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1 Introduccin
El objetivo de la exploracin geoqumica es definir las anomalas significativas como paso
previo a seleccionar el territorio por probabilidad de encuentro de nuevos yacimientos. En
el caso ms simple, consisten en hallar valores sobresalientes sobre un "fondo" o valor
medio del entorno geolgico que caracteriza el elemento considerado, pero tambin se
podra tener en cuenta como una asociacin elemental que refleja una alteracin
hidrotermal o un agotamiento del elemento (anomalas negativas). Las anomalas quedan
definidas mediante grupos estadsticos de datos comparndolos dentro del entorno
geolgico del terreno y con la informacin aportada por un muestreo superficial.
Normalmente, estos grupos de datos se tratan con una serie de paquetes estadsticos, tal
como el programa STAGTGRAPHICS, que ofrece una simplificacin del proceso.
La mejor manera de comprender estas agrupaciones estadsticas de datos sera mediante
el uso de histogramas y "plots box", junto con el uso de los valores de la media o mediana
y la desviacin tpica. En general, se podra esperar que si los datos son homogneos,
entonces los valores deberan seguir una distribucin normal o lognormal, pero si existen
varios grupos de datos, tenderemos una distribucin multimodal.
Las relaciones de los grupos con otros datos elementales deberan examinarse mediante
grficos y el clculo de la matriz de correlacin.
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Tipo de yacimiento
Prfido cuprfero
Sulfuros complejos
Elemento objetivo
Cu, Mo
Zn, Cu,Ag,Au
Filones de metales
preciosos
Depsitos de skarn
Au, Ag
Mo, Zn, Cu
Elementos satlites
Zn, Au, Ag, As, F
Hg, As, Sb, Se, Cd, Ba, F,
Bi
As, Sb, Te, Mn, Hg, I, F,
Bi, Co,
B, Au, Ag, Fe, Be
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GEOFILE 2004-07
STREAM GEOCHEMICAL SURVEY
GUIDE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Sample Collection
Collection Supplies
Site Selection
Sample Media
Site Tags
Sample Collection Maps
Data Recording
Sample Preparation
Packing and Shipping
Sample Analysis
References
2
4
4
3
5
6
7
7
9
11
12
13
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INTRODUCTION
Stream sediment geochemistry has been described as a very robust, successful mineral
exploration technique and has proven to be effective even when sampling was poorly
carried out (Fletcher, 1997). Much of its early success for discovering new mineral
deposits in British Columbia can be traced to the pioneers of exploration geochemistry
who recognized the ability of more mobile elements such as copper and zinc to
concentrate in sediment from broad range of stream environments. This proved to be an
advantage in the 1950s when exploration focused primarily on the search for porphyry
copper deposits. Sediment sampling techniques could afford to be less rigorous because
formation of copper stream geochemical anomalies was less susceptible to the variations
in sample site environment. However, it became apparent that geochemical surveys for
gold and other heavy minerals needed more careful collection of sediment from a specific
energy environment so that maximum anomaly contrast could be achieved.
Figure 1. Helicopter supported stream sediment and water sampling. The sampler is
working fast, but carefully to fill the bag with sediment from a sand-gravel bar so that the
helicopter landing time is minimized. Sediment and water and data recording will typically
take between 3 to 5 minutes. Commonly, the helicopter will carry a crew of two who will
leapfrog to alternate sample sites during the traverse.
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for designing a geochemical stream sediment survey and for interpreting the data, but
rather can be used as a guide for field procedures. Those interested in a broader range of
exploration geochemistry topics should consult the books by Rose, Hawkes and Webb
(1979) and Levinson (1979). There are also several papers and publications listed in the
References about different aspects of stream sediment surveys in BC such as the used of
heavy minerals and the reporting of survey data. The BC RGS procedure is based on that
established by the Geological Survey of Canada for the National Geochemical
Reconnaissance Program (Garrett, 1980).
SAMPLE COLLECTION
COLLECTION SUPPLIES
The following sample collection supplies are needed to complete a stream sedimentwater
survey:
1. Copies of 1:50 000 or 1:20 000 scale NTS maps showing the location of proposed
sample sites. These maps are used to control survey coverage, guide the site selection
process and act as a master record of the survey.
2. Sediment Sample Bags: Minimum size to collect an adequate sample should be 10 x
26 cm high, wet strength, gusset, and KRAFT paper bags.
3. Water Bottles: 250 ml PVC bottles.
4. Aluminum Tags/Flagging/Staple Guns: Permanent marking of sample sites.
5. Field Cards: Used for recording information on sample media, sample site and local
terrain.
6. Crates and pails for storage and transport of sediment and water samples in the field.
7. Permanent markers/transparent packing tape.
SITE SELECTION
The following factors should be considered in choosing a sample site for a regional
survey with an average sample density of 1 sample per 13 square kilometers:
Active flowing first or second-order streams (Figure 2) that have a drainage basin
area between 2 and 15 square kilometers (first order streams only will generally be
sampled for more detailed surveys e.g. 1 sample/5 K2).
Within the active stream channel (subject to annual flooding).
~60 metres upstream from sources of possible contamination.
~60 metres upstream from a confluence.
~60 metres upstream from the high tide mark
Upstream from lakes, ponds and marshes.
In the field the actual sample site selected may be different from the proposed location
marked on the survey design sample-site maps depending on the nature of the area.
Streams containing abundant fine-grained sediment (silts and clays) that have clean
flowing water are the most preferred and very high or very low energy sites should be
avoided if possible. Figure 3 shows typical sand-gravel bars with the preferred RGS site
marked. Streams with contamination from mining activity, logging, road culverts, etc. are
also to be avoided either by choosing an alternate stream or sampling upstream from the
identified source of contamination.
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The sampler should make every reasonable effort to collect a sample of sediment and
water at every proposed site or alternative site. If the stream is dry, the collection of only
a sediment sample is acceptable, provided that there is evidence of recent stream water
flow. However, under no circumstance is it acceptable to collect only a water sample.
The sampler should also collect a field site duplicate sediment and water sample for
every 17 sites visited. Site selection for duplicate samples is based on the availability of
sufficient fine-grained material for two sediment samples. The sampler should also make
every effort to collect material representative of a similar sediment depositional
environment, but from separate sites that are 2 to 4 metres apart (Figure 3)
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SAMPLE MEDIA
Stream Sediment
A minimum of 50 grams of -80 mesh (<0.177 mm) stream sediment is required for subsequent
analyses and archiving.Typically a sample bag full of fine-grained
sediment (2 kg) is needed to produce 50grams of -80 mesh fraction. If in doubt,
collect two bags of material. Only active(in the process of being hydraulically
moved), fine-grained stream sediment foundwithin the active stream channel is
acceptable. Samples with a dominantcomponent of gravel, sand, glacial rock
flour, bank material, organics (weeds, rootsor wood fragments) are not acceptable.
Should only coarse sand and gravel bepresent and an alternate stream not available, then at least
two full bags of sediment willbe needed. Typical fine-grained sediment is shown in Figure 4.
While storing and transporting samples in the field care must be taken to minimize
crosscontamination.
The analytical methods used for metals in stream sediments are very
sensitive and samplers should avoid wearing jewelry (e.g. gold rings) or using certain
sun-block lotion (Zn-rich) because handling the sediment can lead to significant
contamination of the sample. A small plastic scoop can be used to simplify collection and
reduce possible contamination.
Stream Water
Stream water sampling involves collecting unfiltered water into 250 millilitre PVC
bottles at every sample site. The water samples are intended for later determination of
such parameters as fluoride, sulphate and pH, but are not suitable for metal analysis. The
following factors should be considered when collecting acceptable water samples:
Clear water devoid of suspended solids (organic material and sediment).
Water bottles must be two-thirds full. Do not fill to maximum capacity.
Moss Mat Samples
Moss mat samples (Figure 5) can be taken as an alternative to stream sediment from
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high-energy streams (high rainfall, mountainous areas) where there is only a small
amount of silt and clay sized material in the material. The moss tends to capture finegrained
sediment (and heavy minerals such as gold) suspended in the water especially
during flood events. Moss should be live and taken from mats on logs or boulders in the
active channel above the water flow. Feeling the moss can assess the abundance of
captured sediment. There is a good comparison between the results of stream and moss
mat geochemistry by Matysek et al., (1987).
SITE TAGS
Ideally, 5 cm x 10 cm aluminum site tags and flagging are used for marking sample sites.
The sample ID number should be written on the tag and the tag firmly attached to a
permanent feature such as a tree using a staple gun. The tag must be clearly visible from
the stream to allow easy follow-up in later surveys.
SAMPLE COLLECTION MAPS
Master 1:50 000 Sample Location Maps
1:50 000 scale NTS map sheets of the survey area are most suitable for traverse planning.
These maps identify the proposed sample collection sites and will be used to control all
aspects of collection coverage and for recording sample sites and sample ID numbers at
the end of each collection day. Daily recording should be done neatly and in waterproof
ink since it is the master paper copy of the survey. An inspection at any time should show
the exact status of the survey. These maps must remain in the base camp.
1:50 000 Traverse Field Maps
These are 1:50 000 scale NTS map sheets used by the sample collection crews in the
field. Sample collection traverses are planned prior to sample collection and are marked
on these traverse maps. The field crews will use these maps to record sample sites and
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their associated ID numbers where samples were collected during their daily traverses.
This information is transferred to the Master 1:50 000 Sample Location Maps at the end
of each day.
DATA RECORDING
Field Observations
Field observations regarding sample media, sample site and local terrain are required for
interpreting the analytical data. This information is recorded on specially designed field
cards (Figure 6) and should be checked daily for accuracy and completeness.
Sample Numbering
All sediment sample bags, water bottles, site tags and field cards should be labeled with
the following information:
NTS: 93E
The sample numbering system is based on blocks of 20 consecutive numbers (e.g., 93E
1001 to 1020). In every block, there will be 18 numbers for collected samples (which
includes one field duplicate), and two reserved numbers for quality control samples
(analytical duplicate and control reference samples) which will be inserted at a later date
by the laboratory during preparation.
Routine Field Samples: Sediment and water samples collected at proposed sample
sites and are allocated non-reserved sample numbers.
Field Duplicate Samples: Two (2) separate samples collected at the same site. Site
selection is based on the presence of abundant fine-grained material available to
sample. The field duplicate will be given the next consecutive sample number. For
example, if the first of the field duplicate pair is given the number 93E 1005 then the
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sample representing the second field duplicate must be given the sample number 93E
1006. Duplicate samples must be clearly identified in the sample records.
Analytical Duplicate Sample: The first sample in each block of 20 is always held in
reserve for the analytical duplicate sample (e.g. 93E 1001, 93E 1021, 93E 1041, etc.).
Control Reference Sample: The position of the control reference sample in each
block will vary randomly. A list of their location in each block of 20 should be
established. Numbered empty bags and bottles set aside for the quality control
samples are inserted into the each block of 20 prior to shipping.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
STREAM SEDIMENT SAMPLE DRYING
Sample drying should be initiated within 12 hours of sample collection. It is estimated
that up to 300 samples will be drying at any given time during the peak of the survey. As
such, an estimated 300 square foot drying area will be needed to handle this large number
of samples. Drying racks must be designed that will allow good airflow across the
samples to promote drying, and minimize cross contamination between samples.
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Sample drying can be carried out in large canvas tents, shipping containers or buildings
with auxiliary propane or fuel oil heaters, or air-tight heaters, and racks or netting to
support the samples. Control of heating is required to maintain a temperature range from
a minimum of 30oC to a maximum of 50oC. The drying area should be protected from all
sources of contamination found inside (e.g. paint) and outside of the dry facility (e.g.
wind borne dust from gravel roads). The drying racks should be constructed of noncontaminating
materials (Figure 7).
All sediment sample bags should be placed in batches of 10 sample bags (93D 1001 to
10, 12 to 20, etc.) and laid out on racks or netting to dry. At this point, checks are carried
out to ensure the sequential numbering system is correct, and damaged bags are replaced.
The tops of the bags may be left open to promote rapid drying. Under normal conditions,
two or three days are usually sufficient for drying conventional sediment samples. Moss
mats require more time. The sediment samples must be completely dry before further
processing can take place.
SEDIMENT SAMPLE SIEVING
When completely dry, stream sediment samples should be dis-aggregated by mortar
and pestle, and then sieved to completion through an -18 mesh nylon screen (< 1 mm).
This reduces the size of the sample by removing all pebbles and organic material
thereby allowing greater ease in packing and proper evaluation of the fines content. Quality
checks should be made by routinely sieving 1 in every block of 20 samples using an -80
mesh sieve. If necessary stream should be resampled if the sample is found to be deficient
in fines (<40 grams). Sieves, mortar and pestleshould be thoroughly cleaned between each
sample using a vacuum cleaner or compressed air.
The sample preparation work area must be situated away from the sample dry to avoid
contamination. During preparation, care and attention must be taken to ensure samples
are not cross-contaminated. All processing equipment must be thoroughly cleaned after
every sample is processed (Figures 8 and 9).
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STREAM WATER
Stream water containers should be shipped in pails or boxes (Figure 10) . Sequential
numbering series must be complete, e.g., where the stream was dry, an empty water
container numbered and marked "DRY" will be shipped with other water samples. Bags
and bottles for the control reference standard and blind duplicate positions are added prior to
shipment according to instructions. All water containers must be securely tightened for shipment.
SAMPLE ANLISIS
The laboratory will be responsible for:
Screening the dry, < 1 mm sample to 80 (<0.177 mm) size.
Inserting analytical duplicate samples and standard reference materials into each
batch of 20 samples.
Analysing the sediment sample for trace elements and loss on ignition. Most
commonly a split of the prepared sediment is analysed for gold and 32 element by
instrumental neutron activation (INAA) and for up to 40 elements by aqua regia
digestion-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS).
Standards and blanks are added to water sample batches which are typically analysed for
pH and sulphate.
EQUIPMENT
Experience has shown that drainage sediment and water surveys proceed efficiently when
field sample collection, handling and recording supplies are well organized and of
sufficient quantity and quality. Equipment requirements are relatively few but are critical
to achieving program success. The following list outlines equipment supplied needed for
a typical RGS.
Sample Collection:
sediment sample bags
250 mL water bottles
site tags and flagging
light weight staple guns plus staples
notebooks for holding data cards
water-insoluble black felt tip
markers
transparent packaging tape
Sediment Drying/Sieving:
thermometers
-18 mesh sieves with pans
vacuum cleaner
Packaging/Shipment:
cotton string
sample shipment forms
plastic pails with lids
shipping boxes
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Data Recording:
data cards for recording field
observations
sample number lists
master 1:50,000 NTS map sheets
References
Day, S.J. and Fletcher, W.K., (1989): Effects of valley and local channel morphology on
the distribution of gold in stream sediment from Harris Creek, British Columbia,
Canada; Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 32, pages 1-16.
Fletcher, W.K. (1997): Stream sediment geochemistry in todays exploration world. In
Proceeding of exploration 97: Fourth Decennial Internation Conference on
Mineral exploration, Gubins, A.G., Editor,, pages 249-260.
Grant, B. (2003): Geoscience reporting guidelines, published Victoria, BC, Canada, 356
pages.
Garrett, R.G., Kane, V.E. and Zeigler, R.K. (1980): The management and analysis of
regional geochemical data. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 13,
Numbers 2/3, pages 115-152.
Hou, Z. and Fletcher, W.K., (1996): The relationship between false gold anomalies,
sedimentological processes and landslides in Harris Creek, British Columbia,
Canada. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 57, pages 21-30.
Jackaman, W., Cook, S. and Lett, R (2000): B.C. Regional Geochemical Surveys: 1999
Field Programs, In Geological Fieldwork, 1999, B.C. Ministry of Energy and
Mines, Paper 2000-1, pages 315-318.
Lett, R.E. and Jackaman, W., (2000): Geochemical exploration techniques for Plutonicrelated Gold
deposits in Southern B.C; ). In Geological Fieldwork, 1999, B.C.
Ministry of Energy and Mines, Paper 2000-1, pages 225-236.
Levson, A.A. (1980): Introduction to exploration geochemistry. 2nd Edition. Applied
Publishing. 924 pages.
Rose, A.W., Hawkes, H.E., and Webb, J.S. (1979): Geochemistry in mineral exploration.
2nd Edition, Acemdemic Press.
Matysek, P.F., and Day, S. J.(1987): Geochemical orientation surveys: Northern
Vancouver Island, Fieldwork and preliminary results; B.C. Ministry of Energy,
Mines and Petroleum Resources, Geological Fieldwork, 1987, Paper 1988-1,
pages 493-502.
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Geochemical Modeling
Geochemical Approaches for Mineral Exploration
R. A. Klassen
In Canadas glaciated terrane, the provenance and composition of surficial deposits relate to glacial history
and the processes associated with glacial erosion, transport, and deposition. For that reason, mineral
exploration by drift prospecting relies on glacial dispersal models that describe the directions, distances, and
provenance of surficial sediments. Two surficial geological approaches for the use and interpretation of
geochemical data are described here. The first illustrates geochemical modeling of glacial dispersal trains.
The second illustrates the use of lithophile elements to interpret mineralogy and till geochemistry. Both
approaches determine till provenance as a prelude to the interpretation of geochemical surveys.
Modeling Glacial Dispersal
Although till is commonly described as local in origin, transported a few km, regional glacial dispersal trains
extending 100s of km are widely known. The question for mineral exploration is: within regional-scale glacial
dispersal trains, how well does surficial sediment geochemistry reflect the composition of underlying
bedrock?
In western Labrador a complex ice flow history and marked contrasts between the sedimentary and volcanic
bedrock of the Labrador Trough and igneous and metamorphic bedrock of the Superior Province help to
model glacial dispersal (see geology map and ice flow map below).
Ice flow across the western Labrador Trough margin was varied and complex. The number 2, yellow arrows
on the ice flow map below depict the oldest event whereas the number 4, red arrows depict the youngest
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event. In the area of study (outlined) the oldest, south westward, ice flow event is the predominant control on
drift composition.
Till lithology (isopleth lines on the geochemical dot map below) defines a prominent glacial dispersal train of
Labrador Trough detritus extending > 120 km southwestward across the Shield. The train is outlined by a
black line box and labeled "Train N". With increasing distance of glacial transport, Trough debris decreases
exponentially from > 80 wt. % to <1% in the down-ice tail of the dispersal train and is illustrated on the inset
graph attached to the ice flow map above.
Trough detritus is enriched is enriched in Zn and depleted in Cr (see dot maps below). Geochemical profiles
for glacial dispersal train N based on rolling mean averages. This indicates exponential decrease in Zn with
distance of ice flow across the Superior Province, and increase in Cr to peak values about 35 km down-ice,
followed by an exponential decrease.
The initial increase in Cr is attributed to Cr-rich bedrock of the Superior Province, adjacent to the Labrador
Trough. The decrease in Zn is attributed to deposition of Zn-rich Trough detritus over Zn-poor Shield terrane.
Geochemical differences between the clay-sized (<0.002mm) and silt and clay-sized (<0.063mm) fractions
reflect mineral partioning (Shilts, 1993, 1995).
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Geochemical indicators (Fe, Mn) can be used to subdivide till into Trough-derived and Shield-derived
components (Klassen, 1999). Through source apportionment, the geochemical properties of bedrock can be
estimated along the path of ice flow. Source apportionment models (see below) indicate geochemical
"masking" of underlying bedrock by transported sediment depends on the element chosen: it is greatest
within 20 km of the Trough.
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References
Klassen, R.A., 1997. Glacial history and ice flow dynamics applied to drift prospecting and geochemical
exploration. In: A.G. Gubins (Editor),Geophysics and Geochemistry at the Millenium. Proceedings of
Exploration 97: Fourth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration. GeoF/X, Toronto, pp. 221232.
Klassen, R.A., 1999. The application of glacial dispersal models to till geochemistry in Labrador, Canada.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 67: 245-269.
Klassen, R.A., 1999. A Quaternary geological perspective for geochemical exploration in glaciated terrain,
19th International Geochemical Exploration Symposium. Drift Exploration in Glaciated Terrain. The
Association of Exploration Geochemists, Vancouver, British Columbia, pp. 1-27.
Shilts, W.W., 1993. Geological Survey of Canada's contributions to understanding the composition of glacial
sediments. In: J.O. Wheeler (Editor), Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 150th anniversary of the
Geological Survey of Canada; contributions by the GSC to Canadian geoscience, pp. 333-353.
Shilts, W.W., 1995. Geochemical partitioning in till. In: P.T. Bobrowsky, S.J. Sibbick, J.M. Newell and P.F.
Matysek (Editors), Drift Exploration. Paper 1995-2. B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,
pp.149-166.
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los valores que se encuentran sobre dos o tres veces el valor de la desviacin estndar (x > 3s). Un
concepto relacionado es de umbral (threshold), que corresponde al lmite superior de las
fluctuaciones de la media, en otras palabras, el lmite inferior de los valores anmalos. Es
importante tener en cuenta que durante el tratamiento estadstico de los datos geoqumicas puede
aparecer ms de una poblacin, dando lugar a una poblacin bimodal. En esos casos la segunda
poblacin puede ser considerada anmala en su globalidad y el umbral ser fijado en el lmite entre
ambas poblaciones. En este caso lo ms probable es que la segunda poblacin se encuentre
relacionada con la anomala geoqumica (fuente de emisin) que se busca.
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de la
distribucin de los elementos en las diferentes fracciones granulomtricas de los suelos. Aunque
generalmente la fraccin ms fina contiene ms minerales de arcilla, materia orgnica, xidos
hidratados de Fe y Mn, y por lo tanto es la ms rica en metales, conviene estudiar tambin cual es la
que mejor concentra el elemento investigado. Generalmente se emplea la fraccin menor a 80
mallas, lo que no significa que sea necesariamente la mejor en cada caso. El muestreo y anlisis de
suelos residuales es el mtodo ms empleado en prospeccin geoqumica. Este mtodo de
prospeccin es especialmente til en las regiones con suelos profundos.
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El diseo de la red de toma de muestras tiene que tomar en cuenta las caractersticas del
problema que queremos tratar (tipo de anomalas buscadas, probable extensin de estas) y el
presupuesto con que se cuenta, lo que condicionar el nmero de muestras que vamos a tomar. El
mtodo clsico de muestreo es a lo largo de perfiles, y las caractersticas de stos dependern entre
otras consideraciones de la escala a que estamos trabajando (Tabla 2).
Escala
Trazado de perfiles (escala de detalle) para la toma de muestras en funcin de los focos de
contaminacin
y la topografa (izquierda). A la derecha se muestra el mapa final que muestra las anomalas
del elemento qumico investigado.
Una vez establecida la direccin que deben seguir los perfiles, hay que determinar el
espaciado entre stos y entre muestras sucesivas a lo largo de cada perfil. Una vez establecidos estos
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parmetros, se pasa al trabajo de campo, cuyo primer paso es la localizacin de los puntos de
muestreo previstos en la malla diseada. Estos puntos se localizan adecuadamente mediante
taquimetra (o brjula) y cinta mtrica, sealizndose mediante estacas de madera o metal, y se
procede a la toma de muestras, mediante mtodos artesanales (azada, pico, pala) o mediante
herramientas diseadas al efecto.
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El contraste entre los valores anmalos y el valor de fondo depende de varios factores, entre
ellos: 1) del contraste original en los materiales desde donde provienen los sedimentos; de la
fraccin de sedimento analizada; y 3) del mtodo de anlisis. A su vez, la persistencia del contenido
metlico de los sedimentos al alejarnos de la fuente de emisin depende de: 1) del aporte de metal a
lo largo del ro desde otras posibles fuentes; y 2) de la mezcla con sedimentos de bajo contenido
metlico. Estas dos a su vez se relacionan con perodos estacionales y fisiogrficos; en pocas de
lluvias hay mayor capacidad de transporte y mayor aporte desde las zonas ms fcilmente
erosionables.
Al contrario de las aguas de un ro, cuyo contenido en elementos es ms bien homogneo
(sujeto eso s a cambios en el caudal), los sedimentos presentan heterogeneidades que dependen de:
1) la distribucin de los puntos de entrada del metal en el cauce; 2) los fenmenos de especiacin
del metal; y 3) la variacin en el tipo de sedimento a lo largo del ro. Las muestras de sedimentos
tienden a ser ms homogneas cuando el metal se encuentra adsorbido a la fraccin fina, y las
variaciones sedimentolgicas se deben a cambios locales de velocidad y caudal de los ros.
Las caractersticas que debe tener el muestreo de sedimentos fluviales en funcin de la
escala de trabajo se muestra en la tabla 3.
Escala
1: 200.000
1: 100.000
1: 50.000
1: 25.000
Nmero de puntos
muestreo por km2
1.7-2.1
4.0-5.0
8.5-14.0
18.0-32.0
de
muy intensas, lo cual posibilita, en ocasiones, fuertes tasas de remocin del regolito, y por lo tanto,
una fuerte movilizacin de los elementos qumicos ligados a ste.
4.1.3.- Aguas
Se denomina anomalas hidrogeoqumicas a los patrones anmalos presentes en las aguas
superficiales y subterrneas. La importancia de la migracin de los elementos qumicos y complejos
en el agua est controlada por movilidad geoqumica (Tabla 4).
Movilidad relativa
Muy mvil
Mvil
Ligeramente mvil
Inmvil
Condiciones de Eh-Ph
Oxidante,
Reductor, ausencia
Reductor,
pH> 4
de H2S
Con H2S
S, Cl, Br, I, B
Cl, Br, I, B, Rn
Cl, Br, I, B, Rn
Ca, Na, Mg, F, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, F, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, F, Sr
Zn, U, Mo, V, Se, Mn2+, Fe2+, Zn, Cu,
Te, Re
Ni, Pb, Cd
Si, K, Mn, P, Ba, Co, Hg, Ag, Si, K, P, Si, K, P, Ba, Li, Rb,
Li, Rb, Cs, Pb, Ni, Ba, Li, Rb, Cs, As, Cs, Tl, Ra
Cu, Co, As, Cd, Tl, Ra, Hg, Ag
Tl, Hg
Fe, Al, Ga, Cr, Ti, Zr, Hf, Y, REE, Nb, S, V, Mo, Se, Te, U,
Ta, Be, Th, Sn, PGE, Au
Re, Mn, Cu, Ni, Pb,
Cd, Fe, Co, Hg, Ag
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4.2.- Biogeoqumica
El uso de la vegetacin como mtodo de prospeccin de prospeccin involucra la respuesta
de las plantas a su medio, en particular al substrato qumico que las soporta. Esta metodologa se
basa en el anlisis qumico de las plantas (Tabla 1) como medio para obtener evidencias acerca de
las posibles anomalas geoqumicas que se oculten en profundidad. La biogeoqumica se adapta
muy bien a aquellas regiones que presentan una vegetacin muy densa y donde la cartografa
geolgica es difcil de ser llevada a cabo (ausencia de afloramientos). Aunque esta tcnica ha
probado ser de indudable ayuda, tambin presenta sus limitaciones, ejemplificadas en el
denominado efecto barrera: con algunas pocas excepciones, las plantas pueden acumular un
determinado elemento hasta cierto nivel solamente. De hecho, en el caso del mercurio, las races
pueden actuar a modo de barrera impidiendo que el elemento ascienda hacia los rganos superiores
de la planta. En este sentido la plantas pueden ser clasificadas en cuatro categoras: 1) sin efecto de
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barrera, las que concentran linealmente elemento qumico investigado; 2) semi-barrera, que
concentran entre 30 y 300 veces el valor de fondo del elemento en la planta; 3) con barrera,
contenidos de hasta 3-30 veces el valor de fondo; y 4) con barreara de fondo, que no superan las
concentraciones normales del elemento en una determinada planta. En otra esquema de
clasificacin, se habla de plantas hiperacumuladoras cuando determinadas especies toleran 10-100
veces ms los valores normales de un determinado elemento (Tabla 5).
Elemento
Especie
Contenido
Contenido
Localidad
normal (ppm)
mximo (ppm)
Cu
Becium homblei
183
2.500 Zambia
Mn
Fucus vesiculosus
4.815
90.000 Rusia
Ni
Alyssum Bertolonii
65
100.000 Italia
Zn
Thlaspi calaminare
1.400
10.000 Alemania
Zn
Thlaspi caerulescens
43.710 Europa central
Cd
Thlaspi caerulescens
2.130 Europa central
Pb
Thlaspi caerulescens
2.740 Europa central
Tabla 5: Algunas plantas hiperacumuladoras y sus contenidos en metales pesados.
Existen informes de 1885 que ya mostraban que Thlaspi calaminare acumulaba Zn en
grandes concentraciones, en cuanto a Ni el informe ms antiguo que hace mencin a esta capacidad
de las plantas data de 1948, y trat sobre el caso de Alyssum bertolonii, que poda contener hasta
ms de 1 % (> 10.000 ppm) de Ni en su peso en seco.
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superficiales del suelo son denominadas xerfitas. Las primeras son de especial inters ya que
permiten detectar contenidos metlicos a profundidades notables, de 10 a 15 m e incluso ms.
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4.3.- Bibliografa
Chaney, R., Brown, S., Li, Y.M., Angle, J.S., Homer, F., y Green, C. 1995. Potential use of metal
hyperaccumulators. Mining Environmental Management, 3: 9-11.
Gammon, J.B. 1988. Gold !!! and other metals: how they are found and mined. IMM, London, 83
pp.
Levinson, A.A. 1980. Introduction to exploration geochemistry. Applied Publ. Ltd. Ill., 924 pp.
Oyarzun, R. 1991. Prospeccin geoqumica: I) Conceptos bsicos. En: Yacimientos Minerales,
Lunar, R. & Oyarzun, R. (eds.) 1991. Editorial Centro de Estudios Ramn Areces, Madrid,
811-818.
Oyarzun, J., y Oyarzun, R. 1991. Prospeccin geoqumica: III) Geoqumica de suelos, sedimentos
fluviales, aguas, biogeoqumica y geobotnica. En: Yacimientos Minerales, Lunar, R. &
Oyarzun, R. (eds.) 1991. Editorial Centro de Estudios Ramn Areces, Madrid, 837-856.
Reeves, R.D., Baker, A.J.M., y Brooks, R.R. 1995. Abnormal accumulations of trace metals by
plants. Mining Environmental Management, 3: 4-8.
Siegel, F.R. 1974. Applied geochemistry, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 353 pp.
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