifman,
2009.
76
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3. La disminucin de la desigualdad en los ingresos desde

el ao 2002 al 2007 y sus posibles causas
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4 La corporacin Latinobarmetro es una ONG sin nes de lucro de Santiago, Chile. Desde el 1995 lleva a cabo
encuestas de temas polticos variados haciendo sondeos de 19.000 hogares de 18 pases en la regin (http;//www.
latinobarometro.org).
77
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1990-2009
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DXJHGHSURGXFWRVEiVLFRVVREUHODGHVLJXDOGDGGHLQJUHVRVVRQD~QPiVGLItFLOHVGH
HVWDEOHFHU0HMRUDVHQHOEDODQFHGHSDJRVGHELGDVDJDQDQFLDVHQORVWpUPLQRVGHLQ
5 Una parte importante de las ganancias por mejores trminos de intercambio se fug de la regin en forma de
remesas de ganancias, debido a que la explotacin de los recursos naturales en Amrica Latina est a menudo en
manos de empresas transnacionales. Chile y Per representan ms de la mitad de la fuga de remesas de ganancias
de la regin, aunque representan slo un 8 por ciento del PBI de la regin.
6 Por ejemplo, en Argentina la agricultura representa un modesto 8 por ciento de la poblacin activa total.
80
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8QVHJXQGRHIHFWRLJXDODGRUSRGUtDRFXUULUDWUDYpVGHXQDUHGXFFLyQHQODVWDVDVGH
LQWHUpVGHELGRDXQDH[SDQVLyQHQODFUHDFLyQGHGLQHURLQGXFLGRSRUHOFUHFLPLHQWR
GHORVLQJUHVRVSURYHQLHQWHVGHH[SRUWDFLRQHVTXHIDYRUHFHUtDDHPSUHVDV\DKRJDUHV
\SHQDOL]DUtDDORVEDQFRV\DORVUHQWLVWDV(QGHQLWLYDPLHQWUDVTXHHVSRVLEOHTXH
ODUHFLHQWHERQDQ]DGHELHQHVKD\DWHQLGRXQHIHFWRIDYRUDEOHHQHOFUHFLPLHQWRVX
LPSDFWRHQODGHVLJXDOGDGVLJXHVLHQGRLQFLHUWR
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(FXDGRUODVUHPHVDVMXJDURQXQSDSHOPD\RUHQSDtVHVTXHQRH[SHULPHQWDURQJDQDQ
FLDVHQORVWpUPLQRVGHLQWHUFDPELRORFXDOVLJQLFDTXHORVSDtVHVODWLQRDPHULFDQRV
VRVWXYLHURQODDFWXDOEDODQ]DGHSDJRVH[SRUWDQGRELHQHVSULPDULRVRPDQRGHREUD
PLJUDQWH\VyORXQDFDQWLGDGPRGHVWDGHSURGXFWRVPDQXIDFWXUDGRV
3DUDHOJUXSRGHSDtVHVPHQFLRQDGRVDQWHULRUPHQWHXQRSXHGHVHQWLUVHWHQWDGRDHV
WDEOHFHUXQDFRQH[LyQFDXVDOHQWUHORVLQFUHPHQWRVHQODVUHPHVDV\ODFDtGDHQODGHV
LJXDOGDG6LQHPEDUJRODOLWHUDWXUDVREUHHOLPSDFWRGHODVUHPHVDVHQODGHVLJXDOGDG
VXJLHUHTXHVXVHIHFWRVDFRUWR\PHGLDQRSOD]RWLHQGHQDSURSDJDUODGHVLJXDOGDG
'HKHFKRHQORVSDtVHVHQYtDVGHGHVDUUROORVyORSHUVRQDVGHFODVHPHGLDSXHGHQ
QDQFLDUORVDOWRVFRVWRVGHODPLJUDFLyQLOHJDO&RPRFRQVHFXHQFLDODVUHPHVDVYDQ
DUHGLWXDUQRDORVSREUHVVLQRDORVJUXSRVGHFODVHPHGLD$GLFLRQDOPHQWHHQORVSDt
VHVGHRULJHQGHWUDEDMDGRUHVFDOLFDGRVPLJUDQWHVWLHQGHDVXELUODEUHFKDVDODULDOFRQ
UHVSHFWRDORVWUDEDMDGRUHVQRFDOLFDGRV3RUVXSXHVWRHOHIHFWRGLVWULEXWLYRQDOGH
SHQGHGHVt\FyPRODVIDPLOLDVGHORVHPLJUDQWHVTXHUHFLEHQODVUHPHVDVODVFRPSDU
WHQFRQJUXSRVGHEDMRVLQJUHVRV$GLFLRQDOPHQWHODVUHPHVDVSXHGHQOOHJDUDUHGXFLU
ODGHVLJXDOGDGDORODUJRGHOWLHPSRVLODFUHDFLyQGHUHGHVGHHPLJUDQWHVHQORVSDtVHV
GHGHVWLQRUHGXFHORVFRVWRVGHODPLJUDFLyQKDFLHQGRTXHHVWDVHDDFFHVLEOHWDPELpQ
DORVWUDEDMDGRUHVQRFDOLFDGRVFRQEDMRVLQJUHVRV(OLPSDFWRHQODGHVLJXDOGDGD
ODUJRSOD]RGHODPLJUDFLyQHVWiPHGLDGRWDPELpQSRUVXHIHFWRHQHOFUHFLPLHQWR&RQ
UHVSHFWRDHVWRODPD\RUSDUWHGHORVGDWRVGLVSRQLEOHV)0,PXHVWUDQTXHODV
UHPHVDVLQFUHPHQWDQHOFRQVXPRDFWXDOUHGXFHQODYRODWLOLGDG\PHMRUDQODVROYHQFLD
FUHGLWLFLDGHORVSDtVHVGHRULJHQSHURQRWLHQHQXQHIHFWRVLJQLFDWLYRHQODWDVDGH
7 Sin embargo, en Mxico la mayora de los migrantes provienen de grupos con bajos ingresos (comunicacin de
Rafael de los Hoyos).
81
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ODVUHPHVDVD\XGDVHQDUHGXFLUODGHVLJXDOGDGHFRQyPLFDQLGLUHFWDQLLQGLUHFWDPHQWH

LLL,QFUHPHQWRHQODGLVSRQLELOLGDGGHQDQFLDPLHQWRH[WHUQR(QWUHORVDxRV
\ODUHJLyQUHJLVWUyXQDXPHQWRHQORVXMRVGHFDSLWDOTXHUHSUHVHQWyXQ
SRUFLHQWRGHO3%,GHODUHJLyQ2FDPSRPLHQWUDVTXHODV,('VHHVWDQFDURQ
HQXQSRUFLHUWRGHO3%,GHODUHJLyQ/RVXMRVGHFDSLWDOFRQVLVWLHURQSULQFLSDO
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ODGLVSRQLELOLGDGGHOQDQFLDPLHQWRH[WHUQREHQHFLySULQFLSDOPHQWHDODVHPSUHVDV
FRQHOHYDGRFDSLWDO\DOWRJUDGRGHFDOLFDFLyQ\DORVEDQFRVPLHQWUDVTXHQRUHGXMR
ORVSUREOHPDVGHQDQFLDPLHQWRGHODVHPSUHVDVSHTXHxDV\PHGLDQDVPDQRGHREUD
LQWHQVLYDVSRVLEOHPHQWHJHQHUDQGRHIHFWRVGLVWULEXWLYRVDGYHUVRV
7DPELpQHQHVWHFDVRHVGLItFLOPHGLUORVHIHFWRVLQGLUHFWRVGHODDEXQGDQFLDQDQ
FLHUD VREUH OD GHVLJXDOGDG (V SUREDEOH TXH FRPR HQ HO FDVR GH ORV WpUPLQRV GH
LQWHUFDPELR\ODVUHPHVDVHOHIHFWRLQGLUHFWRHQHOFUHFLPLHQWRHOHPSOHR\ODGHV
LJXDOGDGKD\DVLGRSRVLWLYRGHELGRDOUHODMDPLHQWRGHODVUHVWULFFLRQHVGHEDODQ]DGH
SDJRV6LQHPEDUJRODDEXQGDQFLDQDQFLHUDWDPELpQFDXVyXQDDSUHFLDFLyQGHOWLSR
GHFDPELRUHDOORFXDOSHQDOL]yDOVHFWRUFRPHUFLDOPDQRGHREUDLQWHQVLYR\FRQHVWH
DODGLVWULEXFLyQGHLQJUHVRV7D\ORU
3.2 Un ciclo de negocios positivo
'HVGHQHVGHODUHJLyQUHJLVWUyXQDIXHUWHUHFXSHUDFLyQ/DWDVDGHFUHFLPLHQWR
GHO3%,FiSLWDVHGXSOLFyHQWUHHOSURPHGLRGHODGpFDGDGHORV\HOGHOSHUtRGR
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GRVSRUPHUFDGRVODERUDOHVH[LEOHVXQLQFUHPHQWRGHO3%,UHGXFHODGHVLJXDOGDGDOD
YH]TXHWLHQGHDLQFUHPHQWDUODDEVRUFLyQGHODPDQRGHREUD\EDMRFLHUWDVFRQGLFLR
QHVORVVDODULRVPLHQWUDVTXHXQDFRQWUDFFLyQGHO3%,DXPHQWDODGHVLJXDOGDGGHELGR
DTXHORVVDODULRVEDMDQ\ORVWUDEDMDGRUHVGHVSHGLGRVQRVRQFXELHUWRVSRUVHJXURV
GHGHVHPSOHR'DWRVDQWHULRUHVGHODUHJLyQFRQUPDQHVWDKLSyWHVLV$OWLPLU
82
Figura 4 Desempeo de variables macroeconmicas entre 2003 y 2007 de

regmenes de centroizquierda versus regmenes de no centroizquierda
)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQGHODXWRUVREUHODEDVHGH%DGHFRQGH&(3$/SDUDHOFUHFLPLHQWRGHO3%,SHUFiSLWD\ODEDODQ]DVFDO
3%,\GHOD3HUVSHFWLYDVGHOD(FRQRPtD0XQGLDOGHO)0,SDUDODLQDFLyQ1RWDODWDVDGHLQDFLyQGHORVSDtVHV
GHFHQWURL]TXLHUGDVHUtDGHXQHVGHFLUSRUGHEDMRGHOSURPHGLRGHORVSDtVHVGHQRFHQWURL]TXLHUGDVLVHH[FOX\HD
9HQH]XHODTXHUHJLVWUyXQDLQDFLyQSURPHGLRGHGXUDQWHHVWHSHUtRGR
Tabla 3. Tendencias del mercado laboral para Amrica latina entera,

1990-2007

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SDUWLFLSDFLyQ

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ELD+RQGXUDV0p[LFR\9HQH]XHODORVGDWRVGHHVWiQUHSUHVHQWDGRVSRUDTXHOORVGH
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SROtWLFDVODERUDOHVTXHVHDQDOL]DQHQODVHFFLyQJHQHUDURQXQHIHFWRLJXDODGRUHQ
ODGLVWULEXFLyQGHORVVDODULRV(OGHVHPSOHRXUEDQRGLVPLQX\yGHODOSRUFLHQWR
HQWUHORVDxRV\SDUDODUHJLyQHQWHUD7DEOD0iVGHPLOORQHVGH
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/RVQXHYRVWUDEDMRVIXHURQIXQGDPHQWDOPHQWHREWHQLGRVSRUJUXSRVFRQEDMRVLQJUH
VRVFRQWULEX\HQGRGHHVWDPDQHUDDODGLVPLQXFLyQGHODGHVLJXDOGDGGHORVLQJUHVRV
HQIRUPDVLJQLFDWLYD$TXHOODVPHMRUtDVIXHURQPiVSURQXQFLDGDVHQORVSDtVHVGH
83
FHQWURL]TXLHUGDTXHHQORVSDtVHVGHQRFHQWURL]TXLHUGD(VPiVHQWUH\
ODWDVDGHGHVHPSOHRGLVPLQX\yGHXQDXQSRUFLHQWRHQHOSULPHUJUXSR\
GHXQDXQSRUFLHQWRHQHOVHJXQGR'HODPLVPDPDQHUDORVVDODULRVSURPHGLR
VHLQFUHPHQWDURQGHXQDXQHQORVSDtVHVGHFHQWURL]TXLHUGDPLHQWUDVTXH
VHHVWDQFDURQHQHQORVSDtVHVQRGHFHQWURL]TXLHUGD&RUQLD\0DUWRUDQR
3.3. Una mejora en la distribucin de los logros educativos

2WUR IDFWRU HQ OD UHFLHQWH GLVPLQXFLyQ GH OD GHVLJXDOGDG HQ ORV LQJUHVRV HV HO DX
PHQWRHQODVWDVDVGHPDWULFXODFLyQTXHVHUHJLVWUyHQWRGRVORVQLYHOHVHGXFDWLYRV
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GHVLJXDOGDGHQODPDWULFXODFLyQGHODHGXFDFLyQSULPDULD\VHFXQGDULD3RUHMHPSOR
ODSUREDELOLGDGTXHXQQLxRQLxDGHOGHFLOLQIHULRUFRPSOHWHODHVFXHODVHFXQGDULDHQ
UHODFLyQDXQQLxRQLxDGHOGHFLOVXSHULRUVHLQFUHPHQWyGHXQDXQSRUFLHQWR
HQWUH\&(3$/(ODXPHQWRGHODPDWULFXODFLyQLQFUHPHQWyHO
Q~PHURSURPHGLRGHDxRVGHHGXFDFLyQGHODSREODFLyQDFWLYDPLHQWUDVTXHUHGXMR
ODGHVLJXDOGDGGHVXGLVWULEXFLyQWDQWRHQSDtVHVGHFHQWURL]TXLHUGDFRPRHQSDtVHV
GHQRFHQWURL]TXLHUGD)LJXUD0LHQWUDVTXHHOHIHFWRGHHVWDWHQGHQFLDHQODSULPD
SRUFDOLFDFLyQQRHVDXWRPiWLFRORVGDWRVGHO&('/$6FRQUPDQTXHODVJDQDQFLDV
HQODIRUPDFLyQGHOFDSLWDOKXPDQR\ODGHVLJXDOGDGHGXFDWLYDGHORV~OWLPRVDxRV
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SHUVLyQVDODULDOHQWUHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVFDOLFDGRV\QRFDOLFDGRV(QHOFDVRGH%UDVLO
SRUHMHPSORGRVWHUFLRVGHODGLVPLQXFLyQVHDVRFLDURQDODFDtGDGHODGHVLJXDOGDG
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ORVWUDEDMDGRUHV\GHODSULPDVDODULDOGHDFXHUGRDORVQLYHOHVGHHGXFDFLyQ,EtG
3.4 La propagacin de regmenes de centroizquierda y la adopcin

de un nuevo modelo de poltica
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8 Sin embargo, durante este mismo perodo, la brecha entre los ricos y los pobres con respecto al acceso a la educacin terciaria se increment.
84
Figura 5. Cambio porcentual en los aos promedio de educacin de la

poblacin adulta y en el Gini de los logros educativos entre mediados
de la dcada de los 90 y mediados de la dcada de 2000 en 18 pases
latinoamericanos.
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85
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9 Se reere a impuestos que gravan la fabricacin, venta o consumo interno de determinadas mercancas.
10 Los gobiernos desarrollaron una variedad de mecanismos fiscales para apropiarse de parte del incremento en los precios de los productos bsicos (CEPAL, 2007, p.31). Argentina financi partes de sus gastos
con recursos generados por aranceles a la exportacin. A su vez, Venezuela, Bolivia, y Chile crearon nuevos
impuestos para incrementar la recaudacin generada por sus recursos no renovables. Como consecuencia, el
porcentaje de los recursos fiscales representados por esa recaudacin en Bolivia, Chile, Colombia y Mxico
se increment de un 27,8; 7,6; 9,9; y 29,4 por ciento en los 90 a 34,8; 20, 14,2 y 37,5 en los aos 2006-2007,
respectivamente.
86
Tabla 4. Cocientes de recaudacin tributaria/PBI y recaudacin no

tributaria/PBI del gobierno central en 1990, 2002 y 2007 y cambios en la
estructura tributaria en pases de centroizquierda y no de centroizquierda.

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11 Este tipo de poltica requiere que la acumulacin de reservas internacionales durante perodos de reactivacin
sean correspondidas con medidas para esterilizar su impacto monetario. La esterilizacin de este tipo es ms fcil
cuando existe un supervit scal. Sino es necesario esterilizar a travs de una mezcla de operaciones tradicionales
de mercado abierto, ventas de bonos del banco central en el mercado, o requisitos de reservas ms altas. Por esta
razn, un supervit scal es un complemento esencial a una poltica dirigida a mantener un tipo de cambio real
estable y competitivo.
88
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Tabla 5. Gasto pblico social promedio/PBI en pases de centroizquierda
versus en pases no de centroizquierda
$xR

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12 En 2005, Cuba, Uruguay, Brasil, Argentina, Bolivia, Costa Rica y Panam tuvieron cocientes de gastos sociales/
PBI de 15-20 por ciento (cerca del nivel de OCDE), pero la mayor parte de los pases centroamericanos y andinos
tuvieron cocientes por debajo de un 10%.
13 Desde 1996-7, Bolivia, Honduras y Nicaragua disfrutaron cancelaciones de sus deudas iguales a 5, 6 y 2 por ciento
de sus PBI.
90
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Tabla 6. Incidencia de los gastos del gobierno por quintil (18 pases, aos
1997-2004) y coecientes de concentracin de los gastos pblicos por los
tres grupos de pases.

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Tabla 7. Cobertura de pensiones no contributivas en Amrica Latina

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Tabla 8. Resumen de algunos de los principales programas sociales

introducidos en tiempos recientes en la regin
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4. Anlisis de regresin
4.1 Conjunto de datos y matriz de coecientes de correlacin
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GDWRVVREUHOD'LVWULEXFLyQGH,QJUHVRVHQ$PpULFDODWLQD,'/$/D,'/$LQFOX\H
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14 De las 324 (18 x18) observaciones del Coeciente de Gini de la desigualdad de los ingresos, 175 derivan de la base
de datos SEDLA (www.depeco.econo.unlp.edu.ar/sedlac/eng/statistics.php), 11 de la base de datos WIDERs WIID2c,
3 de Badeinso-Eclac 2008 (www.eclac.cl/estadisticas/bases/), 13 de WDI 2007, y una (Argentina, 2007) de fuentes
nacionales. 98 observaciones fueron interpoladas rellenando brechas de uno o dos aos en series cronolgicas con
tendencias estables. Finalmente, 23 celdas estn en blanco. En la mayora de los casos los datos se reeren a los
ingresos disponibles de los hogares per cpita. En algunos casos, no fue posible encontrar el concepto de ingresos utilizado para computar los Coecientes Gini, ya que esta informacin no fue incluida en los cuestionarios del
sondeo. Esto puede introducir algn error de medicin en la variable dependiente. Sin embargo, como existe una
fuerte co-variacin entre las tendencias de los Coecientes Gini derivados de los distintos conceptos de ingresos,
este margen de error puede afectar las intersecciones de los pases en la estimacin de efectos jos, sin afectar los
parmetros de las variables explicativas. Todos los datos cubren a la nacin entera, con la excepcin de Argentina
(donde las encuestas inicialmente cubrieron el Gran Buenos Aires, y despus las ciudades principales), Bolivia (cobertura urbana entre 1990-95), y Uruguay (cobertura urbana exclusivamente).
94
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Tabla 9. Denicin, descripcin y fuentes de datos de las variables usadas
en el anlisis de regresin
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15 Con respecto a ello, debe ser notado que la causalidad reversa no tiene ningn sentido en la mayora de las
relaciones en la Tabla 9. Por ejemplo, no es plausible que los cambios en la desigualdad domstica afecten al tipo
de cambio real, o puedan afectar variables rezagadas, exgenas o de poltica (como el Gini del ingreso de 1990,
remesas de los migrantes, trminos de intercambio, cociente de impuestos directos/impuestos indirectos, cociente
de cobertura de jubilacin Q1/Q5 y salarios mnimos). Asimismo, una cada/aumento en el Gini de los ingresos podra
afectar el Gini de educacin despus de un retraso considerable. Es tambin inverosmil que una disminucin en la
desigualdad afecte los gastos en seguro social, los cuales dependen de la cobertura de pensiones formales, y en
la distribucin de los ingresos scales y los gastos sociales para transferencias monetarias condicionales. La nica
relacin en la cual la causalidad reversa puede ser plausible es entre el Gini del ingreso y la tasa de crecimiento del
PBI per cpita En este caso, sin embargo, esta relacin sera caracterizada por rezagos en el tiempo, lo que excluye
la posibilidad de causalidad reversa en los datos sincrnicos. Ms an, la literatura sobre el impacto de mayor desigualdad en el crecimiento del PBI per cpita no es unnime. En lo general, la reversin causal no parece plausible.
98

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Tabla 10. Resultado de la regresin de efectos jos (variable dependiente: Coeciente de Gini de la distribucin
de los ingresos disponibles per cpita)
99
5. Conclusiones: los regmenes polticos importan en cuanto

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el 22 y el 23 de septiembre de 2008. Sal Keifman, Matn Abeles y Andrea Cornia fueron expositores de dicho
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Gustavo Murga y Soledad Villafae. Los errores y omisiones remanentes son de exclusiva responsabilidad de los
autores. Las opiniones expresadas en este artculo corresponden a sus autores y no necesariamente representan la
visin de sus respectivas instituciones.
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2. Determinantes de la distribucin del ingreso en los

modelos ortodoxos y heterodoxos
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1 Ms all del viraje de la corriente principal hacia el estudio de la distribucin personal del ingreso (ver seccin
anterior), ac, la exposicin del enfoque ortodoxo tradicional se concentra en la distribucin funcional del ingreso
(en su versin predominante durante la primera mitad del siglo pasado) a los nes comparativos.
127
Determinantes de la distribucin del ingreso en el enfoque

ortodoxo convencional
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2 Se postula, adems, la ausencia de externalidades (costos y benecios no asimilados por el sistema de precios) y
de problemas de acceso a la informacin que, al incorporarse, dan lugar a algunos resultados novedosos dentro del
propio campo ortodoxo (ver seccin 4).
128
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3 Tcnicamente, la demanda de L (K) iguala en el ptimo al valor de la productividad marginal del L (K).
4 De este modo, no se plantean diferencias sustanciales entre distintos tipos de agente econmico (sean estos
propietarios del factor L o K) y se postula que las participaciones factoriales relativas se encuentran directamente
ligadas a la abundancia o escasez relativa de cada factor. As, en una economa con abundancia de L (escasez de K)
la tasa de salarios (tasa de benecios) ser relativamente baja (alta).
5 El modelo de crecimiento neoclsico tradicional asigna un rol clave al progreso tcnico como motor del crecimiento, pero no brinda explicacin alguna sobre sus principales determinantes. El carcter exgeno del progreso tcnico,
por ejemplo el hecho de que permaneciera virtualmente inexplicado (contrstese, por ejemplo, con los trabajos de
Schumpeter) constituy una de sus mayores debilidades intrnsecas y dio lugar a mltiples derivaciones, entre ellas
el surgimiento por contraposicin de la teora del crecimiento endgeno. El stock de capital humano, la defensa
de los derechos de propiedad, la calidad de la infraestructura socioeconmica y los patrones culturales proclives a
estimular el espritu emprendedor, son algunas de las dimensiones consideradas por dichos modelos (Arrow, 1962;
Uzawa, 1965; Shell, 1967; Romer; 1986; Lucas, 1988; Grossman y Helpman, 1991). En lneas generales, los modelos de
crecimiento endgeno mantienen las caractersticas esenciales del enfoque neoclsico tradicional, con la excepcin
de relajar el supuesto de rendimientos marginales decrecientes para el capital. Si el producto marginal del capital no
disminuye con el aumento del stock de capital (de la inversin), la tasa de inversin se convierte en un determinante
clave del crecimiento econmico, de manera semejante a los autores clsicos.
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de salario real.
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que la produccin total de bienes en una economa implica, por el volumen de ingresos derivado de su colocacin
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en los enfoques heterodoxos
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en el mercado, una demanda agregada que es suciente para comprar todos los bienes que en esa economa se
ofrecen; de all que en el nivel agregado no pueda presentarse nunca una situacin de dcit de demanda.
8 Aunque algunas extensiones ortodoxas incorporan al anlisis ciertas imperfecciones de mercado que hacen que
el crecimiento y la distribucin dejen de ser fenmenos independientes (ver seccin 4).
9 Por ejemplo, se supone que la prdida en la demanda de consumo de los trabajadores derivada de una eventual
disminucin en su participacin en el ingreso resultara compensada automticamente por un aumento de la demanda de inversin por parte de los propietarios de capital, y viceversa.
131
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Presentacin de los argumentos centrales de los modelos
neo-kaleckianos ms simples
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11 Existen diversos estudios que incorporan al sector pblico y consideran las cuestiones nancieras en el anlisis de
los regmenes de crecimiento wage-led y prot-led. Dados los nes del presente trabajo, es conveniente simplicar
el anlisis utilizando modelos neo-kaleckianos para economas cerradas y abiertas, excluyendo estos factores. Para
ahondar en las implicancias de considerar al sector pblico en un modelo neo-kaleckiano formal, ver Dutt (1984).
Para examinar los efectos de las variables nancieras sobre esta clase de modelos, ver Skott y Ryoo (2008).
138
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12 El ahorro forzoso kaldoriano se reere al mecanismo mediante el cual se reduce el consumo asalariado y aumenta forzosamente el ahorro empresarial, producto de la redistribucin de ingresos del trabajo al capital que resulta
del aumento generalizado de los precios (cada de los salarios reales),.
141
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142
5. Distribucin del ingreso e inacin en los modelos

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13 Esta clase de rigideces suele asociarse a la existencia de salarios de eciencia, sindicatos, contratos implcitos
entre trabajadores y empresarios, prcticas de racionamiento crediticio, contratos solapados que afectan la determinacin de precios y salarios, o costos de men que dicultan el ajuste automtico de los precios de los bienes
(Mankiw y Romer, 1991).
14 El hecho de que en materia de poltica monetaria la ortodoxia haya sido acaparada hoy en da por la vertiente
de los nuevos keynesianos explica por qu muchos economistas ortodoxos se denen como keynesianos en la
actualidad. Para un anlisis de los distintos tipos de keynesianismo, ver Snowdon y Vane (2005).
143
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15 Para una derivacin sencilla de la NAIRU que pone nfasis en estos mismos puntos, ver Abeles y Borzel (2004).
16 Como ya puede vislumbrarse aunque no suela plantearse as dentro de la literatura ortodoxa en una situacin
en la que un sector empresario con poder de mercado concentrado enfrenta a una fuerza laboral fuertemente organizada, la tasa de desempleo (NAIRU) que evita el aumento de la inacin puede ser sumamente elevada.
17 Resulta inusual encontrar anlisis ortodoxos que introducen la puja distributiva como factor de propagacin de
la inacin.
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18 De all la sugerencia de Sawyer (1997) de reemplazar la nocin de NAIRU por la de CISRU (Constant Income Share
Rate of Unemployment), es decir, como la tasa de desempleo que mantiene inalterada la distribucin funcional del
ingreso.
19 De todos modos, hay que reconocer que si bien a regaadientes en sus versiones ms modernas la visin
ortodoxa ha asumido abiertamente la naturaleza endgena de la oferta monetaria, tal como lo haba hecho el propio
Wicksell a nes del siglo XIX (Vernengo, 2005).
20 En las economas en desarrollo las limitaciones al crecimiento pueden tener su origen en el lado de la oferta (por
ejemplo, por estrangulamientos en la balanza de pagos).
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22 Tcnicamente, el grado de monopolio depende de: el tamao de la empresa;, la elasticidad de la curva de demanda de la empresa y de la industria; de las barreras existentes a la entrada de nuevos competidores en la industria;
del poder sindical existente en el mercado de trabajo y del estado del ciclo econmico. Para mayores detalles, ver
Kalecki (1971).
23 Para una mirada provocativa en una direccin semejante, ver Pollin (1998).
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6 Al respecto, ver Las empresas y el mercado de trabajo, Kostzer, 2007.
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7 La institucin del Salario Mnimo Vital y Mvil, la regulacin de la jornada laboral, las vacaciones pagas, la proteccin social en general contribuyen a esta jacin institucional del salario. A pesar de la existencia de elevados
niveles de no registracin de trabajadores o de desproteccin social, estas instituciones, en especial el SMVM tienen
un efecto de seal en los mercados muy importante. (Marinakis et.al., 2005)
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8 Fordismo, no tanto en el esquema de produccin seriada, sino en la vieja idea que son los propios trabajadores de
la rma los que adquieren los bienes que producen.
9 A pesar de que se vislumbran como modelos simples, Bhaduri y Harris (1987) explicaron las dicultades para
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10 Respecto de la evolucin econmica e institucional del mercado laboral de la Argentina durante el esquema de
la Convertibilidad, el lector puede consultar Maurizio, (2002).
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11 Respecto del rol del esquema de tipo de cambio diferenciado en el proceso de crecimiento de la Argentina en la
post-Convertibilidad, ver Agis y Feldman (2009).
12 Para un anlisis del rol de las polticas de salario mnimo con aplicacin al caso argentino, ver Kostzer (2006) y
Maurizio (op.cit).
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13 Adems de este efecto, la distribucin de (las menores) utilidades por parte de las empresas puede verse inuenciada por el proceso de apreciacin cambiaria. En este tipo de contexto, las empresas pueden acelerar su distribucin de utilidades con el objetivo de utilizar estos recursos en actividades especulativas, en el sector inmobiliario de
la economa. El propio proceso de distribucin de utilidades y especulacin nanciera en detrimento de la inversin
productiva contribuye a deteriorar la distribucin del ingreso, tanto desde el punto de vista funcional como tambin
del personal. Si bien el anlisis de este tipo de efectos escapa a los nes del presente, la relacin entre apreciacin
cambiaria, redistribucin de utilidades y especulacin nanciera ha sido ampliamente analizada.
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14 En este sentido el diseo de un sistema crediticio ms sosticado y orientado a resultados puede ser de gran
ayuda con instrumentos como los crditos sobre nmina salarial, u orientados a ampliacin de mercados externos,
entre otros.
15 En este sentido, la implementacin de la Asignacin Universal por Hijo para la Proteccin Social se encuentra
dentro de este grupo de polticas que podran contribuir a apaciguar la dinmica antes descripta. De hecho, la vigorosa recuperacin de la economa argentina de los efectos contractivos de la crisis internacional, que comienza
en el cuarto trimestre de 2010, tiene mucho que ver con el impulso de demanda derivado de esta poltica. Para un
anlisis pormenorizado del impacto de la Asignacin Universal por Hijo en la economa local, ver Agis et.al., (2010).
177
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II.
Polticas de ingresos
y desafos a favor
de la igualdad
223
224
Impacto distributivo de las

instituciones laborales
8 DINMICA DISTRIBUTIVA Y POLTICAS PBLICAS: DOS DCADAS
CONTRASTES EN LA ARGENTINA CONTEMPORNEA
DE
9 SALARIOS,
ARGENTINA
Carla Borroni y David Trajtemberg
225
8
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1 Para estudios profundos del tema, vase Altimir y Beccaria, 1999; Altimir, Beccaria y Gonzlez Rosada, 2002; Maurizio, 2009; Gasparini y Cruces, 2009; entre otros.
2 Al revisar el estado del arte sobre el tema, se encontraron para la Argentina algunos estudios relacionados. Uno
de ellos realizado por Medina y Galvn (2008) sobre la descomposicin del Gini por fuentes de ingreso para 17
pases de Amrica Latina, entre ellos la Argentina. Otro trabajo es el realizado por Donza et.al., (2007) en el que se
estudia la distribucin del ingreso considerando diferentes mtodos de estimacin, entre ellos las descomposicin
del Gini por fuentes de ingreso entre dos fases histricas 1992-2001 (salida de la crisis hiperinacionaria, reformas
estructurales, y rgimen de convertibilidad) y 2001-2003 (crisis del modelo de convertibilidad y reactivacin bajo
nuevas reglas macroeconmicas). Si bien recientemente estos investigadores han extendido el perodo de anlisis,
no contemplan la metodologa de anlisis dinmico, por lo que sus conclusiones son considerablemente distintas a
las nuestras. Por otro lado, Cornia (2009) aporta evidencias que permiten orientar hacia la importancia y magnitud
de los efectos de las fuentes de ingresos en la desigualdad total de los hogares, aunque el autor seala tambin la
ausencia de una descomposicin formal como la que se desarrolla en el presente trabajo.
228
Factores asociados a la dinmica distributiva
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Grco 1. Evolucin del coeciente de Gini del ingreso per cpita familiar
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3 En un anlisis histrico de la distribucin del ingreso en nuestro pas, Altimir et al.,. (2002) sealan que desde 1974
se veric una tendencia de constante empeoramiento de la desigualdad de ingreso de los hogares a un ritmo casi
uniforme que termina por elevar la desigualdad desde un coeciente de Gini de 0,36 en 1974 a otro de 0,51 en 2000.
En ese trabajo sealan que los principales factores asociados al incremento en la desigualdad de ingresos se centran
en las fuerzas que actan en el mercado de trabajo, lo que permite delinear a grandes rasgos 4 fases distintas a lo
largo del ltimo cuarto de siglo. As durante la ltima fase de los aos setenta el empeoramiento en la desigualdad
estuvo asociado a la cada de los salarios reales y a una mayor dispersin salarial. En la dcada de los aos ochenta
esta se asoci centralmente al incremento del desempleo y de la informalidad producto de las sucesivas crisis que
vivi el pas. Ya en los noventa, bajo un cambio radical del orden econmico, el incremento en el ndice de Gini estuvo relacionado con los altos niveles de desempleo imperantes y, en la ltima fase de esa dcada, con un incremento
signicativo en la brecha salarial, en especial un incremento en los diferenciales salariales por calicacin.
229
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1. Metodologa: la descomposicin del Coeciente

de Gini por fuentes de ingreso
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4 Una breve explicacin del Programa Jefes de Hogar (PJH) se presenta en la seccin 3.2.1, y para la Asignacin
Universal por Hijo para Proteccin Social, ver la seccin 3.2.3.
5 El coeciente de Gini, puede tomar valores en un intervalo entre cero (0) y uno (1). Es igual a 1 cuando existe la
mayor desigualdad posible, es decir toda la riqueza est concentrada en un solo individuo, y ser igual a cero (0)
cuando existe perfecta igualdad, todos los individuos disfrutan del mismo nivel de riqueza.
6 Para una revisin de las medidas de desigualdad y sus propiedades puede verse Sen (2001) y Medina (2001).
230
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7 Asimismo se han desarrollado varios trabajos empricos para diversos pases, Medina y Galvn (2008); Salas
y Torres (2006); Wodon, et al. (2000); Corts (2000); Szkely y Hilgert (1999); Lerman y Yitzhaki (1985 y 1995).
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8 Por ejemplo el Gini de las transferencias de ingreso del Estado registra un valor de 0.18 para el ao 2006 cuando
slo se tienen en cuenta los beneciarios de esa medida. Sin embargo el coeciente de Gini relativo alcanza un
valor de 0.965 lo cual reeja que hay una parte importante de los hogares que no perciben este ingreso y que por
tanto aparecen en el clculo con un ingreso igual a cero.
5 *
y
. El trmino de Pseudo-Gini haba
N
N
sido tambin introducido en el trabajo de Shorrocks (1982:195) para la especicacin de la descomposicin del
coeciente de Gini.
9 Medina y Galvn (2008) denominan Pseudo-Gini al producto entre
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1.2 Determinacin de variables: alcance y limitaciones
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10 Se considera en este grupo tanto los ingresos derivados de la ocupacin principal como de la ocupacin secundaria.
11 La diferenciacin de los asalariados registrados y no registrados se realiz a partir de la identicacin del descuento jubilatorio. El ingreso de los asalariados no registrados tambin tiene en cuenta el ingreso de la ocupacin
principal y secundaria.
12 Se opt por incluir el benecio monetario del Programa Jefes de Hogar como una transferencia de ingreso del Estado y no como un ingreso laboral. Por otra parte, con el propsito de incorporar el efecto de la Asignacin Universal
por Hijo se realiza una estimacin de los hogares y nios beneciarios para el cuarto trimestre del ao 2009. Para
ello se aplica la asignacin de $180 pesos por nio de acuerdo a lo establecido en el Decreto 16/02 de 2009: hasta 5
nios por hogar de padres desocupados o trabajadores informales con ingresos menores a $1500.
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2. Dinmica de las fuentes de ingreso de los hogares

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13 En el cuestionario de la EPH se disearon preguntas especcas para los beneciarios del Programa Jefes de
Hogar, sin embargo han existido otros programas de transferencias monetarias que no pueden ser identicados de
manera precisa como el Plan Familias, el Seguro de Capacitacin y Empleo, el Programa Jvenes por Ms y Mejor
Trabajo, el Programa de Empleo Comunitario, Ciudadana Portea en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, el Plan Ms y Mejor
Vida en la provincia de Buenos Aires, entre otros. Actualmente sera de gran valor para la investigacin acadmica y
para las reas de poltica econmica y social, la identicacin y el registro adecuado de la fuente de ingresos en los
hogares por la Asignacin Universal por Hijo.
234
Grco 2. Participacin relativa de cada fuente de ingreso, 1992-2009

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14 La moratoria previsional implementada en el ao 2005 permiti elevar la cobertura previsional a 87% en el 2009.
De igual forma se introdujeron incrementos signicativos en el haber jubilatorio, implementando tambin un sistema
de movilidad de las prestaciones del Sistema Previsional.
15 Como ya fue sealado, el coeciente de concentracin se encuentra en un rango comprendido entre -1 y 1, siendo
el extremo negativo cuando la totalidad de la fuente es recibida por los ms pobres en la distribucin de ingreso
total y el extremo positivo cuando la totalidad de la fuente es recibida por los ms ricos en la distribucin del ingreso total.
236
Grco 3. ndices de concentracin por fuentes de ingreso, 1992-2009

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16 Para un estudio sobre la inuencia de los sindicatos y la negociacin colectiva en la distribucin de los salarios en
el caso argentino, revisar Trajtemberg (2009).
237
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3. El impacto de las fuentes de ingreso en la dinmica

de la distribucin del ingreso
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239
Tabla 1. Efectos participacin y concentracin 1992-1994 y 1994-1996
)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQSURSLDVREUHODEDVHGH(3+SXQWXDORQGDPD\RDJORPHUDGRVXUEDQRV
+DFLDPHGLDGRVGHODGpFDGDGHORVQRYHQWD\FRPRUHVXOWDGRGHOLPSDFWRTXHWXYRHQ
QXHVWURSDtVODFULVLVGHO7HTXLODGHVHSURGXMRXQLPSRUWDQWHGHVFHQVRGHOQLYHO
GHDFWLYLGDGHFRQyPLFDFRQFRQVHFXHQFLDVVLJQLFDWLYDVHQHODXPHQWRGHOGHVHPSOHR
<HOFXDOVXSHUyORVGRVGtJLWRVHQ<ODSUHFDULHGDGODSREUH]DHLQGLJHQFLD'H
KHFKRODGLVWULEXFLyQGHORVLQJUHVRVUHJLVWUyHQWUH\XQHPSHRUDPLHQWR
PX\SURIXQGRGHORUGHQGHO
&RPRVHREVHUYDHQOD7DEODHOHPSHRUDPLHQWRGLVWULEXWLYRHVWXYRDVRFLDGRDOR
RFXUULGRHQWUHORVLQJUHVRVODERUDOHVORVFXDOHVKXELHUDQHMHUFLGRXQLPSDFWRPD\RU
GHQRPHGLDUODGLQiPLFDTXHWXYLHURQDOJXQRVGHORVLQJUHVRVQRODERUDOHV(QSDUWL
FXODUODLQFLGHQFLDPiVUHOHYDQWHSURYLQRGHORVLQJUHVRVODERUDOHVGHORV&3$PERV
HIHFWRVSDUWLFLSDFLyQ\FRQFHQWUDFLyQHPSHRUDURQODGLVWULEXFLyQGHORVLQJUHVRVWR
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IXHQWHIXHUWHPHQWHKHWHURJpQHD\GHVLJXDOWXYRHQHOLQJUHVRWRWDOGHODVIDPLOLDV
HVWiDVRFLDGRDTXHHVWDVDFWLYLGDGHVSXHGHQDFWXDUFRPRUHIXJLRHQpSRFDVGHFULVLV
\DOWRGHVHPSOHR$XQTXHFRPRYHUHPRVHQODSUy[LPDVHFFLyQHVWRQRVXFHGLyHQ
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WDQWHSURIXQGL]DFLyQHQHOFRHFLHQWHGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQ\DGHSRUVtHOHYDGRSDVyGH
17 Se realiza el anlisis comparativo entre principios de 1994 y 1996 para poder captar todo el efecto de la crisis
del ao 1995.
240
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241
Tabla 2. Efectos participacin y concentracin 1996-1998 y 1998-2002
)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQSURSLDVREUHODEDVHGH(3+SXQWXDORQGDPD\RDJORPHUDGRVXUEDQRV
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18 Maurizio, 2009; Altimir y Beccaria, 1999; Cruces y Gasparini, 2009, entre otros.
19 Maurizio, (2009) aporta distinta evidencia que respalda la hiptesis de que el aumento en la desigualdad de los
ingresos laborales est predominantemente asociada con el efecto de la reduccin de la demanda laboral que, por
la curva de salarios, afecta en mayor medida a los de menor ingreso y calicacin.
242
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Grco 4. Variacin en la participacin de las Jubilaciones y Pensiones en
los deciles de ingreso, 1996-1998, 1998-2002. Hogares ordenados por ipcf
(en porcentajes)

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243
Grco 5. Variacin en la participacin del ingreso de los Asalariados

Registrados, segn deciles de ingreso, 1996-1998, 1998-2002. Hogares
ordenados por ipcf (en porcentajes)

(OVHJXQGRFRPSRQHQWHGHLQJUHVRTXHPiVFRQWULEX\yDODXPHQWRGHODGHVLJXDOGDG
HQHVWHSHUtRGRIXHHOLQJUHVRGHORV$15HOFXDOH[SOLFDHQXQHOLQFUHPHQWR
GHOFRHFLHQWHGH*LQLGHOLQJUHVRWRWDO6LQHPEDUJRDGLIHUHQFLDGHORTXHRFXUUHFRQ
ORV$5HVHOHIHFWRSDUWLFLSDFLyQHOTXHSULPDVREUHHOHIHFWRFRQFHQWUDFLyQ&RPR
VHDQDOL]ySUHYLDPHQWHGDGRTXHHVWDIXHQWHGHLQJUHVRSRVHHXQFRHFLHQWHGHFRQ
FHQWUDFLyQPHQRUDO*LQLGHOLQJUHVRWRWDOGHORVKRJDUHVODFDtGDHQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQ
GHOLQJUHVRGHHVWRVWUDEDMDGRUHVPDQWHQLHQGRWRGRORGHPiVFRQVWDQWHHPSHRUDUtD
HOtQGLFHGH*LQL&RQYLHQHXQDYH]PiVDFODUDUHOSXQWRVLORVWUDEDMDGRUHV$15YHQ
GLVPLQXLGRVXLQJUHVRRSLHUGHQVXWUDEDMRFHWHULVSDULEXVODVLWXDFLyQGLVWULEXWLYD
VHDJUDYD
(QUHVXPHQODGpFDGDGHORVQRYHQWDHVWXYRVLJQDGDSRUXQHPSHRUDPLHQWRHQWpU
PLQRV GLVWULEXWLYRV PX\ VLJQLFDWLYR 'LFKR FRPSRUWDPLHQWR HVWXYR FHQWUDOPHQWH
DVRFLDGRDORVLQJUHVRVGHULYDGRVGHOPHUFDGRODERUDO(QHVSHFLDOHODXPHQWRHQOD
FRQFHQWUDFLyQGHORVLQJUHVRVSURYHQLHQWHVGHORVDVDODULDGRVUHJLVWUDGRVKDWHQLGRXQ
SHVRHVHQFLDOHQGLFKDGLQiPLFD$VLPLVPRHQODIDVHUHFHVLYDODGLVPLQXFLyQHQOD
LPSRUWDQFLDGHORVLQJUHVRVODERUDOHVDXQHQORVSXHVWRVQRUHJLVWUDGRVWXYRXQLPSDF
WRQHJDWLYRHQODGLVWULEXFLyQGHOLQJUHVR/DDFFLyQGHO(VWDGRHQWpUPLQRVGHWUDQV
IHUHQFLDVGLUHFWDVDORVKRJDUHVPiVYXOQHUDEOHVWXYRXQLPSDFWRSUiFWLFDPHQWHQXOR
GXUDQWHHVWDGpFDGDDXQTXHDOJXQRVSULPHURVSURJUDPDVLPSOHPHQWDGRVHQODFULVLV
GHODxRFRPHQ]DURQDHYLGHQFLDUHOUROSRWHQFLDOTXHSXHGHWHQHUHO(VWDGRSDUD
PHMRUDUODHTXLGDGHQIRUPDGLUHFWDYHU*UiFR3RU~OWLPRODVMXELODFLRQHVTXH
VRQXQDIXHQWHLPSRUWDQWHGHLQJUHVRGHORVKRJDUHVHYLGHQFLDURQHQHVHSHUtRGR\HQ
HVSHFLDOHQORVDxRVGHUHFHVLyQXQLQFUHPHQWRUHOHYDQWHHQHOJUDGRGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQ
244
3.2 El nuevo perodo de crecimiento econmico
(OLPSDFWRGHO3URJUDPD-HIHVGH+RJDUHQHOSHUtRGR
(OLQWHUpVGHDQDOL]DUHVWHSHUtRGRVHRULJLQDHQHOKHFKRGHTXHVLELHQHOUHVWRGHODV
YDULDEOHVVRFLDOHVFRQWLQ~DHOSURFHVRGHHPSHRUDPLHQWRODSREUH]D\ODLQGLJHQFLDVL
JXHQDXPHQWDQGRHQHVHDxRODGLVWULEXFLyQHYLGHQFLDXQFDPELRHQODWHQGHQFLDTXH
YHQtDYHULFDQGRSUHYLDPHQWH(QWDQVyORXQDxRODGHVLJXDOGDGGLVPLQX\yGHPDQH
UDLPSRUWDQWHSDVDQGRHOFRHFLHQWHGH*LQLGHDHQWUH\'LFKD
WHQGHQFLDKDEUiGHSURIXQGL]DUVHSRVWHULRUPHQWHFRPRVHYHUiHQODVLJXLHQWHVHFFLyQ
Tabla 3. Efectos participacin y concentracin 2002-2003
(OSULQFLSDOIDFWRUHQH[SOLFDUODUHGXFFLyQGHOHQHOQGLFHGH*LQLHQHVWHDxR
FRPRVHGHGXFHGHORVUHVXOWDGRVREWHQLGRVIXHHOLQJUHVRSURYHQLHQWHGHODVWUDQVIH
UHQFLDVGHO(VWDGRHQHVSHFLDODVRFLDGDVDODLPSOHPHQWDFLyQGHO3URJUDPD-HIHVGH
+RJDU3-+
'HKHFKRODUHGXFFLyQHQHO&RHFLHQWHGH*LQLHVH[SOLFDGDHQSRUODVWUDQVIH
UHQFLDVGHO(VWDGR7DQWRHOHIHFWRSDUWLFLSDFLyQFRPRFRQFHQWUDFLyQFRQWULEX\HURQ
HQGLFKDGLQiPLFD(VGHFLUIXHIDYRUDEOHHODXPHQWRGHODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHHVWDIXHQWH
20 Estas corresponden fundamentalmente a la implementacin del PJH, el cual lleg a una cobertura de aproximadamente 2 millones de beneciarios en el ao 2003. Las diferentes evaluaciones del plan concluyen que estuvo correctamente focalizado en los hogares ms pobres, para ms detalle ver Galasso y Ravallion (2004),
CELS (2003), Golbert (2006), entre otros. El PJH fue implementado en el ao 2002 por el Gobierno Nacional de
Argentina, como respuesta a la crtica situacin econmica y social predominante en el pas. En el programa se
estableci una transferencia monetaria de $150 pesos mensuales, a los jefes de hogar que se encontraran desempleados y tuviesen a cargo menores de 18 aos. La transferencia era una suma ja independientemente del
nmero de menores en el hogar.
245
Grco 6. Variacin en la participacin de la fuente de ingreso de

Transferencias del Estado en los deciles de ingreso, 1996-1998, 1998-2002
y 2002-2003. Hogares ordenados por ipcf (en porcentajes)

HQORVLQJUHVRVGHORVKRJDUHVPiVSREUHVSXHVHOFRHFLHQWHGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQSDVD
DVHUQHJDWLYR\ODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHHVWDIXHQWHHQHOLQJUHVRWRWDOGHORVKR
JDUHVDOFDQ]DQLYHOHVQXQFDDQWHVUHJLVWUDGRVHQSURPHGLR&RPRVHREVHUYD
HQORVGHFLOHV\HOLQJUHVRSURYHQLHQWHGHHVWDIXHQWHDXPHQWDPiVGH\
UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH
3RURWURODGRHQHVWDIDVHHOLQJUHVRGHORVDVDODULDGRVUHJLVWUDGRVHQORVKRJDUHVHP
SLH]DDVHUXQDIXHQWHTXHFRQWULEX\HDUHGXFLUODGHVLJXDOGDGHQPLHQWUDVTXH
HOLQJUHVRGHORVDVDODULDGRVLQIRUPDOHVD~QKDFHFRQWUDSHVRFRQWULEX\HQGRHQ
SDUDTXHODGHVLJXDOGDGDXPHQWH
3HUtRGR
(QHVWDIDVHGHFUHFLPLHQWRHFRQyPLFREDMRXQQXHYRUpJLPHQPDFURHFRQyPLFRFRQ
LQVWLWXFLRQHV ODERUDOHV UHFXSHUDGDV VH ORJUD XQ GHVFHQVR HQ OD GHVLJXDOGDG PHGLGD
SRUHO&RHFLHQWHGH*LQLFD\HQGRSXQWRVSRUFHQWXDOHVHQWUHORVDxRV\
(VGHFLUODGHVLJXDOGDGVHUHGXFH\HVODYDULDFLyQPiVVLJQLFDWLYDHQHO
&RHFLHQWHGH*LQLTXHVHKDSRGLGRORJUDUHQODV~OWLPDVWUHVGpFDGDVHQXQSHUtRGR
GHWLHPSRVLPLODUDOFRQVLGHUDGR
(VWD UHGXFFLyQ HVWXYR DVRFLDGD HQ PD\RU SURSRUFLyQ D OR VXFHGLGR FRQ ORV LQJUH
VRVODERUDOHVDXQTXHH[LVWHXQDIXHUWHKHWHURJHQHLGDGDOLQWHULRUGHHVWHDJUX
SDPLHQWR 'HQWUR GH ODV IXHQWHV ODERUDOHV ORV LQJUHVRV GH ORV$5 VRQ ORV TXH PiV
FRQWULEX\HURQDODGLQiPLFDGHODGLVWULEXFLyQ$XQTXHHQORVQRYHQWDWDPELpQIXH
246
Tabla 4. Efectos participacin y concentracin 2004-2008
)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQSURSLDVREUHODEDVHGH(3+FRQWLQXDWULPHVWUH,,
HVWDIXHQWHODTXHPiVFRQWULEX\yDODYDULDFLyQGHODGHVLJXDOGDGDKRUDHQODSRVW
FRQYHUWLELOLGDGORKDFHHQXQDGLUHFFLyQRSXHVWDIDYRUHFLHQGRODUHGXFFLyQGHO*LQL
&RPRVHKDVHxDODGRODIXHQWHGHORV$5GXUDQWHHVWHSHUtRGRDXPHQWyVLJQLFDWLYD
PHQWHVXSDUWLFLSDFLyQHQODPDVDGHLQJUHVRWRWDOGHORVKRJDUHVSHURHVWH
LQFUHPHQWRHQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQQRVHKDEUtDWUDGXFLGRHQXQDUHGXFFLyQGHO*LQLVLQR
KXELHVHVLGRSRUODUHGXFFLyQHQHOQLYHOGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQGHHVWDIXHQWHGHLQJUHVR
(VDVtFRPRHOHIHFWRFRQFHQWUDFLyQH[SOLFDSUiFWLFDPHQWHWRGDODFRQWULEX
FLyQGHORV$5DODFDtGDHQODGHVLJXDODGSXQWRVSRUFHQWXDOHV
(VSUHFLVRUHFRUGDU TXH GXUDQWH ORV QRYHQWD VH GLRXQSHUPDQHQWHSURFHVRGHFRQ
FHQWUDFLyQ GH ORV$5 HQ OD SDUWH PiV DOWD GH OD GLVWULEXFLyQ GHO LQJUHVR SHU FiSLWD
IDPLOLDU3RUHOORHODFWXDODXPHQWRHQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHHVWDIXHQWHTXHWHQtDPD\RU
LQFLGHQFLDHQORVKRJDUHVPiVULFRVKXELHUDDJUDYDGRD~QPiVHOQLYHOGHGHVLJXDOGDG
VLQRVHKXELHVHDOFDQ]DGRFRPRHIHFWLYDPHQWHVHKL]R<XQDUHGXFFLyQWDQWRGHO&R
HFLHQWHGH*LQLTXHSDVyGHHQDHQFRPRGHOFRHFLHQWHGH
FRQFHQWUDFLyQGHORVLQJUHVRVGH$5(QUHVXPHQIXHODGLQiPLFDGHODFRQFHQWUDFLyQ
GHHVWDIXHQWHODTXHSHUPLWLyH[SOLFDUODUHGXFFLyQGHODGHVLJXDOGDGWRWDOHQ
3RURWUDSDUWHHOLQJUHVRGHORVLQGHSHQGLHQWHV&3FRQWULEX\HDODEDMDGHOFRH
FLHQWHGH*LQLHQSXQWRVSRUFHQWXDOHV(OLQJUHVRGHORV&3HVXQDIXHQWHFD
UDFWHUL]DGDSRUXQDKHWHURJHQHLGDGLPSRUWDQWHFRQXQ*LQLHVSHFtFRSURPHGLRGH
21 Los trabajos de Maurizio (2009) y Jimnez (2009) presentan un anlisis y caracterizacin de la heterogeneidad
de los trabajadores independientes y su movilidad ocupacional.
247
Grco 7. Variaciones de la participacin del ingreso de los trabajadores

independientes, segn deciles de ingreso, 2004-2008 y 2008-2009.
Hogares ordenados por ipcf (en porcentajes)

HQWUH\<ORFXDOVHWUDGXFHHQXQPD\RUQLYHOGHGHVLJXDOGDGWRWDO3RU
HOORDOSHUGHUVXLPSRUWDQFLDUHODWLYDHQHOLQJUHVRWRWDOGHORVKRJDUHVGLVPLQX\HQGR
HQHOSHUtRGR<HOHIHFWRSDUWLFLSDFLyQVHSXHGHOHHUFRPRXQDFRQWULEXFLyQDOD
FDtGDGHO*LQL$GHPiVGHHVWRWDPELpQVHORJUDTXHODPDVDGHLQJUHVRGHORV&3
UHGX]FDVXQLYHOGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQHQ/DFRPELQDFLyQGHHVWRVVXFHVRVKDFH
TXHHOLQJUHVRGHORV&3H[SOLTXHODFDtGDGHO*LQLHQ
(V FODUR HQ ORV JUiFRV SUHFHGHQWHV TXH HVWD IXHQWH &3 SLHUGH SDUWLFLSDFLyQ HQ
SUiFWLFDPHQWHWRGRVORVGHFLOHVGHLQJUHVR5HVDOWDTXHHQWUHSHUtRGRGH
FUHFLPLHQWRHFRQyPLFR\UHFXSHUDFLyQGHOWUDEDMRDVDODULDGR<ODPD\RUUHGXFFLyQVH
GDHQORVKRJDUHVGHOGHFLOGHLQJUHVRPiVEDMR\TXHHQHOSHUtRGRGHOD
UHFLHQWHFULVLVLQWHUQDFLRQDOHVWDIXHQWHYXHOYHDDXPHQWDUVXSDUWLFLSDFLyQHQGLFKR
GHFLO(VWRSRGUtDVXJHULUTXHHOFXHQWDSURSLVPRHQORVGHFLOHVGHLQJUHVRPiVEDMRV
VHDVRFLDDDFWLYLGDGHVSUHFDULDVGHUHIXJLRODVFXDOHVDVXYH]KDQVLGRPDUFDGDPHQWH
DQWLFtFOLFDV
'DGRTXHKDVWDDTXtKHPRVDQDOL]DGRODGLUHFFLyQ\ODPDJQLWXGGHORVFDPELRVHQ
ODVIXHQWHVODERUDOHVFRQYLHQHUHVDOWDUDKRUDDOJXQRVGHORVDVSHFWRVPiVLPSRUWDQWHV
GHOQXHYRSDWUyQSURGXFWLYRTXHVHLQLFLyHQHODxR(VWHVHFDUDFWHUL]ySRUXQD
UHFXSHUDFLyQGHOFUHFLPLHQWRHFRQyPLFRPRYLOL]DGRSRUODDPSOLDFLyQGHODGHPDQGD
DJUHJDGD\HOHPSOHRORTXHSRVLELOLWyHQFLHUWDPHGLGDODWUDQVIRUPDFLyQGHODVWHQ
GHQFLDVHQHOPHUFDGRGHWUDEDMRWDQWRHQORUHODFLRQDGRFRQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHORV
LQJUHVRVODERUDOHVFRPRHQVXGLVWULEXFLyQ
248
$GLIHUHQFLDGHORTXHRFXUULyGXUDQWHODGpFDGDGHORVQRYHQWDHOFUHFLPLHQWRGHOD
HFRQRPtDFRQXQDYDULDFLyQDQXDOSURPHGLRGHO3%,GHHQWUH\VH
EDVyIXQGDPHQWDOPHQWHHQODH[SDQVLyQGHOHQWUDPDGRSURGXFWLYRORFDOLQFRUSRUiQ
GRVH DOUHGHGRU GH PLO HPSUHVDV SULYDGDV HQ OD LQGXVWULD FRPHUFLR \ VHUYLFLRV
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FDWLYRGHHVWHSHUtRGRUHJLVWUDQGRXQDXPHQWRGHVXLQFLGHQFLDHQHO3,%GHHQ
HODxRDHQHO07(\66/DUHFXSHUDFLyQGHOQLYHOGHDFWLYLGDG
MXQWRFRQXQWLSRGHFDPELRUHDOHOHYDGRGLRXQSDUWLFXODULPSXOVRDODJHQHUDFLyQGH
SXHVWRVGHWUDEDMR0DXUL]LRHWDO/DWDVDGHHPSOHRPRVWUyXQDWHQGHQFLD
FUHFLHQWHGHVGHHOFRQXQDXPHQWRDFXPXODGRGHKDVWDHODxR
/DGLQiPLFDVHFWRULDOPRVWUyXQDWHQGHQFLDDODFUHDFLyQGHHPSOHRVHQDFWLYLGDGHV
LQWHQVLYDVHQPDQRGHREUD(OULWPRGHFUHFLPLHQWRGHOHPSOHRLQGXVWULDOIXHVREUHVD
OLHQWHSHURWRGRVORVVHFWRUHVUHHMDURQXQDWHQGHQFLDPX\SRVLWLYD$SUR[LPDGDPHQ
WHHOGHORVQXHYRVSXHVWRVGHWUDEDMRIXHH[SOLFDGRSRUODLQGXVWULDFRQVWUXFFLyQ
FRPHUFLR\VHUYLFLRVQDQFLHURV0DXUL]LR(VWDFDUDFWHUtVWLFDKL]RTXHODUHFX
SHUDFLyQGHOHPSOHRIXHVHH[WHQGLGDHQORVGLIHUHQWHVQLYHOHVGHFDOLFDFLyQDXQTXH
VLHPSUH FRQ XQD PD\RU LQWHQVLGDG HQ ORV PiV EDMRV SULPDULD FRPSOHWD R PHQRU
(OORUHSUHVHQWDXQDQXHYDWHQGHQFLDGDGRTXHHQDQWHULRUHVSHUtRGRVGHUHFXSHUDFLyQ
ODJHQHUDFLyQGHHPSOHRHVWXYRVHVJDGDKDFLDORVPiVFDOLFDGRV0DXUL]LRHWDO
VXJLHUHQTXHHVWRHVDVtHQSDUWHSRUORRFXUULGRDQLYHOVHFWRULDOHQYLUWXGD
TXHODFRQVWUXFFLyQFUHFLyGHPDQHUDLPSRUWDQWHHQHVWHSHUtRGR
(QUHODFLyQDODFDWHJRUtDRFXSDFLRQDOODHYROXFLyQGHOHPSOHRSUHVHQWyFDPELRVVXV
WDQWLYRVHQFRPSDUDFLyQFRQORHYLGHQFLDGRHQODGpFDGDGHORVQRYHQWD/RVSXHVWRV
GHDVDODULDGRVUHJLVWUDGRVFUHFLHURQHQWUH\PLHQWUDVTXHORVDVDOD
ULDGRVQRUHJLVWUDGRVVyORFUHFLHURQ\ORVQRDVDODULDGRVLQGHSHQGLHQWHVFXHQWD
SURSLVWDV\SDWURQHVDSHQDV(VWDVFLIUDVHYLGHQFLDQXQSURFHVRGHH[SDQVLyQGHO
HPSOHRIRUPDOLQVWDODQGRXQDGLQiPLFDGHLQFRUSRUDFLyQGHWUDEDMDGRUHVSUHFDULRV
\GHVRFXSDGRVDHPSOHRVUHJLVWUDGRV(QHVWHFRQWH[WRVHORJUyXQDUHGXFFLyQGHOD
LQFLGHQFLDGHOHPSOHRQRUHJLVWUDGRHQWUHORVDVDODULDGRVSDVDQGRGHHQD
HQGHHVWDIRUPDODWDVDGHHPSOHRQRUHJLVWUDGRSUHVHQWyXQDFDtGDGH
SXQWRVSRUFHQWXDOHV07(\66
(O*UiFRPXHVWUDFODUDPHQWHFyPRHOFUHFLPLHQWRGHOHPSOHRUHJLVWUDGRVHUHHMD
HQXQDXPHQWRGHHVWDIXHQWHGHLQJUHVRHVSHFLDOPHQWHHQORVHVWUDWRVLQIHULRUHV(Q
WUH\ODFRPSRVLFLyQGHORVLQJUHVRVGHORVSULPHURVFLQFRGHFLOHVFDPELD
GHPDQHUDLPSRUWDQWHSXHVORVLQJUHVRVSURYHQLHQWHVGHOWUDEDMRUHJLVWUDGRVHYXHOYHQ
PXFKRPiVUHOHYDQWHVSDUDHOORV6LELHQHVFLHUWRTXHODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHHVWDIXHQWH
KDFUHFLGRSDUDWRGRVORVKRJDUHVHOFUHFLPLHQWRHVPXFKRPiVVLJQLFDWLYRSDUDORV
GHPHQRULQJUHVR(VWRVHUHHMDHQODFDtGDGHOFRHFLHQWHGH*LQLGHORVDVDODULDGRV
UHJLVWUDGRVGHHQHODxRDHQHO
22 Para una revisin de este tema, ver Maurizio (2009), Beccaria y Gonzales (2006), Altimir et.al., (2002).
249
Grco 8. Variaciones de la participacin del ingreso de los Asalariados

Registrados, segn deciles de ingreso, 2004-2008 y 2008-2009. Hogares
ordenados por ipcf (en porcentajes)

2WUR DVSHFWR D GHVWDFDU HV OD UHODWLYD HVWDELOLGDG HQ ODV YDULDFLRQHV GH HVWD IXHQWH
GXUDQWHOD~OWLPDFULVLVPXQGLDO6LELHQVHH[SHULPHQWDXQDOHYHFDtGDHQODSDUWL
FLSDFLyQGHORVLQJUHVRVGH$5HQWUHHVWDQRDIHFWDGUiVWLFDPHQWHDORV
KRJDUHVGHHVWUDWRVPiVEDMRVVLQRTXHWLHQHXQDLQFLGHQFLDUHODWLYDPHQWHKRPRJpQHD
SDUDWRGRVORVGHFLOHV(VWHHVXQKHFKRTXHFRQWUDVWDFRQORUHJLVWUDGRHQODKLVWRULD
DUJHQWLQDGHODVFULVLVHFRQyPLFDV\VXPD\RUHIHFWRGLUHFWRHQORVLQJUHVRVODERUDOHV
GHORVKRJDUHVPiVSREUHV
$GHPiVGHODLPSRUWDQFLDHQODGLQiPLFDGHOHPSOHRUHJLVWUDGRUHVXOWDFRQYHQLHQWH
FRQVLGHUDUODHYROXFLyQGHORVVDODULRVUHDOHV(OQLYHOGHVDODULRUHDOWDPELpQWXYRXQ
FRPSRUWDPLHQWR GLVWLQWR HQ HVWH SHUtRGR WDQWR SRU FDWHJRUtD RFXSDFLRQDO FRPR SRU
QLYHOGHHGXFDFLyQ6LELHQKXERXQDXPHQWRGHOVDODULRUHDOHVWHIXHUHODWLYDPHQWH
PD\RUSDUDORVDVDODULDGRVQRUHJLVWUDGRV\SDUDORVWUDEDMDGRUHVFRQPHQRUFDOLFD
FLyQ(VSUREDEOHTXHHVWHIHQyPHQRKD\DFRQWULEXLGRSDUDODUHGXFFLyQGHODEUHFKD
VDODULDOGHULYDGDGHHVWDVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVHQWUHORVRFXSDGRV0DXUL]LRHWDO
+DVWDDTXtKHPRVH[DPLQDGRODLQFLGHQFLDGHODVYDULDFLRQHVGHODVIXHQWHVGHLQJUHVRV
ODERUDOHVVREUHORVFDPELRVHQHO*LQL3HURDGHPiVGHORVLQJUHVRVODERUDOHVHVQHFH
VDULRDQDOL]DUORTXHRFXUULyFRQODVYDULDFLRQHVHQODVIXHQWHVQRODERUDOHV'HQWURGH
HVWDVODIXHQWHPiVUHOHYDQWHHVHOLQJUHVRGHMXELODFLRQHV\SHQVLRQHV-\3\DTXH
DGHPiVHVHOWHUFHUFRPSRQHQWHPiVLPSRUWDQWHSDUDODUHGXFFLyQGHODGHVLJXDOGDG
H[SOLFDQGRVXGLVPLQXFLyQ/DV-\3DXPHQWDURQVXSDUWLFLSDFLyQUHODWLYDHQHO
WRWDOGHORVLQJUHVRVGHORVKRJDUHV\DGHPiVUHGXMHURQGHPDQHUDLPSRUWDQWH
VXFRHFLHQWHGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQWDQWRFRPRHOHIHFWRGHSDUWLFLSDFLyQDFWXDURQ
HQGLUHFFLyQKDFLDODFDtGDHQHO&RHFLHQWHGH*LQL(QRWUDVSDODEUDVODPHMRUDHQ
250
Grco 9. Variaciones de la participacin del ingreso de las jubilaciones

y pensiones, segn deciles de ingreso, 2004-2008 y 2008-2009.
Hogares ordenados por ipcf (en porcentajes)

HOQLYHOGHGHVLJXDOGDGGHELGDDODVMXELODFLRQHV\SHQVLRQHVHVUHVSXHVWDWDQWRGHORV
LQFUHPHQWRVHQHOKDEHUMXELODWRULRFRPRSRUODH[WHQVLyQGHHVWHGHUHFKRGHODSURWHF
FLyQVRFLDODORVKRJDUHVGHGHFLOHVGHLQJUHVRPiVEDMR/DFREHUWXUDGHOVLVWHPDGH
SURWHFFLyQVRFLDOVHLQFUHPHQWyKDFLDORVVHFWRUHVPiVYXOQHUDEOHVDOPLVPRWLHPSR
TXHDYDQ]yHQPHMRUDUODFDOLGDGGHODVSUHVWDFLRQHV*UiFR
/DGLVWULEXFLyQGHODIXHQWHGH-\3VHKL]RPHQRVGHVLJXDOHQHVWHSHUtRGRVX&RH
FLHQWHGH*LQLFD\yPX\VLJQLFDWLYDPHQWHGHHQHODxRDHQ(Q
HO*UiFRVHHYLGHQFLDTXHHOFDPELRGLVWULEXWLYRGHHVWDIXHQWHGHULYDGHODPD\RU
LQFLGHQFLDGHODXPHQWRGHODV-\3HQORVVHLVGHFLOHVLQIHULRUHV
(VFODURTXHODVMXELODFLRQHV\SHQVLRQHVGHVHPSHxDURQXQUROPX\LPSRUWDQWHGXUDQ
WHHVWHSHUtRGRSDUDODFDtGDHQHOFRHFLHQWHGH*LQLGDGDODLPSRUWDQFLDTXHVHOH
DVLJQyDHVWDIXHQWHGHLQJUHVRFRPRPHFDQLVPRGHSURWHFFLyQVRFLDOH[WHQGLGRDORV
PiVYXOQHUDEOHV/DPRUDWRULDSUHYLVLRQDOHVXQDPHGLGDTXHEHQHFLyDPLOORQHV
GHSHUVRQDVHOHYDQGRODFREHUWXUDSUHYLVLRQDODPiVGHOHQVXSHUDQGR
QLYHOHVKLVWyULFRVOXHJRGHGHVFHQGHUGHPDQHUDLPSRUWDQWHHQODGpFDGDGHORVQR
YHQWD+DVWDHODxRFDVLHOGHODVSHUVRQDVHQHGDGGHMXELODUVHQRWHQtD
DFFHVR D XQ EHQHFLR MXELODWRULR GHELGR D TXH XQD JUDQ SDUWH GH HOODV SUHVHQWDEDQ
GHFLHQFLDVHQHOQ~PHURGHDxRVFRQDSRUWHVFRPRFRQVHFXHQFLDGHODLQHVWDELOLGDG
ODERUDOHOQRUHJLVWUR\ORVHSLVRGLRVGHGHVHPSOHRTXHVHJHQHUDOL]DURQHQODGpFDGD
GHORVQRYHQWD
23 De acuerdo con estimaciones del Ministerio de Trabajo Empleo y Seguridad Social
251
Grco 10. Variaciones de la participacin del ingreso de las

transferencias del Estado, segn deciles de ingreso, 2002-2003 y 20042008. Hogares ordenados por ipcf (en porcentajes)

)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQSURSLDVREUHODEDVHGH(3+SXQWXDORQGDPD\R\(3+FRQWLQXDWULPHVWUH,,
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24 El monto de la transferencia aument a partir de septiembre de 2010 a $220 por cada menor en el hogar.
25 Esto es as debido a diversos factores como, por ejemplo, a la dicultad de controlar el monto de ingreso efectivo
que perciben los trabajadores informales
253
Tabla 5. Efectos, participacin y concentracin 2008-2009 sin y con AUH
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4.
Conclusiones
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254
Grco 11. Participacin del ingreso de las transferencias del Estado con
y sin AUH, segn deciles de ingreso, 2008-2009. Hogares ordenados
por ipcf (en porcentajes)

VLQ$8+

VLQ$8+

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Anexo metodolgico
I. Descomposicin del coeciente o de Gini
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26 La diferencia media relativa se dene como el promedio aritmtico de los valores absolutos de las diferencias entre todos los pares de ingreso. Al tomar las diferencias entre todos los pares de ingresos, el coeciente de Gini, evita
la concentracin total en las diferencias frente a la media, problema que s se presenta en la varianza, el coeciente
de variacin, la desviacin estndar de los logaritmos (Sen, 2001:48)
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II. La variacin del coeciente de Gini entre dos perodos

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\Ny ), tienen los mismos numeradores. Sin embargo, la correlacin de Pearson deacta la covarianza por el producto de los errores estndares de \ y ), mientras que el coeciente de correlacin de Gini usa en el denomiN
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N similares al coeciente de correlacin de Pearson, puesN los
coeciente de correlacin de Gini tiene propiedades
27 Es preciso aclarar que el coeciente de correlacin de Pearson y el coeciente de correlacin de Gini entre
dos se encuentran en un rango entre -1 y +1.
5 *
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28 Medina y Galvan (2008) calculan un Pseudo-Gini tambin como el producto entre
N
N
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descomposicin del coeciente de Gini.
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2 El SMVM se multiplic por 9 veces aproximadamente, de $200 a $1.740 en la actualidad. En enero de 2011 ser
de $1.840.
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3 El nmero de acuerdos y convenios pas de un promedio de 200 en la dcada de los noventa a ms de 1000
unidades a partir de 2007.
4 Hay que tener presente que en este trabajo se est analizando la disparidad salarial del universo de trabajadores
del sector formal de la economa, dada la fuente de informacin que utilizaremos.
5 Es importante aclarar que no existe ninguna obligatoriedad respecto de la presencia de delegados en los establecimientos. La Ley N 23.551 de Asociaciones Sindicales slo establece un criterio sobre la cantidad de representantes: a falta de normas en las convenciones colectivas o en otros acuerdos, el nmero mnimo de trabajadores
que representen la asociacin profesional respectiva en cada establecimiento ser: a) De diez (10) a cincuenta (50)
trabajadores, un (1) representante; b) de cincuenta y uno (51) a cien (100) trabajadores, dos (2) representantes; c)
De ciento uno (101) en adelante, un (1) representante ms cada cien (100) trabajadores, o que excedan de cien (100)
a los que debern adicionarse los establecidos en el inciso anterior (art. N 45).
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2. Representacin sindical en la empresa: resultados

de la Encuesta a Trabajadores en Empresas (ETE)
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6 El tratamiento utilizado para los valores Missing de la variable sobre representacin sindical en el establecimiento
fue la estimacin mediante un modelo Logit de la probabilidad individual para cada trabajador- de contar con
representacin sindical. Con posterioridad, fueron tambin recategorizados los casos con respuestas No sabe/ No
contesta. El mismo procedimiento se utiliz para la variable de cobertura de la negociacin colectiva.
267
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Cuadro N 1. Proporcin de trabajadores con representacin sindical, segn
caractersticas del establecimiento
)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQSURSLDVREUHODEDVHGHOD(7(
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Cuadro N 2. Proporcin de trabajadores con representacin sindical,
segn caractersticas del puesto laboral y personales del trabajador
269
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3. Un repaso de la literatura sobre sindicatos

y determinacin salarial
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7 Una gran parte de la bibliografa reere al caso de los Estados Unidos o de Inglaterra. Es importante aclarar que
hay que ser prudente respecto de la utilizacin de la misma y especialmente respecto de las posibles extrapolaciones al caso argentino ya que, como vimos en el primer apartado, las estructuras sindicales y los mecanismos
de negociacin colectiva son muy dismiles entre estos casos (en los pases anglosajones la cobertura comprende
nicamente a los aliados mientras que en la Argentina esto no se verica).
8 El efecto del salario mnimo tambin es objeto de estudio.
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9 Es destacable que dentro del ordenamiento legal argentino, el derecho laboral se presenta como una excepcin a
la autonoma de la voluntad y libertad de contratacin establecida en el derecho civil, es decir, que la igualdad entre
las partes no es la base de la negociacin.
10 Al igual que en los modelos de salario de eciencia (Shapiro y Stiglitz, 1984) el incentivo para dar un plus salarial
proviene de los empleadores, aunque en estos modelos se adopta la estrategia para incrementar la eciencia del
trabajo.
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YDEOHVODGHVFRPSRVLFLyQGH2D[DFDJHQHUDUiXQVHVJRHQODPHGLFLyQ(QVHJXQGR
OXJDUVHFXHVWLRQDHOVHVJRGHVHOHFFLyQGHODPXHVWUDGHLQGLYLGXRVTXHVHXWLOL]D
FRPREDVHSDUDODHVWLPDFLyQGHORVPRGHORV3RU~OWLPRVHREVHUYDTXHODGLIH
UHQFLD GH VDODULRV VH FRPSXWD VREUH ORV QLYHOHV GHO VDODULR PHGLR OR TXH VXSRQH
LPSOtFLWDPHQWHTXHGLFKDGLIHUHQFLDVHFRPSRUWDGHIRUPDKRPRJpQHDDORODUJRGH
WRGDODGLVWULEXFLyQVDODULDO
5. La brecha salarial en la Argentina: estimaciones

y resultados
(OVDODULRGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVHQHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQJUHPLDOUHVXOWD
HQSURPHGLRXQPiVHOHYDGRTXHHOVDODULRGHORVRFXSDGRVVLQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQ
VLQGLFDO(VWDEUHFKDVDODULDOQRSXHGHVHUDGMXGLFDGDHQVXWRWDOLGDGDODDFFLyQVLQ
GLFDOH[FHSWXDQGRHOFDVRLGHDOHQHOFXDOWRGRVORVWUDEDMDGRUHV\SXHVWRVGHWUDEDMR
VHDQKRPRJpQHRV\VyORGLHUDQHQODSUHVHQFLDGHGHOHJDGRVJUHPLDOHV&RPRHVWH
QRHVHOFDVRVHSURFHGHSRUXQODGRDDMXVWDUODEUHFKDDSDUWLUGHODVGRVPHWRGROR
JtDVSURSXHVWDV<ODHFXDFLyQGHPtQLPRVFXDGUDGRVRUGLQDULRV\ODGHVFRPSRVLFLyQ
GH2D[DFD<\SRURWURDDQDOL]DUFROHFWLYRVODERUDOHVPiVKRPRJpQHRVFRQHOQGH
DLVODUODFRQWULEXFLyQGHOVLQGLFDWRDODGLIHUHQFLDFLyQVDODULDO
8QDYH]TXHVHDMXVWDODEUHFKDVDODULDOSRUODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHV\GH
VXVSXHVWRVHQHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQGLFDOHVWDVHUHGXFHGHD
SRUFHQWDMHVFRPSUHQGLGRVHQWUH\6HJ~QHOPpWRGRGHPtQLPRVFXDGUDGRV
ORVWUDEDMDGRUHVHQHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVFRQGHOHJDGRVVLQGLFDOHVSHUFLEHQXQDUHPXQHUD
FLyQPD\RUPLHQWUDVTXHSRUHOPpWRGRGH2D[DFDODUHVXOWDHVGHFXDQGR
VHSRQGHUDODGLIHUHQFLDGHORVUHWRUQRVSRUODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVQR
UHSUHVHQWDGRVHQODUPD\GHFXDQGRVHODSRQGHUDSRUODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGHORV
WUDEDMDGRUHVUHSUHVHQWDGRVVLQGLFDOPHQWH3RUORWDQWRVHJ~QODPHWRGRORJtDSURSXHV
WDODUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQGLFDOHQHOHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRH[SOLFDHO\HOGHOWRWDO
GHODGLIHUHQFLDVDODULDOFRQYLUWLpQGRVHHQXQDYDULDEOHVLJQLFDWLYDHQHOHVWXGLRGH
ODVFDXVDVGHODGLVSDULGDGVDODULDO
$XQTXHODEUHFKDVDODULDODMXVWDGDVHGHEHLQWHUSUHWDUFRPRODGLIHUHQFLDSRUFHQWXDO
HQWUHHOVDODULRGHGRVWUDEDMDGRUHVVLPLODUHVFRQOD~QLFDGLIHUHQFLDTXHXQRFXHQWD
FRQSURWHFFLyQVLQGLFDOHQHOHVWDEOHFLPLHQWR\HORWURQRHQODSUiFWLFDLQWHUYLHQHQ
276
RWURV IDFWRUHV TXH LQFLGHQ HQ XQD DPSOLDFLyQ R UHGXFFLyQ GH OD JDQDQFLD VDODULDO
SURYRFDGDSRUHOVLQGLFDWR(QFLHUWRVDPELHQWHVVLQGLFDOL]DGRVODVUPDVHQFXHQ
WUDQPiVGLFXOWDGHVSDUDGHVSHGLUWUDEDMDGRUHV\SRUHVWHPRWLYRODVSROtWLFDVGH
VHOHFFLyQGHSHUVRQDOTXHVHHPSOHDQVRQPiVHVWULFWDVWHQLHQGRFRPRREMHWLYRHO
GHFRQWUDWDUDORVWUDEDMDGRUHVGHPD\RUSURGXFWLYLGDGHQWUHORVSRVWXODQWHV&RPR
UHVXOWDGRODEUHFKDVDODULDOHVWLPDGDWRGDYtDSRGUtDHVWDUVREUHVWLPDQGRODJDQDQFLD
VDODULDODWULEXLEOHDOVLQGLFDWR
/RVHVWXGLRVUHDOL]DGRVVREUHGLIHUHQFLDVVDODULDOHVGHELGDVDODLQXHQFLDGHORVVLQ
GLFDWRVHQFRQWUDURQHQRWURVSDtVHVTXHODEUHFKDVDODULDOHVSRVLWLYD\VLJQLFDWLYD
PHQWHGLVWLQWDGHFHUR7]DQQDWRV(QORV(VWDGRV8QLGRVGH1RUWHDPpULFDKD
VLGRHVWLPDGDHQHOUDQJRGHODOHQPiVGHHVWXGLRVSHURH[LVWHFRQVHQVR
TXHHOSURPHGLRVHFRQFHQWUDHQWRUQRDO(QHO5HLQR8QLGRODEUHFKDGHVDODULRV
VHHVWLPDFRQXQDPXHVWUDPiVSHTXHxDHQHOUDQJRGHODOFRQXQSURPHGLR
FHUFDQRDO(QFDPELRHQ$OHPDQLDODEUHFKDVDODULDOHVSHTXHxDORTXHVHDWUL
EX\HDXQDHVWUXFWXUDVLQGLFDORUJDQL]DGDSRUUDPDGHDFWLYLGDG\SRUHOPHFDQLVPR
GHH[WHQVLyQDORVWUDEDMDGRUHVQRVLQGLFDOL]DGRV(QSDtVHVGHLQJUHVRPHGLR\EDMR
ODVEUHFKDVWDPELpQVRQSRVLWLYDVSHURPDQLHVWDQXQDPD\RUGLVSHUVLyQ(Q&RUHD
GHO6XUURQGDHOHQ6XGiIULFDDOFDQ]DHO<XQDGHODVEUHFKDVPiVDOWDV<\HQ
0p[LFRVHDSUR[LPDDO
(QOD$UJHQWLQDVLJXLHQGRFRQHODQiOLVLVGHORVGDWRVSURFHGHQWHVGHOD(7(
YHPRVTXHODEUHFKDVDODULDOYDUtDHQIXQFLyQGHUDPDGHDFWLYLGDGQLYHOHGXFDWLYR
FDOLFDFLyQGHOSXHVWRGHWUDEDMR\JpQHURHQWUHRWURVDWULEXWRV(QSULPHUOXJDUHV
WXGLDUHPRVODVGLIHUHQFLDVVHJ~QDWULEXWRVGHOSXHVWRGHWUDEDMR\OXHJRYHUHPRVODV
GLVWLQWDVEUHFKDVTXHVHSUHVHQWDQVHJ~QFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVSHUVRQDOHVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHV
6LFRQVLGHUDPRVODEUHFKDVDODULDOEUXWDVLQQLQJ~QWLSRGHDMXVWHSRUUDPDGHDFWL
YLGDG GHVDJUHJDQGR ORV GDWRV D XQ GtJLWR GHO &,,8 DSDUHFHQ GLIHUHQFLDV VDODULDOHV
SRVLWLYDVHQVXPD\RUtDSHURWDPELpQQHJDWLYDVTXHVXSHUDQDPSOLDPHQWHRTXHVH
HQFXHQWUDQPX\SRUGHEDMRGHOSURPHGLRJHQHUDO3RUHMHPSORFRPRPXHVWUDHO&XD
GUR 1 OD EUHFKD VDODULDO SURPHGLR GH ORV WUDEDMDGRUHV SHUWHQHFLHQWHV D OD UDPD
6HUYLFLRV)LQDQFLHURV\DODVHPSUHVDVDOFDQ]DHOPLHQWUDVTXHHQODUDPDGH
&RPHUFLRORVWUDEDMDGRUHVHQHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQGLFDOSHUFLEHQ
UHPXQHUDFLRQHV PiV EDMDV TXH ORV TXH QR FXHQWDQ FRQ GHOHJDGRV 3RU VX SDUWH OD
EUHFKDVDODULDOHQOD,QGXVWULDHVPX\VLPLODUDOSURPHGLRJHQHUDOPLHQWUDVTXHHQ
6HUYLFLRV6RFLDOHV\&RPXQDOHVHVDSUR[LPDGDPHQWHODPLWDGVLHQGRHQ7UDQVSRUWH\
&RPXQLFDFLRQHVFDVLQXOD
11 En la mayora de estos estudios, sin embargo, la diferencia de salarios se compara entre trabajadores aliados
y no aliados al sindicato. En el caso argentino, la aliacin sindical no es crucial para determinar si un salario se
determina por la negociacin colectiva, ya que la cobertura del sindicato se expande no slo a los aliados sino a
todos los que pertenecen a un determinado convenio colectivo.
277
Cuadro N 3. Brechas salariales segn caractersticas del puesto de trabajo
(QFDPELRFXDQGRREVHUYDPRVODEUHFKDVDODULDODMXVWDGDSRUUDPDGHDFWLYLGDGHVWD
VHUHGXFHHQGLVWLQWDPDJQLWXGFRQUHVSHFWRDODHVWLPDFLyQGHODGLIHUHQFLDVDODULDO
EUXWD$VLPLVPRVHDOWHUDHORUGHQDPLHQWRGHODVUDPDVFRQPD\RU\PHQRUEUHFKDVD
ODULDO6HUYLFLRV)LQDQFLHURVVLJXHUHVXOWDQGRODUDPDTXHFXHQWDFRQODEUHFKDVDODULDO
GHPD\RUPDJQLWXGSHURODGLIHUHQFLDVHUHGXFHVXVWDQFLDOPHQWHWDQWRFRQHOPpWRGR
GHPtQLPRVFXDGUDGRVFRPRFRQODGHVFRPSRVLFLyQGH2D[DFDDSRUFHQWDMHVTXHVH
XELFDQHQHOUDQJRGHODO*UiFR1(QXQVHJXQGRJUXSRODVUDPDVGH
&RQVWUXFFLyQ6HUYLFLRV6RFLDOHV\&RPXQDOHVSUHVHQWDQGLIHUHQFLDVVDODULDOHVDMXV
WDGDVSDUDWUDEDMDGRUHVFRPSDUDEOHVGHORUGHQGHO/D,QGXVWULDPDQXIDFWXUHUD
HVODUDPDHQODTXHPiVVHUHGXFHODEUHFKDVDODULDOORVVLQGLFDWRVH[SOLFDQHQWUHHO
\HOGHODGLIHUHQFLDVDODULDOEUXWD\ORVWUDEDMDGRUHVGHHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVFRQ
12 La estimacin por el mtodo de Oaxaca en la rama de la Construccin arroja una amplia dispersin de la brecha
salarial sindical, entre 4% y 25%, que depende del ponderador empleado en la ecuacin de la diferencia de salarios.
278
GHOHJDGRVJUHPLDOHVSHUFLEHQHQSURPHGLRXQDUHPXQHUDFLyQHQWUH\PD\RU
TXHODGHWUDEDMDGRUHVVLPLODUHVHQOXJDUHVVLQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQJUHPLDO(Q7UDQVSRUWH
\&RPXQLFDFLRQHVODEUHFKDVDODULDOHVGHLJXDOPDJQLWXGTXHHQ,QGXVWULDHQWUH
\PLHQWUDVTXHHQ&RPHUFLRVHSUHVHQWDODEUHFKDVDODULDOGHPHQRUPDJQLWXG
OOHJDQGR D VHU QXOD FRQ HO SURFHGLPLHQWR GH PtQLPRV FXDGUDGRV \ QHJDWLYD FRQ OD
GHVFRPSRVLFLyQGH2D[DFD(VWRLPSOLFDTXHHQHOFDVRSDUWLFXODUGH&RPHUFLRHO
WUDEDMDGRUTXHQRWLHQHUHSUHVHQWDQWHVHQVXHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRSHUFLEHXQVDODULRLJXDOR
VXSHULRUUHVSHFWRGHDTXHOTXHVtFXHQWDFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQ
Grco N 1. Brecha salarial ajustada a partir del mtodo de mnimos
cuadrados y del mtodo de Oaxaca, segn rama de actividad
(QFXDQWRDOWDPDxRGHOHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRKDEtDPRVHQFRQWUDGRTXHODSURSRUFLyQGH
WUDEDMDGRUHVDPSDUDGRVSRUODWXWHODJUHPLDOVHH[SDQGtDFRQHODXPHQWRGHOWDPDxR
GHOHVWDEOHFLPLHQWR8QIHQyPHQRVHPHMDQWHHQFRQWUDPRVFRQODEUHFKDVDODULDOEUXWD
/RVHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVPiVJUDQGHVPiVGHRFXSDGRVVRQORVTXHSUHVHQWDQODV
GLIHUHQFLDVPiVDPSOLDVTXHVHUHGXFHQVXFHVLYDPHQWHHQODVHPSUHVDVGHD
RFXSDGRV\GHDFRQXQOHYHDVFHQVRHQODVHPSUHVDVGHPHQRUWDPDxR
279
Grco N 2. Brecha salarial ajustada a partir del mtodo de mnimos

cuadrados (MCO) y del mtodo de Oaxaca segn tamao del
establecimiento
6LQHPEDUJRFXDQGRDQDOL]DPRVODEUHFKDVDODULDODMXVWDGDODPiVDOWDHVWiHQWUH
ORVHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVPiVSHTXHxRVHQWUH\RFXSDGRV\HQWUHORVHVWDEOHFL
PLHQWRVPHGLRVJUDQGHVHQWUH\(QDPERVFDVRVODJDQDQFLDVDODULDOSRU
HIHFWRGHODUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQGLFDOVHHVWDEOHFHHQHORUGHQGHOHQHOSULPHU
FDVR\GHOHQHOVHJXQGR3RUVXSDUWHORVHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVPHGLRVGHD
RFXSDGRVVRQORVTXHUHHMDQODPHQRUGLIHUHQFLDVDODULDOSRUHOPpWRGRGHPtQL
PRVFXDGUDGRVSHURVHDFHUFDDODPDJQLWXGGHORVRWURVWDPDxRVGHHVWDEOHFLPLHQWR
SRUHOPpWRGRGH2D[DFDSRQGHUDGRSRUODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVVLQ
GLFDOL]DGRV*UiFR1
(QFXDQWRDODFDOLFDFLyQGHORVSXHVWRVGHWUDEDMRFRPRYHPRVHQHO&XDGUR1
ODVEUHFKDVPiVDPSOLDVVHHQFXHQWUDQHQORVSXHVWRVGHFDOLFDFLyQWpFQLFDHV
ODEUHFKDVLQDMXVWDU\ODDMXVWDGD/DEUHFKDVDODULDOEUXWDGHORVSURIHVLRQDOHV
GLUHFWLYRV HV GHO HVWR SRGUtD VRUSUHQGHU \D TXH TXLHQHV RFXSDQ SXHVWRV GH
GLFKRWLSRGHFDOLFDFLyQJHQHUDOPHQWHQRHVWiQUHSUHVHQWDGRVSRUODRUJDQL]DFLyQ
VLQGLFDO6LQHPEDUJRDOUHDOL]DUHOFRUUHVSRQGLHQWHDMXVWHHOUHVXOWDGRVHLQYLHUWH
ODEUHFKDVDODULDOHVQHJDWLYDORTXHLPSOLFDTXHORVSURIHVLRQDOHVGLUHFWLYRV
REWLHQHQ PD\RUHV VDODULRV SURPHGLR HQ ORV HVWDEOHFLPLHQWRV TXH QR FXHQWDQ FRQ
UHSUHVHQWDQWHVGHEDVH
280
Cuadro N 4. Brechas salariales, segn caractersticas personales

del trabajador
&RQUHVSHFWRDODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVSHUVRQDOHVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVODVEUHFKDVVDODULDOHV
VLQDMXVWDUGHPD\RUPDJQLWXGODVHQFRQWUDPRVHQODVSHUVRQDVGHPD\RUHGDGHQORV
YDURQHV\HQORVLQGLYLGXRVFRQQLYHOHGXFDWLYRXQLYHUVLWDULR&XDGUR1$VtODGL
IHUHQFLDVDODULDOJXDUGDXQDFRUUHODFLyQSRVLWLYDFRQODHGDGHVWRHVORVLQGLYLGXRVGH
PHQRUHGDGWLHQHQVDODULRVVHPHMDQWHVLQGHSHQGLHQWHPHQWHGHODUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQ
GLFDOHQHOHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRPLHQWUDVTXHODEUHFKDVHDPSOtDFXDQWRPD\RUHVODHGDG
GHOWUDEDMDGRUORPLVPRUHVXOWDDODMXVWDUODEUHFKDSRUPtQLPRVFXDGUDGRV6LJXLHQGR
ODVWHRUtDVGHORVPHUFDGRVVHJPHQWDGRVORVWUDEDMDGRUHVLQWHUQRVGHXQGHWHUPLQDGR
PHUFDGRFXHQWDQFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQJUHPLDO\VXVVDODULRV\FRQGLFLRQHVGHWUDEDMR
VHGHWHUPLQDQSRUQRUPDV\SURFHGLPLHQWRVDGPLQLVWUDWLYRVH[FHSWRSDUDODFDWHJRUtD
LQLFLDO(VWDFDWHJRUtDUHSUHVHQWDODSXHUWDGHHQWUDGDDOPHUFDGRLQWHUQR\HOVDODULR
FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH VH GHWHUPLQD SRU HO PHUFDGR H[WHUQR \ QR HQ EDVH D ODV QRUPDV \
SURFHGLPLHQWRVDGPLQLVWUDWLYRVHVGHFLUTXHHQHOFDVRGHORVQXHYRVLQJUHVDQWHVODV
FRQGLFLRQHVODERUDOHVHVWiQVXMHWDVDODVOH\HVGHOPHUFDGRTXHVRQUHHPSOD]DGDVSRU
ORVSURFHGLPLHQWRVDGPLQLVWUDWLYRVXQDYH]TXHLQJUHVDQ\DVFLHQGHQHQODHVWUXFWXUD
MHUiUTXLFDGHORVSXHVWRVGHWUDEDMRGHOHVWDEOHFLPLHQWR(QHVWHVHQWLGRORVMyYHQHV
HQFDUQDQDORVWUDEDMDGRUHVTXHRFXSDQORVSXHVWRVLQLFLDOHVHQODSXHUWDGHHQWUDGDHQ
ORVPHUFDGRVLQWHUQRVGHWUDEDMRGHGRQGHVHGHULYDODSUiFWLFDPHQWHQXODEUHFKDVDOD
ULDOGDGRTXHODUHSUHVHQWDFLyQRVXDXVHQFLDQRSURYRFDQHIHFWRDOJXQRHQVXVDODULR
3RURWUDSDUWHORVVLQGLFDWRV\ODQHJRFLDFLyQFROHFWLYDWLHQGHQDUHGXFLUODVEUHFKDV
VDODULDOHVSRUJpQHUR&DVWLOORHWDOSHURWDPELpQSHUPLWHQHOHYDUODVUHPXQH
UDFLRQHVWDQWRGHYDURQHVFRPRGHPXMHUHVHQiPELWRVVLQGLFDOL]DGRV(QHVWHFDVR
FRQVLGHUDQGRODEUHFKDEUXWDORVVDODULRVGHORVYDURQHVHQUPDVFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQ
281
JUHPLDOVRQPiVDOWRVTXHHOGHDTXHOORVFRQDXVHQFLDGHGHOHJDGRVJUHPLDOHV
PLHQWUDVTXHORVVDODULRVGHODVPXMHUHVVRQVXSHULRUHV$ODMXVWDUODEUHFKDHVWRV
SRUFHQWDMHVVHUHGXFHQ\ODEUHFKDHVDSHQDVPD\RUHQHOFDVRGHODVPXMHUHV
YHUVXVGHORVYDURQHV
3RU ~OWLPR OD SUHVHQFLD VLQGLFDO HQ HO HVWDEOHFLPLHQWR UHVXOWD PiV EHQHFLRVD HQ
WpUPLQRVVDODULDOHVSDUDTXLHQHVWLHQHQIRUPDFLyQXQLYHUVLWDULDTXHSDUDDTXHOORVTXH
VyORWLHQHQKDVWDVHFXQGDULDLQFRPSOHWD\FRPSOHWD
6. Conclusiones
/D H[LVWHQFLD GH VLQGLFDWRV LQFUHPHQWD OD UHPXQHUDFLyQ GH ORV WUDEDMDGRUHV (Q OD
$UJHQWLQDHIHFWLYL]DQHVWDPHGLGDDWUDYpVGHWUHVFDQDOHVHO&1(36ODQHJRFLDFLyQ
FROHFWLYDIRUPDOSRUDFWLYLGDG<DWUDYpVGHORVVLQGLFDWRVFRQSHUVRQHUtDJUHPLDO<\
ODQHJRFLDFLyQFROHFWLYDLQIRUPDOFRQORVUHSUHVHQWDQWHVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVHQORV
HVWDEOHFLPLHQWRV+HPRVYLVWRTXHHVWH~OWLPRFDQDOFRQWULEX\HDPHMRUDUODVUHPX
QHUDFLRQHVGHORVWUDEDMDGRUHVHQGLVWLQWDVPHGLGDVGHSHQGLHQGRGHODVPHWRGRORJtDV
HPSOHDGDV8QWUDEDMDGRUFRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQGLFDOHQVXHPSUHVDREWLHQHXQVDODULR
HQWUHXQ\XQPiVHOHYDGRTXHTXLHQFDUHFHGHHOOD
6LQHPEDUJRHQFRQWUDPRVFRPSRUWDPLHQWRVGLIHUHQFLDGRVSRUUDPDVGHDFWLYLGDGTXH
VHUHHMDQHQEUHFKDVVDODULDOHVGHGLVWLQWDPDJQLWXG)DFWRUHVWDOHVFRPRODVFDUDFWH
UtVWLFDVHFRQyPLFDVGHORVPHUFDGRVODFDSDFLGDGGHSUHVLyQ\ODVHVWUDWHJLDVVLQGL
FDOHVGHQHJRFLDFLyQPRYLOL]DFLyQ\FRQLFWRDVtFRPRODVUHVSXHVWDVHPSUHVDULDOHV
IUHQWHDODVGHPDQGDVVDODULDOHVGHODVRUJDQL]DFLRQHVJUHPLDOHVFRQVWLWX\HQDOJXQRV
GHORVHOHPHQWRVH[SOLFDWLYRVGHODVKHWHURJHQHLGDGHVVHFWRULDOHV
(QSULPHUOXJDUODEUHFKDVDODULDOWLHQGHDUHGXFLUVHHQVHFWRUHVGHVDODULRVUHODWLYD
PHQWHHOHYDGRVGRQGHH[LVWHXQDSURSRUFLyQVLJQLFDWLYDGHWUDEDMDGRUHVHQHVWDEOH
FLPLHQWRV FRQ UHSUHVHQWDFLyQ VLQGLFDO (VWR VLJQLFD TXH WUDEDMDGRUHV GH VLPLODUHV
FDUDFWHUtVWLFDVTXHHVWiQHQHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVVLQGLFDOL]DGRVTXHVRQODPD\RUtD<\
DTXHOORVTXHHVWiQHQHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVQRVLQGLFDOL]DGRVSHUFLEHQUHPXQHUDFLRQHVSD
UHFLGDV,QGXVWULDPDQXIDFWXUHUD\7UDQVSRUWH\&RPXQLFDFLRQHVTXHVRQODVUDPDV
TXHLQWHJUDQHVWHJUXSRSUHVHQWDQXQDEUHFKDVDODULDODMXVWDGDGHO3RVLEOHPHQWH
HQHVWDVUDPDVORVHPSUHVDULRVRORVHQFDUJDGRVGHGHQLUODSROtWLFDVDODULDO<GHODV
UPDVVLQUHSUHVHQWDQWHVJUHPLDOHVUHFXUUDQDSROtWLFDVVLPLODUHVDODVTXHVHHPSOHDQ
HQORVHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRVFRQGHOHJDGRVJUHPLDOHV/DH[WHQGLGDSUHVHQFLDVLQGLFDOHQ
ORVOXJDUHVGHWUDEDMRDFW~DFRPRXQDDPHQD]DVXFLHQWHSDUDGHVDQLPDUDODVHPSUH
VDVVLQGHOHJDGRVJUHPLDOHVTXHGLVFULPLQDQHVGHFLUSDJDQGRVDODULRVPiVEDMRVDORV
WUDEDMDGRUHVTXHHQHOODVVHGHVHPSHxDQ
(QVHJXQGROXJDUKDOODPRVEUHFKDVGHGLYHUVDPDJQLWXGHQVHFWRUHVGHVDODULRVUH
ODWLYDPHQWH EDMRV \ FRQ UHGXFLGD UHSUHVHQWDFLyQ VLQGLFDO HQ ORV HVWDEOHFLPLHQWRV
SRUWDQWRHQVHFWRUHVFRQHVWDVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVQRHVSRVLEOHGHGXFLUXQDH[SOLFDFLyQ
282
JHQHUDO3RUHMHPSORHQ&RQVWUXFFLyQ\6HUYLFLRV6RFLDOHVODEUHFKDVDODULDODMXVWDGD
VHDSUR[LPDDOPLHQWUDVTXHHQ&RPHUFLRWLHQGHDGHVDSDUHFHU(QHVWRVFDVRV
SUREDEOHPHQWHORVIDFWRUHVGHFDUiFWHUHQGyJHQRDOVLQGLFDWR<FRPRODHVWUDWHJLDGH
QHJRFLDFLyQRODFDSDFLGDGGHSUHVLyQVLQGLFDO<UHVXOWDQDVSHFWRVGHWHUPLQDQWHVGHORV
GLIHUHQFLDOHVVDODULDOHVH[SOLFDGRVSRUODDFFLyQVLQGLFDO(QHVWRVVHFWRUHVDFDXVDGH
ODUHGXFLGDSUHVHQFLDJUHPLDOQRH[LVWHQLQFHQWLYRVSDUDTXHODVHPSUHVDVQRVLQGL
FDOL]DGDVDGRSWHQODVSROtWLFDVVDODULDOHVRSDJXHQORVVDODULRVGHORVHVWDEOHFLPLHQWRV
FRQUHSUHVHQWDFLyQJUHPLDO
(Q VtQWHVLV HQ XQ FRQWH[WR GH UHYLWDOL]DFLyQ VLQGLFDO FRQ FUHFLPLHQWR GHO HPSOHR
DVDODULDGRUHJLVWUDGR\UHGXFFLyQGHODGHVRFXSDFLyQVHDOWHUDODPDWUL]GHSRGHUHQ
WUH HPSUHVDV \ WUDEDMDGRUHV /D GLQiPLFD GH OD QHJRFLDFLyQ FROHFWLYD VDODULDO HQ HO
SHUtRGRDFWXDO\HOFUHFLPLHQWRGHODDOLDFLyQVRQHMHPSORVGHOSHVRTXHDGTXLHUHHO
VLQGLFDWRHQHOVLVWHPDGHUHODFLRQHVODERUDOHV$XQTXHVHPHMRUDURQODVFRQGLFLRQHV
GHOPHUFDGRGHWUDEDMRD~QQRVHSXGLHURQUHYHUWLUSOHQDPHQWHODVVHFXHODVTXHGHMy
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pobreza intergeneracional (razn de desigualdad en la pobreza entre
adultos mayores y menores de 65 aos)
2. Sistemas previsionales y redistribucin

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3. Alternativas para mejorar la cobertura de la previsin

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y la redistribucin de dicha reforma estn ms all de los objetivos de este artculo.
298
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de ahorro y redistribucin
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Anexo 1
Cuadro A1. Argentina. Cobertura previsional por quintiles de ingreso
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Cuadro A2. Chile. Cobertura previsional por quintiles de ingreso
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302
11
GLOBALIZACIN Y DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO: LA IMPORTANCIA
DE LA PREVIDNCIA RURAL Y DE LOS BENEFCIOS DE PRESTAO
CONTINUADA EN BRASIL
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7DEOD
Tabla 1. Impacto de los mecanismos de proteccin social* sobre el nivel
de pobreza**
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2 Slo fueron considerados los habitantes de hogares en los cuales todos los miembros declararon la totalidad de
sus ingresos; es decir, fueron ignorados los hogares donde al menos un miembro haba desconocido su ingreso o
no lo haba declarado. Fueron considerados los beneciarios tanto del Regime Geral de Previdncia Social, como
aquellos de los Regimes Prprios dos Servidores Pblicos.
315
Grco 6. Brasil. Dnde estn los beneciarios rurales de la Seguridad

Social y dnde estaran sin los rendimientos previsionales? Porcentaje en
los dcimos de ingreso familiar per cpita, 2007
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3 Como proteccin social o cobertura de los adultos mayores fue considerado el porcentaje de personas con 60
aos o ms que reciban benecios como jubilacin o pensin o que continuaban en el mercado de trabajo como
contribuyentes a la Seguridad Social.
316
Grco 7. Brasil. Pobreza con y sin las transferencias previsionales segn

edad, 2007
Grco 8. Brasil. Proteccin social de adultos mayores. Personas de

60 aos o ms que reciben jubilacin y/o pensin o que continan
contribuyendo para algn rgimen previsional, 1992-2007 (en porcentajes
de la poblacin total de 60 aos y ms)
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12
DEBATES
DE POLTICAS SOBRE EL BIENESTAR,
LA EQUIDAD Y LA INCLUSIN SOCIAL:
AMPLIACIN DEL SISTEMA DE PROTECCIN SOCIAL

EN LA
ARGENTINA
Marianela Sarabia, Diego Schleser y

Clarisa Soto1
Introduccin
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1 Los autores agradecen la colaboracin de diversas reas del MTEySS que colaboraron en la construccin de
informacin.
2 CEB (Chiefs Executives Board) de la ONU ha promovido la adopcin de un piso de proteccin social basado en un
nivel mnimo de provisin de bienes pblicos y servicios sociales y garantas de acceso a transferencias para eliminar
la pobreza. Estas ltimas implicaran un paquete esencial de servicios de salud para toda la poblacin, atender la
pobreza en la niez, en los adultos mayores y las personas con discapacidad y, transitoriamente, en las personas en
edad de trabajar que no posean empleos.
3 El Convenio 102 de la OIT (1952) fue el pilar que paut las primeras bases de las prestaciones contributivas de
seguridad social, estableciendo que al menos el 50% de los asalariados debera realizar aportes para gozar de cobertura de salud, desempleo, vejez, maternidad, invalidez y sobrevivencia ante contingencias del mundo del trabajo.
323
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4 Denicin considerada por la OIT y el Ministerio de Economa de la Argentina, basada en el Sistema Europeo de
Estadsticas Integradas de Proteccin Social (ESSPROS). El estado del arte sobre proteccin social se encuentra
ms desarrollado en el mbito europeo, precisamente a partir de las problemticas y polticas de los pases miembros de la OECD. En este documento se intenta marcar algunas diferencias respecto de lo que aconteca en la
Argentina.
5 En la Argentina, dichos tems se encuentran estrechamente vinculados al gasto pblico social (GPS). Los ltimos
dos slo se contemplan en los pases en desarrollo. Los benecios suelen brindarse en efectivo o en especie y pueden -o no- estar condicionados.
6 La redistribucin puede ser horizontal, vertical o entre grupos (Hill, 2004). La primera es caracterstica de los sistemas de seguro social que distribuyen ingresos a lo largo del ciclo de vida. La segunda est dada por la progresividad del sistema impositivo y la distribucin del gasto pblico social, principalmente lo correspondiente a asistencia
324
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social. En tanto, la redistribucin entre grupos hace referencia a las transferencias familiares y los seguros de salud
(Esping-Andersen y Myles, 2009).
7 Apunta a mejorar la efectividad de las polticas laborales, sin que esto implique necesariamente una reduccin de
los gastos sociales; en ese sentido, la solidaridad social se mantiene con dispositivos colectivos y no comerciales.
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1. Proteccin social y trabajo en la Argentina

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8 Golbert y Roca (2010) sealan cambios en la estructura social argentina, avances en la organizacin del movimiento obrero y un viraje de los sectores dominantes. En 1904 tambin se public Informe sobre el Estado de las Clases
Obreras en el Interior de la Repblica realizado Bialet Masse a pedido de Joaqun V. Gonzlez.
9 Este esquema de seguridad social tom como pilar fundamental un sistema de seguros contra enfermedad, accidentes de trabajo, invalidez y vejez, es decir, brindaba proteccin al trabajador ante la prdida parcial o total- de
su ingreso de subsistencia y reproduccin. Los primeros esquemas de seguridad social surgieron en Alemania a
comienzos del siglo XIX tras el impulso de la industrializacin, la formalizacin de los mismos fue realizada por el
canciller Otto Von Bismarck a nes de dicho siglo y a partir de ste tomaron su denominacin de esquema bismarkiano, con rasgos diferentes a los sistemas beverigiano (para profundizar ver Boyer, 2008).
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10 Durante la dcada del 1970, la tasa de desempleo promedio fue menor al 4%. Tambin se registraba una elevada tasa de asalarizacin: en 1950 y en 1980 era de 71,3% y 72,2% mientras que en Amrica latina era de 53,6%
y 58,9% respectivamente (Bayn, 2006). En tanto, la tasa de empleo no registrado en 1980 era de 22% para el
Gran Buenos Aires.
11 Diversos estudios plantean que los servicios pblicos en la Argentina han presentado limitaciones en su alcance,
cierta fragmentacin o estraticacin e insuciencia de servicios para la poblacin rural y dispersa que han impedido garantizar la accesibilidad de manera universal. Esta connotacin restrictiva puede ser ampliada cuando
adems se toman en cuenta los trabajadores precarios, por un lado, y la evasin de los trabajadores autnomos por
otro (Schulthess, 1990; Barbeito y Lo Vuolo, 1991; Lengyel y Novick, 2008). Por otro lado, el auente de recursos
pblicos que genero la implementacin de los sistemas contributivos habra permitido expandir los servicios de
educacin y salud.
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12 Diversos estudios dan cuenta de esa dualidad entre la economa formal y economa informal y de su estrecha
relacin con la segmentacin laboral; ver Lewis (1954), Harris y Todaro (1970), Tokman (1978) Gallart (2007) y
Waisgrais (2002), entre otros.
13 El sector productor de servicios representaba el 56,2% del PBI a precios de mercado y el 63,9% en 2002, segn
las series del valor agregado bruto sectorial a precios de 1993 (ao base).
14 Para profundizar sobre las transformaciones del sistema de seguridad social argentino en un rgimen mixto de
reparto y de capitalizacin, ver Roca et al., (2000).
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15 Los trminos corresponden a diversas denominaciones de los fenmenos acaecidos en la Argentina durante el
ltimo cuarto del siglo XX: Minujn (1992) denomina nuevos pobres a aquellos que carecen de ingresos para satisfacer sus necesidades bsicas por cuestiones coyunturales, aunque tienen sus necesidades bsicas cubiertas. Merklen
(2005) encuentra que los sectores populares pueden estar efectivamente marginados y desaliados del espacio
y formas del trabajo tradicionales, pero fuertemente insertados en el territorio donde se vive. Para los fenmenos
europeos, Esping-Andersen (1993) seala que la existencia de grupo de outsiders es una alternativa en la movilidad
social post-industrial; respecto del paradigma fordista, representa un cambio de jerarquas en los senderos de la
movilidad dando lugar a una mayor estraticacin.
329
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2. Ampliacin del sistema de proteccin social

en la Argentina 2003 - 2010
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16 El PJJH fue contemporneo con otros como el Programa de Transferencias de Ingresos para el Desarrollo Humano, el Plan Vida, el Programa Materno Infantil y Nutricin (PROMIN), el Programa Barrios Bonaerenses, el Plan
Nacional Alimentario y el Programa Remediar, entre otros.
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17 Para un detalle de las polticas laborales hasta la actualidad, ver introduccin del presente libro. Para profundizar los aspectos laborales y econmicos del perodo 2003-2006, ver Novick y Tomada (2007); Damill et
al (2007) y Palomino y Trajtemberg (2006). Para ver anlisis sobre los modelos sociales instrumentados en
cada perodo y mayor profundidad de las polticas de proteccin social no monetaria, ver Lengyel y Novick
(2008).
18 El conjunto de medidas con transferencias de ingresos del sistema de proteccin social incluye el conjunto de planes y programas de polticas de empleo que involucran la transferencia a sus beneficiarios de
una prestacin bsica o incentivo bajo el concepto de ayuda econmica no remunerativa; los programas
con transferencia de ingresos del Ministerio de Desarrollo Social; las pensiones asistenciales y especiales
y la Asignacin Universal por Hijo para Proteccin Social (Decreto 1.602/2009), todas ellas de carcter no
contributivo; las jubilaciones y pensiones ordinarias del rgimen nacional pblico y una estimacin de la
cantidad de prestaciones otorgadas por otros regmenes; y las asignaciones familiares por hijo menor e hijo
discapacitado.
19 Se reere a los benecios otorgados independientemente de la cantidad de personas distintas que las reciben.
Una misma persona puede recibir en un mismo perodo, ms de una prestacin como por ejemplo una jubilacin y
una pensin.
331
Principales medidas que explican el crecimiento de la cantidad de

benecios entre 2003 y 2009 (variacin en miles de nuevos benecios
entregados desde 2003)
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20 Las acciones orientadas a la asistencia de la poblacin mayor provienen del sistema previsional. Por la tanto, se
consideran en este caso las jubilaciones y pensiones otorgadas por el sistema nacional (incluyendo la moratoria previsional), por las cajas previsionales de las administraciones pblicas provinciales y municipales, por las distintas cajas
de las fuerzas de seguridad y por las cajas de profesionales. Para analizar la cobertura del sistema proteccin social
a los mayores se utiliz la informacin relevada por la Encuesta Permanente de Hogares (EPH). Esto se debe a que
es una de las pocas fuentes de informacin que permiten identicar la edad de los jubilados y pensionados. Adems,
esta fuente cuantica los beneciarios, independientemente de la cantidad de benecios que reciben las personas
21 La cobertura del sistema de proteccin social para los menores de 18 aos, se calcul considerando el conjunto
de acciones orientadas a los menores y son las siguientes: asignacin familiar contributiva correspondiente a los
asalariados registrados, asignacin familiar a los jubilados y pensionados y a los beneciarios del seguro por desempleo, el nuevo sistema no contributivo denominado Asignacin Universal por Hijo, el programa Familias por la
inclusin social y las pensiones no contributivas para madres de siete o ms hijos. El porcentaje del total de los
menores de 18 aos que recibieron alguna transferencia de ingresos por parte del sistema de proteccin social se
calcul tomando la proyeccin poblacional elaborada por el Instituto Nacional de Estadsticas y Censo (INDEC).
332
Porcentaje del total de personas mayores y menores que perciben

transferencias de ingresos por parte del sistema de proteccin social.
Perodo 1997 2009. Total pas.

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22 Los instrumentos clave en el campo educativo han sido la Ley de Financiamiento Educativo, de septiembre de
2005, y la Ley de Educacin Nacional, de diciembre de 2006. La primera estableci una modicacin sustancial
de la pauta presupuestaria en materia educativa, estipulando su incremento gradual hasta alcanzar el 6% del PBI
en el ao 2010. La segunda reemplaz la Ley Federal de Educacin que impuso la reforma educativa de los aos
noventa, estableciendo que el Ejecutivo Nacional retomara funciones centrales con vistas a lograr estndares de
homogeneidad bsicos en trminos de contenidos y modalidades de la oferta educativa pblica. A su vez, la ley
dispuso, entre otras medidas, la extensin de la educacin obligatoria a la enseanza secundaria y a la educacin
inicial (Lengyel y Novick, 2008).
333
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23 Durante el ltimo trimestre de 2008 se registr el mejor desempeo de los indicadores laborales, perodo previo al impacto de la crisis internacional sobre el mercado de trabajo argentino: la tasa de empleo fue de 42,8%, el
desempleo cay a 7,3% y el subempleo horario a 9,1%. En tanto, la tasa de asalarizacin era del 76,5% de los
ocupados.
334
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24 Ver informe de la Segunda Evaluacin del PJJH (SSPTyEL, 2005); Kostzer (2006) y Roca et al., (2003).
25 El SCE, implementado por el MTEySS, implicaba una transferencia monetaria mensual durante dos aos. Se
orient a mejorar la empleabilidad de sus beneciarios, quienes deben asistir regularmente a la Ocina de Empleo
Municipal para llevar a cabo diversas actividades que mejoren sus posibilidades de insercin en el mercado de
trabajo como bsqueda de empleo, orientacin, formacin, capacitacin y prctica laboral. El PF, implementado
por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, se dirigi a mujeres madres de familia con bajos ingresos, mediante una transferencia monetaria mensual. Dicha asignacin no tena un lmite temporal preestablecido y ofreca componentes
de capacitacin no obligatorios (suprimiendo la obligatoriedad que tena la contraprestacin laboral del PJJH). Al
mismo tiempo demandaba la corresponsabilidad en la presentacin del certicado de vacunacin y de escolaridad
de los menores de 18 aos a cargo. El traspaso a dichos programas era voluntario mientras coexistieran con el PJJH.
26 Se pusieron en marcha diversos componentes crticos del sistema: i) fortalecimiento de la Red de Instituciones
de Formacin Continua a travs del desarrollo de planes de mejora; ii) consolidacin de los Consejos Sectoriales
de Certicacin y Formacin Continua; iii) desarrollo de acciones de certicacin de competencias para el trabajo.
335
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2.2. Ampliacin de la cobertura de los adultos mayores
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27 Entre otros, quienes haban pertenecido a empresas pblicas privatizadas en los aos noventa, o trabajadores
en negro o que pasaron de la situacin de empleo registrado a trabajo precarizado, o aquellos que, por la mayor
exigencia en el nmero de aos de aportes no haban podido llegar a obtener un benecio previsional o personas
que, por diferentes situaciones familiares, no pudieron participar activamente en el mercado de trabajo.
336
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28 Exclua a aquellos que se encontraban percibiendo cualquier tipo de plan social, pensiones graciables o no contributivas, jubilacin, pensin o retiro civil o militar, ya sean nacionales, provinciales o municipales. En principio comprenda a aquellos cuya causal de desempleo haya sido previa a la sancin de esta ley, especialmente bajo el amparo
de normas de exibilizacin laboral o como consecuencia de la informalidad y la evasin impositiva. Previamente,
en la Argentina se haban aplicado algunas medidas de estas caractersticas. El monto neto promedio percibido por
estos nuevos jubilados (tras deducir la cuota correspondiente al pago de su deuda previsional) representaba ms
del 60% del HMJ vigente en cada perodo.
337
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ndice de Gini* de los ingresos por jubilaciones y/o pensiones de los
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* El coeciente de Gini sintetiza en un indicador el modo en que se distribuyen los ingresos entre la poblacin.
Cuando el coeciente se acerca a 1 la sociedad es ms desigual, y cuando se acerca a 0 es ms equitativa, es decir,
los ingresos estn menos concentrados.
338
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2.3 Ampliacin de la cobertura de los menores de 18 aos: fusin de
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29 En materia de regulacin del trabajo infantil, la Ley 26.390 sancionada en junio de 2008 eleva la edad mnima de
admisin al empleo a 16 aos y regula el trabajo de los menores entre 16 y 18 aos de edad.
30 Durante dicho perodo, conforme los incrementos salariales, tambin se han modicado los topes mximos y
rangos de las remuneraciones y de los haberes previsionales afectados por el rgimen contributivo de asignaciones
familiares. Desde 2004, este rgimen ha incrementado el monto de las asignaciones por hijo, prenatal y por hijo con
discapacidad, y, en 2008, modic la asignacin anual por ayuda escolar.
31 El decreto -que introduce modicaciones a la Ley N 24.714 de Asignaciones Familiares- se encuadra dentro de
los derechos de la seguridad social: la asistencia a los nios ya no depende de la buena voluntad de los gobiernos
ni de los recursos disponibles (Golbert y Roca, 2010).
339
Evolucin del empleo registrado y la cantidad de hijos cubiertos por

asignaciones familiares (en nivel base 100 = 1997)

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32 El 80% del benecio se acredita mensualmente mientras que el 20% restante se acumula en la cuenta de los
titulares. Se prev entregar anualmente el 20% acumulado durante los 12 meses del ao anterior conforme al cumplimiento de los requisitos de escolaridad y salud por parte de los menores beneciarios.
33 La estimacin se realiza considerando a los menores que viven en hogares con jefe: i) desocupado o inactivo
que no cobra seguro de desempleo, jubilacin ni pensin; ii) trabajador no registrado con ingreso inferior al SMVM;
cuentapropista informal con ingreso inferior al SMVM.
34 Ms all de la ampliacin de la cobertura, la AUH permiti integrar programas dispersos, tendiendo a homogeneizar la cobertura y a mejorar los registros de los beneciarios.
340
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35 Diversos estudios sostienen que tanto el trabajo independiente precario (cuentapropias, principalmente informales) como el empleo asalariado no registrado en la seguridad social representan una alternativa al desempleo. Para
el caso argentino, ver Beccaria (1992) y MTEySS-BM (2008).
36 Para realizar esta estimacin se considera que los hogares que cobrarn la AUH, son aquellos en los cuales vive
al menos un menor de 18 aos y cuyo jefe o cnyuge no tiene un empleo registrado, no es jubilado ni pensionado,
no trabaja como profesional por cuenta propia, ni se declara como empleador. Para calcular el impacto de la AUH
se le asign a los hogares as denidos como potenciales beneciarios la suma de $180 por cada menor de 18 aos
integrante del hogar y se le restaron los ingresos que el hogar hubiera declarado en concepto de plan social.
37 Estimaciones realizadas por el MTEySS, Subsecretara de Programacin Tcnica y Estudios Laborales y Subsecretara de Polticas de la Seguridad Social, sobre la base de EPH (INDEC), 2 trimestre de 2009.
38 Maurizio, 2009 y Agis et al., 2010 y Bertranou, 2010 entre otros.
341
Cobertura de los menores de 18 aos en 2003 y 2009*

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La cobertura del sistema de proteccin social a los menores de 18 aos se calcul considerando el conjunto de
acciones orientadas a los menores y son las siguientes: asignacin familiar contributiva correspondiente a los asalariados registrados, asignacin familiar a los jubilados y pensionados y a los beneciarios del seguro por desempleo,
el nuevo sistema no contributivo denominado Asignacin Universal por ijo, el programa Familias por la inclusin
social y las pensiones no contributivas para madres de siete o ms hijos. El porcentaje del total de los menores de 18
aos que recibieron alguna transferencia de ingresos por parte del sistema de proteccin social se calcul tomando
la proyeccin poblacional elaborada por el Instituto Nacional de Estadsticas y Censo (INDEC).
3. Impacto de la ampliacin del sistema de proteccin

social en la equidad
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39 Hopenhayn (2010) seala que el trabajo es la actividad principal a travs de la cual los miembros de la sociedad
expanden su sociabilidad ms all del ncleo de reproduccin familiar, establecen los mecanismos ms fuertes de
aportes y retribuciones en este vivir en sociedad, procuran la mayor porcin de reconocimiento simblico. El
trabajo, en n, como pilar de identidad y de estatus. Se pregunta hasta dnde la idea de la modernidad la centralidad del trabajo- se ha convertido en un mito socavado por nuevas formas de sociabilidad que van cobrando mayor
primaca y vrtigo, como son el consumo simblico, la comunicacin a distancia, la liacin a mltiples grupos de
referencia?.
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40 Estimaciones realizadas por el MTEySS, Subsecretara de Programacin Tcnica y Estudios Laborales y Subsecretara de Polticas de la Seguridad Social, sobre la base de EPH (INDEC), 2 trimestre de 2009.
343
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359
Ernesto Murro
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360
Polticas de transferencias monetarias:

disminuyendo la inequidad
14 TRANSFERENCIAS MONETARIAS
PARTIR DE LA EXPERIENCIA DE
A LA NIEZ. ALGUNAS
AMRICA LATINA
REFLEXIONES A
15 LA DISTRIBUCIN DEL
INGRESO Y LOS PROGRAMAS DE TRANSFERENCIAS:
UNA COMPARACIN ENTRE
BRASIL, CHILE Y MXICO
Sergei Soares, Fbio Veras Soares, Rafael Osrio, Marcelo Medeiros
361
Ernesto Murro
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362
14
TRANSFERENCIAS
MONETARIAS A LA NIEZ.
A PARTIR DE LA EXPERIENCIA DE
ALGUNAS REFLEXIONES
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1 Barrientos et al., (2008)
363
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364
Transferencias monetarias a la niez. Algunas reexiones...
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1. Antecedentes de programas de transferencias

monetarias en Amrica latina
1.1 Breve resea de algunas experiencias en la regin
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2 Para un anlisis de las polticas de transferencias de ingresos en Uruguay, vase Banco Mundial (2007), OIT (2007).
3 Ley 18.227 ao 2007.
365
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1.2 Programas de transferencias monetarias en la Argentina
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4 Para una descripcin y evaluacin conjunta de los programas vase, por ejemplo, OIT/IPEC (2007). Para una
revisin de los debates en torno a los programas de transferencias condicionadas, vase Prez Ribas et al., (2008),
Villatoro (2007, 2008), Bertranou et al., (2007a y 2007b).
5 Para acceder al seguro de desempleo los postulantes deben cumplir los siguientes requisitos: (1) haber regido su
relacin laboral por la Ley de Contrato de Trabajo (no resultan elegibles, entre otros, los trabajadores rurales, de la
construccin, ni del servicio domstico); (2) estar en situacin legal de desempleo (despido sin justa causa, entre las
situaciones legales ms importantes); (3) estar inscripto en el Sistema Integrado de Jubilaciones y Pensiones; (4)
haber cotizado al Fondo Nacional de Empleo durante un perodo mnimo de seis meses durante los tres aos anteriores a la nalizacin de la relacin laboral que dio lugar a la situacin legal de desempleo; (5) no percibir benecios
previsionales o prestaciones no contributivas y (6) haber solicitado el benecio de la prestacin en tiempo y forma.
La duracin de la prestacin est en funcin del tiempo cotizado (Ley N 24.013).
6 Los datos mostrados en Bertranou y Paz (2007) sugieren que una de las razones importantes por la cual los cesantes no acceden al seguro de desempleo es porque no tienen una ocupacin anterior registrada en la seguridad
social.
7 Esta demandaba una dedicacin horaria de entre 30 y 40 horas por semana.
8 Galasso y Ravallion (2004).
366
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Grco 1. Evolucin semestral de los beneciarios del Programa
Jefes de Hogar (en miles)
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9 Mediante decreto N 565/02.

10 Golbert (2004) analiza los factores que permitieron su rpida implantacin: existencia de un consenso previo
para un programa de estas caractersticas, capacidad de organizacin de los actores sociales involucrados, existencia de experiencia previa surgida de otros programas sociales y de empleo y el propio diseo del programa.
11 Para una evaluacin del programa, vase Galasso y Ravallion (2004), CELS (2003), Golbert (2006), entre otros.
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12 Creado mediante Decreto N 808/02 y destinado a responder a los desafos de pobreza .y distribucin del ingreso exacerbados en la actual crisis econmica y como una estrategia hacia el conjunto de las familias pobres,
priorizando adems aquellas con hijos menores de edad. El monto mensual del subsidio se calculaba en proporcin
al tamao del hogar: se perciba $100 por hijo o mujer embarazada y $25 por cada hijo adicional hasta un mximo de
5 hijos. El subsidio para ser percibido implicaba una contraprestacin de salud y educacin (CELS, 2007).
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13 Este valor fue actualizado a partir del 1 de marzo de 2009, mediante resolucin 287/09. La escala vigente se
inicia tambin en $155 y se adicionan $45 por hijo hasta un mximo de $380 para el caso de hogares con seis o
ms hijos menores.
14 Los beneciarios del Seguro de Capacitacin y Empleo perciben este monto durante los primeros 18 meses y
luego se reduce a $200 durante los ltimos 6 meses.
15 MTEySS (2008a) y MTEySS (2009).
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16 Programa destinado a afrontar situaciones locales transitorias de emergencia ocupacional. Tiene por objeto
promover la participacin de trabajadores desocupados en proyectos que mejoren su empleabilidad y faciliten su
insercin laboral. Los proyectos estn orientados a obras o servicios comunitarios, productivos, de formacin profesional o acciones de orientacin y de reinsercin laboral. Los proyectos tienen una duracin de hasta tres meses y
los beneciarios perciben una prestacin bsica no remunerativa de $150.
17 MTEySS (2008a).
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2. Impacto sobre la pobreza y costos de la universalizacin

de asignaciones familiares en la Argentina
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18 Decreto N 1602/09
19 Ley 24714.
20 Los asalariados incluidos en el rgimen contributivo de asignaciones familiares perciben un monto por hijo que
depende del ingreso laboral percibido. En particular, quedan incluidos en este rgimen aquellos asalariados con
hijos que perciben un ingreso mensual inferior o igual a $4800. Sin embargo el monto otorgado por el nuevo programa corresponde al monto por hijo que percibe un asalariado formal cuyo ingreso es inferior a $2400, es decir $180.
21 No se consideran los costos administrativos de implementacin ni cualquier otro costo indirecto asociado a la
aplicacin de los programas.
22 En el Cuadro A.1 del Anexo se detallan los diferentes esquemas simulados.
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Cuadro 1. Beneciarios de transferencias a los hogares con presencia de
menores (en millones)

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23 Ello se debe a que las estimaciones fueron realizadas con anterioridad al lanzamiento del programa.
24 ltima Base de datos de la Encuesta Permanente de Hogares disponible a la fecha de la realizacin de las estimaciones.
25 Universo I. Con restriccin de ingresos. Transferencia monetaria a todos los hogares con menores no cubiertos
por asignaciones familiares y que al menos un miembro percibe ingresos de hasta $2600/$4000 (montos de salarios mximos para percibir asignaciones familiares en 2006 y 2008, respectivamente). Si bien a partir del 1/9/08 el
Decreto 1591/08 modic los montos de asignaciones familiares, as como los topes de ingresos hasta los cuales es
posible percibir esta asignacin, en dicho documento han sido considerados los valores vigentes hasta el 31/8/08
establecidos por el Decreto 1345 del ao 2007 por haber sido realizados con anterioridad a dicho cambio.
26 Universo II. Sin restriccin de ingresos. Transferencia monetaria a todos los hogares con menores no cubiertos
por asignaciones familiares. Se incluyen como beneciarios a todos aquellos que, an estando en el mercado de
trabajo formal, no perciben asignaciones familiares por tener ingresos superiores al mximo establecido.
372
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3. Vinculaciones entre las polticas de transferencias

monetarias y el funcionamiento del mercado de trabajo

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27 Estas estimaciones surgen de la utilizacin de la ltima informacin disponible al momento de escribir este captulo. Sin embargo estudios posteriores realizados por Roca (2010), Agis et al. (2010), Gasparini y Cruces (2010), OIT
(2010) concluyen que implicara una importante reduccin de la indigencia y, en menor medida, de la pobreza, a la
vez que tendra un impacto positivo sobre la desigualdad distributiva.
28 Ver Maurizio (2009) para los detalles sobre el mtodo de expansin al total pas de la base EPH y de la proyeccin al ao 2008.
29 Todas estas estimaciones podrn ser vericadas en el futuro cuando se disponga de la informacin necesaria
para ello.
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30 Vase, por ejemplo, Gallart et al., (1993), Jacinto (1996), Feldman (1996), Miranda y Salvia (2001), Filmus et al.,
(2001), Marchionni et al., (2007).
31 Tanto en nios como en nias se verica una reduccin en la participacin laboral ante la inclusin en el plan
(reduccin de alrededor del 15%) lo cual se acompaa de mayor asistencia escolar.
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32 Vase, por ejemplo, Arends-Kuenning y Duryea (2006).

33 La variacin negativa mxima observada en el nmero de horas trabajadas fue de 1 hora por semana en el caso de
los hombres y 2,5 horas por semana en las mujeres. Estas representan reducciones del 2,4% y 8,9% respectivamente
con respecto a la situacin sin percepcin de transferencia.
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37 Para incrementar los incentivos a la oferta en el caso de los prestadores de salud se les otorg un monto de
U$S54 por ao por familia beneciaria en una primera etapa el cual se increment en la segunda etapa. Dado que la
demanda de servicios aument a un ritmo mayor al que pudo extenderse la cobertura de servicios, se contrat a una
ONG para la provisin de los servicios necesarios. Para el caso de la educacin, se entreg a las escuelas un monto
jo por nio por ao destinado tanto a incrementar los salarios de los profesores como a la compra de materiales.
381
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1.3. Oportunidades
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ORVUHFXUVRVGHXQDWUDQVIHUHQFLD
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GHWHUPLQDFLyQGHODFRQWULEXFLyQGHORV3URJUDPDVGH7UDQVIHUHQFLDVHQODYDULDFLyQ
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3. Curvas de incidencia
,QLFLDPRVQXHVWURDQiOLVLVFRQXQDEUHYHUHYLVLyQGHODIRFDOL]DFLyQGHORVWUHVSURJUDPDV
FRQHOQGHYHULFDUVXHFDFLDSDUDFXEULUDORVPiVSREUHV(VFRP~QHPSOHDUPHGLGDV
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404
(QRWUDVSDODEUDVYDPRVDDQDOL]DUODLQFLGHQFLDGHOLQJUHVRGHORV3URJUDPDVGH7UDQV
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WUHVGHORVFXDWURFRPSRQHQWHVGHOLQJUHVRSUHYLDPHQWHGHQLGRORVODERUDOHVORVGHOD
VHJXULGDGVRFLDO\ORVRWURV/DFXUYDGHLQFLGHQFLDTXHHVODUHSUHVHQWDFLyQJUiFDGHHVWH
DERUGDMHHVXQD&XUYDGH&RQFHQWUDFLyQSXGLpQGRVHFDOFXODUXQ&RHFLHQWHGH&RQFHQ
WUDFLyQSDUDODPLVPD6HUHDOL]yHVWHHMHUFLFLRSDUDREWHQHUXQDPHGLGDGHIRFDOL]DFLyQ
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3DUDHVDWDUHDFDOFXODUHPRVRWUR&RHFLHQWHGH&RQFHQWUDFLyQ
Grco 1. Curvas de Incidencia de los Programas de Transferencias
Condicionadas de Ingresos (PTCI)

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405
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WUHVFXUYDVVHFUX]DQHQDOJ~QSXQWRQRVHSXHGHGHFLUTXHXQ3URJUDPDGH7UDQVIH
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4. Curvas y coecientes de concentracin

&RPHQ]DPRV SRU OD FRPSDUDFLyQ GH OD GHVLJXDOGDG GH OD GLVWULEXFLyQ GHO LQJUHVR
IDPLOLDUSHUFiSLWDGHFDGDSDtVHQHODxRLQLFLDODPHGLDGRVGHORVDxRVQRYHQWDFRQ
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GDYtDVXIUHQQLYHOHVPX\HOHYDGRVGHGHVLJXDOGDG(QORVGLH]DxRVDQDOL]DGRVKXER
XQDFDtGDGHODGHVLJXDOGDGWDQWRHQ0p[LFRFRPRHQ%UDVLOPLHQWUDVTXHVHPDQWXYR
HVWDEOHHQ&KLOH/D7DEODPXHVWUDTXHHO&RHFLHQWHGH*LQLFD\ySXQWRVHQ
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VRDVtFRPRODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHFDGDXQRHQHOLQJUHVRWRWDO&XDQGRHO&RHFLHQWHGH
&RQFHQWUDFLyQHVPD\RUTXHHO&RHFLHQWHGH*LQLVHVDEHTXHHVWHLQJUHVRFRQWULEX
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(OWUDEDMRHVODSULQFLSDOIXHQWHGHLQJUHVRHQORVWUHVSDtVHVGHQXHVWURHVWXGLR6X
FRQWULEXFLyQYDUtDHQWUHHQ%UDVLOHQ\HQ0p[LFRHQ6LQ
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SDUWLFLSDFLyQGHOLQJUHVRGHODVHJXULGDGVRFLDO\GHORVRWURVLQJUHVRV
406
Tabla 1. Coecientes de concentracin y participacin en el ingreso

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LQJUHVRV

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37&,

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GHORVSURJUDPDVGHWUDQVIHUHQFLDV\GHODVHJXULGDGVRFLDO<VRQODVHJXQGDIXHQWHGH
LQJUHVRV\VXSDUWLFLSDFLyQYLHQHDXPHQWDQGRHQORVWUHVSDtVHV&XDQGRGHVDJUHJD
PRVODVWUDQVIHUHQFLDVJXEHUQDPHQWDOHVYHPRVTXHHOSHVRGHOD6HJXULGDG6RFLDOHV
PXFKRPD\RUTXHHOSHVRGHORV3URJUDPDVGH7UDQVIHUHQFLDV0LHQWUDVHVWRV~OWLPRV
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WDEODDSXQWDWRGDYtDDOKHFKRGHTXHDOFRQWUDULRGHORTXHPXFKRVFUHHQHO~QLFR
SDtVGRQGHOD6HJXULGDG6RFLDOWLHQHXQHIHFWRFRQWUDFWLYRGHODGHVLJXDOGDGHV&KLOH
/RVFRHFLHQWHVGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQPiVDOWRVTXHHO&RHFLHQWHGH*LQLPXHVWUDQTXH
OD6HJXULGDG6RFLDOHQ0p[LFR\HQ%UDVLOFRQWULEX\yDDXPHQWDUODGHVLJXDOGDG(O
LQJUHVRGHORV3URJUDPDVGH7UDQVIHUHQFLDVHVHOFRPSRQHQWHPHQRVFRQFHQWUDGRHQ
FDGDSDtV
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ODVJXUDVDFRPSXHVWDVFDGDXQDSRUGRVSDQHOHVOD&XUYDGH/RUHQ]GHOLQJUHVR
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407
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5. Brasil
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ORVLQJUHVRVGHFDSLWDOJDQDQFLDVGLYLGHQGRV\DOTXLOHUHVHUDQLPSRUWDQWHV(Q
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Figura 1. Curvas de concentracin, Brasil
Panel 1. Antes del PTCI (1995)
(2004)
)XHQWHHODERUDFLyQSURSLDVREUHODEDVHGH31$'\
408
Panel 2. Despus del PTCI
6. Chile
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Figura 2. Curvas de concentracin, Chile
(2003)
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7. Mxico
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409
Figura 3. Curvas de concentracin, Mxico

(2004)
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8. Descomposicin
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410
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9. Cun relevante es la reduccin de la desigualdad?

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Tabla 3. Variacin en el Coeciente de Gini
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413
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10. Conclusin
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414
Tabla 2. Descomposicin del cambio en el Coeciente de Gini

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2 Ver Fullerton, D. y Metcalf, G. (2002), Tax incidence, NBER, donde se resume gran parte de los aportes recientes
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3 La elasticidad es la razn entre el cambio proporcional de una variable con respecto del cambio proporcional
de otra variable. La elasticidad de la demanda (oferta) mide la variacin porcentual que experimenta la cantidad
demandada (ofrecida) como consecuencia de una variacin en el precio de un uno por ciento, es decir, mide la
intensidad con la que responden los compradores a una variacin en el precio.
4 La medicin de la pobreza con el mtodo de la lnea de pobreza procura establecer la capacidad de los hogares
para adquirir, a partir de sus ingresos, un conjunto de bienes alimentarios y no alimentarios considerados esenciales.
La canasta alimentaria se calcula teniendo en cuenta las necesidades calricas de cada individuo del hogar, segn
el sexo y la edad.
422
3. Aspectos metodolgicos: desigualdad, progresividad

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5 La curva de Lorenz se construye a partir del ordenamiento de la poblacin de referencia de acuerdo con sus ingresos, ordenados de menor a mayor. En el eje de las abscisas se considera el porcentaje acumulado de poblacin, y en
el de las ordenadas el correspondiente al ingreso. La lnea recta de equidistribucin permite visualizar la desigualdad
a partir de la distancia de la curva respecto a la situacin ideal, en la cual cada porcentaje de poblacin acumula el
mismo porcentual de ingreso.
6 Las curvas de concentracin muestra el porcentual acumulado de impuestos (transferencias) pagado (recibido)
por los distintos porcentuales de poblacin, ordenados previamente en funcin de su ingreso. Su ubicacin respecto
de la curva de Lorenz nos indica la incidencia progresiva (regresiva).
7 La situacin de perfecta igualdad se da cuando la curva de Lorenz coincide con la recta de 45 grados y el coeciente de Gini vale 0. El extremo opuesto de mayor desigualdad ocurre cuando la curva de Lorenz coincide con el
eje de abscisas y el coeciente es 1.
8 El clculo de este indicador resulta de la diferencia entre el coeciente de Gini de los ingresos brutos y el ndice
de concentracin de impuestos (transferencias) pseudo-Gini de los impuestos (transferencias).
9 Toma en cuenta la modicacin en la posicin relativa de los hogares de la distribucin cuando se incorpora el
impuesto (transferencia)
10 Se calcula haciendo diferencia entre el coeciente de Gini post-impuesto (transferencia) y el coeciente de Gini
pre-impuesto (transferencia).
423
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4. Construccin de los escenarios pre-impositivo

y pre-scal
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11 Para conocer los detalles de este procedimiento ir a Estimacin de la poblacin urbana total, econmicamente
activa, ocupada y desocupada. Informacin de Prensa, INDEC.
424
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12 El Gasto en Seguridad Social incluye las jubilaciones y pensiones, asignaciones familiares, programas de empleo,
seguro de desempleo, subsidios o ayuda social y subsidios para estudios.
13 Para la estimacin se sigui la metodologa desarrollada por Maurizio, R. (2008), Polticas de Transferencias Monetarias en Argentina: una evaluacin de su impacto sobre la pobreza y la desigualdad y de sus costos.
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5. Incidencia distributiva del Sistema Impositivo

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14 En el ao 2006, el 11.5% de los hogares slo obtuvo ingresos que provinieron de algn tipo de transferencias
otorgadas por el Estado. El 92% de esos hogares perciba jubilaciones y pensiones.
15 Los recursos de la Seguridad Social no son considerados impuestos por lo que no se toman en cuenta en el anlisis distributivo de este apartado. Estos son considerados en el apartado de la Seguridad Social. Cuando al total de
impuestos se le adicionan los recursos de la Seguridad Social, la presin tributaria asciende a 23% del PBI.
426
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16 Cuando se considera en conjunto el Sistema Impositivo, el criterio de traslacin que se tuvo en cuenta para Impuesto a las Ganancias de personas jurdicas fue la hiptesis 1 (ver apartado 5.1.1)
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DGLIHUHQWHVFULWHULRVGHWUDVODFLyQ3DUDHOSUHVHQWHHVWXGLRVHDGRSWDURQORVVLJXLHQWHV
+LSyWHVLVVHWUDVODGDHODORVFRQVXPLGRUHVYtDLQFUHPHQWRHQORVSUHFLRV\HO
UHVWDQWHORVRSRUWDQORVKRJDUHVPiVULFRVGHODGLVWULEXFLyQ
+LSyWHVLVHOVHWUDVODGDDOFRQVXPRYtDLQFUHPHQWRHQORVSUHFLRV
(O,PSXHVWRDODV*DQDQFLDVFRQVWLWX\HSRUORPHQRVHQWHRUtDHOJUDYDPHQGHPD\RU
LQFLGHQFLDSURJUHVLYDGHO6LVWHPD6LQHPEDUJRHOUHVXOWDGRHVVHQVLEOHDODKLSyWHVLV
DGRSWDGDSDUDDVLJQDUHOFRPSRQHQWHGH6RFLHGDGHV$FRQWLQXDFLyQVHVLQWHWL]DOD
LQFLGHQFLDGHVDJUHJDGDSDUDODVGRVKLSyWHVLV
17 Ver el Anexo para un detalle ms preciso del procedimiento.

18 Este supuesto de incidencia considera que los accionistas son individuos que se ubican en el ltimo intervalo
de la distribucin. Al no tener informacin detallada al respecto se tuvo que tomar arbitrariamente esta decisin.
428
Cuadro N 4. Concentracin del Impuesto a las Ganancias segn distintas

hiptesis de traslacin
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PHQRUHVLQJUHVRVORVTXHSDJDQXQPRQWRPiVHOHYDGRTXHFRQODKLSyWHVLV(VWRTXH
GDUHHMDGRHQORVYDORUHVGHOtQGLFHGH.DNZDQLTXHUHVXOWDDOWDPHQWHSURJUHVLYRFRQOD
KLSyWHVLV\UHJUHVLYRFRQODKLSyWHVLV(ORWURtQGLFH56 PXHVWUD
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SULPHUFDVR\XQRGHUHGLVWULEXFLyQUHJUHVLYD<SDUDHOVHJXQGR
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GHOLQJUHVRFDHUtDXQFRQODKLSyWHVLVGHWUDVODGR\DXPHQWDUtDXQFRQOD
Cuadro N5. Presin tributaria del Impuesto a las Ganancias segn distintas
hiptesis de traslacin

429
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SRUORTXHORVLQGLYLGXRVFRQPHQRUHVLQJUHVRVVRSRUWDQXQDPD\RUFDUJDGHOJUD
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WDULDGLIHUHQFLDOPHQRUDOSURPHGLR
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VREUHORVKRJDUHVHVWDUiGDGDDSDUWLUGHFRQRFHUFXiQWRJDVWDQHQHVWRVELHQHV\VHU
YLFLRV(VWDLQIRUPDFLyQVHHQFXHQWUDGLVSRQLEOHHQOD(QFXHVWD1DFLRQDOGH*DVWR
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GH,9$ORVKRJDUHVVHJ~QHOQLYHOGHLQJUHVRV
Cuadro N 6

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UHVPiVSREUHVGHVWLQDQXQPD\RUSRUFHQWDMHGHVXLQJUHVRDOFRQVXPRGHELHQHV\
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430
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SRUFHQWDMHGHHVWDVFXHQWDVHVWiQHQSRGHUGHORVLQGLYLGXRV\FXiQVHJXLGRUHDOL]DQ
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GHDVLJQDFLyQGHDFXHUGRDOLQJUHVRTXHSHUFLEHQORVLQGLYLGXRVFRQFHQWUDGRVHQORV
~OWLPRVFXDWURGHFLOHVGHODGLVWULEXFLyQ/RVUHVXOWDGRVGHLQFLGHQFLDVHPXHVWUDQ
HQHOVLJXLHQWHFXDGUR
Cuadro N 7
%DMRHVWDKLSyWHVLVGHWUDVODFLyQHOLPSXHVWRUHVXOWDSURJUHVLYR. DXQTXH

SUiFWLFDPHQWHVLQLQFLGHQFLDUHGLVWULEXWLYD56 (OFXDGUR1PXHVWUDHO
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VHUYLFLRVTXHSURGXFHQWRGRVORVGHFLOHVWHUPLQDQSDJDQGRDOJRGHHVWHWULEXWRDXQ
TXHVXLQFLGHQFLDHVFODUDPHQWHVXSHULRUHQHO~OWLPRGHFLO
19 Ante la falta de informacin disponible sobre los supuestos de incidencia de este tributo tanto en la literatura
especca como en los organismos ociales, se procedi de manera arbitraria a su asignacin. En este sentido, en el
trabajo de Sabaini y Rossignolo del 2008 se supone que el impuesto a los crditos y dbitos en Cuenta Corriente es
un tributo cuya carga se traslada. Los autores suponen que incide sobre el consumo en un 80% y el restante 20% lo
asignan segn la distribucin del ingreso de la poblacin.
431
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Cuadro N 8. ndices de concentracin y de presin tributaria diferencial
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20 Los impuestos internos incluyen, entre otros, al tabaco, bebidas alcohlicas, analcohlicas y telefona celular.
21 Se utiliza la ENGH (tanto para bienes especcos como para combustibles)
432
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Cuadro N 9
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433

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22 Consistentes con los adoptados en la literatura especializada.
434
Cuadro N 10
6. Incidencia distributiva de la Seguridad Social

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23 Las prestaciones de la Seguridad Social comprenden: el total de jubilaciones y pensiones correspondientes a
la Administracin Nacional de la Seguridad Social; las pasividades de las cajas provinciales de previsin social
transferidas a la Administracin Nacional; el pago de los retiros y pensiones de las Fuerzas Armadas; los benecios
jubilatorios correspondientes a la Caja de Retiros, Pensiones y Jubilaciones de la Polica Federal; los retiros de la
Gendarmera Nacional, la Prefectura Naval Argentina y de la Polica de ex - Territorios Nacionales; las pasividades del
Servicio Penitenciario Federal; as como las pensiones no contributivas administradas por la Secretara de Desarrollo
Social; y el pago de las pasividades del Poder Judicial de la Nacin, incluido en el presupuesto de la Administracin
Nacional de la Seguridad Social. Adems deben computarse las prestaciones mnimas y mdico asistenciales a
jubilados y pensionados.
24 La transferencias incluyen: subsidios al desempleo, asignaciones familiares y los recursos con destino al Instituto
Nacional de Servicios Sociales para Jubilados y Pensionados.
435
Cuadro N 11. Gasto Pblico en Seguridad Social Nacional Ao 2006

(en millones de pesos)
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Cuadro N 12
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436
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Grco N 1. Lorenz del IPCF pre-scal y concentracin del Gasto en
Seguridad Social
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6.2 Recursos de la Seguridad Social
25
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FLyQGHGLYHUVRVLPSXHVWRV
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QDOHVQRHVXQtYRFRHQODOLWHUDWXUDHVSHFtFDSRUORTXHHQHVWHWUDEDMRVHWRPDQHQFRQ
VLGHUDFLyQGRVDOWHUQDWLYDVFRP~QPHQWHXWLOL]DGDVDOPRPHQWRGHHYDOXDUODLQFLGHQFLD
25 El 9 de diciembre de 2008 entr en vigencia la Ley 26.425 que cre el Sistema Integrado Previsional Argentino
(SIPA) y elimin el rgimen de capitalizacin. Hasta ese entonces, el sistema era mixto y una gran proporcin de los
aportes personales se destinaba a las AFJP.
437
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SRUSDUWHGHWUDEDMDGRUHVUHJLVWUDGRV\GHORVHPSOHDGRUHVUHVSHFWLYDPHQWH<\SRU
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Cuadro N 13. Recursos de la Seguridad Social (en millones)
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26 Esto incluy: los aportes personales al rgimen de reparto y las contribuciones patronales en nombre de los
trabajadores en relacin de dependencia, autnomos y del personal activo de las fuerzas armadas y de seguridad; las contribuciones de los empleadores al Fondo Nacional de Empleo (FNE), al Instituto Nacional de Servicios
Sociales de Jubilados y Pensionados (INSSJyP) y las Asignaciones Familiares (AF). A su vez, se incluyen dentro de
los recursos los aportes personales y contribuciones patronales a la Administracin Nacional de la Seguridad Social,
correspondientes a los ingresos de las Ex-Cajas provinciales por estos conceptos.
27 Hasta 1994 las contribuciones patronales eran un 32% y luego de diferentes modicaciones en el ao 2006 se
redujeron al 23%.
438
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WHVLVGHWUDVODFLyQ
Cuadro N 14
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ODVHYDOXDFLRQHVTXHKDELWXDOPHQWHVHKLFLHURQGHVXLQFLGHQFLDFRPRUHJUHVLYDHQ
GLIHUHQWHVHVWLPDFLRQHV/DVULJLGHFHVHQHOPHUFDGRGHWUDEDMR\ODH[LVWHQFLDGHXQ
LPSRUWDQWHVHFWRULQIRUPDOVLQHPEDUJRVRQSDUWLFXODULGDGHVDWHQHUHQFXHQWDHQHO
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28 Si la curva de oferta de trabajo es inelstica a variaciones del salario (curva vertical), es el asalariado quien termina absorbiendo la carga patronal con una reduccin simultnea del salario percibido en la misma proporcin. Ver
por ejemplo : Rosen, H. (2007) Hacienda Pblica, sptima edicin Mc Graw Hill; tambin Heckman, J. (1993) What
Has Been Learned about Labor Supply in United States in the Past Twenty Years?, American Economic Review.
29 Para hiptesis de traslado hacia el consumo ver por ejemplo Pechman (1985).
30 Ver por ejemplo: Gasparini (1999); Dborkin y Feldman (2008); Gmez Sabaini y Rossignolo (2008).
439
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OtQHDVSXQWHDGDV
Grco N 2. Lorenz del IPCF y concentracin de los Aportes y
Contribuciones
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Cuadro N 15
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Resultados globales de los recursos

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Cuadro N 16
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31 Direccin de Investigaciones y Anlisis Fiscal, Destino de la recaudacin de los impuestos al 30-06-2009
32 Para el impuesto a las ganancias de las personas jurdicas se tom la hiptesis 1 de traslado.
441
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Cuadro N 17
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442
Grco N 3. Curvas de Lorenz del ingreso pre scal y post

Seguridad Social
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Marta Novick y Soledad Villafae

ENFOQUES Y POLTICAS PBLICAS

Tendencias y perspectivas de la pobreza y la equidad

CRECIMIENTO, POLTICAS MACROECONMICAS Y REDUCCIN DE LA

2 REGMENES POLTICOS, SHOCKS EXTERNOS Y DESIGUALDAD DE

CRISIS FINANCIERA GLOBAL Y LOS PASES EN DESARROLLO ................................107

Macroeconoma, estructura productiva y empleo:

INGRESO Y ANLISIS MACROECONMICO: UN REPASO

DE LA LITERATURA Y DE LOS DESAFOS DE LA POLTICA ECONMICA ......................123

Martn Abeles y Fernando Toledo

5 CONTEXTO MACRO Y ESTRUCTURA MICRO: RGIMEN CAMBIARIO,

Emmanuel Agis y Daniel Kostzer

6 EL VNCULO ENTRE DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO Y ACUMULACIN.

INGRESO Y DESARROLLO ECONMICO.

MATRIZ DISTRIBUTIVA REQUIERE UNA NUEVA MATRIZ PRODUCTIVA ......................... 209

INGRESOS Y DESAFOS A FAVOR DE LA IGUALDAD

Impacto distributivo de las instituciones laborales

SINDICATOS Y REPRESENTACIN SINDICAL EN LA EMPRESA:

UNA ESTIMACION DE LA BRECHA SALARIAL EN

Carla Borroni y David Trajtemberg

La cuestin de la igualdad en los sistemas de proteccin social

11 GLOBALIZACIN Y DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO: LA IMPORTANCIA DE LA

12 DEBATES DE POLTICAS SOBRE EL BIENESTAR, LA EQUIDAD Y LA

13 EL BANCO DE PREVISIN SOCIAL DE URUGUAY

Polticas de transferencias monetarias: disminuyendo la inequidad

Roxana Maurizio y Brbara Perrot

DISTRIBUCIN DEL INGRESO Y LOS PROGRAMAS DE TRANSFERENCIAS:

UNA COMPARACIN ENTRE

BRASIL, CHILE Y MXICO ...............................................395

Sergei Soares, Fbio Veras Soares. Rafael Osrio, Marcelo Medeiros

Impacto distributivo del rgimen tributario

Sobre los autores ..........................................................................................................449

4 Informe Nacional del Impacto Social de la Globalizacin MTESS-OIT 2009.

De los principales contenidos de este libro

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2 REGMENES POLTICOS, SHOCKS EXTERNOS Y DESIGUALDAD

Giovanni Andrea Cornia

3 LA CRISIS FINANCIERA GLOBAL Y LOS

1 Artculo recibido en septiembre de 2009.

Crecimiento, polticas macroeconmicas y reduccin de la pobreza en China e India...

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3 Libro anual de estadsticas de China, varios aos.

Crecimiento, polticas macroeconmicas y reduccin de la pobreza en China e India...

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5 En virtud de sus hukou.

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