Tts

INGENIARE INGENIARE
VOL U ME N 1 6 - N 1 E NE R O - MA R Z O 2 0 0 8
UNIVERSIDAD DE TARAPAC
ARICA-CHILE
Revista Chilena de Ingeniera Revista Chilena de Ingeniera
ISSN 0718-3291 Versin impresa
ISSN 0718-3305 Versin en lnea
INGENIARE
Revista Chilena de Ingeniera
Volume 16, N 1
January - March 2008
I N D E X
ISSN 0718-3291 Printed version
ISSN 0718-3305 On line version
N D I C E
EDITORIAL
LA INGENIERA ELECTROMAGNTICA MODERNA
Carlos Villarroel Gonzlez 2
ARTCULOS
ELECTRODINMICA QUIRAL: ESLABN PARA LA UNIFICACIN DEL ELECTROMAGNETISMO Y LA GRAVITACIN
H. Torres-Silva 6
NUEVA INTERPRETACIN DEL ESPECTRO ATMICO DEL TOMO DE HIDRGENO: UN MECANISMO MIXTO
DE CIRCUITOS LC Y LA DUALIDAD ONDA CUNTICA-PARTCULA
H. Torres-Silva 24
TEORA DE MAXWELL CON CORRIENTES QUIRALES
H. Torres-Silva 31
IDEAS DE CAMPO QUIRAL PARA UNA TEORA DE LA MATERIA
H. Torres-Silva 36
LA ESTRECHA RELACIN ENTRE EL SISTEMA DE MAXWELL Y LA ECUACIN DE DIRAC, CUANDO EL CAMPO
ELCTRICO ES PARALELO AL CAMPO MAGNTICO
H. Torres-Silva 43
MATRICES DE DIRAC EN REPRESENTACIN QUIRAL Y LA CONEXIN CON EL CAMPO ELCTRICO PARALELO
AL CAMPO MAGNTICO
H. Torres-Silva 48
ECUACIONES DE MAXWELL PARA UNA FUNCIONAL DE LAGRANGE GENERALIZADA
H. Torres-Silva 53
CALIBRE QUIRAL PARA AUMENTAR EL COEFICIENTE DE RENDIMIENTO DE MOTORES MAGNTICOS
H. Torres-Silva 60
ELECTRODINMICA DE PODOLSKY BAJO UN ENFOQUE QUIRAL
H. Torres-Silva 65
ESPN Y RELATIVIDAD: UN MODELO SEMICLSICO PARA EL ESPN DEL ELECTRN
H. Torres-Silva 72
TEORA EXTENDIDA DE ONDAS DE EINSTEIN EN LA PRESENCIA DE TENSIONES EN EL ESPACIO-TIEMPO
H. Torres-Silva 78
ECUACIONES DE EINSTEIN PARA CAMPOS TETRADOS
H. Torres-Silva 85
UNA MTRICA PARA UN CAMPO POTENCIAL QUIRAL
H. Torres-Silva 91
UNIVERSOS QUIRALES Y EFECTOS CUNTICOS PRODUCIDOS POR CAMPOS ELECTROMAGNTICOS
H. Torres-Silva 99
UNA NUEVA TEORA RELATIVSTICA DE CAMPO PARA EL ELECTRN
H. Torres-Silva 111
ONDAS QUIRALES EN UN MEDIO METAMATERIAL
H. Torres-Silva 119
EDITORIAL
MODERN ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING
Carlos Villarroel Gonzlez 4
ARTICLES
CHIRAL ELECTRODYNAMIC: CONNECTION FOR THE UNIFICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETISM AND GRAVITATION
H. Torres-Silva 6
NEW INTERPRETATION OF THE ATOMIC SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM: A MIXED MECHANISM
OF CLASSICAL LC CIRCUITS AND QUANTUM WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
H. Torres-Silva 24
MAXWELLS THEORY WITH CHIRAL CURRENTS
H. Torres-Silva 31
CHIRAL FIELD IDEAS FOR A THEORY OF MATTER
H. Torres-Silva 36
THE CLOSE RELATION BETWEEN THE MAXWELL SYSTEM AND THE DIRAC EQUATION WHEN
THE ELECTRIC FIELD IS PARALLEL TO THE MAGNETIC FIELD
H. Torres-Silva 43
DIRAC MATRICES IN CHIRAL REPRESENTATION AND THE CONNECTION WITH THE ELECTRIC FIELD
PARALLEL TO THE MAGNETIC FIELD
H. Torres-Silva 48
MAXWELL EQUATIONS FOR A GENERALISED LAGRANGIAN FUNCTIONAL
H. Torres-Silva 53
ASYMMETRICAL CHIRAL GAUGING TO INCREASE THE COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETIC MOTORS
H. Torres-Silva 60
PODOLSKY'S ELECTRODYNAMICS UNDER A CHIRAL APPROACH
H. Torres-Silva 65
SPIN AND RELATIVITY: A SEMICLASSICAL MODEL FOR ELECTRON SPIN
H. Torres-Silva 72
EXTENDED EINSTEIN`S THEORY OF WAVES IN THE PRESENCE OF SPACE-TIME TENSIONS
H. Torres-Silva 78
EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR TETRAD FIELDS
H. Torres-Silva 85
A METRIC FOR A CHIRAL POTENTIAL FIELD
H. Torres-Silva 91
CHIRAL UNIVERSES AND QUANTUM EFFECTS PRODUCED BY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
H. Torres-Silva 99
A NEW RELATIVISTIC FIELD THEORY OF THE ELECTRON
H. Torres-Silva 111
CHIRAL WAVES IN A METAMATERIAL MEDIUM
H. Torres-Silva 119
portada impresion.indd 6 24/3/08 11:14:21
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Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera
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TAPA 2 3 16-1.indd 3 24/3/08 11:10:54
INGENIARE. REVISTA CHILENA DE INGENIERA
1
VOLUMEN 16 N 1, ENERO MARZO 2008
VOLUME 16 N 1, JANUARY MARCH 2008
2
EDITOR
Carlos Villarroel Gonzlez
COEDITOR
Adelheid Mahla lvarez
Universidad de Santiago de Chile
PRODUCCIN EDITORIAL
EDITORIAL PRODUCTION
Carolina Cautn Barra
COMIT EDITOR ASESOR
ADVISORY EDITOR COMMITTEE
Enrique Fuentes Heinrich (President)
Ral Borjas Montero
Jaime Gmez Douzet
Ingrid Guilln Figueroa
Ernesto Ponce Lpez
Hctor Valds Gonzlez
COMIT EDITOR
EDITOR COMMITTEE
Yurilev Chalco Cano
Universidad de Tarapac, Chile
Luis Cifuentes Seves
Universidad de Chile, Chile
Gerardo Espinosa Prez
Universidad Autnoma de Mxico, Mxico
Sylviane Gentil
Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble, France
Hugo Hernndez Figueroa
Universidade de Campinas, Brasil
Cynthia Junqueira
General-Command of Aerospace Technology,
Institute of Aeronautics and Space, Brazil
Andre Koch Torres Assis
Mario Letelier Sotomayor
Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Chile
Orestes Llanes Santiago
Instituto Superior Politcnico Jos Antonio Echeverra, Cuba
Sebastin Lorca Pizarro
Linda Madsen
European Journal of Engineering Education, Denmark
Adelheid Mahla lvarez
Joo Marcos Romano
Antonio Martins Soares
Universidade de Brasilia, Brasil
Nelson Moraga Benavides
Eva Mara Navarro
Instituto Mexicano del Petrleo, Mxico
Liliana Pedraja Rejas
Manuel Recuero Lpez
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Espaa
Miguel Ros Ojeda
Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile, Chile
Marko Rojas Medar
Heriberto Romn Flores
Fideromo Saavedra Guzmn
Osvaldo Saavedra Mendez
Universidade Federal do Maranho, Brasil
Mario Salgado Brocal
Universidad Tcnica Federico Santa Mara, Chile
Salah S. A. Obayya
Brunel University, United Kingdom
Hctor Torres Silva
Miguel Villablanca Martnez
Andrs Weintraub Pohorille
Universidad de Chile, Chile
Juan Zolezzi Cid
Ernesto Zumelzu D.
Universidad Austral de Chile, Chile
1
Indizada en Risk Abstract, Safety Science & Risk Abstract, Environmental Sciences & Pollution Management Abstract, Applied Science &
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Cientcas de Amrica Latina, el Caribe, Espaa y Portugal (http://www.latindex.unam.mx); Revistas especializadas Al Da - Universidad de Chile
(http://www.al-dia.cl); ProQuest Information and Learning ProQuest (www.proquest.com); EBSCO Information Services (http://www.ebsco.com)
2
Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera, vol. 15 N 3, 2007 Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera, vol. 16 N 1, 2008, pp. 2-3
EDITORIAL
LA INGENIERA ELECTROMAGNTICA MODERNA
La ingeniera electromagntica es una rama de la fsica aplicada, con tal velocidad de desarrollo que en un futuro
inmediato los ingenieros electromagnticos sern indispensables en una nueva e importante rea emergente: la ahora
denominada Estructura de Onda de la Materia (Wave Structure of Matter, WSM).
La razn principal es la capacidad de penetracin de la tecnologa electromagntica, donde ingenieros
especializados sern necesarios para el diseo de sistemas relacionados con la tecnologa WSM. Por ejemplo, en muy
altas frecuencias, en sistemas tales como, redes inalmbricas de comunicaciones, chips de computadores, redes pticas,
antenas, y en frecuencias muy bajas, en extraccin de energa, en dispositivos de almacenamiento de energa y en
sistemas relacionados con un Enfoque Mtrico de la Ingeniera (Metric Engineering Approach, MEA), en propulsin
con campos electromagnticos.
La dificultad y la complejidad de las leyes que gobiernan el diseo de sistemas relacionados con la ingeniera
electromagntica indican que la teora y el anlisis del electromagnetismo es una ciencia en continua evolucin y es un
rea activa de investigacin que ha atrado el inters de matemticos, cientficos de la computacin y de los ingenieros.
Sin embargo, un buen entendimiento del anlisis electromagntico moderno requiere de un profundo conocimiento de la
fsica, habilidad para el anlisis matemtico y del conocimiento de los algoritmos numricos utilizados en computacin.
Aunque algunas universidades enfatizan en el anlisis computacional del electromagnetismo, tenemos que ser conscientes
de que un estudiante de ingeniera electromagntica debe entender los conceptos de fsica involucrados y desarrollar
intuicin y entendimiento de los problemas a resolver. Estas habilidades son importantes tanto para el anlisis como
para el diseo. Por lo tanto, es importante formar a los estudiantes de postgrado en los mtodos modernos del anlisis
electromagntico, y en las nuevas teoras tales como: metamateriales, electrodinmica quiral y electrogravedad. Por
ejemplo, el anlisis electromagntico quiral debe incluir, entre otros, los conceptos de ondas polarizadas circularmente,
ondas superficiales, ondas que se arrastran (creeping waves), ondas laterales, modos guiados, modos evanescentes,
modos radiantes y los modos filtrados (leaky modes). Todo esto en la fsica de altas frecuencias donde la dualidad
onda/partcula emerge como un nuevo enfoque fsico de las interacciones electromagnticas de la WSM.
Recientemente se han producido avances en la WSM, por ejemplo, en microcircuitos industriales y en
electrodinmica, donde existen corrientes de lazos cerrados de ondas de electrones, siendo el electrn no una partcula
puntual sino una estructura de onda. Aqu la mayora de las aplicaciones, como ser nanotubos quirales y sustratos de
metamateriales para uso en microcircuitos, requiere de la comprensin del comportamiento de la materia en dimensiones
muy pequeas, donde la aproximacin de la partcula falla y la WSM se hace necesaria para entender qu ocurre
cuando interactan diferentes sustratos, a nivel qumico, elctrico o biolgico. A nivel de microestructuras, empresas
como Intel estn empezando a utilizar biologa y gentica en las tcnicas de fabricacin de dispositivos orgnicos,
usando partes biolgicas para sintetizar filamentos quirales de DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), donde las ondas que se
propagan son equivalentes a las WSM. Por otra parte a nivel macroscpico, para entender adecuadamente la naturaleza
de la interaccin entre un campo electromagntico de muy alta frecuencia con la materia, debemos considerar la
electrodinmica quiral relacionada con la relatividad. Un ejemplo relevante es el diseo de nuevos sistemas GPS
(Global Positioning System) con distinta polarizacin circular, que son ms exactos, con la finalidad de mejorar los
sistemas actuales.
Un estudiante de electromagnetismo debe estar consciente de la metamorfosis, que ocurre en la fsica, cuando
trabajamos en distintas longitudes de onda o en distintas frecuencias. Cuando la longitud de onda es muy larga, nos
encontramos en el dominio de la electro esttica y de la magneto esttica; aqu se aplica la teora de circuitos, un ejemplo
es el rea de los dispositivos de almacenamiento de energa, desde bateras comunes a sofisticados dispositivos hbridos
3
Villarroel: La ingeniera electromagntica moderna
utilizados para almacenamiento de energa. Concretamente, en los automviles modernos, dichos elementos estn
hechos de mezclas qumicas cuyas energas vinculantes son diferentes. Si se conoce la forma en que los elementos de
la mezcla se unen, se podran disear bateras para fines especficos, con clculos basados en la WSM. En el futuro,
la WSM requerir de nuevas tcnicas de aplicacin, clculo y diseo de la ingeniera electromagntica. Por otro lado,
la mayora de las aleaciones ms valiosas que se utilizan ampliamente en las aplicaciones industriales, como ser el
acero, el bronce y el duraluminio, son mezclas simples de elementos bsicos, esto es posible gracias a que las uniones
de las aleaciones son del tipo Estructuras de Onda.
En relacin con todo esto tenemos la MEA, enfoque que ser muy importante en las prximas dcadas. Esta
metodologa, para tratar los cambios mtricos, ha surgido a travs de aos de estudio de las teoras electro gravitacionales.
Este enfoque es isomrfico con la representacin general de la relatividad del vaco, tratando el vaco como un medio
polarizable con cambios mtricos internos, en trminos de la permisividad y la permeabilidad consideradas constantes
en el vaco. Este enfoque es bsico para obtener energa a partir del vaco (motores magnticos). Aqu, las ecuaciones
de Maxwell en el espacio curvo se modelan como un medio polarizable de ndice de refraccin variable en el espacio
plano, donde la curvatura de un rayo de luz y la reduccin de la velocidad de la luz en un potencial gravitacional se
representan por un aumento efectivo del ndice de refraccin. Con este mtodo es posible estudiar los Sistemas de
Propulsin de Campos Electromagnticos, donde la propagacin de fotones posee momentum producido por los campos
magnticos y elctricos ortogonales entre s (vector de Poynting).
Estos desafos tecnolgicos nos hacen ver que es importante atraer para este campo a personas ms calificadas
y creativas, reclutando los mejores estudiantes y estimulando su creatividad. En esta perspectiva de la enseanza de la
ingeniera electromagntica, la gente joven siempre puede generar buenas ideas, forjar nuevas fronteras, crear nuevas
reas de trabajo y cultivar el pensamiento independiente, estimulados por el profesor en el desafo de pensar.
Puesto que el anlisis electromagntico ha sido usado como una importante herramienta de prediccin en muchas
ramas de la ingeniera elctrica, seguir siendo an ms importante en las nuevas tecnologas. La larga y rica historia
del electromagnetismo nos ofrece un desafo sobre cmo debemos educar a nuestros estudiantes de postgrado en esta
rea. El total del conocimiento requerido no se puede entregar dentro del corto perodo de su enseanza universitaria.
Por lo tanto, es fundamental educarlos en los conocimientos bsicos, ya que aprender todo lo pertinente a la tecnologa
electromagntica requiere de toda una vida de aprendizaje. Asimismo, es importante educar a dichos estudiantes como
pensadores, en vez de adquirir los conocimientos en forma mecnica, siendo esta forma de ensear un importante
aporte para nuestra sociedad.
Es as como, en este nmero, presentamos el aporte del doctor Hctor Torres-Silva en esta rea del
electromagnetismo moderno, mediante la electrodinmica vinculada a la mecnica cuntica y a la gravitacin. Este
trabajo incluye aspectos fundamentales de la WSM, al unificar al electromagnetismo y a la gravitacin a travs de
la electrodinmica quiral, mostrando en este estudio, en forma rigurosa, que la mecnica cuntica de Dirac es una
consecuencia lgica de dicha unificacin.
Editor
Arica, Chile
4
Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera, vol. 15 N 3, 2007 Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera, vol. 16 N 1, 2008, pp. 4-5
EDITORIAL
MODERN ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINEERING
Electromagnetic engineering is a branch of applied physics which is developing so fast that in the near future
electromagnetic engineers will be indispensable in an important emerging area, that which is now known as Wave
Structure Matter (WSM).
The main reason for this is the penetration capacity of electromagnetic technology where specialized engineers
will be needed for the design of systems related to WSM technology. Examples of such systems with very high frequencies
are wireless communication networks, computer chips, optical networks, antennae and at low frequencies, energy
storage devices and systems related to a Metric Engineering Approach (MEA) with electromagnetic fields.
The difficulty and complexity of the laws that govern the design of systems related with electromagnetic
engineering indicate that the theory and analysis of electromagnetism is a continually-evolving science and an area of
active research that has attracted the interest of mathematicians, computer scientists and engineers. However, a good
understanding of modern electromagnetic analysis requires a deep knowledge of physics, a capacity for mathematical
analysis and knowledge of the numerical algorithms used in computing. Even though some universities emphasize the
computational analysis of electromagnetism, we must be aware that a student of electromagnetic engineering should
understand the concepts of physics involved and develop intuition and understanding of the problems to be solved.
These abilities are as important in design as they are in analysis. Therefore, it is important to train postgraduate students
in modern methods of electromagnetic analysis and new theories such as: metamaterials, electrodynamism chiral
electrogravity. For example, chiral electromagnetic analysis ought to include, amongst other things, the concepts of
circular-polarized waves, superficial waves, creeping waves, lateral waves, guided modes, evanescent modes, radiant
modes and leaky modes. All of this in high-frequency physics where the wave-particle duality is emerging as a new
physical focus of the electromagnetic interactions of WSM.
Recently, advances have been made in WSM, for example in industrial micro-circuits and electrodynamics
where there are currents in closed loop of real electron waves, since the electron is not a point particle but rather a
wave structure. Here the majority of applications, such as chiral nanotubes and metamaterial substrates for use in
microcircuits, require the understanding of material in very small dimensions where an approximation of the particle
fails and WSM makes it necessary to understand what happens when different substrates interact at the chemical,
biological and physical level. A the microstructural level, companies such as Intel are beginning to use biology and
genetics in the production techniques for organic devices, using living elements to synthesize chiral filaments of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) where the propagating waves are equivalent to WSM. Moreover, at the microscopic level, in
order to adequately understand the nature of the interaction between a very high frequency electromagnetic field and
the material, we should consider the chiral electrodynamic related to the relativity. A pertinent example is that of the
design of new GPS (Global Positioning Systems) with distinct circular polarization that are more accurate with the
aim of improving the current systems.
A student of electromagnetism should be aware of the metamorphosis that occurs in physics when we work
in different wavelengths or frequencies. When wavelength is very long, we find ourselves in the electrostatic and
magnostatic domain, where circuit theory applies. An example from this area is that of energy storage devices that
range from ordinary batteries to sophisticated hybrid devices used for storing energy. To give a concrete example, in
modern automobiles, these elements are made from chemicals with different bond energies. If we know the way in
which the elements of the mixture bond, batteries can be designed for specific purposes with calculations based on
WSM. In the future, WSM will require new techniques for application, calculation and design from electromagnetic
engineering. Furthermore, the majority of the most costly alloys that are widely used in industrial applications, such
5
Villarroel: La ingeniera electromagntica moderna
as steel, bronze and hard aluminium are simple mixtures of basic elements. They serve their purposes thanks to the
bonds between the alloys that have wave structure.
Connected to all of this is MEA, an area that will be extremely significant during the next few decades. This
methodology for treating metric changes has arisen through years of study of electrogravitational theories. This focus
is isomorphic with the general representation of vacuums, treating them as polarizable media with internal metric
changes in terms of the permittivity and permeability considered to be constant in the vacuum. This focus is the basis
for obtaining energy from vacuum (magnetic motors). Here, Maxwells equations in curved space are modelled as a
polarizable medium of the variable refraction index in flat space where the curvature of a ray of light and the reduction
in the speed of life in a gravitational potential are represented by an increase in the refractive index. With this method
it is possible to study Electromagnetic Field Propulsion Systems, where the propagation of photons has a momentum
produced by the crossed electric and magnetic fields (Poyntings vector).
These technical challenges enable us to see that for this field it is important to attract qualified and creative
people, to recruit the best students and stimulate their creativity. From the perspective of electromagnetic engineering
teaching, young people can generate good ideas, stretch boundaries, create new areas for study and cultivate independent
thought, stimulated by teachers that challenge them to think.
Given that electromagnetic analysis has been used as an important tool in prediction in many areas of electric
engineering, it will continue to be one of the most important tools in new technologies. The long and rich history
of electromagnetism makes the question of how to train our postgraduate students in this area challenging. All the
knowledge required cannot be conveyed during the short period of university education. Thus, it is fundamental to
provide the most essential knowledge; learning about everything related to electromagnetic technology would take a
whole life-time of learning. Moreover, it is important to train these students to be thinkers, rather than mechanically
acquiring knowledge, and thus contribute significantly to our society.
It is for these reasons, that in this issue, we present Dr. Hctor Silva-Torress contribution to the area of modern
electromagnetism through electrodynamics linked to quantum mechanics and gravity. This work includes fundamental
aspects of WSM, to unify the electromagnetism and gravity through electrodynamics chiral showing rigorously in this
study, that the Diracs quantum mechanics is a logical consequence of this unification.
Editor
Arica, Chile
Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera, vol. 16 N 1, 2008
6
Ingeniare. Revista chilena de ingeniera, vol. 16 N 1, 2008, pp. 6-23
ELECTRODINMICA QUIRAL: ESLABN PARA LA UNIFICACIN
DEL ELECTROMAGNETISMO Y LA GRAVITACIN
CHIRAL ELECTRODYNAMIC: CONNECTION FOR THE UNIFICATION
OF ELECTROMAGNETISM AND GRAVITATION
H. Torres-Silva
1
Recibido el 5 de septiembre de 2007, aceptado el 12 de diciembre de 2007
Received: September 5, 2007 Accepted: December 12, 2007
RESUMEN
Una alternativa a la teora cuntica de la gravedad, an no descubierta, es la Teora Total Simplifcada (TTS) aqu propuesta,
que postula unifcar la gravedad con el electromagnetismo (EM) teniendo como corolario fundamental la ecuacin cuntica
de Dirac.
Con ello, aqu se propone todo un programa de unifcacin en el cual el electromagnetismo quiral juega el rol central. La
TTS se deriva de las ecuaciones originales de Einstein-Hilbert G
v
= kT
v
, donde el tensor de Einstein no se modifca.
El tensor EM en cambio es quiral y la masa de las partculas es de naturaleza electromagntica. Para el caso del electrn
se tiene como consecuencia que, por primera vez, se obtiene la ecuacin de Dirac a partir de ondas EM con el campo
elctrico paralelo espacialmente al campo magntico. Como modelo del universo se propone una interfaz o membrana
de separacin donde ocurren solamente eventos cunticos. Hay dos regiones enantiomricas de un universo cerrado, o un
universo derecho y un universo izquierdo, relacionados por un elemento de simetra PCT (paridad, carga, tiempo) a lo largo
de la interfaz. Las ecuaciones de Einstein-Hilbert son estudiadas bajo el enfoque quiral y se discute la electrodinmica
quiral y la gravedad en la era de Planck.
Palabras clave: Unifcacin, electrodinmica quiral, era de Planck.
ABSTRACT
An alternative to the theory of quantum gravity, not yet discovered, is the Theory Simplifed Total (TTS) proposal, which
aims to unify gravity with the EM taking as a corollary essential quantum Dirac equation.
Thus, this article proposes a whole program of unifcation in which electromagnetism chiral plays the main role. TTS
is derived from the original equations of Einstein-Hilbert G
v
= kT
v
, where the Einstein tensor is unchanged. The EM
tensor instead is chiral and the mass of the particles is electromagnetic nature. In the case of the electron the consequence
of this is that, for the frst time, Diracs equation is obtained from EM waves with the electric feld spatially parallel to
the magnetic feld. As a model of the universe an interface or membrane separation is proposed as the only location for
quantum events. There are two enanciometrics regions in a closed universe, or right and left universe, connected by an
element of PCT (parity, charge, time) symmetry along the interface. Einstein-Hilbert equations are studied under the
chiral approach and discusses the chiral electrodynamics and gravity in Planchs era are discussed.
Keywords: Unifcation, chiral electrodynamics, age Planck.
1
Instituto de Alta Investigacin. Universidad de Tarapac. Antofagasta N 1520. Arica, Chile. E-mail: htorres@uta.cl
INTRODUCCIN
No es difcil mostrar, sin lugar a dudas, que la fsica se
lleva el honor de ser la disciplina con los mayores adelantos
tericos y con las ms grandes aplicaciones tecnolgicas.
Hoy, a comienzos del siglo XXI, la fsica sigue el rumbo
y la impronta marcada por los grandes progresos logrados
el siglo pasado. Como un logro no alcanzado se destaca la
formulacin de una teora unifcada de todas las fuerzas de
la naturaleza. Fsicos tericos de todo el mundo, en solitario
o en equipo, han dedicado y dedican una enorme cantidad
de tiempo y esfuerzo para la consecucin de ese sueo.
H. Torres-Silva: Electrodinmica quiral: eslabn para la unifcacin del electromagnetismo y la gravitacin
7
Al mencionar este esfuerzo, en la bsqueda de la unifcacin,
siempre conviene recordar los trabajos pioneros de Albert
Einstein (1879-1955), quien se convirti en el lder de un
sueo singular de hacerlo realidad: la teora geomtrica
para la unifcacin de los campos gravitacionales y
electromagnticos (EM).
El programa de Einstein para la unifcacin no tuvo
xito por el hecho de no considerar la existencia de
campos elctricos y magnticos paralelos en el espacio
y desfasados en el tiempo pues la existencia terica y
experimental de dichas ondas se ha verifcado solo en
los ltimos aos.
A fn de proporcionar una visin global, se ha dividido
este trabajo en tres partes. En la primera, se hace una
introduccin a la electrodinmica quiral (EQ), en la
segunda se describen sintticamente las ideas acerca de
la Teora General de la Relatividad (TGR), los trabajos
de Einstein y otros autores para la unifcacin de los
campos, y en la tercera parte se propone una teora de
unifcacin basada en la electrodinmica quiral para un
universo de cuatro dimensiones que da lugar a la Teora
Total Simplifcada (TTS).
INTRODUCCIN A LA QUIRALIDAD
Con el avance en la construccin de compuestos artifciales,
los materiales quirales han asumido una gran importancia
tecnolgica en antenas, circuitos de alta frecuencia y en
fbras pticas. Tales materiales, que no tienen la simetra
tipo espejo, tambin se encuentran en la naturaleza desde
las galaxias en espiral a molculas tipo hlices como el
DNA, que son pticamente activas, las cuales muestran
birrefringencia a frecuencias pticas y de microondas.
Ya que la quiralidad es un concepto geomtrico, es
posible concebir la fabricacin de materiales quirales
artifciales y metamateriales, con aplicaciones en ingeniera
electromagntica.
El fenmeno de la actividad ptica, en ciertas substancias
biolgicas y materiales, fue descubierto por Pasteur
(1848-1850) interpretando las observaciones de arreglos
asimtricos de tomos dentro de un material pticamente
activo, por lo que se tiene una imagen espejo no superpuesta,
arreglo defnido como maniobrable o quiral.
Con los avances en la teora de campos electromagnticos
el campo de la esteroqumica se expande fuertemente
y se conocen detalles de la estructura de las molculas
y, adems, de la naturaleza de estructuras moleculares
indispensables para la vida.
Un medio quiral est caracterizado por su maniobrabilidad
en su microestructura, ya sea a la izquierda o a la derecha.
Esto resulta en un medio quiral polarizado circularmente
a la izquierda (LCP) o a la derecha (RCP) y los campos
se propagan a diferentes velocidades de fase: el campo
con esta ltima polarizacin viaja, a travs de un medio
manipulado a la derecha, ms rpido que un campo
circularmente polarizado a la izquierda, y viceversa.
La actividad ptica, la cual se encuentra en una serie
de molculas orgnicas a frecuencias pticas, es una
manifestacin de la quiralidad nativa de estas molculas.
Se observan fenmenos similares al dicrosmo circular
(CD) y a la dispersin ptica rotatoria (ORD), con absorcin
diferencial de las ondas polarizadas circularmente a la
izquierda o a la derecha al interior del medio quiral.
Estudios giroscpicos tienen tal riqueza de informacin
que se puede decir que la actividad ptica entrega una
ventana hacia el interior de la fbrica del universo. Los
tomos son ahora considerados quirales debido a la dbil
violacin de paridad de la corriente neutral de interaccin
entre el ncleo y los electrones; la pequea actividad ptica
resultante para los tomos ha hecho ms concordante la
teora con la prctica. Los avances tecnolgicos en las
dcadas de los 80-90 han hecho posible la deteccin de
asimetra quiral en dispersin Raman.
Aunque han sido estudiados muchos aspectos de mecnica
cuntica, la quiralidad ha sido poco estudiada, falta
un estudio sistemtico de la teora clsica de campos
electromagnticos considerando la quiralidad. Con los
avances en la ciencia de los polmeros (dielctricos quirales
activos a frecuencias milimtricas, por ejemplo), hacen
necesario revisar todos los aspectos relacionales de la
teora de campos electromagnticos.
Adems, a causa de que la quiralidad es un atributo
geomtrico especfco, el conocimiento recogido del estudio
de la estructura molecular debe trasladarse al diseo y
manufactura de medios quirales artifciales, los cuales deben
exhibir CD y ORD a frecuencias de telecomunicaciones.
Slo en el rango intermedio de frecuencia la quiralidad
molecular no desaparece cuando se efecta una transicin
desde escala microscpica a macroscpica en teora
electromagntica. Lo anterior signifca que es posible la
construccin de medios artifciales introduciendo objetos
quirales micromtricos en un medio husped aquiral. En
un rango de frecuencias intermedias, la microestructura
podra tener una dimensin adecuada (2-5%) respecto
de la longitud de onda del material husped (substrato);
consecuentemente, el medio compuesto podra comportarse
como efectivamente quiral. La factibilidad de esta idea
ha signifcado un intenso estudio sobre la propagacin de
ondas electromagnticas en medios quirales.
8
A modo de ejemplo, el ojo humano contiene dos tipos de
estructura activa para distinguir entre proceso fotpico
(umbral alto) y proceso escotpico (umbral bajo) que son:
el bastn y los conos, respectivamente. Varias partes en
el ojo son anisotrpicas; en particular las fbras de la
retina son algo uniaxiales. Se puede usar la anisotropa
estructural para explicar la diferencia en la sensibilidad de
los ojos a la luz polarizada circularmente a la derecha y a la
izquierda. As, cualquier tratamiento de la fsica del ojo no
slo debe incluir anisotropa debido a la microestructura,
bastones, conos, ganglios, etc., sino que debera tambin
considerar la macroestructura, es decir, la helicidad de los
componentes moleculares cuyas dimensiones pueden ser
una fraccin signifcativa de la longitud de onda ptica.
Esto ser relevante en futuros sistemas pticos.
La actividad ptica puede ser explicada por la sustitucin
directa de nuevas relaciones constitutivas en las
ecuaciones de Maxwell, es decir, D = E + TxE y
B T + . Aqu y son la permitividad
y permeabilidad respectivamente, mientras T

es el
parmetro con dimensin de longitud y es el resultado
directo de cualquier quiralidad en la manoestructura
del medio. Como tal, las ecuaciones constitutivas
quirales son aplicables a cualquier regin del espectro
electromagntico como radiacin. En ptica, hasta muy
recientemente, slo fue posible realizar mediciones de
intensidad, es decir, de la magnitud pero no de la fase.
As la literatura sobre actividad ptica est relacionada,
generalmente, slo con la diferencia en la intensidad de
la luz dispersada cuando un volumen quiral es irradiado
ya sea por una onda plana LCP o RCP. Esto signifca que
slo mediciones de (n
L
n
R
) estn disponibles, donde n
L

y n
R
son los ndices de refraccin para las ondas LCP y
RCP respectivamente. Aunque cada uno de estos ndices
de refraccin puede estar muy relacionado a , , T, el
conocimiento de (n
L
n
R
) no es sufciente para inferir
los valores de los parmetros constitutivos.
Cuando uno considera este fenmeno a un rango de
frecuencias mucho ms bajo, 0.5-100 GHz, se podra
estar ms interesado en , , T que en n
L
y n
R
. Con el
advenimiento de los analizadores vectoriales de redes
ahora ha llegado a ser posible realizar mediciones muy
exactas de magnitud y fase, pero la generacin de ondas
circularmente polarizadas requiere de tecnologa de
punta y se prevn aplicaciones en antenas de polarizacin
circular en sistemas GPS de ltima generacin y en
comunicaciones satelitales.
El uso del analizador vectorial de redes, en conjunto
con experimentos cannicos deseablemente defnidos,
puede entonces facilitar la medicin de

T. Investigaciones
recientes indican que valores de

T. para compuestos
quirales artifciales, en el rango de 8-40 GHz, estarn
luego disponibles. Nuestro trabajo especfco sobre teora
y simulaciones de la electrodinmica quiral aplicada a
solitones, fbras pticas, sistemas de microondas, sistemas
biolgicos, etc. estn relacionados en [1-18].
EL PROGRAMA DE EINSTEIN PARA
LA UNIFICACIN
La historia muestra que la idea de la unifcacin de las
fuerzas de la naturaleza no se origina con los trabajos de
Einstein; ni la propuesta de unifcacin a altas dimensiones
tampoco es original de Kaluza [19].
Con el surgimiento de la Relatividad Especial en 1905,
casi de inmediato los fsicos llegaron a reconocer la
invariancia lorentziana en la teora de Maxwell; y dada
la geometra de Minkowski se torn claro para Einstein y
D. Hilbert que la unifcacin implicaba, de algn modo, la
unifcacin del espacio tridimensional y el tiempo en un
espacio-tiempo continuo cuadridimensional. En 1915,
Hilbert present por primera vez una teora de campo
unifcado basado en los primeros trabajos de Einstein
(1914) sobre la teora relativista de la gravitacin y en
los artculos de G. Mie (1912) sobre la electrodinmica
no lineal de la materia.
En el trabajo de Hilbert se obtienen las ecuaciones de
Euler-Lagrange, derivadas de un principio variacional.
Cinco das despus de la conferencia de Hilbert sobre su
teora de unifcacin, Einstein public su TGR verifcable
y verifcada que vinculara directamente la distribucin
y movimiento de materia a la geometra del espacio-
tiempo.
En la TGR, Einstein geometriza la gravitacin en el sentido
de que toda la informacin acerca de las interacciones
gravitacionales est contenida en el elemento de lnea
del espacio-tiempo. La poderosa y bella descripcin de
la gravitacin entusiasm a los fsicos y matemticos a
intentar una geometrizacin para la unifcacin con el
electromagnetismo (EM).
La bsqueda de una teora geomtrica y unifcada de los
campos gravitacionales y electromagnticos ocup un
rol dominante en los ltimos veinte aos de la actividad
cientfca de Einstein.
Las ideas principales de Einstein para la unifcacin
clsica de las interacciones eran: geometrizar el
electromagnetismo, unifcar las variables bsicas de la
9
gravitacin y el electromagnetismo en un nico objeto
geomtrico y obtener las ecuaciones de campos unifcados
a partir de un principio variacional.
Einstein esperaba que las propiedades fundamentales de las
partculas elementales y sus respectivos comportamientos
cunticos pudieran ser de algn modo descritos y
explicados en el marco de una teora clsica puramente
geomtrica.
La teora general de la relatividad (TGR 1915) est
basada en dos objetos geomtricos fundamentales: un
tensor mtrico g y una conexin lineal . La mtrica es
necesaria para medir distancias, intervalos de tiempos,
velocidades relativas y ngulos. La conexin basada en
la nocin de transporte paralelo de Levi-Civita sirve a
su vez para comparar direcciones, fuerzas y campos en
puntos separados en el espacio-tiempo de Riemann.
Todos los intentos iniciales en unificacin estaban
basados en los objetos geomtricos antes mencionados.
La idea bsica es obtener nuevos grados de libertad en
la TGR para describir el electromagnetismo relajando o
imponiendo restricciones sobre el tensor mtrico (g) y/o
, o incrementar el nmero de dimensiones de la variedad
riemanniana.
Dos aos despus de que Einstein postulara la TGR, H.
Weyl (discpulo de Hilbert) propone un modelo geomtrico
de la gravitacin y del electromagnetismo. Weyl consider
que la geometrizacin podra ser generalizada a otras
fuerzas de la naturaleza. As, propuso una conexin
general dependiente de la trayectoria cuando se compara
la longitud de vectores en diferentes puntos del espacio-
tiempo. En otras palabras, l not que la TGR est basada
en la relatividad de la direccin y propuso extenderla a
fn de tomar en cuenta la relatividad de las magnitudes
al permitir una transformacin conforme de la mtrica.
Esta idea, que lleg a ser conocida como teora de calibre
o de gauge, no prosper porque llegaba a contradecir
la escala absoluta de masas del mundo real. A pesar del
fracaso Weyl reinterpret los calibres (gauge en el contexto
de la fsica cuntica) al indicar que podran actuar en las
funciones de onda de las partculas cargadas ms bien que
sobre g. Esta idea inspir a las teoras de calibre no abelianas
y a la interpretacin de los potenciales electromagnticos
y de Yang-Mills como conexiones en fbrados principales.
Tambin lleg a constituirse en el germen para el desarrollo
de las llamadas teoras gauge de la gravedad.
En 1919, T. Kaluza propuso una teora de la gravitacin de
cinco dimensiones. Esta idea fue trabajada por Einstein y
colaboradores en 1923. Einstein vuelve sobre esta teora
pentadimensional en un trabajo publicado en 1927; tambin
lo hace en cuatro trabajos (1931, 1932, 1938 y 1944) con
sus colaboradores, pero sin llegar a geometrizar el EM
ni a la unifcacin de los campos gravitacional y EM.
A. Eddington propuso considerar a como la cantidad
bsica de la TGR y derivar de ella tanto el tensor mtrico
como el campo electromagntico al dividir el tensor de
Ricci, R
, en sus partes simtricas y antisimtricas.

Einstein, en cinco trabajos (cuatro en 1923 y uno en
1925), desarroll esta idea al postular que la densidad
lagrangiana debera ser proporcional a la cantidad |det
R
|
1/2
. Desafortunadamente, todos estos intentos llevaron
a ecuaciones incompatibles con los experimentos y Einstein
se vio obligado a abandonar este camino. En 1925 Einstein
consider una teora basada en la conexin y una g

no simtrica e identifcaba a g
[]
(la parte antisimtrica
de g
) con el campo electromagntico; volvi sobre esta

idea en los ltimos aos de su vida trabajando en una
teora asimtrica fundamentada en la mtrica y en la
conexin. Sobre esta lnea de investigacin public 11
trabajos entre 1925 y 1955. Bajo la infuencia de Cartan,
Einstein genera una nueva lnea de investigacin en la
que se dota a la variedad del espacio-tiempo de una
nueva entidad geomtrica llamada torsin inventada por
Cartan en 1922.
Este esquema fue transformado por un nuevo y poderoso
concepto geomtrico llamado teleparalelismo, tambin
desarrollado por Cartan. Teleparalelismo signifca que la
curvatura total es cero, o una suposicin ms dbil: que el
tensor total de Ricci es cero. Estas ideas fueron trabajadas
por Einstein y publicadas en tres trabajos (uno en 1929 y dos
en 1930). En esa rea tampoco logr la ansiada unifcacin.
Las teoras de unifcacin basadas en teleparalelismo han
sido reconsideradas en aos recientes siguiendo el enfoque
de la geometra diferencial moderna [20].
En resumen, Einstein se embarc en un programa
geomtrico de unifcacin de las interacciones clsicas
gravitacionales y electromagnticas en ms de cuarenta
trabajos. A pesar del fracaso, aun as entreabri nuevas
sendas hacia la bsqueda de la unifcacin de las fuerzas
de la naturaleza, en cuya tarea se han ocupado importantes
fsicos durante el siglo XX.
Pero la mayora de estos esfuerzos estn bajo el enfoque
de la teora cuntica de campos. De hecho, las tres cuartas
partes de las fuerzas de la naturaleza conocidas son
estudiadas en el marco de la mecnica cuntica; y ya se
ha logrado la unifcacin de las fuerzas dbiles con las
electromagnticas. La unifcacin con la fuerte en este
esquema no debe tardar en concretarse. La gravitacin, por
10
su naturaleza misma, se resiste a entrar en ese esquema.
Existen por lo menos cuatro programas de cuantizacin
del campo gravitatorio [21], todos los cuales parecen
estn destinados al fracaso. El ms popular de estos
fracasados esfuerzos es el programa de las variables de
Asthekar, fsico hind que pretende cuantizar el campo
gravitatorio a la cannica, es decir, siguiendo el mismo
procedimiento que llev a la cuantizacin del campo EM.
El punto crucial es que si deseamos cuantizar el campo
gravitacional deberamos, como bien han sealado R.
Penrose y R. Wald [21], reconstruir la mecnica cuntica
sobre nuevos fundamentos.
El otro programa de unifcacin va geometra diferencial
es tambin extraordinariamente difcil. Es pertinente
mencionar que en esta rea de trabajo se distinguen dos
lneas de investigacin. Una en la que se mezclan conceptos
de calibres de la mecnica cuntica con conceptos y
herramientas de la topologa diferencial. Un ejemplo de
ello son las llamadas teoras de Kaluza-Klein, en cinco
o ms dimensiones. La otra lnea de accin proviene de
los trabajos de Wheeler, quien partiendo del enfoque
de una geometra diferencial pura ha publicado la ms
elaborada geometrizacin del electromagnetismo de toda
la literatura [20].
MODELO QUIRAL DEL UNIVERSO
Einstein en su visin del universo y en su programa de
unifcacin, aun teniendo presente el origen cuntico de
la materia, no pudo concretar la unifcacin GEM. Tal vez
el recorrido zigzagueante de Einstein en su programa de
unifcacin fue producto de las numerosas tentativas de
modifcar el lado izquierdo de su ecuacin G
v
kT
v
, dejando
el tensor de materia T
v

sin alterar. En la TTS lo que cambia
es el tensor T
v
. Conviene aqu decir algo al respecto de
la relatividad general y la mecnica cuntica.
En la actualidad, no hay duda de que la teora de la
relatividad y el modelo del Big-Bang son exitosos a la hora
de presentarnos un panorama general de cmo el universo
que hoy disfrutamos es consecuencia de la evolucin bajo
ciertas condiciones iniciales del universo que haba luego
de unas cuantas fracciones de segundo y de la aplicacin
de leyes conocidas de la fsica. Insistimos, no es que se
conozcan todas las respuestas ni todos los detalles, sino
que el modelo brinda la plataforma sobre la cual estas
preguntas y estos detalles pueden ser bien planteados y
abordados con la estrategia de las ciencias fsicas.
La relatividad de Einstein permanecer como una portentosa
contribucin de la ciencia del siglo XX y un formidable
tributo al ingenio humano. Tanto en su versin especial
como en la general cuando haya materia que curve el
espacio-tiempo, la relatividad ser una poderosa herramienta
de interpretacin de una parte de la realidad fsica.
La revolucin iniciada por la relatividad cambi de
manera contundente la forma como debemos entender
al espacio, al tiempo y a la materia. Nos brinda una
imagen ms coherente y unifcada del mundo fsico:
la manera por la que brillan las estrellas tiene que ver
con el retraso de relojes en movimiento. Entendemos
mejor por qu cierta escala el sistema newtoniano
da tan buenos resultados. Una buena parte de sus
predicciones han sido corroboradas dndole sentido
a las observaciones.
Otras, como la existencia de ondas gravitatorias, nos
permitirn mirar el universo con otra mirada, ms
profunda, que habr de revelarnos mucho acerca del
universo en que vivimos. La fexibilidad del tiempo y
el espacio permite considerar las seductoras posibilidades
de desaparicin del tiempo como en los agujeros negros,
la aparicin del tiempo en el Big Bang, la expansin del
espacio a escala cosmolgica, que en la rgida perspectiva
newtoniana eran impensables.
Sin embargo, sabemos que algo importante est faltando.
Las dos grandes revoluciones del siglo XX, la relatividad
general y la cuntica, son incompatibles ente s. Cada una
es exitosa en su mbito: la teora cuntica describiendo
el micromundo y la relatividad general, el cosmos a gran
escala. Usan estrategias diferentes, imgenes de la realidad
diferentes, metforas diferentes y mtodos matemticos
diferentes. La relatividad elude la naturaleza cuntica y la
teora cuntica elude el espacio-tiempo curvo. La primera
no acepta el principio de incertidumbre y la segunda no
acepta el principio de equivalencia. Para la relatividad
general, la constante de Planck h es igual a cero; para la
teora cuntica, la constante, gravitacional de Newton G
es igual a cero.
Obviamente ambas son aproximaciones. La construccin de
una teora cuntica de la gravitacin de la cual obtengamos
casos lmites apropiados, a la teora cuntica de campos
y a la relatividad, es la parte faltante de la revolucin de
la fsica del siglo XX, y es tarea pendiente para la fsica
del nuevo milenio. nicamente con esta teora en la mano
podremos entender qu ocurre cuando lo muy pequeo
pero muy pesado aparecen en la misma situacin fsica.
Tan slo con una teora cuntica de la gravedad podremos
hablar con propiedad de la naturaleza del Big Bang o de
la singularidad escondida en el centro de los agujeros
negros.
11
Los intentos y acercamientos a esa(s) teora(s) sugieren
que en la llamada escala de Planck en tiempo y espacio
(L
P
10
33
cm, tp 10
43
seg), caracterstica de los
fenmenos cunticos gravitacionales, la naturaleza del
espacio y el tiempo es radicalmente distinta de lo que
observamos, tal vez cambie el nmero de dimensiones
del espacio. Lo importante, como siempre, estar en las
consecuencias y predicciones que una presunta teora
cuntica de la gravedad proponga, y que nos permita
entender un poco mejor el universo que nos alberga, y
tal vez un poco mejor a nosotros mismos.
Una alternativa a la teora cuntica de la gravedad, an
no descubierta, es la teora propuesta en los artculos en
esta edicin de Ingeniare, la Teora Total Simplifcada
(TTS) que postula unifcar la gravedad con el EM teniendo
como corolario fundamental la ecuacin cuntica de
Dirac. Ver fgura 1.
Con ello, aqu se propone todo un programa de unifcacin
en el cual el electromagnetismo quiral juega el rol central
[22]. La TTS se deriva de las ecuaciones originales de
Einstein-Hilbert G
v
= kT
v
, donde el tensor de Einstein no
se modifca. El tensor EM en cambio es quiral y la masa
de las partculas es de naturaleza electromagntica. Para
el caso del electrn se tiene como consecuencia que por
primera vez se obtiene la ecuacin de Dirac a partir de
ondas EM con el campo elctrico paralelo espacialmente
al campo magntico [22-26].
En la fgura 1 se muestra una interfaz o membrana de
separacin donde ocurren solamente eventos y sucesos
cunticos.
Hay dos regiones enantiomricas de un universo cerrado, o
un universo derecho y un universo izquierdo, relacionados
por un elemento de simetra PCT (paridad, carga, tiempo)
a lo largo de la interfaz. Las caractersticas principales
de ambas regiones enantiomricas estn defnidas en la
fgura y representan un modelo con todos los atributos
requeridos por un vaco terico. Lejos de la membrana
de separacin son vlidas las ecuaciones de Einstein-
Figura 1. Modelo del universo con dos regiones enantiomricas separadas por una membrana cuntica con
c
/
cl
del
orden de 10
120
.
Superfcie espacio-tiempo
Universo izquierdo: plasma de
antipartculas espacio-tiempo <0,
Positron: espn h/2, masa m
p
,
carga +e
+
, tiempo t<0
Universo derecho: plasma de partculas
espacio-tiempo >0, Electrn: espn h/2,
masa m
e
, carga e, tiempo t>0
R
v
=
cl
g
n
lneas de tiempo:
Universo diestro
Radiacin quiral EM y
ondas/partculas producidas
por la curvatura del factor T
Membrana Espacio Tiempo
(cuerdas quirales) () [1+ Tx]
interfaz de vaco: R
v
=
c
g
v
c
: constante cosmolgica cuntica
lneas de espacio
12
Hilbert G
v
=

kT
v
, que son de naturaleza clsica. En la
vecindad de la capa de separacin hay efectos cunticos
y es vlida la ecuacin de Dirac para partculas en la
regin enantiomrica diestra y para antipartculas en la
otra regin [22-26].
Cada regin puede ser considerada como un vaco, tiene
una constante cosmolgica
cl
, que tiende a cero, la
membrana posee una constante cosmolgica de naturaleza
cuntica tal que
c
/

cl
~10
120
.
ECUACIONES EINSTEIN-HILBERT
BAJO EL ENFOQUE QUIRAL
Desde los estudios de J. Earman y C. Glymour [27] se
hizo evidente que las ecuaciones de la relatividad general
de Einstein se descubrieron casi simultneamente, pero
con diferentes mtodos, por D. Hilbert y A. Einstein
[28-30].
Segn el actual punto de vista Einstein y Hilbert, de
forma independiente uno de otro y de diferentes maneras,
descubrieron las ecuaciones del campo gravitacional [30].
En el trabajo de Einstein con
cl
= 0 las ecuaciones de
campo gravitacional son dadas por:
gR T g T

( ) (1)
Donde, como de costumbre,

g
v
es un tensor mtrico;
R
v
es el tensor de Ricci,

k

es la constante gravitacional
de acoplamiento, T
v
es el tensor de densidad de
energa-momento para la materia, T es la traza de T
v
:
T = g
v
T
v
.
Hilbert, habiendo visto el trmino traza
1
2
g T
, tambin
lo introdujo en sus ecuaciones,

g R g R
gL
g
( )

(2)
el trmino traza (en este caso
1
2
g R
, donde la traza
R g R

).

El enfoque de Hilbert es exacto donde todo es defnido
por la funcin lagrangiana

H R L +

(3)
Descubierta por Hilbert, que desempea un papel clave
para la obtencin de las ecuaciones de gravitacin en
el marco del principio de mnima accin [32]. Pero fue
Einstein sobre la base de la idea de la equivalencia de la
aceleracin y la gravedad que formula la ley de conservacin
general de la energa-impulso [31].
A travs del principio de mnima accin (Axioma I
de Hilbert) y de la teora de invariantes es que en este
artculo se considera un modelo quiral para el universo
considerando no la electrodinmica de Mie sino la
EQ.
Vamos a examinar con atencin el enfoque de Hilbert
[32]. El Axioma I es tal que:
Las leyes de la fsica son los eventos defnidos por la
funcin mundo H cuyos argumentos son
g g
g
x
g
g
x x
l
l
lk
l k

,
,

2
(4)

q q
q
x
l s
s sl
s
l
, , ( , , , , )

1 2 3 4
(5)
Siendo que la variacin de la integral

H g d (6)
con

( | |, ) g g d dx dx dx dx

1 2 3 4

(7)
es cero para cualquiera de los 14 potenciales g
v
, q
S
. Bajo
el enfoque quiral la variacin temporal /t pasa a ser
/t (1+Tx)/t.
En cuanto a la funcin mundo, de acuerdo a Hilbert,
axiomas adicionales son necesarios para su defnicin
no ambigua. Si slo las segundas derivadas de los
potenciales pueden entrar en las ecuaciones de la
gravitacin, esto no cambia con EQ la funcin tiene
que tener la forma
H R L
Q
+ (8)
Donde

R

es un invariante del tensor de Riemann (curvatura
escalar de un sistema mltiple de cuatro dimensiones):

R g R

,
(9)
13
R

+ , (10)
L
Q
es una lagrangiana quiral que es funcin de las
variables g g q q T
s sk

, , , ,
/
El factor quiral T > o
corresponde a la regin enantiomrica diestra o nuestro
universo de materia, T < 0 a la regin izquierda (ver
fgura 1 del modelo para el universo) y R
v
es el tensor
de Ricci. Adems de eso, suponemos ms adelante que
L
Q
no depende de g
/
.
A partir de la variacin en los 10 potenciales gravitacionales
se tienen 10 ecuaciones diferenciales de Lagrange:

gR
g
gR
g
gR
g
gL
g
k
k
k l
kl
Q

(11)
Es fcil de ver de las ecuaciones anteriores que R

y R
v
que son derivadas de segundo orden entran en la mtrica
linealmente. Todos los dems tensores se obtienen
como combinaciones de estos tensores con similares
propiedades.
As, la ecuacin de campo gravitacional sometido al
tensor electromagntico quiral es

g R T
Q
1
]

.
(12)
De aqu la ley de conservacin covariante de la energa-
impulso se deduce naturalmente. El tensor densidad
g R
1
]
contiene por construccin las derivadas

lineales de segundo orden.
Las ecuaciones de Lagrange, de Hilbert bajo el enfoque
quiral son consecuencia del principio de mnima accin
(Axioma I de Hilbert). As las ecuaciones de la gravitacin
tienen la forma:
g R g R g R T
Q
( ) .

1
]

1
2
(13)
Se elige el invariante L
Q
en funcin de las variables
g q q T

, , , , por lo que se obtienen las ecuaciones
generalizadas de Maxwell
g L
Q
1
]

0 (14)
Luego, sobre la base del Teorema II, se tiene que la funcin
de Lagrange depende de las derivadas del potencial q
v
,
slo a travs del tensor F
v
, es decir,
L F
Q
( )
(15)
Donde
F q q

. (16)
Segn el teorema II las cuatro identidades tienen lugar
en el invariante L
Q
:

1
]
+

1
]

T F g L q g L
Q
Q Q
(17)
Se desprende de la identidad (17) que, en caso de las
ecuaciones de movimiento de un sistema material (14) se
sostienen, entonces la ley de la conservacin covariante
se lleva a cabo:

T
Q
0 (18)
Si uno hace uso de las ecuaciones de la gravitacin para
la identidad (17) se obtiene de la misma manera que de
las ecuaciones de Hilbert [31, 32]:
F g L q g L
Q Q
1
]
+

1
]
0 (19)
Ecuaciones (19) tienen que ser compatibles con las
ecuaciones, que se deriven del principio de mnima
accin con la misma lagrangeana L
Q
. Slo es posible en
el caso de que ecuaciones generalizadas de Maxwell
se autosustentan:

g L
Q
1
]

0
(20)
En el caso particular de que L
Q
=
Q
I. El segundo
trmino en Eq. (19) desaparece idnticamente y se llega
a las ecuaciones
F g L
Q
1
]
0 (21)
De ello se deduce, por lo tanto, que si el determinante
F
v
no es cero, se tienen las ecuaciones de Maxwell
g L
Q
1
]

0 . Esto est plenamente de acuerdo con

el principio de mnima accin (Axioma I de Hilbert). De
esta forma, la ecuacin de Maxwell son consecuencia de
las ecuaciones de gravedad y de las cuatro identidades
14
(21). Cabe sealar que originalmente Hilbert obtuvo la
ecuacin de campo gravitatorio no de un arbitrario
sistema material, sino que en base a la teora de Mie [33]
con un lagrangeano en la forma L Q f q + ( ) donde

es una constante y f(q) es el trmino no covariante
de Mie con
Q F F g g q q q g

, , (22)
Este hecho hace que de dicha teora no se obtiene una teora
sustentable para el electrn, pero el mtodo de Hilbert es
correcto en general, y es un excelente punto de partida
para la unifcacin propuesta en este trabajo.
En las referencias [22-26] se muestra especfcamente
que la unifcacin de la gravedad con el EM de Maxwell
conocido en aquella poca no era sustentable, por
cuanto el determinante del tensor de campo de Maxwell
siempre es cero. El hecho de que las ecuaciones de
la gravitacin implican cuatro ecuaciones para el
sistema material, hace muy atractivo el mtodo de
Hilbert por la sencillez y potencia del mismo, por lo
que se presta muy bien al enfoque de la gravitacin
con electrodinmica quiral.
Basado en los argumentos expuestos en [34-36] y
suponiendo que el electromagnetismo quiral nace en la
interfaz de vaco (membrana de separacin de las dos
regiones enantiomricas), y recordando que / t se
transforma en ( ) / 1+ T t , la ecuacin (5) de Hilbert
reformulada es ( ) / 1+ T q t
s
.
Las tensiones electromagnticas espaciales [34] son de
la forma

+

0 0
1 1 ( ), ( ) T
x
T
x
l
l
l
l
(23)
Adems se tiene que el potencial q
s
tiene las componentes
vectoriales q A A = +T , donde A es el potencial
vector de Maxwell y el campo magntico en un espacio
curvado es
B q =
.
El factor quiral T > 0 corresponde a la regin enanciomtrica
diestra donde se tiene un plasma de partculas, T < 0
a la regin izquierda, donde existe un plasma de
antipartculas (ver fgura 1 del modelo para el universo).
En el apndice, las ecuaciones de Maxwell derivadas
plenamente en forma relativstica de L
Q
son presentadas
adems de las ecuaciones de onda en rgimen quiral. En
la siguiente seccin se discute esta teora en los inicios
del Big-Bang.
LA ELECTRODINMICA QUIRAL Y LA
GRAVEDAD EN LA ERA DE PLANCK
Se sabe que el universo se est expandiendo debido
a la oscuridad de la noche. La dinmica dominante
del cosmos es, al parecer, una expansin repulsiva de
antigravedad a gran escala en contraste con la de
corto alcance de atraccin de la materia en las galaxias
y las estrellas.
Este fenmeno es la respuesta a la paradoja de Olber, es
decir, el hecho de que el cielo, que se llena de un infnito
campo de estrellas y galaxias, no brilla como una estrella
slida, sino que es predominantemente oscuro y tiene slo
la radiacin de temperatura de 2,7 K. El hecho de que el
universo se est expandiendo signifca que las estrellas y
galaxias se alejan entre s y hay un corrimiento al rojo,
por lo que el cielo de la noche es de por s oscuro y fro,
en lugar de ser un campo brillante y caliente de polvo
de estrellas. Este hecho permite un universo de baja
temperatura donde la vida pueda forecer. Por lo tanto,
la expansin del universo puede ser vista como esencial
para la vida.
El fenmeno que provoca la expansin acelerada del
universo se conoce como energa oscura y se puede
decir que la causa el vaco. La densidad de la energa
oscura puede ser identifcada como el trmino constante
cosmolgica en las ecuaciones de la relatividad general.
Este trmino puede ser entendido a travs del concepto de
un universo de plasma, donde la electrodinmica csmica
desempea un papel de igualdad con la gravitacin que
es la conformacin del cosmos y de sus estructuras. De
hecho, la gravitacin ahora puede ser entendida como una
manifestacin de la electrodinmica de un gran nmero
de partculas cargadas.
Este trmino cosmolgico puede estudiarse en el contexto
de esta teora TTS que determina el valor de la constante
de la gravitacin.
La principal hiptesis del universo de plasma es que la
electrodinmica desempea un papel igualitario con
la gravedad en la confguracin de las estructuras del
cosmos. Es posible ampliar este principio incluso a la
microescala del cosmos, y considerar la posibilidad de
que incluso el vaco en s mismo puede ser analizado
como un plasma virtual de partculas cargadas.
De esta manera es posible desarrollar un modelo del
universo que va desde la longitud de Planck al radio de
Hubble para el universo, como un tejido continuo de la
electrodinmica, y con los dos lmites de longitud que
se correlacionan entre s.
15
Esta unifcacin se basa en dos postulados: el EM se
unifca con la gravedad a la longitud de Planck, donde
el campo elctrico Ep

es paralelo al campo magntico
Bp. El segundo postulado establece que en el tiempo de
Planck la gravedad y los campos EM estn unifcados y
que se separaran, y se convierten en diferentes variables
a nivel de mesoescala. Aqu encontramos diferencias con
[37]. Esta teora puede predecir campos de gravedad y el
valor de la constante de gravedad. Asimismo, se puede
predecir el valor del tiempo de Hubble y temperatura de
la radiacin csmica de fondo. Segn esta teora, la razn
de masa de electrones a protones R
m
asume un rol central.
Sin embargo, es evidente que el valor de

R
m
depende
de la fuerza fuerte, y los nucleones, que constituyen la
mayor parte de la masa visible del universo, se derivan
de los quarks. Esto es esencial para cualquier teora de
unifcacin [38]. Aqu, en la TTS, la EQ es como una
extensin de la teora de Sahkarov para la gravedad y el
origen tanto de protones y electrones, pero la unifcacin
nace en la era de Planck con un plasma cosmolgico en
nuestro universo diestro.
La teora TTS es un intento de crear una teora
geomtrica para resolver el problema de Einstein-Dirac
de la unifcacin de la gravedad y el EM. La teora por
ahora se limita a los protones y electrones. La teora
est todava en un estado temprano de desarrollo, es
decir, que se describe como un modelo de Bohr de
la unifcacin, por analoga con la mecnica cuntica
y el modelo del tomo de hidrgeno, y se basa en una
extensin de los trabajos de Einstein y Kaluza. El
aspecto separado de la gravedad y el EM relativos a
los protones y electrones proviene desde la escala de
Planck y se produce con la aparicin de una dimensin
quiral como un equivalente de la quinta dimensin de
Kaluza-Klein. La teora TTS comienza con el principio
de accin de Hilbert, que permite la obtencin de las
ecuaciones fundamentales de los campos de vaco con
la extremizacin de la accin integral
H G R gdx

( ) ( ) 16
1
2
4
24)
Donde es la curvatura escalar de Ricci de la relatividad
general, es la constante cosmolgica, G es la constante
de la gravitacin de Newton. Aqu, la accin integral para
un campo cuntico de partculas con espn y masa, m
cuando L
EM
procede de una EQ y E
p
= iB
p
. Este campo
produce un tensor de tensin de la forma p = pc
2
, es decir,
una presin negativa, que a su vez impulsa una explosin
del cosmos [39, 40]. Si suponemos que el cosmos es una
entidad electrodinmica, entonces sera natural que, en
un universo en expansin rpida, una especie de reaccin
de la ley de Lenz se debe haber producido para frenar la
expansin csmica. Esto tambin puede ser considerado como
un principio csmico de la mnima accin. Esta reaccin
sera la aparicin de campos EM y de materia que presentan
una densidad de energa positiva que dramticamente frena
la explosin inicial del universo. Este escenario es, de
hecho, el escenario infacionario, que se considera ahora
el principal modelo de la cosmologa. Sin embargo, puesto
que nuestro objetivo fnal es la modifcacin tecnolgica
prctica de la gravedad, vamos a examinar ahora la relacin
de la gravedad y el EM en detalle.
En la teora de la relatividad general (RG) de Einstein,
la gravedad surge de la geometra del espacio tiempo
determinado por las propiedades del tensor mtrico g
ij
.
El lmite newtoniano se recupera donde el espacio no es
muy curvado y el potencial de Newton es en realidad
parte del elemento diagonal principal del tensor mtrico
g c
tt
1 2
2
/ . Desde el punto de vista de la TTS, la
gravedad surge de la electrodinmica quiral. Sobre la
base de esto, parece ser que una buena generalizacin
para modelar la gravedad es que el tensor mtrico de la
RG es en realidad un tensor EM normalizado. Es decir,
los campos EM no slo son la curvatura de la mtrica,
sino que la mtrica misma. Esto signifca que el espacio
tiempo es en realidad un vasto mar de radiacin ultra-
poderoso de EM.
Con el fn de satisfacer los postulados de la TTS debemos
tener una generalizacin covariante y fsica de campo
para el vaco
g F F F F F F T
ij ik j
k
ik j
k
4 4
0
/ /
(25)
Donde F
ik
es el tensor de Faraday y T
0
, es la covariante
generalizacin normalizada del escalar de tensin escalar.
La forma de esta expresin para el tensor mtrico es
determinada por el primer postulado TTS, esto es, para
que un campo EM ultrafuerte llene el cosmos el tensor
de Maxwell es
T F F g F F
ij ij j
k
ij
1 4 1 4 / ( / )

(26)
que debe desaparecer en todas partes. As, en la TTS, un
poderoso campo EM determina la geometra del espacio,
pero en s no es detectable directamente, sino que por
ser tan poderoso se anula a s mismo. Cabe sealar que
F
j
k
, la forma mixta del tensor de Faraday, es a menudo
escrito como g F
ij
ik
. Fsicamente, sin embargo, el objetivo
principal de la TTS es demostrar que la gravedad, los
campos EM, y, por tanto, la geometra, son unifcadas
y son partes de una relacin cclica. Esto signifca que
en la TTS, EQ implica la geometra y viceversa, de
16
manera que para empezar con uno en lugar del otro es
una cuestin de convencin, y para reclamar que uno
es superior y ms fundamental que el otro no parece
razonable. La EQ es dada por

L g g dx
Q

E B
E B + E B
Q Q
Q Q
T
4
1
,
( ) ( ) ( )
(27)
la densidad de energa neta del espacio puede ser ligeramente
negativa con este lagrangeano si T tiene un valor apropiado.
Un mecanismo similar fue propuesto por primera vez en
[40] y se denomina Zeldovich reaccin. En este artculo
se deriva el valor de G como la elasticidad de la mtrica
del espacio con el supuesto de que la longitud de Planck
T
p
= (Gh/c
3
)
1/2
, donde T
p
es el factor quiral de nuestro
R-Universo, h es la constante de Planck. El valor de la
integral se determina por la frecuencia de corte cerca de la
frecuencia de Planck
p
= c/T
p
. Numricamente este valor
de T es igual al radio de Planck [39, 40]. Esta conexin
entre la gravedad y el campo EQ alienta la posibilidad de
que la gravedad pueda un da ser modifcada directamente
por medios externos.
La manera ms sencilla de obtener una energa oscura
o la constante cosmolgica es permitir que EiB y
esto genera una constante cosmolgica y, por tanto, un
universo en expansin.
Teniendo en cuenta la hiptesis de un universo de plasma
donde domina la electrodinmica quiral, suponemos la
existencia de modos quirales que componen la energa
oscura. En la escala de Planck, la incertidumbre de
Heisenberg permite que se generen masas M
p
, que tienen
una longitud de onda de Compton igual a su radio de
Schwartzchild
GM r T M c G c
P P P P
c / / /
2 3
2 2 h h (28)
A la longitud de Planck, los horizontes de evento de los
agujeros negros aparecen y desaparecen en un perodo
de Planck, y la distincin topolgica entre estar dentro
y fuera de un evento horizonte desaparece. Por breves
instantes de un perodo de Planck, las partculas de
antimateria pueden interaccionar con las partculas
ordinarias. Esto produce la cuantizacin de la carga
e = khc/2T. Sin embargo, el tamao de

T

debe ser
del orden de la longitud de Planck, para dar el correcto
valor de la carga y las masas son del orden de la masa de
Planck. Sin embargo, la existencia de la escala de masas
de protones y electrones signifca que el tamao efectivo
de la dimensin compacta debe ser mucho mayor, es
decir, del orden de la longitud de onda de Compton de
un protn o el radio clsico electrnico. Esto puede ser
entendido conceptualmente como un renormalization,
efecto debido a la energa negativa de la formacin de
la dimensin quiral.
La teora de TTS as permite, por un pequeo aumento de
la dimensionalidad, la aparicin explcita de los campos
EM, y las partculas con carga y masa, para protones
y electrones, junto con la gravedad, desde un principio
variacional con = m
p
/m
e
)
1/2
= 42.85003.
Esto constituye una descripcin muy bsica del cosmos
como un todo, cuyos principales componentes ms
conocidos son los protones y electrones. Si se concibe
que el principio de la accin asume un campo EQ no
masivo, entonces la aparicin de la quiralidad permite
la captura o la dispersin de quantas no masivos que
crean masa en reposo, carga, espn y por lo tanto las
partculas. La captura de la energa EM quirales en una
dimensin compacta puede ser concebida como una
imagen compactada del espacio-tiempo. El tamao de
la dimensin compactada puede considerarse que sea del
orden del radio clsico del electrn, r
e
= e
2
/4
0
m
0
c
2
,
que es el tamao aproximado del protn. El carcter de
la dimensin compacta debe ser una imagen global del
espacio-tiempo, esto signifca que el protn, es decir, el
espacio, como partcula, debe tener tres subdimensiones
para satisfacer la condicin de radio clsico y tambin
para la neutralidad del cosmos. Esta combinacin es
satisfecha por la actual teora de los quarks, donde
el protn est formado por tres quarks que satisfacen
q
x
= q
y
= 2e/3 y q
z
= e/3, es decir,
q q q e e
x y z
+ + + ( / / / ) 2 3 2 3 1 3 (29)
q
x
q
y
q
z
e e
2 2 2 2 2
4 9 4 9 1 9 + + + + ( / / / ) (30)
Donde q
x
, q
x
, q
z
son las cargas de los quarks que componen
los protones. Por lo tanto, una imagen global del espacio-
tiempo, sujeta a la simetra de rotacin, signifca que la
dimensin compacta (T) tiene el carcter de un radio
o un intervalo de tiempo y, por tanto, acta como un
escalar, pero puede tener tres espacios internos como
grados de libertad. Las condiciones: la suma de las cargas
de los quarks y la de suma de sus cuadrados signifca
que deben satisfacer una simetra de rotacin SO (3).
Los protones, por tanto, compuestos de quarks, son,
pues, fundamentales en la TTS para nuestro universo
diestro.
17
Si uno se concentra por un momento en la accin de
Hilbert-Einstein, sobre la expansin de la EQ de Lagrange
y de la seleccin de aquellas partes que desaparecen en el
marco de la cada libre en el modelo de TTS, obtenemos
(en unidades ESU).

( ) 16
16 8
2
1
2 2
2
G K
field
R
G
g
G
S
E iB
E
+

+
E B
iiB
u c
2
0
2
(31)
donde S = 0, se asocia a los campos de la gravedad. Esta
expresin cumple el principio de equivalencia, porque ambos
trminos desaparecen en un sistema de cada libre.
APNDICE: ELECTRODINMICA QUIRAL
Comnmente, el electromagnetismo de Maxwell es
tratado en una aproximacin lineal que en muchos
casos es suficiente para explicar los resultados de
los experimentos. La premisa que en este trabajo de
unifcacin se plantea es que una onda electromagntica
propagndose a travs de un medio es infuenciada por
este ltimo y viceversa.
La idea anterior se parece al principio de Mach. Se le
recuerda al lector que dicho principio sugiere que la
masa de un cuerpo es debida a la infuencia de todas
las estrellas del universo en ese cuerpo. Expresada en
trminos matemticos, esta dependencia toma la forma
m(x) = [1/T(x)] donde m(x) es la masa de partcula,
una constante de acoplamiento y 1/T es la masa generada
por el campo a travs de la quiralidad. La idea central
entonces es no considerar la masa de una partcula como
una cantidad fja e intrnseca, sino ms bien pensarla
como una cantidad variable dependiente del campo en
el cual se mueve.
En este apndice se construye la electrodinmica en espacio
curvo. Para ello se parte con las ecuaciones de Maxwell
en un Sistema Arbitrario de Coordenadas.
+ +

F F F 0 (1)

1
g
g F J
( ) ( )

(2)
Donde F
es el tensor de campo electromagntico y j
es
la densidad de corriente en 4 dimensiones. Claramente,
en un sistema inercial local las ecuaciones anteriores se
reducen a las ecuaciones estndares en el vaco. Para
simplifcarlas, se introduce un sistema de coordenadas
ortogonal-temporal en el cual: g
4
= 0.
Se introducen los tensores antisimtricos H
y B
tal
que F H g B

/
44
y los vectores D
y E

por F D g E g
4
44 44
/ / .
Las expresiones covariantes correspondientes son:

F g g F g g B
H
g
B

44

F g g F g g D g D E

4 4 44 44

Esto permite escribir las ecuaciones de Maxwell en la
forma

+ +

( )

( )

B B B
g
gH
g
gD
t
0
1 1

( )
u
g
gD
1

Una manera de escribirlas en una forma ms familiar,
se introducen los vectores duales correspondientes a los
tensores respectivos por la prescripcin estndar, dando
como resultado

B
g
B B
g
B B
g
B
H
g
H H
1
23
2
3
3
12
1
23
2
1 1
1
1
1 1

, ,
,

g
H H
g
H
31
3
12
1
,

Finalmente haciendo las sustituciones respectivas se tienen
las ecuaciones vectoriales de Maxwell sin cargas

( )
E B B
1
0
g
g
t
,
(3)
18

( )
H = D D
1
g
g
t
,
(4)
La conexin entre las ondas electromagnticas en un
medio y las mismas ondas en el vaco pero en un espacio
curvo emerge claramente. Si g no depende del tiempo y si
se tiene = (g
44
)
-1
, entonces el campo, responsable
por la curvatura del espacio, se comporta como un
medio con la permitividad dielctrica y susceptibilidad
magntica dada por la ecuacin anterior. La conjetura
que se plantea en esta investigacin es que ,
0
y
0
en
el espacio curvado son defnidos como los operadores:
0
1 ( ) + T y
0
1 ( ) + T donde T es el factor quiral
que permite la torsin del campo dando lugar a la creacin
de las partculas.
Las ecuaciones de campo
En un sistema de referencia, donde el medio est en
reposo, las relaciones constitutivas quirales de Born-
Federov son:

D E E
B H H
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
+
+

T
T
(5)
en el sistema en reposo S
o
del medio. Se restringe el
estudio a medios homogneos y no dispersivos donde ,
y T son constantes. Las ecuaciones de Maxwell en este
marco, en ausencia de cargas son

D H D
( ) ( )
,
( ) 0 0
0
0
0
(6)
B E B
( ) ( )
,
( ) 0 0
0
0
0 (7)
donde a
a
t
,0

. Las ecuaciones de Maxwell pueden ser

escritas en trminos de los campos E
(0)
y B
(0)
+ E B J E
( ) ( ) ( )
,
( )
,
0 0 0
0
0
0 (8)

B
( ) ( )
,
0 0
0 xE B
,0
(0)
(9)
donde
J K
( ) ( ) 0 0
T
con

K E E E B
( )
,
( )
,
( )
,
( )
,
( ) 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
0
2 2 + T T
(10)
Tambin se tiene
J B
( )
,
( )
,
( )
( )
0
00
0 2
0
0
2 T T E (11)
Las ecuaciones de Maxwell rescritas anteriormente son
formalmente similares a las ecuaciones de Maxwell en
un medio normal con densidad de corriente J
(0)
y densidad
de carga
(0)
= 0 que obedece la ecuacin de continuidad
de la carga + J
( )
,
( ) 0
0
0
0 . Se llamar J
(0)
a la
corriente quiral en el marco de referencia en reposo. En
un sistema arbitrario S, las ecuaciones de Maxwell pueden
ser escritas

a
x
a
,
, [41].
F F u u J
, ,
( )

1 (12)

F F F
, , ,
+ + 0

(13)
respectivamente. Aqu u
es la velocidad uniforme del

medio, F
es el tensor del campo electromagntico

con componentes F E F B
i i ij ijk k 0
. Tambin se
introduce el dual del tensor de campo

G F

1
2

con componentes G B G E
i i ij ijk k 0
+ , de modo que
la corriente quiral puede ser escrita como
J T u K

,
(14)
con
0123
1 2 + y K F T G
. ..
.
Aqu usamos la defnicin: F F u G G u

; y
donde la operacin punto (.) es defnida por a = u
a
,
, la
cual se reduce a la derivada temporal ordinaria en el medio
en reposo. En este marco F
i
se reduce a las componentes
del campo elctrico (y F
0
desaparece) y G
i
a las del campo
magntico (y G
o
desaparece).
La corriente quiral se puede escribir en la forma
J T G Th F

+ ( )
..
,
.
2 (15)
donde h
v
est relacionado al tensor mtrico g
v
por
h g u u

Se hace notar que la ecuacin de continuidad es considerada.
J
,

0. Efectuando

una contraccin con u
y notando que

19
u

J
= 0 se tiene F
= F
,

u
= 0. Este resultado no es
nada ms que + . ,
( ) ( ) ( )
,
( )
E B J E
0 0 0
0
0
0
en el medio en reposo.
El inverso de G

es

F G

1
2

Si se introduce esta relacin en F
,

( ) , 1 F

u u J

y haciendo la contraccin con
se
obtiene
G G G F J

, , ,
.
( ) + + 1
donde se ha usado la identidad

1
]

1
]

1
]

con
1
]
. La ecuacin homognea
F F F
, , ,
+ + 0 se transforma en G
,
0 que
inmediatamente sigue de la contraccin de la ecuacin
homognea con
. Para obtener la ecuacin de onda

del tensor de campo se diferencia F F F
, , ,
+ + 0
con respecto a , y se usa F F u u J

, ,
( ) 1
para obtener

F F J J

,
..
, ,
( ) ( ) 1
(16)
en est e result ado f i nal se ut i l i za la relacin
F u F F F

.
, , ,
. La ecuacin de onda
F F J J

,
..
, ,
( ) ( ) + 1
es el resultado
fundamental de este trabajo de investigacin que
permite la unifcacin del electromagnetismo con la
gravitacin. Esta ecuacin de onda de segundo orden
en tiempo y espacio permite obtener la propagacin
de gravitones si
( )
, ,
J J

0
y de fotones si T 0
respectivamente. Para examinar el caso de gravitones
con spin 2 el primer miembro de la ecuacin de onda
(16) es

F F

,
..
( ) + 1 0
(17)
que corresponde al caso de corriente quiral igual a cero,
esto es

J T G Th F

+ ( )
..
,
.
2
= 0
o sea

T G Th F 2
..
,
.

En un marco de referencia en reposo S, esta ecuacin
se simplifica a la ecuacin de Beltrami si hacemos
T
mc
h
,
+ E E
( ) ( ) 0 0
2
0
T
(18)
es trivial obtener de la ecuacin de onda (17) con / t i,
y la velocidad de la luz dada por c

( )
/
1 2
la expresin
k
c
0

tal que mcT 2h . Esto corresponde a partculas
con spin 2. Se observa adems que de la ecuacin
E B B
( )
,
( ) ( ) 0
0
0 0
1 i se tiene entonces que
E B
( ) ( ) 0 0
i
, o sea los campos son paralelos en el espacio
tridimensional con el vector de Poynting E B
( ) ( )
.
0 0
0
Esto implica una gran difcultad en detectar este tipo de
partculas con detectores usuales de radiacin.
El caso de ondas electromagnticas normales es analizado
con la ecuacin

( ) 1 2 0
0
2 2
0
2
0
2
k T k T k E E E
(19)
Si T = 0 se obtiene la usual ecuacin de onda en un medio
normal y homogneo que se encuentra en los textos de
electromagnetismo, E E k
0
2
0 , ondas que
al ser tratadas como partculas se tiene que el spin es
igual a uno.
Si k T
0
1 se obtienen las ondas quirales circularmente
polarizadas que se propagan en medios electromagnticos
complejos y en medios biolgicos (por ejemplo, ondas en
el tejido cerebral debido a las microondas de telfonos
celulares).
Si k T
0
1 o mucho mayor que uno, se obtiene una ecuacin
de tipo Beltrami que entre otras situaciones fsicas puede
modelar las ondas en una estrella de neutrones, explicar
las llamaradas solares donde la corriente es paralela al
campo magntico. Esta relacin tambin permite obtener
el radio del universo si T mc h / y es la masa del fotn
en el espacio curvado de Einstein.
20
Usando un modelo de fuido de fotones, permite obtener
rotB B que puede calcular la distancia del Sol a cada
uno de los planetas del Sistema Solar.
Adems puede explicar: la generacin de bolas de luz, la
formacin de galaxias en espiral y las ondas EM quirales
como autoestados de molculas de ADN.
Se puede demostrar rigurosamente que con ondas
electromagnticas donde E es perpendicular a B,
( ) E B la ecuacin tensorial de Einstein, con el tensor
de Maxwell T
v
es

R g R T

1
2
(20)
Es transparente al campo de manera que estos modos de
propagacin no permiten la unifcacin ya que al hacer lo
hecho por primera vez por Einstein para el caso usual de
campos de Maxwell ( ) E B , o sea (EB = 0)

g g F

+

Ya el det er mi nant e de F
v
es igual a cer o
(det ( ) F
2 0
2
E B ) se tiene que
ds g dx dx g dx dx
2

(21)
Esta es la razn del porqu Einstein no pudo obtener
la anhelada unificacin del electromagnetismo y la
gravitacin.
Esta formulacin es un enlace entre la Teora Cuntica y
la Relatividad General, siendo clave el concepto de campo
Beltrami como fundamental en la creacin de partculas.
En la Fsica actual, ambas teoras estn profundamente
cimentadas en marcos espacio-tiempo distintos. La primera
en el espacio-tiempo de Minkowski, y la segunda en el
espacio-tiempo curvado.
Tal como A. Wheeler lo hizo notar, los intentos de
unifcacin y el desafo han sido la introduccin de
la mecnica cuntica con spin 1/2 en la Relatividad
General, por un lado, y la introduccin de la curvatura
en Mecnica Cuntica por otro. La ecuacin de onda
F T F T J T J T

,
..
, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) + 1 ) )
que
es la generalizacin de la ecuacin de Klein-Gordon
permite esta conexin, si la transformamos poniendo en
evidencia el factor de spin 1/2.
La e c ua c i n t e ns or i a l de Ma xwel l (12)
F F u u J
, ,
( )

1
, se puede transformar a
O F F u u J
ep
( ( ) )
, ,

1 (22)
donde el tensor corriente, J
ep
, corresponde a la corriente
quiral del electrn (T>0) o positrn (T<0)
J O F T G
ep

1
]
( )
. ..
1 2 (23)
donde

O T u u + 1
2
( )
, ,
(24)
manipulando las ecuaciones (22), (23) y (24), se puede
obtener la ecuacin de onda

OF T O F T
J T
ep

,
..
( ) ,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ( )
+

1
JJ T
ep ( ) ,
( ))

(25)
Explcitamente la ecuacin de onda puede ser linealizada
siguiendo la genial lnea de raciocinio de P. Dirac (que a
partir de la ecuacin de segundo orden de Klein Gordon
desarrolla las matrices , para obtener la ecuacin
de primer orden de Dirac, donde el spin aparece en
forma precisa).
Siguiendo el mismo raciocinio de Dirac, hacemos O=0,
y al integrar una vez la ecuacin (25) se tiene

F T G

. ..
2
(26)
que en el sistema de referencia del electrn o positrn
corresponde a

+ E E
( ) ( ) 0 0
1
2
0
T

donde se ha hecho k T
0
1 . Aqu se considera el principio
de incertidumbre de Heissenberg pT mcT h / 2 . Se
hace notar que este resultado general se obtiene tambin
de la ecuacin (19) que permite obtener relaciones
isomrfcas que conducen a una manera indita de obtener
la ecuacin de Dirac para una partcula elemental como el
electrn o positrn a partir de la obtencin de la ecuacin
de Beltrami (free force). La onda inicialmente con spin
1 y energa h es transformada en campos Beltrami
de spin +1/2 y 1/2. En otras palabras, si el sistema de
ecuaciones de Maxwell es multiplicado por la matriz
de Pauli permite obtener en forma rigurosa y original
21
la Ecuacin de Dirac. Esta deduccin se muestra en el
artculo correspondiente.
Usando lgebra cuaterninica en un sistema de referencia
fjo a la partcula (onda de luz curvada sobre s misma),
de la ecuacin anterior se obtiene sin aproximaciones la
ecuacin de Dirac. En ella aparece en forma explcita el
spin de la partcula, cuando k
0
T = 1. O sea si T mc h / 2
entonces
k T T c mc E mc
0
2 2
1 2 2 / / h
.
De esta forma, a partir del escalar T, se obtiene la ecuacin
fundamental de Einstein entre materia y energa. El escalar
T se encuentra implcito en
F T F T J T J T

,
..
, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) + 1 ) )
Si T = 0 se tiene el espacio plano de cuatro dimensiones
de Minkowski, base del electromagnetismo de Maxwell
y de la Relatividad Especial.
Recientes modelos que incluyen supercuerdas cunticas son
caminos alternativos que consideran partculas extendidas,
es decir, no puntuales que conducen a operadores espacio-
tiempo no diferenciables y a geometra no conmutativa,
pero la teora propuesta aqu es ms econmica, ms
simple en dimensiones y en la potente idea de que los
campos electromagnticos con E B | son la verdadera
fuente para la gravitacin
CONCLUSIONES
Como una alternativa a la teora cuntica de la gravedad,
an no descubierta, la TTS ha sido propuesta, que postula
unifcar la gravedad con el EM teniendo como corolario
fundamental la ecuacin cuntica de Dirac.
En este programa de unificacin en el cual el
electromagnetismo quiral juega el rol central, la TTS ha
sido derivada de las ecuaciones originales de Einstein
-Hilbert G T

, donde el tensor de Einstein no ha
sido modifcado. El tensor EM en cambio es quiral y la
masa de las partculas es de naturaleza electromagntica.
Para el caso del electrn se tiene como consecuencia que
por primera vez se obtiene la ecuacin de Dirac a partir de
ondas EM con el campo elctrico paralelo espacialmente
al campo magntico. Como modelo del universo se
propuso una interfaz o membrana de separacin entre
dos regiones enantiomricas de un universo cerrado, o un
universo derecho y uno universo izquierdo, relacionados
por un elemento de simetra PCT (paridad, carga, tiempo)
a lo largo de la interfaz. Las ecuaciones de Einstein-
Hilbert fueron estudiadas bajo el enfoque quiral y se
han analizado la electrodinmica quiral y la gravedad
en la era de Planck.
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Se agradecen las fructferas discusiones sobre el tema
con los colegas del Instituto de Alta Investigacin y de la
Escuela Universitaria de Ingeniera Elctrica - Electrnica
de la Universidad de Tarapac, Arica, Chile.
REFERENCIAS
[1] H. Torres-Silva. Chiroplasma surface wave.
Electromagnetic of Chiral Bi-Isotropic and Bi-
Anisotropic Media. CHIRAL 96. Proceeding of
Nato Series, Mosc. 1996.
[2] H. Torres-Silva, P. Sakanaka and N. Reggiani.
The Effect of Chirality on a Plasma Media. Rev.
Mex. de Fsica. Vol. 42, pp. 989-1000. 1996.
[3] H. Torres-Silva and C. Villarroel Gonzlez.
Electromagnetic properties of a Chiral-Plasma
Medium. Pramana-Journal of Physics. Vol. 49,
pp. 431-442. 1997.
[4] H. Torres-Silva. Chiroplasma surface wave.
A. Pr iou, editor: Advances i n Complex
Electromagnetic. Materials. Vol. 28, pp. 249-258.
Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1997.
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Japan. Vol. 67, pp. 850-857. 1998.
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en un chiroplasma magnetizado. Rev. Mex. de
Fsica. Vol. 44, pp. 53-58. 1998.
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Transverse Wave In Magnetized Chiral Media.
J. Plasma Res. Vol. 1, p. 395. 1999.
[8] H. Torres-Silva y M. Zamorano Lucero. Ecuacin
de Onda de Schrdinger para una fbra ptica
Chiral. Revista Mexicana de Fsica Vol. 46,
pp. 62-66. 2000.
22
[9] A. Assis and H. Torres-Silva. Relation between
Maxwell Equations and Weber Force. Pranama
Journal of Physics. Vol. 54 N 6, pp. 1-12. 2000.
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spatial solitons in cubic chiral materials. PIER
2002. Progress In Electromagnetics Research.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. July 1-5.
2002.
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en el borde de un semiplano inmerso en un medio
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effects on optical solitons. Mathematics and
Computers in Simulations. Vol. 62, pp. 149-161.
2003.
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linear polarization and chiral effects in birefringent
solitons. Pramana Journal of Physics. Vol. 62
N 1, p. 37. 2004.
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inducido en un modelo bioplasmtico quiral por
radiacin de telfonos celulares. Revista Mexicana
de Fsica. Vol. 51 N 2, pp. 209-216. 2005.
[16] H. Torres-Silva. FDTD chiral brain tissue model
for specifc absorption rate determination under
radiation from mobile phones at 900 and 1800
MHz. Phy in Med. and Biol. Vol. 51, pp. 1661-
1672. 2006.
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Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 14 N 3, pp. 291-298. 2006.
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Jimnez-Muoz. Electromagnetic waves at
the plane boundary between two chiral media.
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24
NEW INTERPRETATION OF THE ATOMIC SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN
ATOM: A MIXED MECHANISM OF CLASSICAL LC CIRCUITS AND
QUANTUM WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
NUEVA INTERPRETACIN DEL ESPECTRO ATMICO DEL TOMO
DE HIDRGENO: UN MECANISMO MIXTO DE CIRCUITOS LC Y
LA DUALIDAD ONDA CUNTICA-PARTCULA
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se presenta un estudio de las leyes macroscpicas de conversin de energa del oscilador armnico LC, la
onda electromagntica (fotones) y el tomo de hidrgeno. Como nuestro anlisis indica, las energas de estos aparentemente
diferentes sistemas obedecen exactamente la misma ley de conversin de la energa. Sobre la base de nuestros resultados
y de la dualidad onda-partcula del electrn, nos encontramos con que el tomo de hidrgeno, de hecho, es un oscilador
LC microscpico naturalmente quiral.
En el marco de la teora clsica de campos electromagnticos se obtiene analticamente, para el tomo de hidrgeno, el
radio cuantizado de la rbita electrnica

r
n
=a
o
n
2
y la energa cuantizada E
n
=R
H
hc/n
2
, (n=1, 2, 3..), donde a
0
es el radio
de Bohr y R
H
es la constante de Rydberg. Sin la adaptacin de otros principios fundamentales de la mecnica cuntica,
se presenta una explicacin razonable de la polarizacin de los fotones, las reglas de seleccin y principio de exclusin
de Pauli. Los resultados tambin ponen de manifesto una conexin esencial entre el espn de electrn y el movimiento
helicoidal intrnseco de los electrones e indican que el espn es el efecto de un confnamiento cuntico.
Palabras clave: tomo de Bohr, quiralidad, oscilador LC.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we study the energy conversion laws of the macroscopic harmonic LC oscillator, the electromagnetic wave
(photon) and the hydrogen atom. As our analysis indicates, the energies of these apparently different systems obey exactly
the same energy conversion law. Based on our results and the wave-particle duality of electrons, we fnd that the hydrogen
atom is, in fact, a natural chiral microscopic LC oscillator.
In the framework of classical electromagnetic feld theory we analytically obtain, for the hydrogen atom, the quantized
electron orbit radiusr
n
=a
o
n
2
, and quantized energy E
n
=R
H
hc/n
2
, (n = 1, 2, 3, ), where a
0
is the Bohr radius and R
H

is the Rydberg constant. Without the adaptation of any other fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, we present
a reasonable explanation of the polarization of photon, selection rules and Pauli exclusion principle. Our results also
reveal an essential connection between electron spin and the intrinsic helical movement of electrons and indicate that
the spin itself is the effect of quantum confnement.
Keywords: Bohr atom, chirality, LC oscillator.
1
INTRODUCTION
No one doubt that twentieth century is the century of
quantum theory [1-10]. After 100 years of development
quantum physics is no longer just a field, it is the bedrock
of all of modern physics. Although the modern quantum
theory has provided a beautiful and consistent theory
for describing the myriad baffling microphenomena
which had previously defied explanation [3], one should
not neglect a curious fact that quantum mechanics
H. Torres-Silva: New interpretation of the atomic spectra of the hydrogen atom: a mixed mechanism of classical LC circuits
25
never take into account the deep structures of atoms.
In fact, at the heart of quantum mechanics lies only
the Schrdinger equation [5], which is the fundamental
equation governing the electron. According to quantum
theory, it is the electromagnetic interaction (by the
exchange of photons) which hold electrons and nuclei
together in the atoms.
But, up to now, quantum theory never provides a practical
model of how electron and nuclei can absorb and emit
photons.
In this paper, we investigate the energy relationship of
electron in the hydrogen atom. Signifcantly, we fnd
a process of perfect transformation of two forms of
energy (kinetic and feld energy) inside the atom and
the conservation of energy in the system. By applying
the principle of wave-particle duality and comparing
to known results of the macroscopic harmonic LC
oscillator and microscopic photon, we are assured that
electron kinetic energy in fact is a kind of magnetic
energy and the atom is a natural microscopic LC
oscillator. Moreover, the mixed mechanism (classical
LC circuits / quantum wave particle duality) turns
out to have remarkably rich and physical properties
which can used to describe some important quantum
principles and phenomena, for instance, polarization of
photon, Zeeman effect, Selection rules, the electrons
mass and spin, zero point energy (ZPE), the Pauli
exclusion principle.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION AND
CONVERSION IN HYDROGEN ATOM
Classically, as shown in fgure 1, the hydrogen atom
consists of one electron in orbit around one proton with
the electron being held in place via the electric Coulomb
force. Equation of motion is

e
r
m u
r
e
2
0
2
2
4

(1)
where m
e
is mass of electron. Eq. 1 can be rewritten in
the form of kinetic energy E
k
and feld energy E
f
(stored
in the capacitor of hydrogen atom) as follows:

e
C
m u
r
e
2
2
2
1
2
(2)
+e
C
r
=4
0
r
m
e
u
-e
r
Figure 1. The diagram illustrating the hydrogen atom.
where C
r
=4
0
r is the capacitance of the hydrogen
system. Thus the total energy of the hydrogen system
is given by
T m u
e
r
e
C
total e
r

1
2 4 2
2
2
0
2
(3)
It should be pointed out that Eq. 2 and 3 are the foundation
of our study. These two equations together indicate a
process of perfect periodically transformation of two
forms of energy (kinetic energy
E m u
k e
1
2
2
and feld
energy E
e
C
f
r
2
2
inside the atom and the conservation
of energy in the system
E E E
total f k
(4)
Recall the macroscopic harmonic LC oscillator where two
forms of energy, the maximum feld energy E
Q
C
f

0
2
2
of
the capacitor C (carrying a charge Q
o
) and the maximum
magnetic energy
E
I
L
m

0
2
2
of the inductor L, are
mutually exactly interconvertible (
E E E
total f k

) with
a exchange periodic T LC 2 . And for a microscopic
photon (electromagnetic wave), the maximum field
energy
E
f

1
2
0 0
2
E
and the maximum magnetic energy
E
m

1
2
0 0
2
H also satisfy E E E
total f k
(See appendix
A about E E
f m
).
Based on the above energy relationship for three totally
different systems and the requirement of the electromagnetic
interaction (by exchanging photon) between electron and
nuclei, we assure that the kinetic energy of electron (Eq. 2)
is a kind of magnetic energy and the hydrogen atom is a
natural microscopic LC oscillator.
26
In 2000, a multinational team of physicists had observed
for the frst time a process of internal conversion between
bound atomic states when the binding energy of the
converted electron becomes larger than the nuclear
transition energy [11, 12]. This observation indicate
that energy can pass resonantly between the nuclear
and electronic parts of the atom by a resonant process
similar to that which operates between an inductor and
a capacitor in an LC circuit. These experimental results
can be considered a conclusive evidence of reliability of
our LC mechanism.
Here raise an important question: how can the electron
function as an excellent microscopic inductor?
Figure 2. A free electron moving along a helical orbit with
a helical pitch of de Broglie wavelength
e
.
The answer lies in the intrinsic wave-particle duality nature
of electron. In our opinion, the wave-particle nature [7]
of electron is only a macroscopic behavior of the intrinsic
helical motion of electron within its world.
CHIRALITY AND INDUCTON
OF FREE ELECTRON
In 1923, Broglie suggested that all particles, not just
photons, have both wave and particle properties [5]. The
momentum wavelength relationship for any material
particles was given by
h p / (5)
where is called de Broglie wavelength, h is Plancks
constant [1] and p the momentum of the particle. The
subsequent experiments established the wave nature
of the electron [9, 10]. Eq. 5 implies that, for a particle
moving at high speed, the momentum is large and the
wavelength is small. In other words, the faster a particle
moves, the shorter is its wavelength. Furthermore, it should
be noted that any confnement of the studied particle will
shorten the and help to enhance the so-called quantum
confnement effects.
As shown in fgure 2 (a) and (b), based on Eq. 5 and the
demanding that the electron would be a microscopic
inductor, we propose that a free electron can move along
a helical orbit (the helical pitch is de Broglie wavelength
e
) of left-handed or right-handed. In this paper, the
corresponding electrons are called Left-hand and
Right-hand electron which are denoted by Chirality
Indexes S = 1 and S = 1, respectively. Hence, the electron
can now be considered as a periodic-motion quantized
inductive particle which is called inducton (see fgure 2).
Moreover, the particle-like kinetic energy of electron
can be replaced with a dual magnetic energy carried by
a inducton. Therefore, we have
E m u L I
k e e

1
2
1
2
2 2
(6)
where u is the axial velocity of the helical moving electron
and L
e
is the inductance of the quantized inducton.
The above relation indicates that the mass of electron
is associated with an amount of magnetic energy. From
fgure 2, the electric current, for one de Broglie wavelength,
is given by
I
eu
e
(7)
From Eq. 7, it is important to note that the electric current
should be defned within an integral number of de Broglie
27
wavelength. Hence, the electric current I
eu
r
2
(where
r is the electronic orbital radius in the hydrogen atom),
which was widely used in the semiclassical Bohr model,
may be physically invalid. Collecting Eq. 6 and 7 together,
we have the inductance of single inducton
L
m
e
e
e e

2
2
(8)
Then the dual nature of electron can be uniquely determined
by L
e
, the periodic T (or frequency f
T
u
e

1
), the initial
phase
0
and the chirality (S = 1 or S = 1).
ATOMIC SPECTRA OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Quantized radius and energy by the application of
helical electron orbit to the hydrogen atom (fgure
2), we can explain the stability of the atom but also
give a theoretical interpretation of the atomic spectra.
Figure 3 shows four possible kinds of stable helical
electron orbits in hydrogen atom, and each subgraph
corresponds to a electron of different motion manner
within the atom. The electrons can be distinguished by
the following two aspects. First consider the chirality
of electron orbits, as shown in fgure 3, the electrons
of fgure 3(a) and (c) are Left-hand labelled by S = 1,
while electrons of fgure 3(b) and (d) are Right-hand
labelled by S = 1. Secondly consider the direction of
electron orbital magnetic moment L, fgure 3(a) and (b)
show that the L are in the Z direction (Up) while (c)
and (d) in the Z direction (Down), the corresponding
electrons are labelled by J = 1 and J = 1, respectively,
here J is called Magnetic Index. Hence, the electrons of
different physical properties become distinguishable,
they are Up Left-hand (ULH) electron (J = 1, S = 1),
Up Right-hand (URH) electron (J = 1, S = 1), Down
Left-hand (DLH) electron (J = 1, S = 1) and Down
Right-hand (DRH) electron (J = 1, S = 1).
As shown in fgure 3(a), the helical moving electron
around the orbit mean radius r can now be regarded as a
quantized inducton of
r
, thus the hydrogen atom is a
natural microscopic LC oscillator.
We consider that the physical properties of the hydrogen
atom can be uniquely determined by these natural LC
parameters. To prove that our theory is valid in explaining
the structure of atomic spectra, we study the quantized
orbit radius and the quantized energy of hydrogen atom
and make a comparison between our results of LC
mechanism and the known results of quantum theory.
For the system of
r
, the LC parameters of the hydrogen
atom is illustrated in fgure 3. Then the LC resonant
frequency is

r
r r
L C
1
2
(9)
Recall the well-known relationship E=hv
r
, we have

E h
e
r
r

2
0
8
(10)
Combining Eq. 9 and Eq. 10 gives

r e
h
e
r m
2
0
/ (11)
Then the stable electron orbits are determined by

2
r
n
r
, (n = 1, 2, 3 ), (12)
where n is called Principal oscillator number. The
integer n shows that the orbital allow integer number
of induction of the de Broglie wavelength
r
. From
Eq. 11 and Eq. 12, the quantized electron orbit mean
radius is given by
Figure 3. The quadruple degenerate stable helical electron
or-bits in hydrogen atom.
28
r
h
m e
n a n
n
e

0
2
2
2
0
2
(13)
where
0
is the Bohr radius. And the quantized energy
is

E
e
r
m e
h n
R
hc
n
n
n
e
H

2
0
4
0
2 2 2 2
8
8
1

(14)
where R
H
is the Rydberg constant. Surprisingly, the
results of Eq. 13 and 14 are in excellent agreement with
Bohr model [3]. Besides, taking fgure 3 into account, we
can conclude that the quantized energies of Eq. 14 are
quadruple degenerate.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In conclusion, we have found a process of perfect
transformation of two forms of energy (kinetic and field
energy) inside the hydrogen atom and the conservation of
energy in the system. Then, we have shown that the helical
moving electron can be regarded as a inductive particle
(inducton) while atom is regarded as a microscopic LC
oscillator, then the indeterministic quantum phenomena
can be well explained by the deterministic classical theory.
For a microscopic photon (electromagnetic wave), the
maximum field energy E
f

1
2
0 0
2
E and the maximum
magnetic energy E
m

1
2
0 0
2
H are connected so E = H i
(see equation (A11) of appendix A). The vector Poyting
vanishes and the Hydrogen atom does no radiate and it
is stable. In particular, with this approach we can show
another phenomena such how a pairing Pauli electron
can move closely and steadily in a DNA-like double
helical electron orbit. Moreover, we can have pointed
out that the mass of electron, the ZPE and what has
been called the intrinsic electron spin are all really the
quantum confinement effects of the intrinsic chirality
of the electron of helical motion.
We have shown that the quantum mechanism is nothing
but an electromagnetic theory (with the radius of the
helical orbit r
e
0 ) of the LC/wave-particle duality
mixed mechanism. Our mixed mechanics force us to
rethink the nature and the nature of physical world.
We believe all elementary particles, similar to photon
and electron, are only some different types of energy
representation.
Though, the standard quantum mechanics nature is
intrinsically probabilistic, permitting only predictions
about probabilities of the occurrence of an event.
Nevertheless, one century after its birth, it still presents
many unclarifed issues at its very foundations. Starting
from an Einsteins work [13], many attempts have been
devoted to build a deterministic theory reproducing all
the results of quantum mechanics. The latter include
the de Broglie-Bohms hidden variable theory, the most
successful attempt in this sense [14]. Recently, a frst
experimental test of de Broglie-Bohm theory against
standard quantum mechanics was reported [15]. In our
study, it has been shown defnitely that the electron
follows a perfectly defned trajectory in its motion,
which confrms the de Broglie-Bohms prediction. Also
in our work, it is found that the known wave-particle
duality can be best manifested by showing that the wave
motion associated with a electron is just the phenomenon
of its complex helical motion in real space. Therefore,
the wave-particle duality should lie at the heart of the
quantum universe.
We are now more and more convinced that the universe
was built in the simplest manner and all things in it are
unique and defnitive. As Albert Einstein one said, God
does not play dice with the universe. Of course, a more
clear understanding of microscopic world is still of the
greatest challenge.
APPENDIX A
It is generally believed that in transverse electromagnetic
waves electric feld E and magnetic feld B are always
perpendicular to each other. In this Letter we show that,
however, a general class of transverse electromagnetic
waves with EB exists in a chiral media. We show how to
obtain these waves in general and give example in vacuum
and plasma . All these waves carry magnetic helicity.
In a cold collision less chiro-plasma, the magnetostatic
mode [16, 17] of this class becomes the more familiar
force-free feld + B B k k k T ,
0
2
where T is the
chiral parameter. We consider transverse electromagnetic
waves in a uniform medium. These transverse waves can
be described by

B F ,

(A1)

E
F

1
c t
,
(A2)
29
in which the vector potential F satisfes F=0 and the
wave equation
+

F
F
j J
1
2
2
2
4
c t
c
( ) ++ (A3)
Here

j E
,
,
(A4)
where
,

is the conductivity tensor operator of the
medium under consideration, After Fourier analysis in
time, we have

( )
( ) F F
2 2
0 / c K
,
(A5)
with the dielectric tensor

,
,
,
K I i ( ) ( ) 4 / . (A6)
For simplicity, we consider only cases where
,
K ( )
is
independent of wavelength. We frst look at the Hydrogen
atom in vacuum =0, T=/c

and j J ++ = 0 and
Eq (A3) becomes

+
( )

2
0
2
0 k
k
F
(A7)
with
2
0
2 2
k c
. This waves equation allows the well
known linear polarized plane waves with E B F | | [18].
For every solution of Eq. (A5), it is straightforward to
show that
F A A
k k
x
k
+ k
0
-1
(A8)
satisfes not only Eq. (A5) but also

F F
k
k
k
.
(A9)
For those vector potentials F,Tk
0
1 satisfying Eq. (A7),
the electric feld E and magnetic feld B are parallel to each
other and both are perpendicular to the vector k
0
. Therefore,
for every plane wave solution, a wave solution with E B |
can be constructed with k ( ) k
0
0 0 1 , , , so

F
( )
A k z k z t sin , cos , cos ,
0 0
0

E ( ) ( )
A c k z k z t / sin , cos , sin ,
0 0
0

and

B
( )
k A k z k z t
0 0 0
0 sin , cos , cos .

This solution corresponds to two circularly polarized
waves [16] propagating opposite to each other in such a
way that their Poynting vectors are cancelled out, so

E B = H = ic i
(A10)
Therefore, a single helical photon with energy h carries
a magnetic helicity of hc, and
E E E E
f o m

E H
E H
1
2
1
2
0 0
2
0
2
(A11)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank to Instituto de Alta
Investigacin (IAI) for the support of this work.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Planck. Ann. Phys. Vol. 1, p. 69. 1900.
[2] A. Einstein. Ann. Phys. Vol. 17, p. 132. 1905.
[3] N. Bohr, Phil. Mag. Vol. 26, p. 576. 1913.
[4] O. Stern, Z. Phys. Vol. 2, p. 49. 1920.
[5] E. Schrodinger. Ann. Phys. Vol. 79, p. 361.
1923.
[6] L. de Broglie, Phil. Mag. Vol. 47, p. 446. 1924.
[7] W. Pauli. Z. Phys. Vol. 31, p. 373. 1924.
[8] W. Heisenberg Z. Phys. Vol. 43, p. 172. 1927.
30
[9] G.P. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vol. 117, p. 600.
1928.
[10] C.N. Yang, Selection Rules for the Dematerialization
of a Particle into Two Photons, Phys. Rev. Vol. 77,
pp. 242-245. 1950.
[11] T. Carreyre. Phys. Rev. C 62. 2000.
[12] S. Kishimoto. Phys. Rev. Lett. Vol. 85, p. 1831.
2000.
[13] F. Reines and W. H. Sobel. Test of the Pauli
Exclusion Principle for Atomic Electrons. Phys.
Rev. Lett. Vol. 32, p. 954. 1974.
[14] D. Bohm. Phys. Rev. Vol. 85, p. 166. 1952.
[15] G. Brida. J. Phys. B 35, p. 4751. 2002.
[16] C. Chu and T. Ohkawa. Phys Rev. Lett. 48, p. 837.
1982.
[17] H. Torres-Silva. Chiro-plasma surface waves.
A. Priou et al editors: Advances in Complex
Electromagnetics Materials, Kruwer Academic
Pub. Vol. 28, pp. 249-258. 1997.
[18] H. Torres-Silva. Pramana Journal of Physics.
Vol. 48, p. 67. 1997.
H. Torres-Silva: Maxwells theory with chiral currents
31
MAXWELLS THEORY WITH CHIRAL CURRENTS
TEORA DE MAXWELL CON CORRIENTES QUIRALES
H. Torres-Silva
1
Recibido el 5 de septiembre de 2007, aceptado el 28 de noviembre de 2007
Received: September 5, 2007 Accepted: November 28, 2007
RESUMEN
El contenido de energa y momento de un campo electromagntico puede ser expresado enteramente, en trminos de los
campos a travs del tensor energa momento, sin mencin de las fuentes que crean los campos. Este tensor es defnido
introduciendo corrientes quirales. En el caso de sin fuerza se tiene T
00
= 0 y E x B = 0. Este mtodo permite una muy
simtrica derivacin del contenido de energa y momento de los campos con E||B. Esta confguracin es esencial para
la unifcacin del electromagnetismo y la gravedad, obteniendo una confguracin de fuerza cero para el electrn. Para
obtener esta unifcacin se discute la geometrizacin de Rainich bajo condiciones quirales.
Palabras clave: Corrientes quirales, geometrizacin de Rainich, tensor energa momento, unifcacin.
ABSTRACT
The energy and momentum content of an electromagnetic feld can be expressed entirely in terms of the felds through
the energy-momentum tensor with no mention of the sources creating the felds. This tensor is defned such that chiral
currents are introduced. In the case of free force we have T
00
= 0 and

E x B = 0. This approach allows for a very symmetric
derivation of the energy and momentum content of the felds with

E||B. This confguration is essential to the unifcation of
electromagnetism and gravity, obtaining a force-free confguration for the electron. To obtain this unifcation the Rainich
geometrization under chiral conditions is discussed.
Keywords: Chiral currents, Rainich geometrization, energy-momentum tensor, unifcation.
1
INTRODUCTION
Although its existence in this region of the universe
has yet to be confrmed, magnetic charge has a strong
theoretical and pedagogical history from Gilberts
initial magnetic theory to present day unifed theories.
Maxwells equations for electromagnetic theory have
source terms for electric charges and currents, but none
for their magnetic counterparts. This, of course, refects
the experimental fact that magnetic monopoles have
never been discovered [1]. Students however, should
not be sheltered from the possible existence of magnetic
monopoles. For example, grand unifed theories, by
defnition, admit the existence of magnetic monopoles,
and their absence represents a challenge for particle
physicists and cosmologists alike [2].
Probably the most famous theoretical use of magnetic
monopoles is the Dirac quantization condition [3]. The
absence of magnetic source terms from Maxwells equations
allows the introduction of the electromagnetic potential,
which takes on a fundamental role in the quantum theory
of electrodynamics. Diracs argument then proceeds by
requiring the potential to be well defned even in a theory
with magnetic monopoles, leading to the quantization
of the product of the fundamental electric and magnetic
charges.
The classical theory of electromagnetism can be formulated
using the felds themselves as the fundamental objects
and there is no need to invoke the potential formalism.
This then leaves the obvious lack of symmetry between
the dynamical and non dynamical Maxwell equations
32
that can naturally be flled by postulating the existence
of magnetic source terms, thus making all of Maxwells
equations dynamical [4, 5].
This short note is intended to show a symmetric derivation
of the electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor from the
Lorentz force law and Maxwells equations, extended to include
chiral magnetic as well as chiral electric source terms.
In section 2 we briefly review Maxwells theory of
electromagnetism with both electric and magnetic charges
and currents displaying its full theoretical symmetry. The
energy momentum tensor is defned in section 3 and its usual
form is shown to follow naturally from a theory with both
electric and magnetic chiral currents. In section 4, we give
the Rainich geometrization under chiral conditions. We
close with some discussion of our derivation in connection
with unifcation of electromagnetism and gravity.
We will use Gaussian units and a diagonal space-time metric
g
v
with g g g g
00 11 22 33
1. Greek indices will take
the values 0 through 3 and Roman indices 1 through 3.
MAXWELLS THEORY WITH CHIRAL
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CURRENT
The equations of electrodynamics can be extended to include
chiral magnetic and electric current into Ampres law
and Faradays law respectively. I will use the subscripts
e and m to distinguish between the electric and magnetic
charges and currents. In 3-vector notation Maxwells
equations for the case of chiral approach [9] without
charges and monopoles (
e
, J
e
,
m
, J
m
= 0 ) are:
E 0 (1a)

B
E
E
1
c t
imc
h
(1b)

B 0
(1c)

+

E
B
B
1
c t
imc
h
(1d)
The Lorentz invariance of the theory can be made manifest
by combining the felds into the usual electromagnetic
feld tensor F
v

F F F E F B
i
i
ij
ijk k

, ,
0
(
ijk
is the totally antisymmetric Levi-Civita symbol.) The frst
pair of Maxwells equations (1a) and (1b) then become

F
x
c
J
imc
E
e e

4
h
(2)
Where J c J
e e e

( )
, is the chiral electric 4-current. The
electric continuity equation follows from the antisymmetry
of F
v
.
The second pair of Maxwells equations can be written
in 4-vector notation by defning the pseudotensor
,
the dual of F
v

F F

1
2
(3)
v
is the completely antisymmetric pseudotensor, = +1~ ,1
or 0, if is an even, odd, or no, permutation of 0123.
Equations (1c) and (1d) then read:

h
F
x
c
J
imc
B
m m

4
(4)
Where
J c J
m m m

( )
,
i s t he chi ral magnet ic
4-current.
Thus the specifcation of the divergence of an antisymmetric
tensor and the divergence of its dual completely
determines the tensor (and hence in this case, the felds)
is a generalization of Helmholtzs theorem to four
dimensional space time [8], the divergence of the dual
playing the role of the curl.
The Lorentz force per unit volume on an assembly of
charges is given by:
f
c
J F J F
e m
+
( )
1
(5)
Before we dive into the derivation of the full energy-
momentum tensor, we will take a moment to derive
Poyntings theorem from (5) using 3-vector notation.
The zeroth component of (5) is:

cf
e m
0
+ J E J B
which is the work done by the felds on the charges per
unit volume per unit time. Using (1b) and (1d) to eliminate
the currents leads to:

cf
c
t
c
0 2 2
4 8

_
,
+
( )
_
,

E B E B
which has the interpretation of: the energy per unit volume
per unit time gained by the charges is equal to the energy
lost by the felds through the divergence of the Poynting
vector and the time rate of change of the energy density.
33
Note that the electric and magnetic currents were treated
on equal footing, as were equations (1b) and (1d).
We now turn to the derivation of the full energy-momentum
tensor. We will use 4-vector notation, which may hide
some of the details. If so, the reader is encouraged to
mimic the above calculation using the 3-vector part of
(5) to derive the Maxwell stress tensor.
THE ENERGY-MOMENTUM TENSOR
A frequent approach to defning the energy-momentum
tensor for the electromagnetic feld is to generalize the
defnition of the Hamiltonian density to a covariant form
[7]. This leads to what is called the canonical energy-
momentum tensor. This has a number of draw backs for
our current purpose. Firstly, the Hamiltonian approach
requires the defnition of the potential, which we do not
wish to make and secondly, the canonical form is not
symmetric (nor gauge invariant). An alternate method
[8], and the approach taken here, of determining the
energy-momentum tensor T
v
, is to defne it such that the
Lorentz force per unit volume (5) is the 4-divergence of
the energy-momentum tensor

f
T
x
(6)
In this note, however, I wish to emphasize the fact that,
with the introduction of magnetic source terms, each of
Maxwells equations is treated on equal footing, and the
symmetric form for

T
v
follows naturally. In a theory with
no magnetic charges only the frst term in equation (5)
exists, and Maxwells dynamical equations (2) are used
to write the source terms in terms of the derivatives of
the felds. The remaining Maxwell equations (4) are then
only used as no more than mathematical relations during
the derivation.
If magnetic charges are admitted to the theory the
electric and magnetic source terms are removed from
the Lorentz force law (5) using Maxwells equations (2)
and (4), giving

f F
F
x
F
F
x

_
,
1
4

Substituting in the defnition of the dual feld tensor (3)
and using the identity
g g g g g g g g g g

+ +

(

)
g g g g g g g g g
gives

f F
F
x
F
x
F g F
F
x

1
4
1
2
_
,
which can then be written as a total divergence

f
x
F F g F F
_
,
1
4
1
4

By comparing this with (6), the symmetric energy-
momentum tensor is obtained

T F F g F F

_
,
1
4
1
4

This ends the calculation, but it is instructive to write
out the components of this tensor in the more familiar
3-vector forms whose physical interpretation are given
by integrating (6):
Energy density: +
( )
T
00 2 2
1
8
E B
Poynting vector:
( )
cT cT
c
i i
i
0 0
4
E B
Maxwell stress tensor:
T T E E B B
ij ji
i j i j ij
+ +
( )
_
,
1
4
1
2
2 2
E B
In the special case where E=iB, we have T
00
= 0 and

( )
cT cT
c
i i
i
0 0
4
0
E B .
THE RAINICH GEOMETRIZATION
UNDER CHIRAL CONDITIONS
In the literature, the algebraic Rainich conditions are
obtained using special methods as spinors, duality rotations,
eigenvalue problem for certain 4 x 4 matrices or artifcial
tensors of 4
th
order. Here we show an elementary procedure
for to deduce an identity satisfed by determined class
of second order tensors in arbitrary R
4
, from which the
Rainich expressions are immediate. This result is applied
to chiral conditions.
34
Rainich [10-15] proposed a unifed feld theory for the
geometrization of the electromagnetic feld, whose basic
relations can be obtained from the Einstein-Maxwell feld
equations under the Einstein notation:

G R Rg T
T g F F F F g

1
2
1
4
(7)
where R
v
, R = R
and F
are the Ricci tensor, scalar

curvature and Faraday tensor [10], respectively.
If in (1) we contract with we fnd that:
R = 0 (8)
then (1) adopts the form:
R g F F F F g

+
1
4
(9)
used by several authors [10-15] to show the identity:
R R R R g
ab
ab

1
4
( ) (10)
If F
is known, then (9) is an equation for g

v
and our
situation belongs to general relativity. The Rainich theory
represents the inverse process: To search a solution of (8)
and (10) (plus certain differential restrictions), and after
with (9) to construct the corresponding electromagnetic
feld; from this point of view F

is a consequence of the
space time geometry.
The essence of the chiral argument advanced here is
that real world-space is not euclidean and that space is
generally curved into the time dimension, consistent with
the theory of general relativity. The curvature may not be
suffcient to become obvious in a local context. However,
it is suffcient to break the time-reversal symmetry that
seems to characterize the laws of physics. Not only does
it cause perpetual time with respect to all mass, but
actually identifes a fxed direction for this It creates an
arrow of time and thereby eliminates an inconsistency
in the logic of physics: how reversible microscopic
laws can underpin an irreversible macroscopic world.
General curvature of space breaks the time-reversal
symmetry and produces chiral space, manifest in the
right-hand force rule of electromagnetism. The presence
of matter causes space to curl up and curvature of space
generates matter.
The fact that most other fundamental laws of physics do
not refers the chirality of space, nor the arrow of time,
confrms that the curvature on a local scale is barely
detectable.
Now under chiral conditions

F
x
0
,
F
x
F
x
*
0

with,

, ,
*
4

F F and + / / ( ) t t T 1 ,
the Maxwell mixed tensor is
T F F F F
Maxwell
u
1
]
1
1
4
1
4
(11a)
T F F F F
Maxwell
u u
1
]
1
8
* *
(11b)
with iF F
u u
*
and iF F

*
. In this case we have
T
v Maxwell
= 0, then equation (4) is
R R R R g F F F F g
ab
ab
ab
ab

1
4
1
4
( ) ( ) (12)
Only in this case we have a complete unifcation, ie,
a unified field theory between the gravity and the
electromagnetism
DISCUSSION
The energy and momentum content of an electromagnetic
feld can be expressed entirely in terms of the felds
through the energy-momentum tensor with no mention
of the sources creating the felds. This tensor is defned
such that its divergence gives the Lorentz force. That
is, any change in the energy and momentum of a charge
distribution is given by the (negative of the) change in the
energy and momentum of the felds. In the case of free
force we have T
00
= 0

and

E x B = 0. Here there is no
existence of magnetic charges, because they have never
been found in nature. This approach allows for a very
symmetric derivation of the energy and momentum content
of the felds with

E||B. This confguration is essential to
the unifcation of electromagnetism and gravity, obtaining
a force free confguration for the electron [16]. To obtain
this unifcation, the Rainich geometrization under chiral
conditions is discussed.
35
REFERENCES
[1] B. Cabrera. First results from a superconductive
device for moving magnetic monopoles. Phys.
Rev. Lett. Vol. 48, pp. 1378-1380. 1982.
[2] A.S. Goldhaber and W.P. Trower. Resource letter
MM-1: Magnetic monopoles. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 58,
pp. 429-439. 1990.
[3] P.A.M. Dirac. Quantized singularities in the
electromagnetic feld. Proc. R. Soc. London A133,
pp. 60-72. 1931.
[4] J.A. Heras. Jefmenkos, Formulas with Magnetic
Monopoles and the Linard-Wiechert Fields of
a Dual-Charged Particle. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 62,
pp. 525-531. 1994.
[5] W.B. Zeleny. Symmetry in electrodynamics: A
classical approach to magnetic monopoles. Am.
J. Phys. Vol. 59, pp. 412-415. 1991.
[6] D.H. Kobe. Helmholtz theorem for antisymmetric
second-rank tensor felds and electromagnetism
with magnetic monopoles. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 52,
pp. 354-358. 1984.
[7] J.D. Jackson. Classical Electrodynamics. 3rd ed.,
Section 12.10. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
1999.
[8] M.A. Heald and J.B. Mar ion. Classical
Electromagnetic Radiation. 3rd ed. Section 14.12.
Saunders College Publishing. Fort Worth. 1995.
electrodynamic. URLs: http://www.chiral.cl
[10] G.Y. Rainich. Electrodynamics in the general
relativity theory. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. Vol. 27,
p. 106. 1925.
[11] C.W. Misner and J.A. Wheeler. Classical Physics
as geometry. Ann. Phys. Vol. 2, p. 525. 1957.
[12] J. Lpez-Bonilla, G. Ovando and J. Rivera. Intrinsic
geometry of curves and the Bonnors equation, Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci. Math. Sci. Vol. 107, p. 43. 1997.
[13] L. Witten. Geometry of gravitation and electromagnetism,
Phys. Rev. Vol. 115, p. 206. 1959.
[14] D. Lovelock. The algebraic Rainich conditions.
Gen. Rel. Grav. Vol. 4, p. 149. 1973.
[15] R. Penney. Duality invariance and Riemannian
geometry. J. Math. Phys. Vol. 5, p. 1431. 1964.
[16] H. Torres-Silva. Electrodinmica quiral: eslabn
para la unifcacin del electromagnetismo y la
gravitacin. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
36
CHIRAL FIELD IDEAS FOR A THEORY OF MATTER
IDEAS DE CAMPO QUIRAL PARA UNA TEORA DE LA MATERIA
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo, para el desarrollo de una teora unifcada de campos electromagnticos y gravitacionales se usa un mtodo
quiral. Los fotones que satisfacen las ecuaciones de Maxwell, para una onda electromagntica se consideran como componentes
fsicos bsicos. El objetivo de esta teora es unifcar el fenmeno de la invarianza relativstica, mecnica de onda y la creacin
del par electrn positrn, con las ecuaciones de Maxwell, para obtener una teora de la materia totalmente electromagntica.
Considerando esta teora se discuten algunos aspectos de los sistemas GPS (Global Positioning Systems).
Palabras clave: Potencial quiral, teora de la materia, onda-partcula.
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a chiral approach is used for developing a unifed theory of electromagnetic and gravity felds. The photons which
satisfy Maxwells equations for an electromagnetic wave are taken as the basic physical components. The goal of the theory
is to unify the phenomena of relativistic invariance, wave mechanics and pair creation with Maxwells equation to obtain an
electromagnetic feld theory of matter. With this theory some aspects of GPS (Global Positioning Systems) systems are discussed.
Keywords: Chiral potential, matter theory, wave-particle.
1 Instituto de Alta Investigacin. Universidad de Tarapac. Antofagasta N 1520. Arica, Chile. E-mail: htorres@uta.cl
INTRODUCTION
A chiral approach is suggested for developing a unifed
theory of electromagnetic and gravity felds. Photons which
satisfy Maxwells equations for an electromagnetic wave
are taken as the basic physical component. The extent of
the photon in its direction of travel permits a part of the
photon to modify the geodetic of another part.
A photon with a self disturbed orbit, for which a centroid
can be defined, has the key property by which matter
differs from light. Matter has a speed which is less than
that of light. The centroid of the orbit has a speed which
is less than the speed of the photon which travels with
the speed of light. We refer to this chiral approach as the
electromagnetic field theory of matter.
Chiral approach means that our Universe is observable area
of basic space-time where temporal coordinate is positive
and all particles bear positive masses (energies). The
mirror Universe is an area of the basic space-time, where
from viewpoint of regular observer temporal coordinate
is negative and all particles bear negative masses. Also,
from viewpoint of our-world observer the mirror Universe
is a world with reverse fow of time, where particles travel
from future into past in respect to us. The two worlds are
separated with the membrane - an area of space-time
inhabited by light-like particles that travel along light-like
right or left-handed (isotropic-chiral) spirals.
The goal of the theory is to unify the phenomena of relativistic
invariance, wave mechanics and pair creation with Maxwells
equation for electromagnetic waves. Section 2 enumerates
advantages of an electromagnetic feld theory of matter. Section
3 considers how the de Broglie relation and the Schrodinger
equation might be derived from Maxwells wave equation.
Section 4 treats the relation between electromagnetic and
inertial energy. Section 5 comments on parity failure in
weak interactions. Appendix A derives an application on
GPS satellites using chiral potential.
H. Torres-Silva: Chiral feld ideas for a theory of matter
37
ADVANTAGES OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD THEORY OF MATTER
An electromagnetic feld theory should not be confused
with an electric charge theory of matter which is not
relativistically invariant [1]. An electromagnetic feld,
however, is relativistically invariant from the start.
One simplicity is that special relativity is not a separate
hypothesis. The Lorentz contraction of electromagnetic
fields was realised before special relativity. If matter is
composed only of electromagnetic fields then matter is
automatically Lorentz invariant. In particular, matter
cannot exceed the speed of light.
Another area of simplicity is pair creation where two
electromagnetic felds (photons) produce an electron and
a positron. If the particles are electromagnetic felds, then
pair creation is like the transformation of electromagnetic
feld from one state of motion to another. We suggest
since masses are unique that this should be thought of
as the construction of a quantized state of the EM wave
(i.e. standing wave a de Broglie type phase relation) [2].
The distinction between matter and antimatter would then
be sought as a natural law of conservation of a property
inherent in the separate initial photon and divided between
the particles. Such a difference is inherent the photon
polarization. For example, the photons can have right-
and left-handedness.
It should be further noted that a fast electron is like an
EM wave having a transverse EM feld with equal electric
magnetic feld energies. Also the momentum of fast
particles, like EM waves, is the energy divided by c.
The uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics would
also be more consistent with an electromagnetic theory
of matter. That is, particles which have an inherent
wave nature would be expected and not a surprise. Also,
quantized absorption of EM energy would not be viewed
as a charge accelerated by an electric feld but a merging
of two EM waves. The merged EM felds would have the
required frequency and wavelength to be the quantized
wave of the electron in the fnal state.
The appearance of the fne structure constant, = e
2
/hc,
in the ratio of the masses of fundamental particles would
be expected and not a coincidence as in the ratio of the
mass of the meson and the electron.
The development of an EM feld theory of matter requires
the accomplishment of at least two objectives, namely
(i) predict the Coulomb force between electron and
positron (etc.), and (ii) derive the Schrodinger equation
from Maxwells equation for an electromagnetic wave.
We suggest approaches to these objectives in the next
sections.
DERIVATION OF THE PARTICLE
WAVELENGTH FROM CHIRAL
POTENTIAL WAVES
We start with the potential vector equation.
Assuming e
jot
time dependence, Maxwells time-harmonic
equations [2] for isotropic, homogeneous, linear media
(without charges) are

E B j
0
(1)
H D j
0
(2)
B 0 (3)

D 0
(4)
Chirality is introduced into the theory by defning the
following constitutive relations to describe the isotropic
chiral medium [3]
D E E + T (5)

B H H +
(6)
Where the chirality factor indicates the degree of
chirality of the medium, and the y are permittivity
and permeability of the chiral medium, respectively. Since
D and E are polar vectors and B and H are axial vectors,
it follows that and are true scalars and T is a pseudo
scalar factor. This means that when the axes of a right-
handed Cartesian coordinate system are reversed to form
a left-handed Cartesian coordinate system, T changes in
sign whereas and remain unchanged.
Since B = 0 always, this conditions will hold identically
if B is expressed as the curl of a vector potential A since
the divergence of the curl of a vector is identically zero.
Thus
B A (7)
And A must be perpendicular to both and B and lie
in and x B plane. However, A is not unique since
only its components perpendicular to contribute to
the cross product. Therefore, A, the component of
38
A parallel to , must be specifed. The curl equation for
E, as in Equation, and Equation give x (E + jA) = 0
where the quantity in parentheses should be parallel to
and the curl of the gradient of a scalar function is
identically zero; so the general integral of the above
equation is

E A + j
0
(8)
Substituting Equation into Equation we obtain
+ A H H = B T (9)
Substituting Equation and Equation into Equation
gives
+
A E E j
T
k T
j
k T
T
o o

0
2 2
0
2 2
0
2
1 1 11
2 2
k T
o
B,
with k
0
T =
0
T/c. Placing the value of xE from equation
into the above equation, using the vector identity x x A
= ( A)
2
A and equation (8) enables us to write
the above equation as

+
+
+

( )
2 0
2
0
2 2
0
2
0
2 2
1
2
1
A A
A A
k
k T
T
k T
j

0
2
0
2 2
1
T
k T
_
,
(10)
Here A is arbitrary, so in order to specify A, for
unique A, we may defne a chiral Lorentz gauge

A j
k T

0
0
2 2
1
(11)
And eliminate the term in parentheses. Then Equation
will be simplifed to
+

2 0
2
0
2 2
0
2
2 2
1
2
1
0 A A A
k
k T
T
k T
o

( ) (12)
The solution of the potential vector equation can be
solved as follows:
Let

_
,

A

( c
x y z
ik ik
A A A
x ik
x z
x y z
0
oos )
( sin cos ) ( sin )

A
y ik A ik A z ik A
y
z x y
+
(13)
so equation (12) is expressed as
+
k k T k ik kT
ik kT k
2
0
2 2
0
2
0
2
0
2 2
1 2 0
2
( ) cos
cos
(( ) cos
sin (
1 2
0 2 1
0
2 2
0
2
0
2
0
2 2
+
k T k ik kT
ik kT k
_
,
_
,
k T k
A
A
A
x
y
z 0
2 2
0
2
0
)
The solution of the determinant is
k k T k c k k k T
2
0
2 2
0
2
0
2 2
0 0
2 2
1 1 ( ) / / (14)
for the longitudinal feld, and

+

+
k k T k k T
2
0
2 2
0
2
2
0
2 2 2 2
1 4 0 ( ) ) (sin cos )
kk k k T
0 0
1 / ( ) (15)
for the transverse felds.
Our approach to deriving the Schrodinger equation from
Maxwells equation starts with the assumption that an
electron is an electromagnetic ware travelling in a circular
orbit in the observers rest frame. We suggest that the orbit
is a geodetic in a space-time curved by the photons own
electromagnetic energy.
We note that the model of the self- trapped wave must look
like an electron to observers in all inertial frames. The
observer at rest only sees the static Coulomb feld. The
moving observer, with speed u, sees (i) some magnetic
feld from the current associated with the charged particle,
and (ii ) (the wave-motion of the particle with a wave-
length
m
= h/mu. For the observer whose speed relative
to the circulating photon approaches the velocity of light,
the photon appears as a photon. This is appropriate since
the electric and magnetic felds of a fast electron become
transverse as its speed approaches c.
From equation (14), where k k k T
0 0
2 2
1 / , if we
make k = /c, k
0
T =
0
T/c u/c then particle momentum
is consistent with the photon model. The observer with
39
speed u in the usual theory of special relativity notes that
the electron has energy [3].

E
m c
0
2
2
1
(16)
where = u/c =
0
T/c, and momentum

p
m u
0
2
1
(17)
From equations (16) and (17) as v approaches c and the
rest mass becomes a small part of the energy

p E c /
(18)
In special relativity the frequency transforms as the energy
and this is the correct expression for the momentum of a
photon. The momentum of a photon in the rest frame is
effectively zero because the geodetic closes on itself.
We will try to illustrate how the photon frequency can
lead to the appropriate particle wavelength for all inertial
observers. For the observer at rest with respect to the
circulating photon. The feld appears static, the period
is infnite, the frequency is zero, and the wavelength
infnite. At high speed we will show that the photons
wavelength in the observers frame is consistent with the
quantum mechanical expression for the corresponding
particle. We relate the photon energy hv
0
to the rest mass
of the electron m
0
using the special relativity relation
E=mc
2
, by.

h m c
0 0
2
0
h
(19)
and inverting equation (19)
h m c c v / /
0 0
(20)
In the limit of u c the matter wavelength is the wavelength
associated with the photon reduced by the usual special
relativity Lorentz contraction factor 1
2
.
Then using equations (20), (19) and (16) in order we
obtain

m
c
hc
mc
hc
E

0
2
0
2
2
1 1 / (21)
This result is the same as obtained from the theory of the
electron for v - c using Equation (17)

m
h
p
hc
E
hc
E

2
(22)
More generally, for any value of u from equations (19)
and (21)
p
h u
c

2
(23)
where h E mc m c
2
0
2 2
1 / . Defi ni ng a
wavelength related to the particle

m
h
p
c
u
c
u
c
u

2
0
2
1
(24)
In terms of frequencies from equation (24)

m
u
c
(25)
We interpret this result as follows. The electron has
intrinsically the frequency of its parent photon. The
observer going by at the speed of light sees the circulating
wave stretched out to its limit and associates the full
frequency, v, with the particle frequency.
The observer moving more slowly passes the nodes in
the EM wave more slowly and interprets this as a lower
frequency, v
m
<v . The observer at rest sees no change and
concludes v
m
=0. These frequencies are consistent with
the de Broglie wavelength for matter.
The Schrodinger equation describes the wave motion of
the centroid of a photon which is a solution of Maxwells
wave equations in a distorted space time.
A word is in order about the problem of interference patterns
of scattered electrons such as produced by the diffraction by
two slits in a barrier. Margenau [4]considers the diffculties
of this problem. He concludes that there are no known
interactions that can explain how an electron can go through
one slit and be appropriately scattered by the other.
An electromagnetic feld which acts like a particle, may
possible avoid this dilemma by either (i) the electric and
magnetic feld goings partly through each slit, or (ii)
having a scattering which differs from known interactions
because of the fuctuating EM feld properties of the
40
electron such as in our photon model. We think that the
second possibility is the correct explanation.
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTROMAGNETIC
AND INERTIAL ENERGY
In this section we relate the photon electromagnetic and
the elementary charge electric field energies with the
inertial and gravitational energies.
When an electron positron pair is created we distinguish
two changes in energy: (i) the electromagnetic feld energy
of the photons is transformed into the electric feld of the
pair, and (ii) the transformed photon which we recognise
as a particle has inertia with respect to the cosmology. By
special relativity the inertial energy per unit mass is c
2
.
The inertial mass relates to the electrical energy of the
charge by m
2
= e
2
/r. Now a more detailed discussion of
the effect of the cosmology on inertia and the gravitational
red shift are required to clarify the distinctions between
the four types of energy.
We assume, following E Mach, that the inertia depends
on the cosmology. That is, we take inertial energy equal
to the negative of the cosmological gravitational potential.
From general relativity, then, we assume

mc
m MG
R
k T
u
c
2
0
2 2
2
2
2
0
(26)
where M is the total mass of the universe (~10
56
gm),
R is the radius of the universe (~10
28
cm) and G is the
gravitational constant (0,67x10-8 dynecm
2
/gm
2
) [5-7].
Consequently, in pair creation, the inertial energy gained
is cancelled exactly by the loss of gravitational potential
energy. We note that equation (11) is independent of m.
We have assumed c
2
to be invariant and hence the
gravitational potential energy per unit mass must also
be independent of location in the cosmology. This is
consistent with the assumption that every location in the
cosmology senses the expansion of the cosmology in the
same way and that there is no distinguished location in
the cosmology.
The next important hypothesis is that the photon energy
does not change as it moves through the cosmology. This
concept must be distinguished from the dependence
of frequency on the local gravitational potential. We
use a subscript i to correspond to initial value, i.e. hv
i

is the photon energy when it is emitted by an atom
or produced as a result of pair annihilation. Now hv;
depends on the gravitational potential at the location
where it is emitted since for atomic radiation hv
i
e
4
m
i
/
h
2
and for pair radiation hv
i
= m
i
c
2
. In this way we see
that hv
i
m
i
, and both depend in the same way on the
gravitational potential. This is consistent with general
relativity [7]. In particular it agrees with the gravitational
red shift. For example, a photon radiated from the sun
has energy hv
s
m
s
, and the corresponding atom on the
earth has the transition energy hv
e
m
e
; v
s
is to the red
of v
e
as given by general relativity because the masses
are related by
m m
c
e s
1
2
2
(27)
where . is the difference in the gravitational potential
energy per unit mass.
Thus the photon energy hv
s
has not changed energy during
its travel from sun to earth.
This is the justification for the assumption that the
photon energy does not change as it moves through the
cosmology.
We now return to the relation between the electrical
energy and inertial energy and compare both with the
photon energy. The subscripts relating to location in the
gravity feld are retained
h m c e r
i i i

2 2
/ (28)
and we must subscript the particle radius for consistency.
Thus photons which are produced by annihilation
can only receate the correct amount of energy where
the gravitational potential is the same as at point of
origin. The problem can be solved by special relativity.
There are four energies with signifcant differences. A
photon can be transformed into an electron and both
photon and electron have equal and positive energy.
The photon energy does not change as it traverses the
cosmology. The particle energy depends on the local
cosmological metric. No net gravitational energy is
produced by the creation of the particle since the
gain of inertial energy is just cancelled by the loss in
gravitational energy.
As a particle traverses space the inertial energy is
always equal to the electrical energy of the particle
41
and the inertial energy is always cancelled by the
gravity energy.
PARITY
The photon model of the electron has a natural explanation
of the failure of refection symmetry (parity) in weal
interactions. Wigner [8] has given a phenomenological
discussion of the implication of the C
0
decay experiment
in which the spin of the is determined to be opposite
to its momentum. He points that the mirror image of an
electron is a positron.
We invoke the polarization of the photons the electron
positron pair. We assume that one particle has right-
handed polarization photon and the other a left- handed
one. Thus, the particles are mirror images as required. In
fact, it is the difference in handedness which distinguishes
two charge states.
APPENDIX A: RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS
ON CLOCKS ABOARD GPS SATELLITES
Consider a clock aboard a satellite orbiting the Earth,
such as a Global Positioning System (GPS) transmitter.
There are two major relativistic infuences upon its rate
of timekeeping: a special relativistic correction for its
orbital speed and a general relativistic correction for its
orbital altitude. Both of these effects can be treated at an
introductory level, making for an appealing application
of relativity to everyday life.
First, as observed by an earthbound receiver, the
transmitting clock is subject to time dilation due to its
orbital speed. From our results of chiral potential, (14), a
clock aboard a spaceship traveling at speed u runs slow
(compared to a stationary clock) by a factor of [9]

1
1 1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2

u
c
u
c
(A1)
provided u << c, as would be the case for a satellite. Thus
when one second of proper time elapses, the moving
clock loses u
2
/2c
2
= K/E
0
seconds, where K and E
0
are
the kinetic and rest energies of the clock, respectively.
Second, a clock at the higher gravitational potential of
orbit runs faster than a surface clock. The gravitational
potential energy of a body of mass m in Earths gravity
is U = mV, where V = Gm
E
/r is Earths gravitational
potential (at distance r from the center of the Earth of
mass m
E
). In the case of a photon, we replace m by E/c
2
,
where E = hf is the photons energy.
If the photon travels downward in Earths gravitational
feld, it therefore loses potential energy of (hf/c
2
)V
and gains an equal amount of kinetic energy hf. We
thereby deduce that the falling photon is gravitationally
blue-shifted by

f f
f
c
2
(A2)
(This expression can also be straightforwardly deduced
[10] using the equivalence principle to treat Earths
downward gravitational feld as an upward accelerating
frame, and then calculating the Doppler shift in the light
between emission high up and observation low down in
this moving frame.) If the clocks ticking is synchronized
to a light wave, the orbiting clock will be observed at
Earths surface to be ticking faster due to this gravitational
frequency shift. Therefore, when one second of Earth
time elapses, the clock at high altitude gains V/c
2
=
U/E
0
seconds, where U is the gravitational potential
energy of the clock.
The sum of the two relativistic effects can be compactly
expressed as

t K U
E

0
(A3)
where t is the time lost by the orbiting clock when a time
interval elapses on the surface-bound clock.
Here KU is the Lagrangian of the orbiting clock where
the reference level for the gravitational potential energy
is chosen to lie at Earths surface.
As a concrete example, lets calculate the size of these
two effects for a GPS satellite, located at an altitude of
r = 26,580 km, about four times Earths radius of r
E
=
6380 km. From Newtons second law, we have

a
F
m
v
r
Gm
r
v
gr
r
E E

2
2
2
2
(A4)
where Earths surface gravitational feldis g Gm r
E E
/
2

= 9.8 m/s2. Hence the fractional time loss due to the
satellites orbital speed is gr c
E
2 2
2 / per second, or 7.2
s/day. Meanwhile, the general relativistic fractional time
gain due to the satellites altitude is
42

V
c c
Gm
r
Gm
r
gr
c
r
r
E E
E
E E
2 2 2
1
1 +
1
]
1
( )
(A5)
which works out to be +45.6 s/day. Notice that the
gravitational effect is more than six times larger than
the speed effect: the dominant GPS correction is general,
not special relativistic! If we instead consider satellites
in progressively lower altitude orbits, their speeds will
increase according to Eq. (4), while the gravitational
potential difference in Eq. (5) will decrease. Eventually we
will reach an altitude at which the two corrections exactly
cancel, so that the satellites clock will run synchronously
with an earthbound clock [10, 11].
This occurs when

u
c
V
c
gr
r
gr
r
r
r r
E
E
E
E
2
2 2
2
2
2
1 1 5
( ) . (A6)
i.e., at an altitude of half an Earth radius.
SUMMARY
An outline has been presented of an electromagnetic field
theory for matter. The advantages of the theory are given
in section 2. Their seemingly distinct areas of physics see
unified with Maxwells equation for EM waves. They are
relativistic invariance, pair creation, and wave mechanics.
Light is relativistically invariant, hence, particles made
out of photon are relativistically invariant. If matter is
a form of electromagnetic energy, then pair creation is
a transformation from energy. If particles are made out
of photons they have an intrinsic wave nature and their
wave motion is expected.
In section 3 we elaborated on how the wave nature of
photon, which forms an electron, leads to wave mechanics
of the particle. The full frequency is approached as the
velocity of the particle, relative to the observer, approaches
the velocity of light.
In section 4, we gave the relation between the
electromagnetic and inertial energy. No energy is
added in pair creation: the electromagnetic energy
is transformed between photon and particle states.
The inertial energy is a property of the particle in the
cosmology. The cosmological gravitational potential is
the negative of the inertial energy so that these mutually
cancel. Therefore, no net inertial plus gravitational
energy is required for pair creation.
Section 5 pointed out that the mirror image property of
the positron and electron required by the failure of parity
conservation in weal interactions can be attributed to the
handedness of the photon which are transformed into the
electron positron pair.
REFERENCES
[1] H.A. Lorentz. The Theory of Electrons. B.G.
Teubner, Leipzig. 1909.
[2] H. Torres-Silva. New interpretation of the atomic
spectra of the hydrogen atom: a mixed mechanism
of classical LC circuits and quantum wave-particle
duality. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 N 1,
pp. 24-30. 2008.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[4] H Margenau. Open Vistas. Yale Univ. Press, New
Haven. 1961.
[5] N. Salingaros. Invariants of the electromagnetic
feld and electromagnetic waves. Am. J. Phys.
Vol. 53, pp. 361. 1985.
[6] C.W. Allen. Astrophysical Quantities. 3rd
ed. Athlone, London. 1973.
[7] A. Einstein. The Meaning of Relativity. Princeton
Univ. Press. Princeton, New Jersey. 1950.
[8] M. Gogberashvili, Octonionic version of Dirac
equations, International Journal of Modern Physics
A. Vol. 21 N 17, pp. 3513-3523. 2006.
[9] D.C. Giancoli. Physics for Scientists and Engineers.
3rd ed. Chap. 37. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ. 2000.
[10] N. Ashby. Relativity and the Global Positioning
System. Phys. Today. Vol. 55, pp. 41-47. May,
2002.
[11] S.P. Drake. The equivalence principle as a
stepping stone from special to general relativity.
Am. J. Phys. Vol. 74, pp. 22-25. January 2006.
H. Torres-Silva: The close relation between the Maxwell system and the dirac equation when the electric feld is parallel to the magnetic feld
43
THE CLOSE RELATION BETWEEN THE MAXWELL SYSTEM AND THE DIRAC
EQUATION WHEN THE ELECTRIC FIELD IS PARALLEL TO THE MAGNETIC FIELD
LA ESTRECHA RELACIN ENTRE EL SISTEMA DE MAXWELL Y LA ECUACIN
DE DIRAC, CUANDO EL CAMPO ELCTRICO ES PARALELO AL CAMPO MAGNTICO
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En el presente artculo se propone una simple igualdad que considera el operador de Dirac y los operadores de Maxwell
bajo un enfoque quiral. Esta igualdad establece una conexin directa entre las soluciones de los dos sistemas. Adems
se muestra que es vlida cuando una relacin muy natural se cumple entre la frecuencia de la onda electromagntica y
la energa de la partcula Dirac, si el campo elctrico
,
E es paralelo al campo magntico
,
H . Este anlisis se basa en la
forma cuaterninica de la ecuacin de Dirac y la forma cuaterninica de las ecuaciones de Maxwell. En ambos casos
las reformulaciones con cuaterniones son completamente equivalentes a la forma tradicional de los sistemas de Dirac y
Maxwell. Esta teora es una nueva interpretacin de la mecnica cuntica. Este trabajo prueba que la mecnica cuntica
representa la electrodinmica de ondas quirales curvilneas cerradas. Esto est enteramente de acuerdo con la moderna
interpretacin y resultados de la teora cuntica de campo.
Palabras clave: Cuaternin, ecuacin de Dirac, Sistema de Maxwell.
ABSTRACT
In the present article we propose a simple equality involving the Dirac operator and the Maxwell operators from a chiral
approach. This equality establishes a direct connection between solutions of the two systems. Moreover, we show that
the connection is valid when a fairly natural relationship between the frequency of the electromagnetic wave and the
energy of the Dirac particle is fulflled, if the electric feld
,
E is parallel to the magnetic feld
,
H . Our analysis is based
on the quaternionic form of the Dirac equation and on the quaternionic form of the Maxwell equations. In both cases
the quaternionic reformulations are completely equivalent to the traditional form of the Dirac and Maxwell systems.
This theory is a new quantum mechanics (QM) interpretation. The research below shows that the QM represents the
electrodynamics of the curvilinear closed chiral waves. This concords entirely with the modern interpretation and results
of the quantum feld theory.
Keywords: Quaternion, Dirac equation, Maxwell system.
1
INTRODUCTION
The relation between the two most important in
mathematical physics frst order systems of partial
differential equations is among those topics which attract
attention because of their general, even philosophical
signifcance but at the same time do not offer much for
the solution of particular problems concerning physical
models. The Maxwell equations can be represented in a
Dirac like form in different ways (e.g., [3, 5, 9]). Solutions
of Maxwells system can be related to solutions of the
Dirac equation through some nonlinear equations (e.g.,
[11]). Nevertheless, in spite of these signifcant efforts
there remain some important conceptual questions.
44
For example, what is the meaning of this close relation
between the Maxwell system and the Dirac equation
and how this relation is connected with the wave-
particle dualism. In the present article we propose a
simple equality involving the Dirac operator and the
Maxwell operators under chiral approach. This equality
establishes a direct connection between solutions of
the two systems and moreover, we show that it is valid
when a quite natural relation between the frequency
of the electromagnetic wave and the energy of the
Dirac particle is fulflled when
,
E is parallel to
,
H .
Our analysis is based on the quaternionic form of the
Dirac equation obtained in [7] and on the quaternionic
form of the Maxwell equations proposed in [6] (see also
[8]). In both cases the quaternionic reformulations are
completely equivalent to the traditional form of the Dirac
and Maxwell systems. Chiral approach means that our
Universe is observable area of basic space-time where
temporal coordinate is positive and all particles bear
positive masses (energies). The mirror Universe is an
area of the basic space-time, where from viewpoint of
regular observer temporal coordinate is negative and all
particles bear negative masses. Also, from viewpoint of
our-world observer the mirror Universe is a world with
reverse fow of time, where particles travel from future
into past in respect to us. The two worlds are separated
with the membrane an area of space-time inhabited
by light-like particles that travel along light-like right
or left-handed (isotropic-chiral) spirals. On the scales
of elementary particles such space can be attributed
to particles that possess spirality (e. g. photons). The
membrane prevents mixing of positive and negative-mass
particles and thus their total annihilation. Exchange
interactions between the two worlds can be effected
through particles with zero relativistic masses (zero-
particles) under physical conditions that exist on surfaces
of collapsers in degenerated spacetime (zero-space).
PRELIMINARIES
The algebra of complex quaternions is denoted by H(C).
Each complex quaternion q is of the form q q i
k
k
k
0
3

where
q C
k

, i
0
is the unit and i k
k

1 2 3 , , are
the quaternionic imaginary units:
i i i i i i i i k
i i i
k k k k 0
2
0
2
0 0
1 2 2
1 2 3

; ; , , ,
ii i i i i i i
i i i i i
1 3 2 3 3 2 1
3 1 1 3 2

, ;
The complex imaginary unit i commutes with i k
k
, , 0 3.
We will use the vector representation of complex
quaternions: q=Sc(q)+Vec(q), where Sc(q) = q
0
and
Vec q q q i
k k
k
( )
,
1
3
. That is each complex quaternion
is a sum of its scalar part and its vector part. Complex
vectors we identify with complex quaternions whose scalar
part is equal to zero. In vector terms, the multiplication
of two arbitrary complex quaternions q and b can be
written as follows:
q b q b q b q b q b b q < > +
1
]
+ +
0 0 0 0
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
where
< >
,
,
q b q b C
k k
k
, :
1
3
and
,
,
q b
i i i
q q q
b b b
C
1
]
:
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
3
.
We shall consider continuously differentiable H(C)
-valued functions depending on three real variables
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
). On this set the well known (see, e.g.,
[1, 4, 7 and 8]) Moisil-Theodoresco operator is defned
by the expression

D i
x
k k
k
k
k
: , .

1
3
where
The action of the operator D on an H(C) -valued function
f can be written in a vector form:
Df div f grad f rot f + +
, ,
0
. (1)
That is, Sc Df div f ( )
,
and Vec Df grad f rot f ( ) +
0
,
.
In a good number of physical applications (see [4 and 8])
the operators D
= D+M
and D
= DM
are needed,
where is a complex quaternion and M

denotes the
operator of multiplication by from the right-hand side:
M

f = f. Here we will be interested in two special
cases when is a scalar, that is
0
or when is a
vector
,
. The frst case corresponds to the Maxwell
equations and the second to the Dirac equation.
45
THE DIRAC EQUATION
Following [7], we consider the Dirac equation in its
covariant form
h

0
1
3
0
c
imc t x
t k k
k
+
_
,
_
,
( )
,
.
For a wave function with a given energy we have
t x a x e
i t
,
( )
( )

h
, where satisfes the equation

i
c
imc
a x
k k
k

h h
0
1
3
0 + +
_
,
( )
. (2)
Denote

D
i
c
imc
k k
k
: + +

h h
0
1
3
.
Let us introduce an auxiliary notation
f f t x x x : , , ,
( )
1 2 3
.
The transformation which allows us to rewrite the Dirac
equation in a quaternionic form we denote as A and
defne in the following way [7]. A function : R C
3 4

is transformed into a function F R H C : ( )
3
by the
rule

F i i i
1
]
( ) + ( ) +
1
2
1 2 0 0 3 1 0

33 2 1 2 3
( ) + + ( ) ( )
i i i

The inverse transformation A
-1
is defned as follows

1
]

1
1 2 0 3 0 3
F iF F F iF F iF i

, , , FF F
1 2
( )
Let us present the introduced transformations in a more

explicit matrix form which relates the components of a
C
4
-valued function with the components of an H(C)
-valued function F:

F
i i
i i

1
]

_
,

1
2
0 1 1 0
0 0
1 0 0 1
0 0
0
1
2
3
_
,
and

1
]

_
,
1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
F
i
i
i
i
_
,
F
F
F
F
0
1
2
3
.

We have the following important equality
D D
,

1 2 3
1
, (3)
where
,
h

: +
_
,
1
1 2
i
c
i mci . This equality shows us that
instead of equation (2) we can consider the equation

D f
,
0
(4)
and the relation between solutions of (2) and (4) is
established by means of the invertible transformation
: f q .
THE CHIRAL MAXWELL EQUATIONS
We will consider the time-harmonic Maxwell equations
for a sourceless isotropic chiral homogeneous medium
with:
,
, ,
E D T D +
_
,
1
and B H T H
, , ,
+
_
,
* *
[12], so
, , ,
H H T H +
* *
. Then we have
rot H i E
, ,
, (5)
rot E i H
, ,
, (6)

div E
,
0
, (7)
div H
,
0 . (8)
Here T is the chiral scalar parameter, is the frequency,
and are the absolute permittivity and permeability
respectively. =
0
r
and =
0
r
, where
0
and
0
are the corresponding parameters of a vacuum and
r
,
r
are the relative permittivity and permeability
of a medium.
Taking into account (1) we can rewrite this system as
follows
DE i H
, ,
, (9)
46
DH i E
, ,
. (10)
This pair of equations can be diagonalized in the following
way [6] (see also [8]). Denote

,
, ,
: + i E H
(11)
and

,
, ,
: , + i E H (12)
Where

:
c
r r
is the wave number.
Applying the operator D to the functions
,
and
,
one
can see that
,
satisfes the equation
D
( )

,
0 , (13)
and
,
satisfes the equation
D+
( )

,
0 . (14)
Solutions of (13) and (14) are called the Beltrami felds
(see, e.g., [10]).
THE RELATION () WHEN
,
E
IS PARALLEL TO
,
H
In the preceding sections it was shown that the Dirac
equation (2) is equivalent to the equation D f
,
0 with
,
h

: +
_
,
1
1 2
i
c
i mci and the Maxwell equations (5)-(8)
are equivalent to the pair of quaternionic equations
D D

, ,
0 0 and . Now we will show a simple
relation between these objects. Suppose that

1
2
2 2
2
2
T c

,
. (15)
Let us i nt roduce t he fol lowi ng operat ors of
multiplication
P M

: .
1
2

,
It is easy to verify that they are mutually complementary
and orthogonal projection operators, and the following
equality is valid [8]

D P D P D
,

+
+
. (16)
Moreover, as P
commutes with D
, we obtain that any

solution of (4) is uniquely represented as follows
f P P +
+
,
Where and are solutions of (13) and (14) respectively
but in general can be full quaternions not necessarily
purely vectorial. In particular, we have that

f P i E H P i E H
i P P E
+
( )
+ +
( )

( )
+
+

, , , ,
,
++ +
( )
+
+

P P H
i
E H
,
,
,
,
is a solution of (4) if
,
E and
,
H are solutions of (5)-(8).
It should be noticed that (16) works in both directions.
We have
D P D P D

+
+
, ,
and
D P D P D
+

, ,
.
The fact that the Maxwell system reduces to equations
(13) and (14), where the functions
,
and
,
are purely
vectorial provokes the natural question whether it had
any sense to consider full quaternions
,
and and
hence four-component vectors E and H or the nature
defnitely eliminated their scalar parts. Some arguments
supporting the idea of nonzero scalar parts can be found,
for example, in [2].
As we have seen equality (16) is valid under the condition
(15). Let us analyze this condition. Note that

, , ,
h

2
2
2
2
2 2
1
< >
_
,
, .
c
m c
Thus, when
,
E is parallel to
,
H , (15) has the form

1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
T c
m c
_
,

h
(17)
47
or equivalently
h
( )

2
2 2 4
r r
m c .
From this equation in the case
r r
1 , that is for a
vacuum, using the well known in quantum mechanics
relation between the frequency and the impulse: h pc
we obtain the equality

2 2 2 2 4
+ p c m c . (18)
In general, if in (17) we formally use the de Broglie
equality p T h h / , we again obtain the fundamental
relation (18).
Thus relation (15) between the Dirac operator and the
Maxwell operators is valid if the condition (17) is fulflled
which quite is in agreement with (18), if and only if
,
E
is parallel to
,
H .
CONCLUSIONS
The main result of this paper is that the Dirac equation
can be derived from the Maxwells equation under a chiral
approach (equation 15). The suggested theory is the new
quantum mechanics (QM) interpretation.
The below research proves that the QM represents the
electrodynamics of the curvilinear closed (non-linear)
waves. It is entirely according to the modern interpretation
and explains the particularities and the results of the
quantum feld theory.
Chiral approach means that our Universe is observable
area of basic space-time where temporal coordinate is
positive and all particles bear positive masses (electrons).
The mirror Universe is an area of the basic space-time,
where from viewpoint of regular observer temporal
coordinate is negative and all particles bear negative
masses (positrons). Also, from viewpoint of our-world
observer the mirror Universe is a world with reverse
fow of time, where particles travel from future into past
in respect to us. The two worlds are separated with the
membrane - an area of space-time inhabited by light-like
particles that travel along light-like right or left-handed
(isotropic) spirals (chiral photons).
REFERENCES
[1] F. Brackx, R. Delanghe and F. Sommen. Clifford
analysis. Pitman Res. Notes in Math. 1982.
[2] K. Carmody. Circular and hyperbolic quaternions,
octonions, and sedenions-further results. Applied
Mathematics and Computation. Vol. 84 N 1,
pp. 27-47. 1997.
[3] W. Greiner. Relativistic quantum mechanics.
Springer-Verlag. 1990.
[4] K. Grlebeck and W. Sprig. Quaternionic
analysis and elliptic boundary value problems.
Akademie-Verlag. 1989.
[5] K. Imaeda. A new formulation of classical
electrodynamics. Nuovo Cimento. Vol. 32 B N 1,
pp. 138-162. 1976.
[6] M. Gogberashvili. Octonionic version of Dirac
equations. International Journal of Modern Physics
A. Vol. 21 N 17, pp. 3513-3523. 2006.

[7] V.V. Kravchenko. On a biquaternionic bag model.
Zeitschrift fr Analysis und ihre Anwendungen.
Vol. 14 N 1, pp. 3-14. 1995.
[8] V.V. Kravchenko and M.V. Shapiro. Integral
representations for spatial models of mathematical
physics. Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., Pitman
Res. Notes in Math. Series. Vol. 351. 1996.
[9] I. Yu. Krivsky, V.M. Simulik. Unitary connection
in Maxwell-Dirac isomorphism and the Clifford
algebra. Advances in Applied Clifford Algebras.
Vol. 6 N 2, pp. 249-259. 1996.
[10] A. Lakhtakia. Beltrami felds in chiral media.
World Scientifc. 1994.
[11] J. Vaz, Jr., W. Rodrigues, Jr. Equivalence of Dirac
and Maxwell equations and quantum mechanics.
International Journal of Theoretical Physics. Vol. 32
N 6, pp. 945-959. 1993.
Electrodynamic. URLs: http://www.chiral.cl
48
DIRAC MATRICES IN CHIRAL REPRESENTATION AND THE CONNECTION
WITH THE ELECTRIC FIELD PARALLEL TO THE MAGNETIC FIELD
MATRICES DE DIRAC EN REPRESENTACIN QUIRAL Y LA CONEXIN
CON EL CAMPO ELCTRICO PARALELO AL CAMPO MAGNTICO
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se presenta una expresin de la transformacin general de Foldy-Wouthuysen a la representacin quiral de
las matrices de Dirac interactuando con un campo de fermin. La hiptesis es que a travs de la multiplicacin de la matriz
de Pauli por las ecuaciones quirales de Maxwell en el caso de
, ,
E i H , se obtiene la ecuacin quiral de Dirac. Esta es la
prueba del teorema de que la mecnica de ondas de partcula cuntica representa una electrodinmica especializada.
Palabras clave: Transformacin de Foldy-Wouthuysen, ecuacin quiral de Dirac, electrodinmica.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we offer an expression of the general Foldy-Wouthuysen transformation in the chiral representation of Dirac
matrices interacting with fermion feld. Our hypothesis is that through the multiplication of the Pauli matrix and Maxwells
chiral equations in the case of
, ,
E i H , one obtains the Diracs chiral equation. This is the proof of the theorem that the
wave mechanics of quantum particles represent a specialized electrodynamic.
Keywords: Foldy-Wouthuysen transformation, chiral Dirac equation, electrodynamics.
1 Instituto de Alta Investigacin. Universidad de Tarapac. Antofagasta N 1520. Arica, Chile. E-mail: htorres@uta.cl
CHIRAL DIRAC MATRICES
The paper offers an expression of the general Foldy-
Wouthuysen transformation in the chiral representation of
Dirac matrices interacting with fermion feld
,
x t ,
( ) .
The paper [1, 2] discuss the theory of interacting
quantum felds in the Foldy-Wouthuysen representation
[3]. These papers offer, in particular, the relativistic
nonlocal Hamiltonian H
FW
in the form of a series in
terms of powers of charge e. Quantum electrodynamics
in the Foldy-Wouthuysen (FW) representation has been
formulated using Halmitonian H
FW
and some quantum
electrodynamics processes have been calculated within
the lowest-order perturbation theory. As a result, the
conclusion has been made that the FW representation
describes some quasi-classic states in the quantum feld
theories. Both particles and antiparticles are available in
these states. Particles, as well as antiparticles, interact
with each other. However, there is no interaction of
real particles with antiparticles such interaction is
possible only in intermediate (virtual) states. The FW
representation modifcation is required to take into a
account real particle/antiparticle interactions. In the
papers [1, 2] such modifcation has been made using the
symmetry identical to the isotropic spin symmetry owing
to invariance of fnal physical results under change of
sings in the mass terms of Dirac Hamiltonian H
D
and
Hamiltonian H
FW
. In the modifed Foldy-Wouthuysen
representation, real fermions and antifermions can be
in two states characterized by the values of the third
component of the isotropic spin S
f
3
1
2
; real fermions
and antifermions interacting with each other must have
opposite signs of S
f
3
. Quantum electrodynamics in
the modifed FW representation is invariant under P,
C, T transformations. Violations of the introduced
H. Torres-Silva: Dirac matrices in chiral representation and the connection with the electric
49
symmetry of the isotropic spin lead to the corresponding
violation of CP invariance. The standard model in the
modifed FW representation was formulated in the papers
[1, 4]. It has been shown that formulation of the theory
in the modifed FW representation doesnt require that
Higgs bosons should obligatory interact with fermions
to preserve the SU (2) invariance, whereas all the
rest theoretical and experimental implications of the
Standard model obtained in the Dirac representation are
preserved. In such a case, Higgs bosons are responsible
only for the gauge invariance of the boson sector of the
theory and interact only with gauge bosons W Z

, ,
gluons and photons.
In the papers mentioned above, the energy representation
of Dirac matrices derived by Dirac himself is used:

i
i
i
I
I
I
I
_
,
_
,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
, ,
__
,
,
i i 0
(1)
Here we propose to change the Foldy-Wouthuysen
transformation form by using the chiral representation
of Dirac matrices.

c
i
i
i
c c
I
I
I
_
,
_
,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
, ,
II
c
i
c c
i
_
,
,
0
(2)
The chiral representation (2) is commonly used in the
modern gauge feld theories and in the Standard Model,
in particular.
First consider the structure of equations describing
the components of the wave functions
D
(x) for the
two representation of Dirac matrices considered in the
paper.
In relations (1), (2) and below the system of units with h c 1
is used; x, p, are 4-vectors; the inner product is taken as
xy = x
= x
0
y
0
x
k
y
k
= 0,1,2,3, k = 1,2,3; p i
x
k
;
are Pauli matrices;

1 0
1 2 3
,
, , , ,
i
k k
;
D
(x) is the
four-component wave function, x x x x
R L
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , ,
are the two-component wave functions.
The following operator relations are valid for the free
Dirac equation with representation (1):

p x p m x
x
x
p
D D 0
0

( )
+
( ) ( )
( )
( )
_
,
, ,
; ;
xx p x m x
p x p x m x
( )

( )
+
( )
( )

( )
( )
, ,
, ,

0
,,
+
( )

( )

;
;

p m p
p m p
0
1
0
1
, ,
, ,
;
(3)
With representation (2), relation (3) looks like

p x p m x
x
x
p
D D
R
L
0

( ) + ( ) ( )
( )
( )
_
,
, ,
; ;
00
0

R R L
L L
x p x m x
p x p x
( ) ( ) + ( )
( ) (
, ,
, ,
)) + ( )
( )

( )
m x
x
p p
m
x p
R
L R
;
0
0
, ,
++ ( ) ( )
( )
+
( )
, ,
, ,
,

p m x
x
p p
m
x p
R
R L
1
0
0
;
( ) ( )
,
p m x
L
1
;
(4)
Relations (4) use the operador equality:

p E p m
0
2 2 2 2
+
,

Comparison between relations (3) and (4) shows that with
the substitution below,
m p
, ,
,
5
(5)
These relations transform into each other.
The Foldy-Wouthuysen transformations for the energy and
chiral representations of Dirac matrices also transform
into each other if the substitution (5) is made.
Thus, the general Foldy-Wouthuysen transformation
with Dirac matrices in the chiral representation
U U
FW
chir
FW
chir
chir chir chir
( )
+ + + + +
0
1 2 3
1 ....
( )
, as well
as the fermion Hamiltonian in the Foldy-Wouthuysen
representation

H E qK q K q K
FW
chir chir chir chir
+ + + + +
5 1
2
2
3
3
...

can be obtained. From the corresponding expressions for
U H
FW
en
FW
en
, with Dirac matrices in the energy representation
(see [1, 2]) with substitution m p
, ,
,
5
, we
have
50
the relations

p x p x m x
p x p x
R R L
L L
0
0

( )

( )
+
( )
( )

(
, ,
, ,
))
+
( )
m x
R
(6)
CHIRAL APPROACH OF
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Also the relations (6) can be obtained under the chiral
approach of Maxwells Equations where the electric feld
,
E is parallel to the magnetic feld
,
H [5], that is
, ,
E i H ,
where

0 0
/
.
If one wanted to describe the hydrogen gas by means
of electrodynamics one should start from the firmly
established experience that the hydrogen gas may
absorb and reemit electromagnetic energy, and that
without external intervention there is no indication
that the gas to contain electric charges [6-11]. Thus
we consider the hypothesis witch visualizes the gas
as charge free electromagnetic field as the starting
point with the lest number assumptions; and so we
try characterize the field by the covariant chiral
Maxwell system [5]

rotE T
c t
H div T E
m e
, , ,
+ +

+ ( ) ( ) 1 0 1 0 ,
(7)
rotH T
c t
E div T H
e m
, , ,
+

+ ( ) ( ) 1 0 1 0 , (8)
Here, T is the chiral scalar factor with divT E H
e m ,
( )
, ,

T div E H
e m ,
( ) ,
, ,
0 and the condition of charge-free
by means of
divE divH
, ,
0 0 besides (9)
Solvi ng t he wave equat i on for
, ,
E H
( )
wi t h
T T T mc
e m
h / 2 , and by considering we have
rotE H
T
E H
mc
E H
, ,
)
, ,
h
, ,
( ) ( ) ( )
1
(10)
Our hypothesis is that through the multiplication of
the matrix Pauli for chiral Maxwells equations with
, ,
E i H , one obtains the chiral Dirac equation (6).
Using the algebraic relation [12]

( )

( )
+
, , ,
A divA i rotA (11)
in equation (10) together with the two div equations (9),
transform that system (10) in to

( ) ( )

_
,
i
c
mc
E H H E
h
(12)
where

E H
E H ( )
)
, ,
.
Below the system of units with h c 1 equation (12)
is exactly equal to the chiral Dirac equation (6), if

E H R L
( ) ( )
.
To probe this close connection we can obtain the well known
normal Dirac equation, we get for (7, 8) the equations

rotE T
c t
H E
m
, , ,
+ +

0
1 0 0 ( ) , div
(13)

rotH T
c t
E divH
e
, , ,
+

0
1 0 0 ( ) ,
(14)
with
, ,
E grad H grad , . Equations (13) and (14)
can be transformed as:

0
2
0
2
1
1
( ) ( , ),
( ) ( , ).
+
+
T mc
T mc
m
m
h
h
So, scalar multiplication of the rot equations in (10, 11)
by the Pauli-vector, and using the algebraic relation [12]

( )

( )
+
, , ,
A divA i rotA we have

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )
+

, ,
,
H
c t
i E
E
c t
0
( )
,
, ,
H
E grad H grad
0
,
(15)
Equation (15) can be expressed in terms of in matriz
notation this reads

0
0
1 0
0 1
1
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
1
c t
i E
,
(( )
( )
1
]
1
1

,
, ,
H
E grad H grad
0
,
(16)
H. Torres-Silva: Dirac matrices in chiral representation and the connection with the electric
51
Denoting the quantity on witch the differential operators
act by
D
, that is

i E
H
iE iH
iE iE
H H
H H
( )
( )
1
]
1
1

+
,
,
3
3
3
33
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
_
,

' ''
' ''
' ''
' ''
_
,
(17)
with X X iX

1 2
and considering the well-known
connection

0
0
_
,
(18)
between the Pauli and Dirac matrices, we get for (13)
system

_
,
1
]
1
1

1 0
0 1
1
0
c t
E grad
D
, ,
, HH grad
(19)
Here one has to bear in mind that each of both columns
matrix (14) that is

D D
iE
iE E
H
H iH
iE
_
,
3
1 2
3
1 2
1
and
++
_
,
E
iE
H iH
H
2
3
1 2
3
(20)
Independently represent a system of functions solving
(16). From this, a separation of the time dependence
according to

D D
i t
e

(21)
fnally yields the amplitude equation

_
,
i
c
D
1 0
0 1
0 (22)
If we use equation (13) in (22), its agreement with the
Dirac amplitude equation

+
+
_
,

i
c
mc
mc
D
h
h
h
2
2
0
0
0
(23)
is complet e. Now nor mal i zi ng eq. (23) wit h
h 1 1 , , c p , we can write as
p x p m x
D D 0

( )
+
( ) ( )
, ,
; (23)
And the transformation to a chiral Dirac equation is trivial
by using relation (5).
The equations (20) as well as (21) or (22), show in addition
that the electrodinamical and the wave mechanical feld
component are connected by simple linear relation, the
same holding true for the refraction (, ) in relation to
the scalar T.
This isomorphism can be checked easily and directly
because the eight Eq. (10, 11) may be combined into two
systems of four equations each, in the following way:

( )
+
( )
i rotH ic E divH
i rotH ic
,
)
`
,
,
)
3
1
3
1
1
0
``
,
`
,
E rotH c E
idivE rotE c
1
2
1
2
3
1
0
( )
+

( )

``
,
)
`
,
`
H
i rotE ic H rotE c H
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
0
( )

( )
+

00
(24)
Inserting here the frst or second wave function of (21) into
the frst system (upper signs) or the second one (lower signs),
respectively, the wave functions of (20) ends up immediately,
in both cases and we are back to Dirac again
CONCLUSION
Using a chiral representation of the Foldy-Wouthuysen
transformation for the Dirac equation we show that the
same result can be obtained with a chiral electrodynamics
using the matrix Pauli.
With this we proof the theorem that waves mechanic of
quantum particle represents a specialized electrodynamics.
The result seems unambiguous and incompatible with the
current doctrine which rest on a particle interpretation.
REFERENCES
[1] V.P. Neznamov. Physics of Elementary Particles
and Atomic Nuclei (EPAN). Vol. 37 N 1. 2006.
[2] V.P. Neznamov. Voprosy Atomnoi Nauki I Tekhniki.
Ser: Teoreticheskaya I Prikladnaya Fizika. Issues
1-2, p. 41, hep-th/0411050. 2004.
52
[3] L.L. Foldy and S. A. Wouthuysen, Phys. Tev 78,
29. 1950.
[4] V.P. Neznamov. Hep-th/0412047. 2005.
Electrodynamic. URLs: http://www.chiral.cl
[6] J.R. Oppenheimer. Phys. Rev. Vol. 38, p. 725. 1931.
[7] H.E. Moses. Sup. Nuovo Cimento. Serie X. Vol. 7.
N 1. 1958.
[8] T. Ohmura Prog. Theor. Phys. Vol. 16, p. 684. 1956.
[9] S.N. Gupta. Theory of longitudinal photons in
quantum electrodynamics. Proc. Phys. Soc. Vol. 63,
pp. 681-691. 1950.
[10] F. Reines and W. H. Sobel, Test of the Pauli
Exclusion Principle for Atomic Electrons, Phys.
Rev. Lett. Vol. 32, pp. 954. 1974.
[11] W. Heitler Quantum Theory of Radiation, 2
nd
Ed.,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 1. 1944.
[12] H. Sallhofer. Maxwell Dirac isomorphism.
Z. Naturforsch. Vol. 41 a, p 1067. 1986.
H. Torres-Silva: Maxwell equations for a generalised lagrangian functional
53
MAXWELL EQUATIONS FOR A GENERALISED LAGRANGIAN FUNCTIONAL
ECUACIONES DE MAXWELL PARA UNA FUNCIONAL DE LAGRANGE GENERALIZADA
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se aborda el problema de la construccin de la funcional de Lagrange de un campo electromagntico. Se
introducen las ecuaciones generalizadas de Maxwell de un campo electromagntico en el espacio libre. La idea principal
se basa en el cambio de funcin de Lagrange en virtud de la accin integral. Por lo general, la funcional de Lagrange, que
describe el campo electromagntico, se construye con el cuadrado del tensor de campo electromagntico. Ese trmino
cuadrtico es la razn, desde un punto de vista matemtico, de la forma lineal de las ecuaciones de Maxwell en el espacio
libre. Se obtienen las ecuaciones no lineales de Maxwell sin considerar esta suposicin. Las ecuaciones obtenidas son
bastante similares a las conocidas ecuaciones de Maxwell. Se analiza el tensor de energa del campo electromagntico en
un enfoque quiral de la Lagrangiana de Born Infeld en relacin con la constante cosmolgica.
Palabras clave: Lagrange, accin, ecuaciones de Maxwell, Born Infeld.
ABSTRACT
This work deals with the problem of the construction of the Lagrange functional for an electromagnetic feld. The generalised
Maxwell equations for an electromagnetic feld in free space are introduced. The main idea relies on the change of
Lagrange function under the integral action. Usually, the Lagrange functional which describes the electromagnetic feld
is built with the quadrate of the electromagnetic feld tensor F
ik
. Such a quadrate term is the reason, from a mathematical
point of view, for the linear form of the Maxwell equations in free space. The author does not make this assumption
and nonlinear Maxwell equations are obtained. New material parameters of free space are established. The equations
obtained are quite similar to the well-known Maxwell equations. The energy tensor of the electromagnetic feld from a
chiral approach to the Born Infeld Lagrangian is discussed in connection with the cosmological constant.
Keywords: Lagrange, action, Maxwell equations, Born Infeld.
1
INTRODUCTION
The action integral (built to formulate the least-square
principle [1]) for a process in an electromagnetic feld
has the following form:

I S V dVdt
v
V
( )
( )

( )
_
,
j A B E
1
2
0
1 2
0
2
TT
(1)
All physical phenomena in the electromagnetic feld take
place so the action integral has the minimal value =0.
The theory of the electromagnetic feld [1] leads to the
Lagrange motion equations for an electric charge in the
electromagnetic feld and defnes the electromagnetic
feld tensor:
F
A
x
A
x
ik
k
i
i
k
(2)
Eqns. (2) are equivalent to the frst pair of Maxwell
equations:

F
x
F
x
F
x
i k l
ik
l
kl
i
li
k
0 for i
(3)
54
Or, in three-dimensional notation:

curl and div E B B
`
0
(4)
Making calculations of variation for the functional I with
respect to the four-dimensional potential A
i
one obtain
the second pair of Maxwell equations:

F
x
j
ik
k
i
0
(5)
Or in equivalent vector notation:

div
0 0
1
0
E B j E
( )
( )
+
and curl
`
(6)
From the mathematical point of view, the demand for a
linear form of Maxwell equations for free space compels
one to assume that the feld term (the third in integral
eqn. (1)) must be built with the electromagnetic feld tensor
F
ik
second power (the exponent of any power function
under the action integral is one less after calculating the
variation). So, the equations obtained are linear with
respect to the electromagnetic feld tensor F
ik
. The action
integral I could be rewritten in the following form:

I S V e dVdt
v V
V T

( )

( )

j A
(7)
Where

e F F
V
ik
ik
1
2
1
2
1
4
0
1 2
0
2
0
1
B E
The linear form of the Maxwell equations, from the
mathematical point of view, is arbitrarily assumed by
eqn. (7). In addition the linear character of Maxwell
equations for free space (as well as for air) has been
confrmed by many experiments. There is no doubt that
linear Maxwell equations, within experimental precision, are
satisfed, however, we could not reject other mathematical
forms of the electromagnetic feld equations.
Is we assume, more generally, that the action integral is built
with the help of a function f (), it could be written:

I S V jA f B E
v
V
( )
_
,
_
,

1
2
1
2
0
1 2
0
2
ddVdt
T
(8)
(the codomain for the function f () is the real set).
Under this assumption new Maxwell equations having
the same mathematical structure are obtained. The wave
speed in free space for these new Maxwell equations will
also be equal to c.
MAXWELL EQUATIONS FOR THE
GENERALISED FUNCTIONAL
The second pair of Maxwell equations in the case of
the generalised action integral eqn. (8) is obtained after
evaluating the variation of the action with respect to the
four-dimensional potential A
i
. We can denote

I j A f F F dVdt
j
i
i
ik
ik
V T

( )
_
,

1
4
0
1
ii
i
ik
ik
V T
A f F F dVdt
( )

( )
_
,

1
4
2
0
1
According to eqn. (2) we could write

0
1
2
0
1
+ ( ) ( )

I
j A f F
A
x
A
x
i
i
ik k
i
i
k
_
,
_
,

V T
dVdt
After interchanging the indices i and k in the fnal
term we obtain:

0
1
2
0
1
+ ( ) ( )

j A f F
A
x
F
A
x
i
i
ik k
i
ik i
k

( ) )
_
,
+ ( ) ( )

V T
k
k
ik k
dVdt
j A f F
A
x

0
1
ii
V T
dVdt
_
,

Hence:

0
0
1
0
1
+
( )

( )

j A
f F A
x
f F
x
k
k
ik
k
i
ik

ii
k
V T
A dVdt
_
,

Using the Gauss theorem and taking into account the fact
of the disappearance of the four-dimensional potential at
the boundary of the four-dimensional space we obtain

( )

f F
x
j
ik
k
i
0
(9)
Eqns. (9) include the second pair of Maxwell equations
in the form eqns. (5) and (6). Whereas, on using the
function f () as the identify function, its derivative will
be equal to one; i.e.

_
,

( )
f F F f
ik
ik
1
4
1
0
1

55
This means that the Maxwell equations in the form
eqn. (9) include the classical Maxwell equations in the
form of eqn. (5) and (6).
INTERPRETATION OF THE ESTABLISHED
EQUATIONS
In three-dimensional notation, eqn. (9) has the following
form:

div f
0 0
1 2
0
2
1
2
1
2

_
,
_
,
B E E

And

curl v f
t
0 0
1 2
0
2
1
2
1
2

_
,
_
,
B E B
j
00 0
1 2
0
2
1
2
1
2

_
,
_
,
f B E E

The second pair of Maxwell equations could be rewritten
in the same form as the well-known Maxwell equations
(eqns. (5) and (6)):

div v
t

E B j E
( )
( )
+

( )
curl
(10)
Where it was denoted:

_
,

0 0
1 2
0
2
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
f
f
B E
00
1 2
0
2
1
2
_
,
B E
(11)
Lets us assume that the function f () can be almost linear
or linear. Many experiments confrm that if the nonlinear
character of the electromagnetic feld equations exists, it
cannot be strong; it must be weak. It seems to be reasonable
to consider only the frst nonlinear term of the Taylor
series. Here we propose that:
f k T f
( )

( )
+
( )

( )
+
( )
( )
0
2 2
1
Thus:

+
( )
+

0 0
1 2
0
2
0
1
0
1
0
1 2
1
1
B E
B
0
2
E
( )
(12)
According to eqn. (11) and (12) the permittivity and
reluctivity (or permeability) for free space have been
changed with respect to the strong electric or magnetic
feld. The strong electromagnetic feld causes a change
of the free space coeffcients. The multiplication by
is independent of the function f () and equal to
0
0
:

0 0

The Maxwell equations (in spite of their nonlinear
character) still have the same form:

div
t

E B j E
( )
( )
+

( )
curl
cur
0
1
llE B B
`
div 0
(13)
The derivative f() which appears in the Maxwell equations
is the reason for the nonlinear character of the generalised
Maxwell equations with respect to electric feld strength
and magnetic fux density. The level of deformation of the
Maxwell equations in comparison with the linear Maxwell
equations is determined by the constant . The less is
the value of constant , the less is the infuence of the
nonlinear term in eqn. (12). We may evaluate (roughly)
the value of this unknown constant.
With modern levels of measurement accuracy, we are
able to use laboratory devices that enable determination
of the value of magnetic fux density (or electric feld
strength) with very high accuracy (0.01%), and the material
parameters with the same relative error. In a magnetic
feld B=2T the variation of this material parameter will
not be observed according to eqn. if:
<

1
]

10
11 1
J (14)
The constant is so small only in the case of strong
magnetic or electric felds may the linear Maxwell equations
deformation be observed and detected.
GENERALIZATIONS OF MAXWELL THEORY
FROM BORN-INFELD THEORY
There are nonlinear electromagnetic feld theories, e.g.
Born-Infeld theory of the charged particle [2, 3]. In this
Born-Infeld theory the nonlinear Maxwell equations are
obtained from the following action integral:
I b
c
b
I
c
b
I dVdt b
V T
+
_
,

2
2
2
1
2
4
2
2 2
1 1 1 , ( )

R dVdt
V T
(15)
On this basis, the equations obtained are supposed to
be valid inside the electric particle. For felds that are
weak compared to the critical strength b, the Born-
56
Infeld Lagrangian becomes the Lagrangian of classical
Maxwell theory.
The well-known Born-Infeld Lagrangian is usually
written as
L
BI
b
c
R R
c
b
I
c
b
I ( ) +
2
0
2
2
2
1
2
4
2
2
1 1
, , (15)
Where
I
c
F F I
c
F
ik
ik
ik
ik
1
2
2
2
2
1 1
2 4
B E B E , F , b i s a
maximum electric feld strength (in the absence of magnetic
feld). If b
2
is very much larger than E
2
and c
2
B
2
, then
L
BI
I
( )
1 2
0 1
/ and we recover linear Maxwell theory.
We remark here that in the limit as c , L
BI
tend to zero,
while cL
BI
approach a well-defned, non-zero limit.
Since the Lagrangian density must be a Lorentz scalar,
the electromagnetic feld has only two gauge invariant
Lorentz scalars, namely

F F F
ik
ik

1
2
2 2
B E
(16)

G F F
ik
ik 2 2 2
1
4
( ) ( )
*
B E
(17)
Where F F
ik
ik *
1
2
is the dual feld strength tensor,

Making c=1 we have that equation (15) can be expressed as

L
BI
a R R
F
a
G
a

( )
+
2
2
2
4
1 1 , ,
(15)
The feld equations for Born-Infeld theory are

1
]
1
1
F - F G/a
R
=0,
* 2 ik ik
(18)
+ +
j ik k ji i kj
F F F 0 (19)
Here, we fnd that the symmetric energy-momentum
tensor for that theory is given by

T
F F G a
R
a R
ik
j
j
k ik
ik
+
+
2 2
2
/
(20)
In deriving this result, use has been made of the identity
F F G

*
.
So the energy, the momentum, and the Poynting vector,
are now given, respectively, by

field
d x
a
a a
a
+
+

3
2 2
2 2
2
2
4
1
,
E E B
B E E B
( / )
( )
22
2 2
2
2
4
1 (
( )
) +

1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
B E E B
a a
(21)

P
E B
B E E B
field
d x
a a
3
2 2
2
2
4
1
,
( )
(22)

S
E B
B E E B

+

1
2 2
2
2
4
a a
( )
(23)
ENERGY TENSOR OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
The volume density of the Lagrangian function in a region
outside the electrical charges and currents is equal to

f
( ) (24)
Where

v
F F
v
F F g g
0 0
4 4

a F F g g
0

(25)
And g
ik
means the second-order metric tensor of space
[1, 3, 4].
Let us evaluate the energy tensor T
ik
by the defnition
[1, 5] in the following form:

1
2

( )
( )
( )
( )
gT
f g
g x
f g
g
x
ik
ik l ik
l
_
,
_
,
(26)
The tensor satisfes the energy conservation law in the
tour-dimensional form:
T
i k
k
,
0 (27)
57
Substituting eqn. (20) into eqn. (26) one obtains:

T
g
f g
g
ik
ik

( )

( )
2

Because function f () is independent of the derivatives
of the metric tensor.
Thus one obtains:

T a
f
F F g f
ik i k ik

( )
4
0
(28)
For the function f () given by the frst two Taylor series
terms we could write:
f f
( )
+
( )
+ 1
Thus the energy tensor is equal to:

T T T
k
i
k
i
k
i
k
i
+ +
( )

| |

0 0
2

The trace of this energy tensor is equal to:
T T T T + +
( )

0 0
4 4 (29)
because, in the case = 0, the trace of the covariant-
contravariant energy tensor disappears:

T a F F
ij
ij

0 0
4 0
The trace of the energy tensor is not negative. The trace
is equal to zero if and only if the constant vanishes.
According to the main Einstein equations, for energy
feld for which one can introduce the energy tensor [1, 3,
5] it could be written:
R g R
G
c
T
ik ik ik

1
2
8
2
(30)
Contraction with respect to the indices i and k gives
the Riemannian curvatura scalar of the electromagnetic
feld:

R
G
c
T
8
2
(31)
Substituting eqn. (29) into eqn. (31) one fnally obtains

R
G
c

32
2
(32)
The sign of constant k thus, take into account an electrostatic
feld forced by one charged particle. Such a feld has
spherical symmetry. The Riemannian curvature scalar
for two-dimensional space, where only one external
charge is situated, must be non-negative, R 0. Is not,
the Riemannian curvature scalar tensor is negative, the
space would have two radii of curvature, one positive and
the other negative. This is impossible with respect to the
assumed spherical symmetry of the electric feld (forced
by one electric charge), therefore:
0 (33)
In the case of a nonlinear electromagnetic feld theories, e.g.
Born-Infeld theory of the electromagnetic particle [5].
We can obtain an especial result. Und er a chiral approach,
using equations (21, 22) with E = iB ,we obtain S = 0 and an
electromagnetic term which correspond to a cosmological
constant given by 8 1 8382 10
0
4 54 2
G c / .

Volt . This
allows the close connection between the electromagnetism
and the gravitation (see annex).
CONCLUSIONS
Generalised Maxwell equations include the classical
Maxwell equations of the electromagnetic feld for weak
felds. The reluctivity and permittivity of free space
are changed. If the constant cannot be omitted, the
Riemannian-Christoffel curvature tensor is not equal to
zero. The constant is not positive: 0. In the case
of a nonlinear electromagnetic feld theory, e.g. Born-
Infeld theory of the electromagnetic particle [5], we can
obtain an especial result. Under a chiral approach, with
E = iB, we obtain S = 0 and an electromagnetic term
which correspond to a cosmological constant.
ANNEX
This work discovers the space-time curvature carried by
the electromagnetic feld and provides a new unifcation
of geometry and classical electromagnetism. The new
unifcation contains the Einstein equations to handle the
mechanics and permits the derivation of the Maxwell
equations from the full second Bianchi identities. This
is a purely classical work and quantum considerations
are merely mentioned.
58
Central to this work are the requirements that the
electromagnetic feld be expressed as a two form F
and ft into general relativity under the demand that
the total stress-energy tensor used in the Einstein
equations contain the Maxwell stress-energy tensor
T
Max
. In the notation with the conventions of [1] and
in S.I. units T
Max
is

T F F F F
Max k
i ji
jk jk
+
0
2
( ) * *
ji

where
0
12
8 85418782 10

.
farad/meter is the electric
vacuum permittivity.
Originally [2] general relativity was conceived as a
unifcation of mechanics and geometry that explained
gravitation. It was just a bonus [3] that electromagnetism
also entered the unifcation via equation. If the Maxwell
stress-energy tensor carried all the properties of the
electromagnetic feld, showing electromagnetism to be
entirely reducible to mechanics, that would have been
the end of the story.
However, the electromagnetic feld has polarization or
phase information that is not contained in the Maxwell
stress-energy tensor [4]. Since Weyls conformal tensor, the
totally traceless piece of Riemann curvature, is supposed
to contain the phase or polarization information carried
by gravitational radiation, one should expect it to do the
same for electromagnetic radiation.
This is born out by the discovery of a piece of the
Weyl conformal tensor that depends explicitly on the
electromagnetic feld and contains this polarization or
phase information. It is denoted by T
Max
C
F
, called the
local gravitational feld of the electromagnetic feld,
and given by:

C
G
F F F F
jl
ik ik
jl jl jl
ik ik
8
3
2
1
4
0
4
c
F
ik
( ) * * FF
ik
jl
ik ik
ik
F F
+
+

,
1
4
where G

6 6726 10
11
. Newton-meter
2
/kilogram
2
is
Newtons gravitational constant, c 2 99792458 10
8
.
meter/second is the speed of light, is a fully antisymmetric
tensor. The traces in the expression for C
F
are the Lorentz
invariants of the electromagnetic feld F
ik
F
ik
= 2 (E
2
c
2
B
2
) and * F
ik
F
ik
= 4c (EB), where E is the electric
feld strength in Volt/meter and B is the magnetic feld
strength in Tesla.
The major discovery of this work is the expression for
C
F
. The arguments that led to that expression are quite
general and should defeat the criticism that C
F
was
built on algebraically special black holes and will fail
elsewhere. It would be useful to have a physical solution
to the Einstein-Maxwell equations with non-zero currents
that were not overwhelmed by symmetry. Then one could
extend this analysis into the currents and see how the full
second Bianchi identity works there. Further successful
examples will give knowledge and comfort; but will not
prove the generality for C
F
that is claimed here. However,
a single credible counterexample or the observation of a
magnetic monopole will vitiate this work.
The small coupling constant required by the Einstein
equations, 8 1 8382 10
0
4
54 2
G
c

. , Volt permits the
superposition of electromagnetic felds. It has also led
many to believe that the gravitational consequences of
electromagnetism are insignifcant.
Nothing could be further from the truth. It is a matter of
principle to unify classical electromagnetism and gravitation
and the curvature-based unifcation presented here allows
the electromagnetic feld to appear as an algebraically
special piece of curvature. This fulflls the nineteenth
century speculation that gravity and electromagnetism
are both aspects of Riemann curvature.
This theory is not experimentally vacuous. The smallness
of the coupling constant merely means that it could be along
time before curvature detectors are suffciently sensitive
while withstanding an intense electromagnetic feld; or
suffciently sensitive over very long distances having less
intense felds. One wonders about the consequences of
C
F
in the environment around very strongly magnetised
neutron stars [7]. Further, what are its consequences in the
Jacobi equation for geodesic separation that might apply to
trans galactic travel? When two electromagnetic felds are
superposed could the interaction terms in the curvature have
any bearing on the problem of emission or absorption?
The physical geometry of space-time is determined by
specifying the metric tensor or the full curvature tensor
[6]. The Einstein equations, which link classical mechanics
to physical geometry, may be written as

M
G
c
T T
1
4
8 1
2
1
4
_
,
_
,
and
M
G
c
T
2
4
8 1
12

59
where T is the total stress-energy tensor and T its trace.
There is no mention of Weyls conformal tensor that would
complete the specifcation of the physical geometry.
Placing constraints on Weyls conformal tensor is
the novel feature of this work. Such constraints are
meant to limit the solutions to those with a physical
gravitational feld. If the constraints are too limiting
and they forbid physical solutions, then they will have
to be altered. Similar constraints might deal with the
embarrassing number of Ricci fat universes, which
may or may not describe gravitational radiation. It is
an open question whether the Einstein equations will
have to be extended to the full curvature to handle
gravitational radiation.
REFERENCES
[1] C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne, and J.A. Wheeler.
Gravitation. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
1973.
[2] A. Einstein. The Principle of Relativity. Dover
Publications, New York. 1952.
[3] D. Jackson. Classical Electrodynamics. 3
rd
ed, pp. 273-
280, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1998
[4] T.T. Wu and C.N. Yang. Concept of Non integrable
Phase Factors and Global Formulation of Gauge
Fields. Phys. Rev. D. Vol. 12, pp. 3845-3857. 1975.
N 1, pp. 111-118. 2008.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[7] W. E. Thirring. An alternative approach to the
theory of gravitation. Ann. Phys. USA. Vol. 16,
pp. 96-117. 1961.
60
ASYMMETRICAL CHIRAL GAUGING TO INCREASE THE COEFFICIENT
OF PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETIC MOTORS
CALIBRE QUIRAL PARA AUMENTAR EL COEFICIENTE
DE RENDIMIENTO DE MOTORES MAGNTICOS
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
Este trabajo introduce un recalibre fsico quiral asimtrico usado para aumentar el coeficiente de rendimiento de un motor elctrico. Se
presenta una revisin de la teora de calibres y se examina el descarte de la condicin de Lorentz para obtener el recalibrado quiral. Se
introduce el coeficiente de rendimiento y se analiza un motor magntico bajo el enfoque quiral que permite un proceso Beltrami.
Palabras clave: Calibre quiral, motor magntico, Lorentz.
ABSTRACT
This paper introduces a physical chiral asymmetrical regauging to increase the coefficient of performance of an electric motor. A
review of gauge theory and a consideration of the disposal of the Lorentz condition to achieve the chiral regauging are presented.
The coefficient of performance terminology is introduced. A magnetic motor is discussed under a chiral approach which gives a
Beltrami process.
Keywords: Chiral gauge, magnetic motor, Lorentz.
1
INTRODUCTION
In this paper we investigate a process referenced in recent
permanent magnet (PM) motor patents [1]. These specially
designed PM motors claim to capture and use environmental
energy as an additional energy input. The technique that
allows this energy transfer to occur is called asymmetrical
regauging (ASR). The physics behind the ASR process will
be examined by reviewing gauge theory, the Lorentz gauge,
and the effect of discarding the Lorentz gauge to include
the vacuum chiral current density. The term coeffcient of
performance (COP) is introduced to adequately describe
the energy transfer of these motors.
REVIEW OF THE LORENTZ GAUGE
To understand how environmental energy may be utilized
in a motor, to theoretically gain a COP >1, a review of
the Lorentz gauge is frst presented. The equations used
in standard practice to design motors are derived from
Maxwells equations. It has been accepted practice, to
apply the Lorentz gauge to these equations to make them
simpler. In abbreviated steps, we start with Maxwells
equations [14].

All the information in Maxwells four equations can be
reduced to the following equation:

_
,
_
,

2
0 0
2
2
0 0
A
A
A
t
V
t
00 0
J
(1)

The Lorentz gauge is then applied to reduce the complexity
of these two equations. Mathematically, applying any
gauge, is represented by (2,3) where gamma is an
arbitrary, differentiable scalar function called the gauge
function [5].

V t x V t x V t x
t x
t
( , ) ( , ) ,
( , )

( )

(2)

A( , ) ( , ) ( , ) , t x t x t x t x A' +
( )
A

(3)
H. Torres-Silva: Asymmetrical chiral gauging to increase the coeffcient of performance of magnetic motors
61
To specifcally apply the Lorentz gauge, the Lorentz
Condition is imposed by choosing a set of potentials
(A, V) such that

A
0 0
V
t
(4)
Equations (4) are the ones on which all the equations for
motor design are currently based. Since the magnetic
vector feld and the voltage scalar feld are both changed
at the same time, this can be referred to as symmetrical
gauging, so

2
0 0
2
2
0
A
A
t
J

(5)

2
0 0
2
2
0
1
V
V
t

(6)
Notice that (5) is (1) with the middle term, (7),
eliminated.

( )
+

A
0 0
V
t
(7)
ASYMMETRICAL REGAUGING
Invoking the Lorentz condition in classical electromagnetics
discards the vacuum polarization component that exists
in quantum electrodynamics [6] since

( )
+

A j
0 0 0
V
t
(8)
and J
A
=
E
A
(9)
Asymmetrical regauging is the equivalent of discarding
the Lorentz condition. Further ASR is any process that
changes the potential energy of a system and also produces
a net force in the process [6].
Understanding the vacuum and its polarization are
essential steps to utilizing energy from the environment.
According to T.D. Lee, he defne the vacuum state as
the lowest energy state of the system [7]. Hence, the
vacuum is considered to be the worst case model of the
environment. Maxwells equations must be modifed, in
the vacuum, since and J vanish. Classically, this causes
the Ampere-Maxwell law to be revised.

B
E

0 0
t

(10)
In [6, 8], the authors show that if the vacuum current density
factor is included, the above equation changes to

+

H j
D
A
t
,

(11)
where D =
0
E + P
A
and B =
0
H +
0
M . (12)
This leads to the result that

P E
A
A
t
T
t
j
( )
.

(13)
Here we are considered for D, B a chiral term so, [14]

,
D T
A
+ + D E P E E
0 0

(14)
and

B H M H H. + +
0 0 0 0
T

(15)
Hence, T is the chiral factor which allows to extract
vacuum energy, Thus discarding the Lorentz condition
in classical electrodynamics leads to new equations that
include the effect of the vacuum polarization.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
The energy transfer of electrical machinery is generally
described using the term effciency. Effciency is defned
as the power output divided by the total power input from
all sources. The underlying assumption when defning the
energy of any system is that all the energy input is from
an identifable and measurable energy sources(s). In an
ideal system the effciency would be one. The equation
for effciency () is normally stated [2] as

P
P
Out
In
[ ]. Watts

(16)
Coeffcient of performance is a broader energy transfer
term that defnes the measure of energy output divided
by the operators energy input. COP is used to describe
any machinery that has additional energy input from the
environment. For example, COP is commonly used to
describe the energy exchange of heat pumps [3] or solar
collectors. Unlike the term effciency, the COP can be
greater than one. See fgure 1 for the energy fow diagram.
The following equation defnes COP mathematically.
62

COP
P
P
Out
In Operator
( )
[ ] Watts

(17)
Energy
Input
from
Operator
Energy
Output
Energy Input
from the
Environment
Dissipative
Elements
Figure 1. Energy fow for machines described by COP.
CHIRAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE EFFECTS
Besides electrical spacetime devices, self-running
magnetic motors have been constructed in a repeatable
and reproducible way ([4], see also fgure 2, [1, 2]). The
functioning of these devices cannot be explained by
Maxwell-Heaviside electrodynamics but it can be explained
with the chiral electrodynamics.
Figure 2. Johnson magnetic motor [1] Schematic
representation of spacetime vector potential
for a magnetic assembly: magnet stator
including rotor magnets, flow with vortices
(force field).
As was described in the preceding section of this edition,
the Cartan torsion of spacetime introduces the spin
connection as an additional quantity occurring in the laws
of nature so that they take a generally covariant form. In
particular this holds for the magnetic feld. In Maxwell
Heaviside theory the magnetic feld B is connected with
its generating vector potential A by the relation

B A
(18)
In TTS theory this law has to be replaced in the simplest
case by [14-16].

B + ( ) 1 T A
(19)
where is the spin connection vector again. In the
following we discern between the magnetic feld of
the assembly and the magnetic feld of the surrounding
spacetime itself, denoted by B
s
. The torque T acting on
the magnetic dipolo moment m of the assembly due to
the external feld B
s
is

T m B
s

(20)
Under normal conditions there is no resulting torque
because of B
s
= 0. Spacetime is force free and does not
bear a magnetic feld. So there is no rotation of stationary
magnets. The situation becomes different if it were possible
to create a magnetic feld from spacetime. In order to
understand how this can be achieved we have frst to look
closer on the felds of the surrounding spacetime. In case
of B
s
= 0 it follows from Eq. (19) that

A A
1
T
(21)
where A is the vector potential of the spacetime itself. In
contrast at Maxwell-Heaviside theory, this is no gaugable
quantity but is uniquely defned and has a physical meaning.
In case of A consisting of plane waves, takes a special
form and Eq. (21) can be expressed as A =k
B
A with
a wavelength k
B
=1/T, [14].

This equation is known as Beltrami equation in the literature
[7]. It describes a fow with longitudinal vortices where
streamlines have a helical form. In the case of chiral
potential this means that there is no force feld present,
in accordance with our prior assumption.
Taking the curl at both sides of Eq. (21) gives

+ ( ) ( ) ( ) A A A
1
0
2 2
T
k
B

(22)
This is a Helmholtz equation for the spacetime surrounding
the magnetic assembly. Because of the assumption of
H. Torres-Silva: Asymmetrical chiral gauging to increase the coeffcient of performance of magnetic motors
63
B
s
= 0 there is no torque on the magnets, they remain at
rest. Torque can be created by disturbing the Beltrami
fow. For the Helmholtz equation this means that the
balance to zero is no more fulflled. Assuming a periodic
imbalance leads to

( ) ( ) +
2
2
1
T
A R k r cos
(23)

with a vector R having units of inverse square meters,
therefore it can be interpreted as a curvature. is a wave
vector and can be interpreted as the frequency of a driving
force which the right hand side of the equation constitutes.
If restricted to one coordinate (x) the equation reads

( ) ( )
+
2
2 2
x T
A R kr
1
cos
x x
(24)
It can be seen that this is a differential equation for a
resonance without damping (= 0). The resonant oscillation
occurs in case k = 1/T with A
x
going to infnity.
Because of violating the Beltrami condition, A creates a
force feld according to Eq. (24), which creates a torque
being big enough to spin the magnetic assembly and to
maintain the rotation. This is the mechanism how spacetime
is able to do work via a resonance mechanism.
In total we have shown qualitatively how energy can be
obtained from spacetime via magnetic assemblies. This
could be the basis for development of an engineering for
such devices.
It has already been shown in quantum electrodynamics
that the vacuum behaves like a dielectric [9]. The vacuum
sprouts positron-electron pairs as shown in the Feynman
diagram.
It has been shown that by discarding the Lorentz gauge,
the Ampere-Maxwell law equation evolves to include the
current density of the vacuum. Also, the task remains to
develop the equation and determine the process to apply
it to magnetic motors. Future work is planned to study
the magnetic motor to ascertain the exact mechanism
involved that allows this motor to exchange energy with
the vacuum.
CONCLUSION
It has been suggested in at least one recent patent that it is
possible to make use of energy from the environment as
an extra source in permanent magnet motors. This paper
presents a new term coeffcient of performance which
may be used to more adequately describe the energy
transfer of such an electromechanical system. This paper
also shows the physics behind one possible explanation
for this phenomenon.

The physics is explained by frst considering how the
Lorentz gauge is used to give us the design equations
used today. The Lorentz gauge is then discarded to show
how the current density of the vacuum may be included in
the Maxwell-Ampere equation. They term asymmetrical
regauging is introduced for this procedure. The particle
physics explaining the vacuum polarity is introduced. A
thorough investigation for practical application of this
new equation is encouraged by suggestion that further
study be applied to the Wankel motor. Future work is
planned to study the magnetic motor to ascertain the exact
mechanism involved that allows this motor to exchange
energy with the vacuum.

REFERENCES
[1] J. Bedini. Device and Method of a Back EMF
Permanent Electromagnetic Motor Generator.
US: Bedini Technology, Inc. 2002.
[2] A. Trzynadlowski. Introduction to Modern Power
Electronics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Inc.
1998.
[3] K. Annamalai and I. Puri, Advanced Thermodynamics
Engineering. New York. CRC Press. 2002.
[4] D. Griffths. Introduction to Electrodynamics.
New York. Prentice-Hall. 1999.
[5] B. Thide. Electromagnetic Field Theory. Uppsala:
Upsilon Books. 2004.
[6] P.K. Anastasovski. Classical Electrodynamics
without the Lorentz Condition: Extracting Energy
from the Vacuum, Physica Scripta. Vol. 61, p. 513.
1999.
[7] T.D. Lee. Particle Physics and Introduction to user
Field Theory. New York: Harwood Academic
Publishers. 1981.
64
[8] B. Lehnert and S. Roy. Extended Electromagnetic
Theory. Singapore: World Scientifc. 1998.
[9] D. Griffths. Introduction to Elementary Particles.
New York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1987.
[10] M.W. Evans and H. Eckardt. Spin connection
resonance in magnetic motors. Documento 74
en la serie sobre ECE. URLs: www.aias.us
[11] D. Reed. Beltrami vector felds in electrodynamics
a reason for reexamining the structural foundations
of classical feld physics? Modern Nonlinear Optics,
Part 3. Second Edition. Advances in Chemical
Physics. Vol. 119. Recopilado por Myron W. Evans.
John Wiley & Sons. 2001.
[12] G. Kasyanov. Phenomenon of electrical current
rotation in nonlinear electric systems, Comment
on the Violation of the law of charge conservation
in the system, New Energy Technologies. Vol. 2
N 21, pp. 28-30. 2005.
[13] Motor de Johnson de imanes permanentes. US
Patent 4151431. 1979.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[15] H. Torres-Silva. Chiral feld ideas for a theory
of matter. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 N 1,
pp. 36-42. 2008.
pp. 91-98. 2008.
H. Torres-Silva: Podolskys electrodynamics under a chiral approach
65
INTRODUCTION
On the Question of Obtaining the Magnetic Field,
Magnetic Force, and the Maxwell Equations from
Coulombs Law and Special Relativity, where it can
be shown that any attempt to derive Maxwell equations
from Coulombs law of electrostatics and the laws of
special relativity ends in failure unless one makes use
of additional assumptions. Kobe [1] gave the answer: all
one needs to arrive at Maxwell equations is
(i) Coulombs law;
(ii) the principle of superposition;
(iii) the assumption that electric charge is a conserved
scalar (which amounts to assuming the independence of
the observed charge of a particle on its speed [2];
(iv) the requirement of form invariance of the electrostatic
field equations under Lorentz transformations, i.e. the
electrostatic field equations are thought as covariant
space-space components of covariant field equations.
Neuenschwander and Turner [3] obtained Maxwell
equations by generalizing the laws of magnetostatics,
which follow from the Biot-Savart law and magnetostatics,
to be consistent with special relativity.
The preceding considerations leads us to the interesting
question: what would happen if we followed the same
route as Kobe did, using an electrostatic force law other
than the usual Coulombs one? We shall show that if we
start from the force law proposed by Podolsky [4], i.e.,

F r
r
( )
' / /
_
,
QQ e
r
e
ra r
r a r a
4
1
0
2

(1)
where a is a positive parameter with dimension of length,
Q and Q are the charges at r and r = 0, respectively, and
F(r) is the force on the particle with charge Q due to the
particle with charge Q and if we follow the steps previously
outlined, we arrive at the outstanding electrodynamics
derived by Podolsky in the early 40 s. In other words,
we shall show that the same route that leads to Maxwell
equations leads also to Podolsky equations. A notable
feature of Podolskys generalized electrodynamics is that
it is free of those infinities which are usually associated
with a point source. For instance, (1) approaches a finite
value QQ/8
0
a
2
as r approaches zero. Thus, unlike
Coulombs law, Podolskys electrostatic force law is finite
in the whole space.
PODOLSKYS ELECTRODYNAMICS UNDER A CHIRAL APPROACH
ELECTRODINMICA DE PODOLSKY BAJO UN ENFOQUE QUIRAL
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se muestra que un nuevo esquema conduce a la electrodinmica de Maxwell y a la electrodinmica de
Podolsky, partiendo con relaciones constitutivas quirales en lugar de la usual ley de Coulomb.
Palabras clave: Electrodinmica de Podolsky, ecuaciones de Maxwell.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we show that a new approach leads to Maxwells and Podolskys electrodynamics, provided we start from
chiral constitutive relations instead of the usual Coulombs law.
Keywords: Podolskys electrodynamics, Maxwells equations.
1
66
In Sec. II we derive the equations that make up Podolskys
electrodynamic under the chiral approach [5, 7, 11].
In Sec. III we arrive at Podolskys field equations by
generalizing the equations of Sec. II, so that they are form
invariant under Lorentz transformations. For consistency,
we show in Sec. IV that (1) is indeed the electrostatic
force law related to Podolskys theory. The conclusions
are presented in Sec. V. Natural units h =c=1,are used
throughout. As far as the electromagnetic theories are
concerned, we will use the Heaviside-Lorentz units
with c = 1.
CHIRAL FIELD EQUATIONS
To begin with let us establish some conventions and
notations to be used from now on. We use the metric
tensor

_
,
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
with Greek indices running over 0, 1, 2, 3. Roman indices
i, j etc, - denote only the three spatial components. Repeated
indices are summed in all cases. The space-time four
vectors (contravariant vectors) are x t x
( , )
,
, and the
covariant vectors, as a consequences are
x t x
( , )
,
.
The four-velocities are found, according to
u
dx
d
v
u v

( , )
( , )
1
1
,
,
where is the proper time (d
2
= dt
2
dx
2
), and denotes
dt / d = (1v
2
)
1/2
. Let us then generalize (6) so that it
satisfies the requirement of form invariance under Lorentz
transformations. To do that, we write the mentioned
equation in terms of the Levi-Civita density
nml
, which
equals +1 (1) if n, m, l is an even(odd) permutation of
1, 2, 3, and vanish if two indices are equal. The curl
equation becomes

jkl
E
l
= 0 (2)
It we define the quantities
F
0i
= -F
0i
= E
i
= E
i
(3)
Equation (10) can be rewritten as
jkl
k
F
0l
= 0
We imagine now the curl law to be the space-space
components of a manifestly covariant field equation
(invariance under Lorentz transformations). As a result,
we get

v
v
F
= 0 (4)
where F
is a completely antisymmetric tensor of rank

four with
0123
=+1.
Of course, this generalization introduces the components
F
00
, F
01
, and F
lk
, for which at this point we lack a physical
interpretation. Note that the F
0i
are not necessarily static
anymore.
On the other hand, as is well-known, the charge density
is defined as the charge per unit of volume, which has as
a consequence that the charge dq in an element of volume
d
3
x is dq = d
3
x. Since dq is a Lorentz scalar [3],
transforms as the time-component of a four-vector,
namely, the time-component of the charge-current
four-vector
u j ( , )
,
. The electric charge, in turn,
is conserved locally [3], which implies that it obeys a
continuity equation

=0 (5)
Assuming e
jt
time dependence, Maxwells time-harmonic
equations [1] for isotropic, homogeneous, linear media
are
E =jB B=0 (6)
H =jD + J D= (7)
Chirality is introduced into the theory by defining the
following constitutive relations to describe the isotropic
chiral medium [5, 7]

D E E + T
(8)

B H H + T
(9)
Where the chirality admittance T indicates the degree of
chirality of the medium, and the y are permittivity
and permeability of the chiral medium, respectively. In
natural units =1, =1 (the factor 1/4 is absorved in
67
the current value). Since D and E are polar vectors and
B and H are axial vectors, it follows that and are
true scalars and T is a pseudoscalar. This means that
when the axes of a right-handed Cartesian coordinate
system are reversed to form a left-handed Cartesian
coordinate system, T changes in sign whereas and
remain unchanged.
Since B=0 always, this conditions will hold identically
if B is expressed as the curl of a vector potential A since
the divergence of the curl of a vector is identically zero.
Thus by rearranging equation (7) we have

( ) ( ) 1
2 2
+ + k T j T
o
B E J J
(10)
In terms of (3) can now be rewritten as
( ) ( ) 1
2 2
+ + + T j T
t
B E J J
or

( )( ) ( ) ( 1 2
2 2 2
2
2
+

+ + T
t t
T
t
T
t
B
E
E E J ++ T J)

(11)
In relativistic form we have

( ) 1
2 0
+ T E j
i
i
j
j
(12)
where
j j j
chiral ordinary
0 0 0
+
is given by a chiral current
plus a ordinary current of electrons and protons, the chiral
current is given in ref [1],
i
i
x / and
i
i
x / . Note
that

i
i
Using (11), yields ( ) 1+ T F j
i
i
j
j 2 0 0
In order that the left-hand side of the preceding equation
transforms as the time-component of a four-vector, we
must write it as
( ) 1+ T F j
j
j 2 0 0
where

i
i
t

2 2 2
/
(13)
The requirement of form invariance of this equation
under Lorentz transformations leads then to the following
result
( ) 1
2
+ T F j

(14)
Now if j j j j
chiral ordinary ordinary
0 0 0 0
+ , we can imagine now
a particle of mass m and charge Q at rest in a lab frame
where there is an electrostatic field E. Newtons second
law allows us to write

d
dt
Q
p
E
(15)
In terms of the proper time this becomes
d
d
Q Qu
p
E E

0
where u
0
is the time part of the velocity four-vector u
.
For the component along de x
i
direction, we have
dp
d
Qu F
i
i

0 0
In order that the right-hand side of this equation transforms
like a space-component of a four-vector, it must be
rewritten as
dp
d
Qu F
i
i
whose covariant generalization is

dp
d
Qu F

(16)
If (16) is multiplied by p
= mu, where m is the rest

mass, the result is
1
2
d
d
p p Qmu u F

( )
However,
p p m v m m

2 2
2
2 2 2 2
1 ( )
,
Therefore, we come to the conclusion that
u u F

0
Using this result Kobe [1] and Neuenschwander and
Turner [3] showed that F
v
is an antisymmetric tensor
68
(F
v
=
F
v
). Since F
v
is an antisymmetric tensor of
second rank, it has only six independent components,
three of which have already been specified. We name
therefore the remaining components

B F
i ilm
lm
1
2
(17)
Note that F B
kl klj
j
. Writing out the components of
(17) explicitly,
B F F B
B F F B
B F F B
1
23
23
1
2
13
13
2
3
12
12

33
Hence, a clever physicist who were only familiar with
Podolskys electrostatics and special relativity could
predict the existence of the magnetic field
,
B
, which
naturally still lacks physical interpretation.
The content of (12) and (14) can now be seen. For =0,
(12) gives
B=0 (18)
showing that there are no magnetic monopoles in Podolskys
electrodynamics, while for =i we obtain

E
B
t
(19)
which says that time-varying magnetic fields can be
produced be B fields with circulation.
The components = 0 and = i of (14) give,
respectively,

( ) 1
2
+ T E
(20)

( )( ) 1
2
+

T
dt
B
E
j
(21)
which are nothing but a generalization of Gauss and
Ampre- Maxwell laws in this order.
For v = i, (16) becomes

d
dt
Q
p
E v B + ( )
(22)
containing the Lorentz force. For v = 0, (15) assumes
the form

dU
dt
Q v E
(23)
where U = p
0
is the particles energy. Accordingly, our
smart physicist, who was able to predict the B field only
from its knowledge of electrostatics and special relativity,
can now-by making judicious use of (22) and (23) - observe,
measure and distinguish the B field from the E field of
(15). The new field couples to moving electric charge,
does not act on a static charged particle, and, unlike the
electrostatic field, is capable only of changing the particles
momentum direction.
Equations (18-21) make up Podolskys higher-order field
equations. Of course, in the limit T = 0, all the preceding
arguments apply equally well to Maxwells theory.
Two comments fit in here:
(1) Equation (14) is consistent with the continuity
equation (13). In fact, if the divergence of (14) is taken,
we obtain
( ) 1
2
+ T F j

Since F
v
is an antisymmetric tensor

F
is identically
zero. On the other hand, according to (14)
j
. Thus,
the equation in hand is identically zero;
(2) As was recently shown [8], it is not necessary to
introduce a formula for the force density f
representing
the action of the field on a text particle. We have only
to assume that ( f
) is the simplest contravariant vector

constructed with the current j
and a suitable derivative

of the field F
v
. Applying this simplicity criterion to
Podolskys electrodynamics, we promptly obtain
f F j

where, as we have already mentioned, j j
( , )
,
.
Therefore,
f F j
i
i
0 0
E j
and
f F j F j F j
k k k ik
i
k
+ +

0
0
( ) E j B
69
Thus, the force density for Podolskys electrodynamics is
the same as that for Maxwells electrodynamics, namely,
the well-known Lorentz force density.
THE FORCE LAW FOR PODOLSKYS
ELECTROSTATICS
We show now that (1) is indeed the force law for Podolskys
electrostatics. It follows
That

F E E Q V
(24)
where
V r d r
r e
R
R T
( ) '
( ')( )
/
, ,
,

3
1
4
Eq. (20) can then be rewritten as

( ) ( ) ( ) 1
2 2 2
T V r r
, ,
For a charge Q at the origin of the radius vector this

equation reduces to

( ) ( ) ( ) 1
2 2 2 3
T V r Q r
, ,
(25)
We solve this equation using the Fourier transform method.
First we define
V k ( )
,
as follows:

V r d ke V k
i k r
( )
( )
( )
/
,
, ,
, , ~

1
2
3 2
3
(26)

,
, ,
,
,
V k d re V r
ik r
( )
( )
( )
/

1
2
3 2
3
(27)
where d k
3
,
and d r
3
,
, respectively, stands for volumes in
the three-dimensional k-space and the coordinate space. If
we substitute (26) into (25) and take into account that
3
3 2
3
1
2
( )
( )
/
,
,
, ,
r d ke
i k r

we obtain
,
V k
Q
T k k
T
( )
( ) ( )
/
+ 2
1
3 2 2 2 2
2
So,
V r
Q
T
d k
e
k k
T
i k r
( )
( )
( )
,
,
, ,

2
1
3 2
3
2 2
2
Integral (28) may be found in any textbook on the theory

of functions of a complex variable [8]. As a result,
V r
Q
r
e
r
r T
( )
( )
( )
/
,

2
1
2
Accordingly, the electric field due to a charge Q at the

origin is given by

E
r

V r Q
e
r
e
rT
r T r T
( ) / ( )
/ /
,
4
1
2
r
(28)
It follows then the force law for Podolskys electrostatics
is
F r
r
( ) ( )
' / /
QQ e
r
e
ra r
r a r a
4
1
0
2
which is nothing but the force law for which we were

looking (see Eq. (1)).
Recently an algorithm was devised which allows one
to obtain the energy and momentum related to a given
field in a simple way [8]. Using this prescription we can
show that in the framework of Podolskys electrostatics
the energy is given by
field
d x T +
1
]
1
2
3 2 2 2
,
E E ( )
Making use of the expression for the electrostatic field
we have just found, we promptly obtain
field
Q
T
2
2
which tells us that the energy for the field of a point
charge has a finite value in the whole space. This is
indeed a important feature of Podolskys generalized
electrodynamics.
70
Equations (28) and E 0 are the fundamental laws
of Podolskys electrostatics. We will slightly analyze an
interesting feature of Podolskys electrostatics by computing
the flux of the electrostatic field across a spherical surface
of radius R with a charge Q at its center. Using (28) we
arrive at the result
E S
+ d Q R T e
R T
( ( / ) )
/
1 1
which tells us that
E S
E S
<<
>>
d R T
d Q R T
0,
,
Therefore, a sphere of radius R << T, unlike what happens
in Maxwells theory, shields its exterior from the field
due to a charge placed at its center. We remark that in
Maxwells electrostatics a closed hollow conductor shields
its interior from fields due to charges outside, but does
not shield its interior from the field due to charges placed
inside it [6]. Note, however, that in order not to conflict
with well established results of quantum electrodynamics,
the parameter a must be small. Incidentally, it was shown
recently that this parameter is of the order of magnitude
of the Compton wavelength of the neutral vector boson
z, 2.15 10
16
cm, which mediates the unified and
electromagnetic interactions [7].
ABOUT ELECTRON SIZE
In actuality, we dont know how big the electron is. All of
our measurements point to the electron having no size, but
we havent measured down far enough. The electron, if it
were a black hole, would have to be smaller than 1x10
-57

meters, quite a bit smaller than weve ever measured!
But, another reason that the electron is not considered
a black hole, even assuming that its radius is infinitely
small, is that it obeys the laws of quantum field theory.
Normally, when one speaks about black holes, one is
talking about them in terms of Einsteins theory of general
relativity. No one is sure how nature merges Einsteins
theory with quantum field theory. So we arent really
sure if the idea of a black hole makes sense on distance
scales as small as the (possible) radius of the electron..
Our best idea to unify general relativity with quantum
field theory is an idea called string theory, but string
theory still appears to be a long way from being put to
any experimental tests.
According to general relativity all massive objects possess
an event horizon known as the Schwarzschild radius. This
is a surface in three-dimensional space surrounding the
object. Any light rays emitted from within this radius are
unable to escape. If an object exists entirely within its
Schwarzschild radius then it is referred to as a black hole.
This radius grows with the mass of the object according
to the formula:
R mG c T
s N
2
2
/
Notice that for our sun we obtain a radius of 2.95 kilometers.
This is well within the interior of the sun so it is not a
black hole. For an electron we would obtain 1.35 x10
-51

m. If the electron were a point particle, it seems it would
be within even this fantastically small radius and would
indeed be a black hole!
However, as a subatomic particle the electron is also a
quantum-mechanical object. Recall the wave-particle
duality hypothesis of de Broglie. All objects have a wave
function which represents the probability of locating that
object at a particular point in space. During a collision this
wave function momentarily collapses and the particle is
truly at one point in space, but it immediately starts to
spread out again after the instant of collision. The typical
spread of the wave-function of a point particle is given by
the Compton wavelength: h mc mc T / / 2 4 h ,
in according with our chiral theory and this can be
considered the true quantum-mechanical size of the
object [7]. Notice that this size gets smaller as the mass
gets larger. For you or I or the sun this quantum-mechanical
size is essentially zero (theres not much uncertainty as
to where the sun is!) but for an electron the size is 2.42
x10
-12
m. Though still small, this is much, much larger
than the Schwarzschild radius. So quantum-mechanically
most of the electron is outside its event horizon. Thats
why it and other subatomic particles are not black.
FINAL REMARKS
Despite the simplicity of its fundamental assumptions,
Podolskys model has been little noticed. Currently some
of its aspects have been further studied in the literature
[7, 8, 12, 13]. In particular, the classical self-force acting
on a point charge in Podolskys model was evaluated and
it was shown that in this model, unlike what happens in
Maxwells electrodynamics, the electromagnetic mass
is finite and enters the particles equation of motion in a
form consistent with special relativity.
71
To conclude we call attention to the fact the same
assumptions that lead to Maxwells equations lead also to
Podolskys equations and our chiral equations, provided
we start from a generalization of the Coulombs law
instead of the usual Coulombs law. Yet, in spite of the
great similarity between the three theories, Podolskys
generalized electrodynamics and chiral electrodynamics
lead to results that are free of those infinities which are
usually associated with a point source.
REFERENCES
[1] D. H. Kobe. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 54, p. 631. 1986.
[2] A. Accioly, Brazilian Journal of Physics. Vol. 28,
p. 35, 1998.
[3] D. E. Neuenschwander and B. N. Turner, Am. J.
Phys. Vol. 60, p. 35. 1992.
[4] B. Podolsky, Phys. Rev. Vol. 62, p. 66. 1942.
pp. 91-98. 2008.
[6] B. Podolsky and P. Schwed, Rev. Mod. Phys.
Vol. 20, p. 40. 1948.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[8] Antonio Accioly, Am. J. Phys. Vol. 65, p. 882.
1997.
[9] F.W. Byron, Jr. and R.W. Fuller. Mathematics of
Classical and Quantum Physics. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company. New York. Vol. 2, pp. 366-
367. 1970.
[10] Jon Mathews and R.L. Walker. Mathematical
Methods of Physics. W.A. Benjamin, Inc. New
York, p. 58. 1965.
N 1, pp. 111-118. 2008.
[12] L.V. Belvedere, C.P. Natividade, C.A.P. Galvo,
Z. Phys. C56, p. 609. 1992.
[13] A.J. Accioly and H. Mukai, Z. Phys. C 75, p. 187.
1997.
72
SPIN AND RELATIVITY: A SEMICLASSICAL MODEL FOR ELECTRON SPIN
ESPN Y RELATIVIDAD: UN MODELO SEMICLSICO
PARA EL ESPN DEL ELECTRN
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
La relacin cuntica m c
0
2
0
h puede ser considerada como la equivalencia entre dos expresiones para la energa en
reposo de la partcula, si
0
se considera la velocidad angular de giro de partculas en su marco en reposo. La invariancia del
intervalo relativista espacio- tiempo ds c dt dr
2 2 2 2
para tal movimiento de espn (isotropa espacial) conduce al impulso
de espn S
z
h / 2 para todas las partculas sin estructura, independientemente de sus valores de masa. La inercia es una
propiedad intrnseca debido al movimiento de spin de las partculas. Los signos de los valores de masa que se producen
en las soluciones de la ecuacin de Dirac podran estar relacionados con la orientacin del espn, segn lo sugerido por
la relacin fundamental m c
0
2
0
h . Adems se refere al electrn, y ms concretamente con dos de las principales
propiedades: su funcin de onda compleja, y su giro intrnseco. En su interpretacin estndar no hay una clara imagen
del espacio real de lo que es oscilante en la onda, o lo que est girando en el espn. De hecho, es la creencia generalizada
de que ningn modelo sencillo puede dar cuenta de la rotacin de espn de los electrones. Por el contrario, en el presente
trabajo se muestra que un crudo modelo mecnico de rotacin de vrtices coherentes explica cuantitativamente no slo el
espn, sino tambin la propia funcin de onda. Las consecuencias de esto son examinadas en este trabajo.
Palabras clave: Espn, relatividad, ecuacin de Dirac, funcin de onda, modelo semiclsico.
ABSTRACT
The quantum relationship m c
0
2
0
h may be regarded as the equivalence between two expressions for the rest energy
of the particle, if
0
is considered as the spin angular velocity of the particle in its rest frame. The invariance of the
relativistic space-time interval ds c dt dr
2 2 2 2
to such a spin motion (space isotropy) leads to the spin momentum
S
z
h / 2 for all structureless particles irrespective of their mass values. The inertia is an intrinsic property due to the
spin motion of the particles. The signs of the mass values occurring in the solutions of the Dirac equation might be related
to the orientation of the spin motion, as suggested by the fundamental relationship
m c
0
2
0
h
. In addition, it deals
with the electron, and more specifcally with two key properties: its complex wavefunction and its intrinsic spin. In the
standard interpretation, there is no clear real-space picture of what is oscillating in the wave, or what is rotating in the
spin. Indeed, it is generally believed that no simple model of rotation can account for the spin of the electron. On the
contrary, the present paper shows that a crude mechanical model of coherently rotating vortices can account quantitatively
not only for spin, but also for the wavefunction itself. The implications of this are discussed in this paper.
Keywords: Spin, relativity, Dirac equation, wavefunction, semiclassical model.
1
SPIN AND RELATIVITY
As we know, the spin cannot be motivated in the frame of
classical mechanics. Even in the nonrelativistic quantum
theory, the nature of spin remains unclear. The spin results
solely from Diracs equation [1]. Although the Pauli and
Dirac matrices undoubtedly show the spin existence,
there is some mystery as to the physical origins of and
H. Torres-Silva: Spin and relativity: a semiclassical model for electron spin
73
in the visualization of the spin [2, 3]. One may says that
spin is an intrinsic property of the matter. It must have
to do with relativity even though this connection is not
entirely understood [4].
In this paper, I shall try to sketch a simple motivation
for the existence of spin starting from the fundamental
relationship, and namely:

m c
0
2
0
h
(1)
where m
0
is the rest mass and m
0
c
2
the rest energy of
the particle.
If the particle is considered as being a physical torus
spinning with angular velocity
0
(Figure 1a, and 1b),
the right-hand side of equation (1) should be regarded as
another relativistic expression for the rest energy.
(a)
(b)
r
p
z
D
T
P
x
0
P
y
r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
Figure 1. a) A spinning reference frame. b) A torus
electron model
We may argue the existence of the spin motion in the
space-time frame of the particle as follows: unlike
space coordinates, time is not directly measurable
(observable). The simplest way to estimate time is
to consider uniform motion. One can obtain time by
comparing covered distances ([5]: time is the number
of motion). This leads to the necessity of introducing
motion in the space-time reference frame. The only
allowed motion in the rest frame of the particle should
be that of rotation (spin).
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the rest energy
of a particle is related to its spin motion, which is only
allowed in that system [3]. This reasoning allows us to
regard h
0
as an equivalent expression for the rest
energy of the particle.
The particle as a moving object must also obey another
fundamental relationship, namely the relativistic elementary
space-time interval between the physical events of the
particle:

ds c dt dr
2 2 2 2

(2)
Every physical process, such as translation, rotation, etc.,
must be related to expression (2). The invariance of ds
2

to uniform translation (space homogeneity) leads to the
Lorentz corrections [6].
Let us now consider the uniform rotation (spin) of the
reference frame, with angular velocity
0
in x,y-plane
around the z-axis, as shown in Figure 1. In this case,
we have

x x y y z z
t t t dt
d
dt
const

+
'; '; ';
' ; ;

0

and ds
2
(equation 2) becomes
ds c r ydx xdy dt dr ' ( ) ( )
2 2 2
0
2
0
2
2
(3)
where r x y
+
2 2 2
represents the radius perpendicular
to the rotation z-axis, i.e. the distance from origin to the
points P, P, etc. (Figure 1 ).
Expression (3) can easily be derived.[7] Note that the linear
velocity u r

0
must obey the restriction imposed by
the special relativity, i.e. c r
2 2
0
2
>
. For the limit case

c r

0
, the rotating space becomes closed with the
lateral radius r
. This is all what Fock mentioned [7].

But such a rotating empty space is physically meaningless.
We must therefore actually ascribe this rotation to the
particle situated in the origin of this space. For that
particle, the set of points P, P, etc. for which c r

0
,
should be considered the closure (frontier) of the particle.
We do not know too much about the shape of a spinning
particle, considered as being structureless, but we can at
least defne for it a radial extension equal to:
74
r c
/
0
(4)
From equations (1) and (4), we have:

r m c
c
h i /
0
(Compton radius). (5)
This result shows that all structureless particles with rest
mass cannot be pointlike. For the limit case, c r

0
,
expression (3) becomes:
ds xdy dt ydx dt dt dr ' ( / / )
2
0
2 2
2 (6)
We have already mentioned the invariance of to the uniform
translation (space homogeneity). Let us now consider the
invariance of ds
2
to the uniform rotation (space isotropy).
In other words, for a noninteracting spinning particle,
space must remain unaffected by the uniform rotation.
From the invariance condition ds
2
(equation 6) ds
2

(equation 2), we obtain:
2
0
2
( / / ) xdy dt ydx dt c . (7)
If we use now the fundamental relationship from equation
(1), we have
S m xdy dt ydx dt m r u
z
z

0 0
2 ( / / ) / h , (8)
where S
z
is the classical expression for the z-component
of angular momentum. The result is interesting. This
mainly shows that the h / 2 value of the angular
(spin) momentum preserves the space isotropy. It must
be universal and characteristic for all structureless
particles with fnite rest mass, independent of their
mass values.
If the two possible rotations around z-axis are considered
( ; )
0 0 0
+

corresponding to x y and y x
rotations, both the h / 2 values conserve the space
isotropy. The time reversal t-t in (8) leads to h / 2
value. Note that for
0
values equation (1) becomes
h
0
2
m c
o
. The mass values m
0
occurring in
Diracs equation might actually be related to the rotation
sense of the spin angular velocity
0
.
Moreover, according to (1) the rest mass m
0
is tightly
connected with the spin motion represented by
0
.
Therefore, a structureless elementary particle with a
fnite rest mass and radial extension behaves as a small
mechanical top, its inertial properties not necessarily
being conditioned by the gravitational interaction with
the matter in universe (Machs principle).
A SEMICLASSICAL MODEL
FOR ELECTRON SPIN
First, consider an electron with its center of mass at
rest, but spinning. The simplest possible model is a
spinning solid torus (fgure 1b). Based on the goal of
having this describe the electron wavefunction, one
expects that the angular velocity is given by the Planck-
Einstein relation E h . Since this is a real physical
rotation, the zero of energy is not arbitrary as in standard
nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, but must be given
by the relativistic rest energy E mc
2
. (This also has
the property of being relativistically covariant when
we transform later to a moving reference frame.) For
rotation of a solid torus of radius R, the linear velocity
on the equator is u R Rmc
2
/ h . But clearly, u can
be no greater than the speed of light c. This is a natural
cutoff, and provides an estimate of the maximum size
of this spinning ball:

R c mc R
c max
/ / h
(9)
This is the Compton wavelength R
c
of the electron
0.4pm, which is much smaller than the typical scale
that characterizes atomic orbitals (1=100pm). If we
want to model an extended electron state, then clearly
R
c
is too small.
Consider instead an extended state consisting of a parallel
array of torus vortices (see fgure 1), each a solid body
of radius R
c
rotating around its axis at mc
2
/ h . For
simplicity here, assume that there are N identical vortices,
each of mass mv = m/N. The angular momentum of each
vortex is then given by

L I m R N
c v v

1
2
2
2
h /
, (10)
75
where we have taken the moment of inertia I mR
1
2
2

for a cylinder of uniform mass density. This is a crude
semi-relativistic model, but it does in fact give the proper
value for the total angular momentum for the electron,
S h / 2 .
One can also estimate the magnetic moment of the
electron from this model. Treating the rotating charge
per vortex q e N
v
/ as a current i q
v v
/ 2 , one
obtains simply

( )
( )
Ni A e R e m
c B v v
/ / 2 2
2
h
(11)
where
B
is the Bohr magneton and A
v
is the cylindrical
cross sectional area per vortex. Again, this is the correct
result, perhaps fortuitously, but it does suggest that this
crude model may incorporate much of the essential
physics.
These calculations require only that all of the torus are
rotating at the same frequency around parallel axes.
But in addition, it is reasonable to assume a coherent
state where all of them are rotating in-phase as well,
as suggested in fgure 1. This requires a rotating vector
feld A(r,t). Furthermore, it is not necessary to assume
that the vortices have identical masses. More generally,
one could have a density function (r), which would go
as the square of the feld amplitude A(r), analogously to
the energy density in electromagnetic waves.
Now the phase angle ( ) / t Et h is constant across the
entire electron, but that can also be relaxed. Consider what
happens when we Lorentz-transform to a reference frame
moving with velocity v. Locations that are in phase in the
rest frame will not in general be in phase in the moving
frame. The proper way to deal with this is to make the
phase angle relativistically invariant, so that
Et E t p r (12)
where in the usual way
+ E mc mc m
2 2 2
1
2
v
,
p m m v v is the momentum,
( )
1
2 2
1 2
v /
/
c ,
and the approximate forms are for v << c. This is invariant
because (E/c, p) and (ct, r) are relativistic 4-vectors, and
the phase angle goes as their inner product. So now the
rotating phase angle takes the form
( , ) ( ) / r t Et p r h (13)
This corresponds to a plane wave with wavelength =h/p,
which is well known as the de Broglie wavelength. Note
that this follows directly from the earlier assumption that
the rotation frequency is given by mc
2
/ h .
Once we have a wave satisfying the Einstein-deBroglie
relations, the rest of quantum mechanics follows
naturally. We have a rotating vector feld given by a
spin axis (assumed to be uniform), an amplitude A(r,t),
and a rotating phase angle (r,t). If we compare to the
standard complex wavefunction in quantum mechanics,
(r,t) = exp(i), and map A and onto and ,
we have a rotating wavefunction which satisfes the
time-dependent Schrdinger equation.
For example, consider a rotating vector field of the
form
A r t A u kz t u kz t
x y
( , ) cos( ) sin( )
1
]
0
, (14)
(u
x
and u
y
are the unit vectors in the x- and y-directions),
which represents a plane wave traveling in the z-direction
with spin also in the z-direction (fgure 2). This is a circularly
polarized transverse wave, with either positive or negative
helicity depending on whether the plus or minus sign is
chosen. For fxed t, the tip of the vector follows a helix;
for fxed z, circular rotation at an angular frequency
of a vector of length A
0
.
Now defne
( )
arctan / A A kz t
y x
, and
( , ) exp( ) exp ( ) r t A i A i kz t
1
]
, (15)
and substitute this into the time-dependent Schrdinger
equation with the rest-energy explicitly added:

i t H m mc V r h h
( )
+ +
1
]
/ / ( )
2 2 2
2
(16)
The result is the simple, correct relation (for v<<c) that
h h +
2 2 2
2 k m mc / . Note also that the complex
conjugate of might seem to yield negative energy, but
really just represents the spin of the opposite sign.
Thus far the model has been limited to a single plane
wave, but electrons are generally present in bound states,
with standing waves instead of travelling waves. Consider
for simplicity the one-dimensional particle-in-a-box,
76
with the electron confned between z = 0 and z = L. The
solution takes the form of discrete bound states given
by the complex wavefunctions
n
and equivalent vector
felds A
n
:

n
n z L i t sin( / ) exp( ) (17)
A n z L u t u t
n x y
( )

( )
sin / cos sin (18)
Here n=1 corresponds to the ground state and n=2, 3,...
to the excited states, and the quantized energies E
n
are
given as usual (but with the mc
2
offset) by
E mc k m mc n L m
n n
+ + h h h
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 / ( / ) / (19)
and as before the corresponds to the two spin states.
Note that this vector wavefunction has separated into two
factors, the usual standing-wave envelope and the rotating
Figure 2. Picture of real-space helical wave representing electron with spin. Evolution of helix for wave propagating in
z-direction.
z
x
y
0
= 2/ = h/p
phase vector. The negative values of the sine (for n>1)
correspond to 180 shifts of the rotating phase.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The wave example given above is based on a helical
transverse wave, which is similar in form to a transverse
electromagnetic wave which is circularly polarized like
a chiral wave. Indeed, such a helical TEM wave carries
angular momentum, and forms the classical limit of a
photon [9, 10], with spin h pointing along the direction
of motion. However, unlike the case of the photon, one can
transform to the rest frame of the electron, and from there
to any other direction. In general, the electron spin axis
would not be parallel to the momentum, and the rotating
spin feld vector would follow a general cycloidal motion
rather than a simple helix. The spin and translational
motions are essentially decoupled in this model (no spin-
orbit interaction).
This model of coherently rotating vortices appears to
account for the complex wavefunction of the electron [6].
This suggests that the spin picture may be substantially
more general than simply a single electron, and that spin is
fundamental to all of quantum mechanics. In that regard,
it may not be a coincidence that all fundamental quantum
particles seem to have spin. Certain mesons have spin-0,
but they can be regarded as composites of spin- quarks.
And certainly atoms with spin-0 show quantum effects.
It is likely that the spins of the constituent components
contribute their angular phase references to the composite
system, even if the total spin cancels out.
One may speculate as to the physical basis for such a
coherent vortex model. It seems to correspond to a very
rigid state of an intrinsically rotating fuid. Such a rigid
state may indicate a very strong cohesive energy associated
with long-range phase coherence among the vortices. Since
the lowest excitation of an electron involves creation of
an electron-positron pair, this cohesive energy might be
expected to be ~1MeV, larger than the rest energy of the
electron itself.
Speculating even further, the existence of such a highly
rigid state would have important implications for quantum
measurement. Any local interaction that would alter
the energy of part of an electron wavefunction would
jeopardize this cohesive energy. This, in turn, would create
an instability leading either to the rest of the electron
being pulled into the interaction region, or alternatively
to the expulsion of the electron from this region. This
suggests a real dynamical process which may provide a
physical basis for the collapse of the wavefunction in
quantum measurement.
Finally, if this rotating spin feld is mathematically
equivalent to the usual Schrdinger equation, is it really
just a matter of preference which representation we
77
choose? Not entirely, because a real physical rotation,
with a defnite frequency and spatial fne structure,
should be measurable. If one probes the behavior of
electrons at frequencies ~10
20
Hz = mc
2
/h, particularly
with a circularly polarized probe, one should expect to
see a sharp resonance in some sort of spectral response,
perhaps associated with spin-fip of the electron in a
large magnetic feld. Furthermore, the fne structure of
the spin model identifed a periodicity on the scale of
2 2 R mc
c
h / , which would correspond to a momentum
transfer h ~ k mc c 1 5 . / MeV . It would be interesting
to see whether relevant measurements are consistent
with the model described in this paper.
It is somewhat surprising that a simple mechanical
model for spin was not presented in the early days of
quantum mechanics. It seems that early researchers
were discouraged by apparent rotation velocities greater
than c [8]. It may be that the distributed coherent vortex
model provides a way around these diffculties. More
recently, Ohanian [9] showed that the relativistic Dirac
equation is consistent with a distributed circular energy
fow on a scale larger than R
c
, which provides the basis
for the electron spin and magnetic moment. The present
semiclassical model is certainly cruder than the Dirac
equation, but also reproduces these results within a more
intuitive physical picture.
In conclusion, a new semiclassical picture for electron
spin is presented, in which a spinning vector feld,
rotating at mc
2
/h, is organized into a coherent array
of rigidly rotating vortices on the scale of R mc
c
h / .
The vector feld F maps onto the quantum wavefunction
, providing for a unifcation of spin and quantum
mechanics. It is further suggested that the coherent
nature of this spin feld may be associated with a cohesive
energy, which in turn may play a key role in quantum
measurement. While the specifc details of this model
remain crude, its clear intuitive physical picture may
help to stimulate further research along similar lines.
By dealing with specifc real-space models, it may be
possible to remove much of the abstraction and mystery
from quantum theory.
REFERENCES
[1] P.A.M. Dirac. Principles of Quantum Mechanics.
Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1958.
Maxwell system and the Dirac equation when the
electric feld is parallel to the magnetic feld. Ingeniare.
Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 N 1, pp. 43-47. 2008.
N 1, pp. 111-118. 2008.
[4] M. Gogberashvili. Octonionic electrodynamics.
Journal of Physics A. Vol. 39 N 22, pp. 7099-7104.
2006.
[5] J.M. Lvy-Leblond. Non-relativistic particles and
wave equations. Communications in Mathematical
Physics. Vol. 6, pp. 286-311. 1967.
[6] C. Moller. The Theory of Relativity. Clarendon
Press. Oxford. 1964.
[7] V. Fock. Theory of Space, Time and Gravitation.
Pergamon Press. Oxford. 1964.
[8] Eugen Merzbacher. Quantum Mechanics. 3rd
ed. John Wiley. New York. 1997.
[9] Hans C. Ohanian. What is Spin?. Am. J. Phys.
Vol. 54, pp. 500-505. 1986.
pp. 91-98. 2008.
78
EXTENDED EINSTEINS THEORY OF WAVES
IN THE PRESENCE OF SPACE-TIME TENSIONS
TEORA EXTENDIDA DE ONDAS DE EINSTEIN
EN LA PRESENCIA DE TENSIONES EN EL ESPACIO-TIEMPO
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
Se propone una modificacin a la dinmica de Einstein en presencia de ciertos tipos de tensin del espacio-tiempo. La
estructura de las ecuaciones de movimiento para las perturbaciones gravitacionales es muy similar a las ecuaciones de
Maxwell para cuerpos quirales micro y macroscpicos caracterizados por T, cuando los operadores de y son como
() ()(1+T ). Se discute el lmite de unificacin del electromagnetismo y la gravitacin en el tiempo de Planck. Como
aplicacin de esta teora se menciona el efecto de la birrefringencia en sistemas GPS (Global Positioning Systems).
Palabras clave: Tensiones, espacio-tiempo, electrodinmica, quiralidad.
ABSTRACT
A modification of Einsteins dynamics in the presence of certain states of space-time tension is proposed. The structure of
the equations of motion for gravitational disturbances is very similar to Maxwells equations for micro and macroscopic
chiral bodies characterized by T, when the operators and are like () ()(1+T). The unification limit between
the electromagnetism and gravity is discussed. As an application of this theory we mention the birefringence effect in
Global Positioning Systems (GPS).
Keywords: Tensions, space-time, electrodynamic, chirality.
1
INTRODUCTION
Electrodynamics is perhaps the most successful theory
physicists have constructed. Its theoretical and experimental
properties have been simulated and sought for in many
others theories, such as the analysis of gravitational
phenomena. Much work has been done in this direction
and many authors have discussed the resemblance
between electrodynamics and gravidynamics [1]. However,
it appears to us that it is not difficult to improve the
theoretical aspects of this similarity more that has been
done I the past. We intend to make a small contribution
to this problem here.
In this vein, we shall propose a modification of Einsteins
theory of general relativity under certain special states of
space-time. Since the brilliant 1916 proposal of Einsteins
geometrization of gravitational phenomena, many physicists
have discussed alternative models of gravitation. These
can be divided into two classes:
i. Geometrical models.
ii. Non-geometrical models.
The first group accepts Einsteins idea of geometrization
of gravity but denies (under certain circumstances) the
validity of the equations of motion proposed by Einsteins.
The second group contains all attempts to construct a model
in which gravity has no direct link with the structure of
space-time. It is not our intention to discuss these models
here. We merely state their existence.
The king of theory we shall advocate here may be
classified as being of type i. Indeed, we shall assume that
gravitational phenomena is described by the structure
of space-time. This will be given by means of its metric
H. Torres-Silva: Extended Einsteins theory of waves in the presence of space-time tensions
79
properties represented by a symmetrical metric tensor
g
v
(x) and by two others functions, like operators (x)
and (x), which are independent of the metric [2] and
intimate characteristics of space-time.
We think it will be convenient, for pedagogical reasons,
to limit our considerations in the present paper to the
case in which both and are constants in time, but ,
are function of 3-D space. The meaning we would like
to propose for these two constants is obtained by a direct
analogy with the dielectric and permeability constants of
a given medium in electrodynamics like a Born Fedorov
approach [4].
However, we shall simplify our model by merely
stating that and can be provisionally identified
with the characteristics of certain states of tensions,
is free space-time, due to an average procedure on
quantum properties of gravitation [3]. This is perhaps
not difficult to assume if we can say exactly how the
equations of motion of gravity phenomena must be
modified by them, as we shall go later. In sec. II we
shall describe gravitational interaction by means of a
fourth-rank tensor R
. We shall set up its algebraic

properties and give its dynamics. It is possible to
separate this tensor, for an observer moving with
four-velocity u
, into four second-order symmetric

trace-free tensors E
, B
, D
and H
. Our principal
result is then obtained by showing that we can select
a class of observers with velocity u

in such a way as
to have the equations of motion for B
. That is, for

E
, B
, D
and H
separated into two groups: one

containing only E
and B
(and their derivatives)

and the others containing only D
and H
(and their
derivatives). These equations have the same formal
structure of Maxwells equations in a given general
medium. So, we arrived at the conclusion that in our
theory there is a class of privileged observers in which
gravitational field equations admit the above simple
separated form. Any others observers, which is in
motion with respect to u
, mixes the terms E
, H
,
B
and H
into the equations. This situation could

be thought of as defining a new type of ether but it is
only a preferred frame of observation.
In the remainder of the paper we discuss in some detail
a very particular situation of the above tensors, that is,
the case in which they can be reduced to two tensors
plus two operators: the above and . The we show that
Einsteins theory is obtained from ours for a particular
set of values of and , that is, the case = = 1. It is in
this sense that we have called our theory a generalization
of Einsteins dynamics.
THE R-FIELD
Definitions
Let us define in a four-dimensional Riemannian manifold a
fourth-rank tensor R
given in term of four second-order

tensors E
, B
, D
and H
as viewed by an observer
with velocity tangent vector (time-like and normalized
u
= + 1). We set

R V D V V E V E

+ +
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]

V B V V H V
[ ]
[ ]
(1)
In which the bracket means anti-symmetrization and

g ; g is the determinant of g
and
is the totally anti-symmetric Levi-Civita symbol.

The tensors E
, B
, D
and H
satisfy the following

properties:
D D D D V
0 0 , , (2)
E E E E V
0 0 , , (3)
H H H H V
0 0 , , (4)
B B B V
0 0 0 , , (5)
We lower and raise the co-ordinate indices by means of
the metric tensors g
(x). Greek indices run from 0 to 3,

in our units we set velocity of light = 1. We can write
D
, E
, etc, in terms of R
and projections on u
, by
using properties that will be given below.
Algebraic properties
From definition of R
it is easy to prove the following

properties [5]:

R R

(6)
R R

(7)
R E D

(8)

R
0
(9)
80
Dynamics
By analogy with Einsteins equations in vacuum we shall
impose on R
the equations of motion [4]

R
;
0
(10)
(where the semicolon means the covariant derivative).
Now, we shall use the properties given in subsection 1
above for projecting the system of Eq. (10) parallel and
orthogonal to the rest frame of a selected observer u
from
the whole class of
. We impose that the congruence

generated by u
satisfy the properties:

u u
w h h u
+

(a) 1
1
2
0

[ ] ;
(b)
(c)
1
2
0 h h u
u u u
[ ] ;
;
` 0 (d)
(11)
Where h
is the projector in the plane orthogonal to

u
, that is
h g u u

(12)
So, the congruence generated by u
is geodesic, irrotational,
non-expanding and shear-free. The reason for selecting
such a particular class of observers will appear clear later.
Then, Eq. (10) assumes the form:

D h h
D h h h
;
( ) (
+
0
`
) ;
u H 0
(13)

B h h
B h h h
;
( ) (
0
`

) ;
u E 0
(14)
In which a round bracket means symmetrization.
This set of equations has a striking resemblance with
Maxwells macroscopic equations of electrodynamics. Indeed,
we can formally understand the above set as being [4]

,
D 0 (13a)
`
,
,
D H 0 (13b)

,
B 0 (14a)
`
,
,
B E + 0 (14b)

Where the symbol is put over D, E, etc. only to represent
its tensorial character; and son generalizations of
the usual well-known operators and .
So, we can understand the reason for selecting the above
privileged set of observers, given by the tangential vectoru
.
Eqs. (13)-(14) takes the form-only for this class of frame.
Any others observer which is in motion with respect to
l
will mix into the equations of motion the set of tensors

(E
, B
) with the set (D
, H
). So, it is in this sense that

there is a natural selection of all observers in the Universe,
with respect to the equation of motion satisfied by R
.
and states of tension
A particular class of states of space-time is that in which
there is a specific linear function relating the tensors B
with H
and E
with D
by means of two operators,

and .
We set

B H D E

,
(15)
If we put expressions (15) into definition (1) of R
, a
straightforward calculation shows that it is possible to write
R
in terms of the Weyl tensor C
and its electric

and magnetic parts E
and
, if we identify the
tensor E
with
and H
with
`
E h h
E
;
0 (a)
h h h u H
( ) ( ) ;
0 (b)
(16)

`
H h h
H h
;
0 (a)
(( ) ( ) ;

h h u E
0 (b)
(17)
By the same argument that guided us to Eqs. (13)-(14)
we see from the above set that we can identify as being
the gravitational analogue of the dielectric constant of
electrodynamics, and as being the permeability of
space-time.
81
Now, we recognize in Eqs (16)-(17) Einsteins equations
for the free gravitational field for the particular case in
which = = 1. [4]
So, we propose to interpret Eqs (16)-(17) for the general
case (,different from unity) as the equations for the
gravitational fields for states of space-time that are
characterized macroscopically (in the sense discussed
in the introduction) by the operators and .
GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY IN
AN - STATE OF TENSION
There have been many discussions, since Einsteins 1916
paper, concerning the definition of the energy of a given
gravitational field. We do not intend to comment hare on
this subject but we shall limit ourselves to considering
one reasonably successful suggestion of Bel [3] for the
form of the energy-momentum tensor of gravitational
radiation.
The point of departure come from the supposed resemblance
of gravitational and electromagnetic effects. So, he defines
a fourth-rank tensor T
given in terms of quadratic

components of the field (identified with the Riemann
tensor) and written in terms of the Weyl tensor C
.
Bels super-energy tensor takes the form:
T C C C C

1
2
* *
(18)
Where the definitions of the dual C
*
is the usual:

C C
1
2
(19)
Due to the symmetric properties of the Weyl tensor, we
have C C C

* *
*
. This property does not
hold for R
. This is related to the lack of symmetry:

R R

. Indeed, we have

R u u C u u H
R u u H
*
*
*

This T
tensor has properties very similar indeed

to the Minkowski energy-momentum tensor of
electrodynamics.
The scalar constructed with T
and the tangent vector

u
, for instance, takes the form

u T u u u u
T
( )

(20)
And gives the energy of the field
u E H
T ( )
( ) +
1
2
2 2

(21)
Where

E E E
H H H
2
2
(a)
(b)
(22)
In the context f our theory, for a space-time in the states
of tension, we propose to modify T
into

defined in an analogous manner by

R C R C +
1
2
*
*
(23)
Then, the energy U
(, )
as viewer by an observer u
will
be given by
U u u u u E H
( , )
( )

+
1
2
2 2

(24)
in complete analogy with the electrodynamical case in
a general medium.
We would like to make an additional remark by presenting
to special properties of

E C
1
2
1 ( )

(a)
=

(b)
(25)
Property (25a) states that not all traces of
are null
for a general states of tension of space-time that the non-
null parts of the contracted tensor are independent of the
permeability . The second property (25b) states that the
scalar obtained by taking the trace of
twice is null,
independent of the states of tension of the space-time.
82
`THE VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION OF
GRAVITATIONAL WAVES IN
STATES OF TENSION
In order to know the velocity of gravitational waves in
states of space-time let us perturb the set of equations
(15) and (16). The perturbation will be represented by
the map:

E E E
H H H

+
+
(a)
(b)
(26)
In which

E H , are null quantities. Then, Eqs. (15)
and (16) go into the perturbed set of equations:

E
E h
(a)
;
(
+
0
1
2
u H
) ;

0 (b)
(27)

H
H h
(a)
;
(
0
1
2
u E
) ;

0 (b)
(28)
Where the covariant derivative is taken in the background and
we limit ourselves to the linear terms of perturbation.
Now, let us specialize the background to be a Minkowaki
(flat) space-time with ( ) ( )( ) + 1 T In this case
the covariant derivatives are the usual derivatives and we
can use the commutative property in order to write:

( )
( ) ;
1
1
2
0 + + T E h u H
``

`
(29)
By taking the derivative of Eq. (27b) projected in the
privileged direction u
.
Now, multiplying Eq. (27b) by the factor

1
2
h u
x
( )

We find
1
2
1
4
h u H
h u u h
( ) ; ( ) (
) | |
E 0
(30)
Subtituting Eq. (30) in (29) and using (28b) we finally
find

( ) 1
1
0
2 2
+ T E
``

(31)
Where
2
is the Laplacion operator defined in the three-
dimensional space orthogonal to u
.
In the same way an analogous wave equation can be obtained
for
H

. From Eq. (31) we obtain the expected result: the
velocity of propagation of gravitational waves in states
of tension of space-time is equal to 1/ when T 0.
Thus we are shown that the point of departure, from the
supposed resemblance of gravitational and electromagnetic
effects turns a truly unification when T M c
P
h / 2
(Planck limit) [6], where R T

well
E i H

max

0.
At the Planck scale both EM and gravity have the same
equations. Because of the ultra strong nature of EM
fields at the Planck scale, self-cancellation occurs and
the equations for both gravity and EM are the vacuum
equations:
G R Rg

1
2
0 (32)
But the zero is a result of cancelling terms,
G G c A T g

8
4
0
/ ( ) (33)
where A
, is the first part of the Maxwell stress tensor,

which we will call the action stress, and where T
0
is the
normalization stress scalar. The tensor T
0
g
, will be
called the reaction stress. We can calculate the value of
T
0
approximately:

T M c r c G
p p 0
2 2 3 4
2 8 / ( ) /

where we have defined the cosmological constant

~ ~ r T
p p
2 2
, which was first proposed by Einstein.
Since at this scale we have g
= g
T
0
, we can
simplify the vacuum equation: G
= g
)
This equation is of the form first proposed by Einstein
[7] with the cancellation of terms first proposed by
Zeldovich [8]. At the Planck scale the first action
term and the second reaction term cancel exactly
to make a vacuum equation. It is here that the GEM
splitting occurs; the terms cease to cancel with the
83
parameters of the reaction term changing. We have
then a splitting into two equations, the first being the
action term equation
G T T

/
0
(34)
which becomes the standard non vacuum equation
of GR:

G G c T

8
4
/

where T
, is now the stress tensor due to presence of

electrons and protons that have now appeared due to
splitting. The second equation, the reaction portion with
its negative sign will become the EM equation. It splits
again to form two equations of the form G
='T
/T'
0
.
The new parameters ' and T'
0
are no longer quantities
associated with the Planck scale but a new scale associated
with particles such that T'
0
= q
2
/8r
0
4
and ' = r
0
2
where
q is a particle charge and r
0
has changed from the Planck
length to a particle classical radius.
In the chiral approach we have + / / ( ) t t T 1
so we have
+ +
1
]
+
2 2
1
2 2
2 1 0
( ) ( ) T i T G E
(32)
the solution of the wave equation can give relative retardation
of right- and left-handed circularly polarized waves
like was observed in the experiments with Pioneer-6,
whereas in the case of linearly polarized waves the effect
was practically zero. If such birefringent effects like
polarisation dependent bending of light by the Sun, the
Earth or time delay of pulsar signals are observed with
other measurements, they will signal new physics beyond
Einsteins gravity [5-7].
As application of this theory in the future, will be the
potential designs to improve the Global Positioning System
(GPS). The variety of GPS applications is astonishing.
In addition to the more obvious civilian and military
applications, the systems uses include synchronizing
of power-line nodes to detect faults, very-large-baseline
interferometry, monitoring of plate tectonics, navigation
in deep space, time tamping of financial transactions, and
tests of fundamental physics. Two years ago, the value of
the GPS to the general community had already become
so great that USA turned off selective availability-the
system by which the highest GPS precision was available
only to the military. At the Arecibo radio telescope in the
1970s and 1980s, Joseph Taylor and colleagues verified
the general-relativistic prediction for the loss of energy
by a binary pulsar through gravitational radiation. Their
exquisitely precise long-term timing measurements
made use of the GPS to transfer time from the Naval
Observatory and NIST to the local reference clock at
Arecibo. The GPS constellation of highly stable clocks in
rapid motion will doubtless provide new opportunities for
tests of relativity. More than 50 manufacturers produce
more than 500 different GPS products for commercial,
private, and military use. More than 2 million receivers are
manufactured each year. New applications are continually
being invented.
Relativity issues are only a small but essential part of this
extremely complex system. Numerous other issues must
also be considered, including ionospheric and tropospheric
delay effects, cycle slips, noise, multipath transmission,
radiation pressure, orbit and attitude determination, and
the possibility of malevolent interference. Relativistic
coordinate time is deeply embedded in the GPS. Millions
of receivers have software that applies relativistic
corrections. Orbiting GPS clocks have been modified
to more closely realize coordinate time. Ordinary users
of the GPS, though they may not need to be aware of it,
have thus become dependent on Einsteins conception
of space and time.
CONCLUSION
This theory deserves further investigation. In any case,
the model we are proposing on gravitational interaction
has many intriguing consequences that should be carefully
examined. Among these, we would like to point out the
possibility of avoiding collapse either locally (starts) or
globally (the Universe).
The gravitational optic approximation should be changed
accordingly and many qualitatively new gravitational
phenomena are to be expected to appear. We intend to
come black to these problems elsewhere.
REFERENCES
[1] J.A. Wheeler. Geometrodynamics. Academic
Press Inc. New York. 1960.
[2] H. Endo. On Ricci curvatures of certain
submanifolds in contact metric. Tensor. Vol. 49,
pp. 146-153. 1990.
84
[3] M. Novello. Generalization of Einsteins theory of
gravity in the presence of tensions in space time.
IC/75/61. International Centre For Theoretical
Physics. 1975.
[4] S.N. Gupta. Einsteins and other theories of
gravitation. Rev. Mod. Phys. Vol. 29, pp. 337-350.
1957.
[5] N. Rosen. A bi-metric theory of gravitation.
General Relativity Gravitation. Vol. 4 N 6,
pp. 435-447. 1973.
para la unificacin del electromagnetismo y la
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[7] H. Torres-Silva. Maxwell equations for generalised
lagrangian functional. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing.
Vol. 16 N 1, pp. 53-59. 2008.
[8] H. Torres-Silva. Einstein equations for tetrad
fields. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 N 1,
pp. 85-90. 2008.
H. Torres-Silva: Einstein equations for tetrad felds
85
EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR TETRAD FIELDS
ECUACIONES DE EINSTEIN PARA CAMPOS TETRADOS
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
Todo tensor mtrico puede ser expresado por el producto interno de campos tetrados. Se prueba que las ecuaciones de
Einstein para esos campos tienen la misma forma que el tensor electromagntico de momento-energa si la corriente
externa total es igual a cero. Usando la teora de campo unifcado de Evans se muestra que la verdadera unifcacin de la
gravedad y el electromagnetismo es con las ecuaciones de Maxwell sin fuentes.
Palabras clave: Ecuaciones de Einstein, campos tetrados, tensor de momento-energa, geometra Riemann-Cartan, sistemas
Einstein-Maxwell.
ABSTRACT
Every metric tensor can be expressed by the inner product of tetrad felds. We prove that Einsteins equations for these
felds have the same form as the stress-energy tensor of electromagnetism if the total external current j
=0. Using the

Evans unifed feld theory, we show that the true unifcation of gravity and electromagnetism is with source-free Maxwell
equations
Keywords: Einstein equations, tetrad felds, metric tensor, energy tensor, electromagnetism, Riemann-Cartan geometry;
EinsteinMaxwell system.
1
INTRODUCTION
It is agreed that gravitation can be best described by general
relativity and that it cannot be explained by using felds as in
electromagnetism or as in the case of any other interaction.
Furthermore, it has been assumed that the metric tensor is the
best mathematical argument to use to study on gravitation.
Such opinions lead physicists to concentrate more on only
the metric tensor and, hence, to change it according to
circumstances. As a result, this method provides some
important results about gravitation. However, it is also
obvious that these results are not enough to understand
gravitation as well as, perhaps, other interactions.
In the present paper, instead of concentrating on the
metric tensor, we shall focus on tetrad felds. Our frst
objective will be to fnd some reasonable mathematical
results with these felds. The complete interpretation of
the results will be out of the scope of this paper.
Gravitation curves the space-time and this effect is related
to the line element or invariant interval as
ds
2
= g
dx
dx

where g
is the metric tensor and its elements are some

functions of the space-time.
The metric tensor with tetrad felds is given by [1, 2]
g
= e
(1)
where e
are basis vectors or tetrad felds, and these are

some functions of the space-time also (, = 0, 1, 2, 3).
Similar to (1), the inverse metric tensor can be written as
g
= e

where e
are basis vectors of the dual space or cotetrad

felds. However, we will refer to these felds as inverse
felds throughout this work.
86
There are some useful features of and equations for the
tetrad felds and inverse felds. First

g
g
g
e e
e e
(2)
Other equations and all detailed calculations are given
in the appendix section.
If the metric tensor is determined, it is well-known that
it is demanding work to fnd the Einstein equations. The
Christoffel symbols for the metric tensor (1) are

1
2
1
2
f e f e
where f e e
.
EINSTEIN TETRAD EQUATIONS
The Riemann tensor for the above Christoffel symbols
is
R

+ +
1
2
1
4
1
4
f e f f f f ,
the Ricci tensor is
R

+ j e f f
1
4
,
and the Ricci scalar is
R + j e f f
1
8

where j f e

1
2
is the non homogeneous
Maxwell equation.
Finally the Einstein Tensor can be expressed as
G g
_
,
1
]
1
4
1
4
f f f f j e
11
. (3)
The expression in square brackets is the same as the
stress-energy tensor of electromagnetism except for the
inner products. Despite this difference, the equations
of motion of the tetrad felds have the same form as the
Maxwell equations; that is
= j
, with j
= 0 and
is the Maxwell electromagnetic tensor
G F F g F F
_
,
1
]
1
1
4
1
4
(4)
Several results can be obtained from (3). However, the
most signifcant of these is that the Einstein equations
for the tetrad felds certainly give the electromagnetic
stress-energy tensor. More precisely, the general relativity
reveals that there are some inherent constraints for tetrad
felds. This means there are also defnite limits for the
metric tensor. Since every metric tensor can be written
in terms of tetrad felds, metric tensors cannot be chosen
or adjusted arbitrarily. Instead, metric tensors must be
found as inner products of tetrad felds after these felds
are determined to be consistent with

e j 0.
Another formalism to obtain this result is with the unifed
feld theory of Evans [3, 4]. We take the notation and the
conventions from [1], where also more references to Evans
work can be found. We assume that the reader is familiar
with the main content of tetrad formalism. Here we were
able to reduce Evans theory to just nine equations, which
we will list again for convenience. Spacetime obeys in
Evans theory a Riemann-Cartan geometry (RC-geometry)
that can be described by an orthonormal coframe e
, a
metric g
=diag (+1,1,1,1), and a Lorentz connection
. In terms of these quantities, we can defne

torsion and curvature, respectively:

T De

: ,
(5)

R d
: .
(6)
The Bianchi identities and their contractions follow
there from.
The extended homogeneous and inhomogeneous Maxwell
equations read in Lorentz covariant form

D R
D R
F
F

* * ,
(7)
respectively. Alternatively, with Lorentz non-covariant
sources and with partial substitution of (7), they can be
rewritten as

d R e T F

( )
0
,
(8)
87

d R e T * * * . F

( )
0

(9)
In the gravitational sector of Evans theory, the Einstein-
Cartan theory of gravity (EC-theory) was adopted by
Evans. Thus, the feld equations are those of Sciama [5],
which were discovered in 1961:

1
2

+
( )
R
mmaatt eellmmgg
,
(10)

1
2

+
( )
T
mat elmg
.
(11)
Here

( )
* e e e . The total energy-momentum
of matter plus electromagnetic feld is denoted by
, the
corresponding total spin by
.
What we will do here is to set a new principle where

mat elmg
+ 0 , so that describes the truly unifcation
of electromagnetism and gravitation. The derivation of the
feld equations and their properties are discussed in [7].
Now we have conditions to discuss the Unifcation of
Electromagnetism and Gravitation through Generalized
Einstein tetrads who H. Akbar-Zadeh has proposed [6] a
new geometric formulation of EinsteinMaxwell system
with source in terms of what are called Generalized
Einstein manifolds. We show that, contrary to the
claim, Maxwell equations have not been derived in
this formulation and that, the assumed equations can
be identifed only as source free Maxwell equations in
the proposed geometric set up. A genuine derivation
of source-free Maxwell equations is presented within
the same framework. We draw a conclusion that the
proposed unifcation scheme can pertain only to source-
free situations.
In a recent article [6], using the tangent bundle approach
to Finsler Geometry, H. Akbar-Zadeh has introduced a
class of Finslerian manifolds called Generalized Einstein
manifolds. These manifolds are obtained through some
constrained metric variations on an action functional
depending on the curvature tensors. The author has
then proposed a new scheme for the unification of
electromagnetism and gravitation, in which the spacetime
manifold, M, with its usual pseudo-Riemannian metric,
g
(x), is endowed with a Finslerian connection containing

the Maxwell tensor, F
(x). Following this scheme, the

author arrives at a class of Generalized Einstein manifolds
containing the solutions of EinsteinMaxwell equations.
As for Maxwell equations, they are declared [1] to have
been obtained by means of Bianchi identities. We wish
to point out the following flaws in the treatment of
Einstein-Maxwell system.
First consider the treatment of Maxwell equations. Through
some constrained metric variations, and the use of Bianchi
identities, the author arrives at [1, eq (5.55)]:

F u
1
, (12)
where
1
and
= j
are defned by [1, eqs (5.14) and

(2.7)]: using notations of [3]

1
u F u
v
F
r
i r
i r
r
,
. (13)
Using notations of [1] throughout,
r
are fber coordinates of
the tangent bundle over M and
i
is the usual Riemannian
covariant derivative defned through g
ij
(x). Assuming
that
1
is the proper charge density [1], the author then
identifes (1) as the Maxwell equations with source. The
author has, therefore, assumed that:

1 1
( ) x (14)
However, this assumption, together with defnition (13),
already implies equation (12). To see this, differentiate
(13) with respect to
j
and then use (12) to obtain:

i j
j r
j
i r
i
F u
F
v
F
noting that

F
v
u
j
j
, and using (13) again, we arrive at
(12). Therefore, rather than being derived, (1) has in fact
been merely assumed.
More importantly, assumption (12) implies that
1
= 0,
so that the assumed equations can be identifed only as
source-free Maxwell equations. However, for a system
of charged particles, for which we can write Maxwell
equations, the velocity vector is a function of x. Therefore
(12) can not be identifed as Maxwell equations with
source because
j
in this equation are independent of x
and (contrary to [6]) cannot be considered as a velocity
feld. There is, in fact, a genuine derivation of source-
free. Consequently the proposed geometric formulation
of EinsteinMaxwell system can pertain only to source-
free situations. However if we include chiral currents
88
(appendix 1) the truly unifcation of electromagnetism
and gravitation is obtained [7].
CONCLUSION
We have shown that every metric tensor can be expressed
by the inner product of tetrad felds. We have proved that
Einstein equations for these felds have the same form
as the stress-energy tensor of electromagnetism if the
total external current j
= 0. Besides, using the unifed

feld theory of Evans we show that the truly unifcation
of gravity and electromagnetism is with the source
free Maxwell equations. However a truly unifcation of
electromagnetism and gravitation is obtained if chiral
currents are included.
APPENDIX 1
In his 1916 paper on The Foundation of the General
Theory of Relativity [8], Albert Einstein demonstrates
the conservation of energy by relating the total energy
tensor T
v
to the Bianchi identity R R
_
,

1
2
0
;
,
the Maxwell energy tensor T
v

Maxwell
, the feld strength
tensor F
v
, and the energy tensor t
v
of the gravitational
feld are related according to:
+
( )

T T
Maxwell
t
R R
;
;
1
2 ,,

+ +
( )
1
]
1
;
; ; ;
0
1
2
F
u
F F F
F
u
F F F F F
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
4
;
;
1
2
0 F
u
F F
u
F F F +
( )

1
]
1
* *
;
;

The dual of the feld strength tensor above is defned
as *
!
F F

1
2
using the Levi-Civita formalism,
see, for example, [9, 10 and 12]. This also employs

, see [11-12]. Integral to the identity
of T
;
with zero and thus to energy conservation is the
second of Maxwells equations:

1
4
0 F F F
; ; ;
+ +
( )
(1.2)
which in turn has its identity to zero ensured by the
Abelian relationship:

F A A

; ;
(1.3)
between the four-vector potential A
u
and F
uv
. Absent (1.3)
above, or, if (1.3) above were to instead be replaced by
the non-Abelian (Yang-Mills) relationship of the general
form:

F A A gf A A
i i i ijk
j k

; ;
, (1.4)
where i is an internal symmetry index, f
ijk
are group
structure constants, and g is an interaction charge, then
(1.2) would no longer be assured to vanish identically,
and so the total energy tensor as specifed in (1.1) would
no longer be assured to be conserved, T
v;
0. More
to the point, the total energy T
v
would no longer be
total, but would need to be exchanged with additional
energy terms not appearing in (1.1). It is to be observed
that non-linear AA interaction terms such as in (1.4)
are also central to modern particle physics, and so must
eventually be accommodated by an equation of the
form (1.1) if we are ever to understand weak and strong
quantum interactions in a gravitational, geometrodynamic
framework.
The set of connections in (1.1) do, of course, underlie
the successful identifcation of the Maxwell Poynting
tensor for matter with the integrable terms in (1.1),
according to:
T F F F F F
Maxwell
u u
1
]
1

1
4
1
2
F F F
u
+
1
]
* * 1
(1.5)
as well as the identifcation of the non-integrable energy
tensor t
v
of the gravitational feld:

t F F F J
; ;
, (1.6)
which represents the density of energy-momentum
exchanged per unit of time, between the electric current
density J
and electromagnetic feld F

v
(see [12], following
equation (65a)). In the above, we have employed Maxwells
remaining equation
(1.1)
89
J F

;
(1.7)
However, if we set:

T R R
F F F F
Maxwell
u
1
2
1
4
_
,
+
( )
2
F F F F
u u
* *
(1.8)
then, on account of (1.1), we fnd that
=0 in (1.6) and
so the current is thought to vanish, J
= 0. Additionally,
the trace equation vanishes:

T R F F F F
F
Maxwell

_
,

1
4
2
F F F +
( )
* * 0
(1.9)
on account of the photon mediators of the electromagnetic
interaction being massless, and therefore traveling at
the speed of light. Thus, as stated by Einstein in 1919,
we cannot arrive at a theory of the electron [and matter
generally] by restricting ourselves to the electromagnetic
components of the Maxwell-Lorentz theory, as has long
been known [13].
In addition to the problem of matter, there are other
problems which arise from equation (1.1). Because (1.1)
relies upon the Abelian feld (1.3), it is simply not valid
for non-Abelian felds. Thus, without a reconsideration of
(1.1), one cannot apply the General Theory of Relativity
to non-Abelian interactions. This immediately bars
understanding SU(2)
W
weak interactions, or SU(3)
QCD

interactions, for example, in connection with Einsteins
theory of gravitation.
Additionally, (1.1) excludes, a priori, the possibility that
magnetic and electric current of electromagnetic nature
might actually exist in nature. Here Einstein does not
considerer chiral electric and magnetic currents. Our
conjecture is that without particle current, J
= 0, we
can take into account chiral currents produced by the
electromagnetic feld, so we have
J J
chielectric ce

( )
0
.
Besides we considerer no magnetic monopoles but we
include chiral magnetic currents, J J
chimagnetic cm

( )
0
[15].
In particular, if we defne the third-rank antisymmetric
tensor (following and extending the Yablon approach
[12]):
J F F F
cm ( ) ; ; ;
+ +
( )
, (1.10)
and because the current four-vector for chiral magnetic
currents may be specified in terms of J
(cm)
and
*F
v
by

J J J F
cm cm cm ( ) ( ) ( ) ;
*
!
*

1
3
(1.11)
we see that (1.1), as it stands, expressly forecloses the
existence of magnetic monopoles and chiral magnetic
currents, because the vanishing of J
(cm)
in (1.10)
causes
J
cm ( )
in (1.11) to vanish as well. Any theory which

allows chiral currents by using a non-Abelian feld (1.4),
requires that (1.1) be suitably-modifed for total energy
to be properly conserved, because F F F
o ; ; ;
+ +
( )

will no longer be identical to zero. For completeness, we
also defne (see [5]):
J F F F J
ce ( ) ; ; ;
* * *
!

+ +
( )
1
3
cce
(1.12)
As we shall demonstrate, all of theses problems stem
from the fact that (1.1) relies upon the vanishing of
the antisymmetric combination of terms in (1.2) to
enforce the conservation of total energy. The term
T
;
= 0 is solidly-grounded: it is the quintessential
statement that total energy must be conserved. The
Bianchi identity
R R
_
,

1
2
0
;
is equally
solid: although one can also add a cosmological term
R R
_
,

1
2
0
;
, one is assured by the very
nature of Riemannian geometry that either combination
of terms will always be zero. Not so, however, for
1
2
0 F F F F
u
o
; ; ;
+ +
( )
. This t er m rel ies
directly on the Abelian feld (1.3) and on the supposition
that chiral magnetic currents (1.11) vanish. Absent this
supposition, T
is no longer conserved, and so can no

longer be regarded as the total energy tensor.
90
REFERENCES
Gravitation. Freeman, pp. 310-378. 1973.
[2] A. Waldyr, Jr. Rodrigues, Quintino A.G. de Souza.
An Ambiguous Statement Called Tetrad Postulate
and the Correct Field Equations Satisfed by the
Tetrad Fields. Int. J. Mod. Phys. D14, pp. 2095-
2150. 2005.
[3] M.W. Evans. Spin connection resonance in
gravitational general relativity. Acta Physica
Polonica B38, pp. 2211-2220. 2007.
[4] M.W. Evans. Generally Covariant Unifed Field
Theory: The Geometrization of Physics. Vols. 1
to 5. Abramis Academic. 2005.
[5] D.W. Sciama. The physical structure of general
relativity. Rev. Mod. Phys. 36, pp. 463-469. 1964.
[6] H. Akbar-Zadeh. Generalized Einstein manifolds.
J. Geom. Phys. 17, p. 342. 1995.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[8] A. Einstein. The Foundation of the General
Theory of Relativity. Annalen der Physik 49.
1916. The Principle of Relativity. Dover, pp. 111-
164. 1952.
[9] G.Y. Reinich. Electrodynamics in the General
Relativity Theory. Trans. Am. Math. Soc. Vol. 27,
pp. 106-136. 1925.
[10] J.A. Wheeler. Geometrodynamics. Academic
Press, pp. 225-253. 1962.
Gravitation. W.H. Freeman & Co. 1973.
[12] J.R. Yablon. Magnet ic Monopoles and
Duality Symmetry Breaking in Maxwells
Electrodynamics. arXiv:hep-ph/0508257v1.
August 24, 2005.
Essential Part in The Structure of the Elementary
Particles of Matter?. Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akad. d. Wissenschafter. 1919. The
Principle of Relativity. Dover, pp. 191-198. 1952.
[14] J.R. Yablon. Magnetic Monopole Interactions,
Chiral Symmetries, and the NuTeV Anomaly.
arXiv:hep-ph/0509223v1. Sept ember 21,
2005.
[15] H. Torres-Silva. Maxwells theory with chiral
currents. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 N 1,
pp. 31-35. 2008.
H. Torres-Silva: A metric for a chiral potential feld
91
A METRIC FOR A CHIRAL POTENTIAL FIELD
UNA MTRICA PARA UN CAMPO POTENCIAL QUIRAL
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se presenta un ejemplo de una mtrica especfca que geometriza explcitamente un potencial cuadrivector
tipo luz (campo quiral). La geometrizacin muestra que tal vector tiene la misma estructura geomtrica que un campo
gravitacional Kerr. Se discute una proposicin terica que un cuerpo rotante genera, su gravitacin y el calibre de campo
tipo magntico que puede ser identifcado con un campo quiral geometrizado. Este campo quiral representa un tipo novedoso
de campo que no puede ser identifcado con alguno de los campos electromagnticos conocidos. Como aplicacin de esta
teora se discute la morfologa de los planetas alrededor del sol.
Palabras clave: Potencial vector, campo de fuerza cero, campo quiral, geometrizacin espacio tiempo, morfologa.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we present an example of a specifc metric which geometrizes explicitly a light-like four-vector potential
(chiral feld). The geometrization shows that such a vector has the same geometrical structure as a gravitational Kerr
feld. We discuss a theoretical proposition that a rotating body generates, besides a special gravitational feld, a magnetic-
type gauge feld which might be identifed with a chiral geometrized feld. This chiral feld represents a novel type of feld
because we cannot identify it with any of the known electromagnetic felds. As an application of this theory we discuss
the morphology of the planets around the sun.
Keywords:Light-like vector potential, force-free feld, complete geometrization spacetime, morphology.

1
INTRODUCTION
In this contribution, we construct a metric which appears
appropriate for a geometrization, within the framework of a
Riemannian spacetime, of a light-like 4-vector potential feld
which can be assigned to an electromagnetic-type feld. Such
feld with a 4-vector potential A
satisfes the relation

A A A A A A A A
0 0 0 0 , , ,
|
(1)
and A
is denoted by us as a chiral feld. In accordance with our

information something emerged for the frst time in the work
of M Evans in connection with the hypothesis of the existence
of a special kind of magnetic feld (see, for instance [1]).
The starting point is the well known approach to the
geometrization of physical felds involving the construction
of spacetime geometries (the so called force-free geometries)
within which the geodesic equation proves to be identical
to the equation of motion of a particle when interacting
with such (nongravitational) felds. This method derives in
fact from the generalized Einsteins equivalence principle
which asserts that any trajectory is a geodesic of some
geometry [2]. Furthermore, the laws of motion, in the
case of interacting particles, are given by the differential
equations of the geodesics for the metric in question at
the instantaneous position of each particle [3].
Pursuing this subject, we observe that for the formulation
of the geodesic equations also in the presence of
nongravitational forces, some efforts have been directed
towards applying changes to the metric and other efforts
to modifcations of the connection [4], in a Riemann or a
Riemann-Cartan spacetime. There appeared also papers
92
which consider the possibility of applying a Finsler or
a Randers geometry or a fractal spacetime geometry
in order to establish unitary theories of gravitation and
electromagnetism in conjunction with a probabilistic
interpretation of the geometry of the background
spacetime [4].
However, all these alternative interpretations of force-free
geometries have not yet reached the same level of elaboration
and experimental verifcation as is the case for Einsteins
general theory of relativity the formal structure of which
has continuously invited the development of gauge theories.
These are reasons that why we maintain in the present work
the framework of a Riemannian spacetime which helps us
to geometrize a vectorial feld. We propose a geometrization
of a vectorial feld in the sense that the associated physical
quantity (e.g., the four-vector potential A
) enters directly
into the metric which may be interpreted, alternatively,
as an interior (T
=0, to obtain the microscopic Dirac

equation) or exterior (T
= 0, to obtain the classical

solution of Mercurys orbit) solution of Einsteins equations.
However, from an Einsteinian point of view, the feld
defned by A
is completely (truly) geometrized (like the

gravitational feld itself) if it leads to a determination of
the geometry of the (curved) vacuum spacetime in which
no other (non-geometrized) matter manifests its presence
in conjunction with a non-zero energy-momentum tensor.
We emphasize that the physical quantities (e.g., density,
pressure, electromagnetic feld tensor, etc.) which generally
appear on the right hand side of Einsteins equations
represent non-geometrized quantities, i.e., the source of
the (geometrized) gravitational feld. Our conjecture is
that if T
=0,det F
0, then, A
is completely (truly)
geometrized [5].
In the present paper we adhere to the Einsteins general
relativity and thus the energy and momentum of the
geometrized chiral feld are encapsuled solely in the
pseudotensor t
b
on the same geometrical footing as any
gravitational feld. We recollect that the general relativity
is a very special non-Abelian gauge theory and thus it is
possible that a truly spacetime geometrization can be applied
also to a non-Abelian analogue of the electromagnetic feld.
The Yang-Mills feld may serve as such a feld.
Attempts have also been made to mix directly the
standard symmetric Riemannian metric tensor with an
antisymmetric (electromagnetic) feld tensor, but the new
nonsymmetric metric cannot achieve a real geometrization
of the electromagnetic feld [6].
A possible existence of a light-like 4-vector electromagnetic
feld would be a proof that the most important metrics of
general relativity, Schwarzschild and Kerr solutions, (which
in Eddington coordinates are described also by light-like
four vectors) have an electromagnetic analogue. Thus,
the Kerr metric, which represents the gravitational feld
exterior to a spinning source which drags space around
with it, has the same geometrical structure as a geometrized
chiral feld like an Evans-Vigier feld. On a microscopic
level, the Evans optical (light) magnet [6] produced by a
circulary polarised light beam appears as a natural and
physically possible hypothesis. A search for cyclically
symmetric equations, similar to spin angular momentum
relations but now refering to a magnetic-type feld, seems
also tempting from a geometrical point of view. Of course,
as for gravitation or perhaps for the entire feld of physics
we do not yet know the physical intrinsic mechanism of
such a magneto-rotation induction: rotation generates
magnetic-type feld and magnetic feld generates rotation,
and yet we attempt to model and describe it here.
A simple experimental proposal for the verifcation of
these hypotheses may be the detection of an Aharonov-
Bohm effect as arising, for example, in the usual two-slit
electron diffraction experiment in which the solenoid is
replaced by a rotating body. Indeed, the gravitational
feld of a rotating astrophysical lens object plays the role
of both a double slit (by its electriclike and curvature
inducing effects by gravity) and an external field
(with a magneticlike contribution of the gravitation). A
proposal for a laboratory experiment for an observation
of a gravitational Aharonov-Bohm effect in conjunction
with photons is described in [6].
In the fnal section we present a discussion on the possibility
of identifying a chiral feld like an a modifed Evans-Vigier
feld within the set of known electromagnetic felds.
SPECIAL METRIC AND BASIC RELATIONS
Let us consider a null-like four-vector with components
A x A A A A A A
( )

( )
( )
0 1 2 3 0
, , , , (2)
We denote by
A A A
2
0

(3)
its Minkowskian module in which

+ 1 1 1 1 , , , (4)
is the Minkowski (fat) diagonal metric [8]. We should
mention that A
(x
) is here a standard spacetime

93
vector which may represent the vector potential of an
electromagnetic-type gauge feld. For the moment, we
cannot foresee if A
may be associated with a massive

or zero-mass feld or if we must include the subject of a
gauge invariance. Consequently, all the calculations are
given in the tangent bundle of spacetime.
We propose to study under which conditions a metric g
having the special form

g KA A

+ (5)
where k T is a constant still to be determined, can
defne a chiral feld like an Evans-Vigier feld, A chiral
feld is defned as

A A + ( ) 1 T
(6)
(T is the chiral factor).
The determinant of the metric tensor g
is given by

det g g KA
( )
+
( )
1 1
2
(7)
and thus, the inverse (contravariant) metric is
g KA A

(8)
The metric (5) is similar to the one which describes a
weak gravitational feld, i.e.,
g h g h

+ , (9)
However, for the time being we do not impose yet any
condition on the value or the strength of the term KA
.
There follows that

A g A A A A g A A

, 0
(10)
and thus the indices of A
may be raised and lowered

with either the metric g
or the Lorentz metric
. It
is easy to show that

A A A A
; ,
0
(11)
where the ordinary partial derivatives are denoted by
commas (or alternatively by
and /
), and covariant
derivatives by semicolons. The Christoffel symbols are

1
]
( )
+
( )

g
Kg A A A A A
,
, ,
1
2
AA
( )
1
]
1
,
(12)
and [,] is the Christoffel symbol of the frst kind.
Because, g = constants = 1, it follows that

0
(13)
and thus following [8] the Ricci tensor is given by
R K A A A A A
1
]
+
1
]
+ + , ,
, ,
,

A
,
,
, ,
( )
1
]
1
]
+
1
]
1
]
+ ( )
1
]
1
]
+
K A A A A
K A A

, ,
2
AA A
KR K R K R K R

, ,
1
]
1
]
+ + +
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
(14)
FORCE-FREE CHIRAL FIELD
Introducing the parameter s defned by
ds g dx dx
2

(15)
the equations of geodesics,

du
ds
u u u
dx
ds

+ 0,
(16)
become

du
ds
KA
dC
ds
KC B u
+ (17)
where

C A u
.
(18)
At this point it is easy to see that an Evans-Vigier feld
described by the metric (5) becomes a force-free feld
with respect to the motion of a charged test particle
having the characteristic parameter e/m
0
, and subject to
the constraint

KC T
e
c
e
m c
constant
h
0
2
.
(19)
94
With this constraint, the geodesic equation (4) reduces
formally to the Lorentz equation,

du
ds
T
e
c
F u

h
(20)
We may identify F
with an electromagnetic feld tensor

if the 4-vector potential A
is related to an electromagnetic
potential A
by a gauge transformation of the second

kind
A
x

(21)
Since it is possible to demonstrate that constraints such
as (6) and (8) are consistent and in fact do not contradict
each other along the trajectory of the test-particle (see,
for instance, [19]), we can assert that we have achieved
a local or a semilocal geometrization (i.e., one along a
curve) of the chiral feld.
The fnal conclusion of this section is that any feld
described by a metric of the form (5) may act on a
test particle with a Lorentz-type force (7). In such
geometrical terms, a Lorentz-type force was known
until now only for a weak gravitational feld (see, for
instance, [6]).
A COMPLETE GEOMETRIZATION
OF A CHIRAL FIELD
Bearing in mind that the metric tensor is given in our
account by equations (5) and (7), we need only derive the
R
, R, and also the Einsteins tensor from the g
and
establish in this way the components of the matter tensor
T
. If this energy-momentum tensor coincides with one

which is known for a given (physical, phenomenological)
material scheme, we say that (5) represents a solution
of Einsteins equations for such a scheme. If we do not
posses such a coincidence, we say that we face an exotic
matter which might determine the desired properties of
the spacetime (e.g., traversable wormhole [21] or warp
drive [22]). From this point of view the general theory
of relativity is not a closed theory, and sometimes the
Einsteins equations seem to form a mathematical identity
if a suitable metric is chosen:
G
G
T
(22)
In other words, in this case Einsteins equations are used
merely for a defnition of an energy-momentum tensor
which generates a given gravitational feld.
In the following we will not use this identity aspect of
the Einsteins equations since we intend to geometrize
the feld A
which may be considered as a gravitational

perturbation of a vacuum spacetime. Then the feld equations
correspond to an exterior case and are given by
R
0 (23)
where R
is given by equation (14). In a way, the

constant K may be called a coupling constant because
it characterizes the strength of the perturbation of the
vacuum spacetime generated by a chiral feld like an
Evans-Vigier feld. We assume that the form of the metric
(5) retains its independence from the value of K. In other
words, the metric g
given by (5) remains a solution

for any arbitrary value of K. Thus in the expression (14)
of R
, each coefcient of K and of its powers must be

cancelled separately. In this way, following [6], we obtain
four equations:
R
1
0
1
]

,
,
(24)
R C T A A A A A A
2 0
0
1
]
+ +
( )
, ,
,
, ,
1
]
1
]
+
1
]
1
]

, ,
(25)
R C T A A A A
3 0
0 +
( )
1
]
1
]

, ,
(26)
R C T A A A A
4 0
2 2
0 +
1
]
1
]

, , (27)
We note that, in accordance with equation (13), the potential
A
generates a new light-like vector a
which, by analogy
with the kinematics of a timelike congruence of curves,
may be called an acceleration-potential vector and has
the following properties:
a A A A A b x A a g a a

( )

; ,
(28)

a a g a a
a a a a a A a A

0
; , ; ,
0
0 a A
(29)
95
We notice that equations (12) and (14) are satisfied
identically, and that equation (13) is reduced to the defnition
of the acceleration potential (15). Thus the Einstein feld
equations (11)-(14) become

2
1
0 A A
t t
T

( )

+ ( )
(30)
For the stationary case,

2 2 2
1 + ( ) T
, (31)
we have particular vectorial solutions

( )
A= A )
)
k
kT 1
, (32)
there arise two remarkable solutions of equation (30),
namely, the Schwarzschild-type solution, and the Kerr-
Schild type metric.
Here kT is related to the angular velocity and, thus, to the
angular momentum of the source. We remind the reader
that the Kerr metric represents a vacuum feld exterior
to a spinning source. Hence, a chiral feld like an Evans-
Vigier feld and a typical gravitational feld have the same
topological properties. It is important to stress that for
the Schwarzschild-type solution (31),

A
S
T 0,
(no magnetic-type feld) (33)
and for the Kerr-Schild type metric (19)
A
KS
T 0 0 , (magnetic-type feld). (34)
An immediate consequence of these results is that rotating
bodies generate, besides a special kind of gravitational
feld, also some magnetic-type gauge felds defned by light-
like vector potentials. For the time being all experimental
tests of general relativity (e.g., Advance of the perihelion
of Mercury, Bending of light, Gravitational red shift,
etc.) are expressed only as functions of the mass of the
central gravitating body. In order to evaluate the physical
implications of the chiral feld we must evaluate all these
effects in terms of the light-like vector potential.
PHYSICAL CONTENT
OF CHIRAL CONDITION
Four Independent Electromagnetic Invariants
In Classical Electrodynamics there exist only four
independent electromagnetic (EM) feld invariants [7],
namely (in units with c=1),
I A A
0

, (35)
I F F
1
2 2 1
2

E B , (36)
I F
2
1
2
2
F E B, (37)

I A T A
3
2
, (38)
where F
is the EM feld tensor, F
is the dual EM
feld tensor and T
is the Maxwell stress-energy tensor.

Salingaros [7] used these invariants to announce the
proposition: plane monochromatic EM (transverse) waves
are characterized by vanishing invariants I
1
=I
2
=
I
3
=0in
the Lorentz gauge. As we mentioned, a chiral feld as an
Evans-Vigier feld are defned by a vanishing invariant I
0
=0, but contrary to Evans-Vigier feld, the conditions for a

chiral feld are I
0
=0, I
||
=0,I
=0 and I
3
=2A
.
Rotation and Chiral Field
Following our preceding account, we may now state
that a geometrized chiral feld like an Evans-Vigier feld
represents a classical but exotic electromagnetic-type feld
which possesses similar properties to gravitational felds
defned by Schwarzschild and Kerr metrics. The process of
geometrizing such feld, through association of the vector
potential with part of the structure of spacetime, leads to
the supposition that, possibly, there exists a fundamental
relation between rotation and a magnetic-type feld. It
should be emphasized that in a sense our results demostrate
a generalisation of and the reciprocity to a well known
physical phenomenon. Thus, considering a free particle
in an external electromagnetic feld defned by the tensor
F
, we observe the generation of a vorticity,

u u
; ;
, (39)
which is related to the feld tensor F
via the (London)

equation of superconductivity [6]:

F
A
x
A
x
mc
e

. (40)
Equation (40) expresses that the four-vector potential
A
is tangent to the particle trajectories at all points

96
and thus the particle velocity is proportional to the
vector potential as we have seen above. It is important
to stress that it is the external vectorial feld A
which
determines the motion of a test particle and not vice
versa. Moreover, generally, the four-velocity u
may be
defned as the vector-potential of an inertial-gravitational
feld and may be assigned to each point of the spacetime
independently of the fact whether or not a test particle
resides at that point [30-31]. Hence, if the vacuum
spacetime is perturbed by the presence of the vectorial
feld A
we can assert that the source of vorticity is

precisely this feld.
Our generalisation arises from the fact that not only
does a normalized (Dirac) vector potential feld [see eq.
(41)] generate a vorticity feld, but yields also a relation
between the angular momentum of a rotating body and
a geometrized light-like vector potential. This result is
clearly illustrated by equations (32) and (36).
Morphology of the Solar System Set with =
It has been shown in detail elsewhere [8] that the Bode
numbers and measured velocity ratios of the planets are
accurately predicted by the eigenvalues of the Euler--
Lagrange equations resulting from the variation of the
free energy of the generic plasma that formed the Sun
and planets. This theory is reviewed to show that the
equation (36) A=Acan explain the velocity ratios
of planets, the Bode numbers correspond to the roots of
the frst-order Bessel functions. The extrema of the roots
of the zeroth-order Bessel function predict the ratios of
the measured planetary velocities almost without error
for the outer planets. Both sets of roots correspond to
the same eigenvalue solution of the force-free equations.
Both the Titius--Bode series and Keplers harmonic law
are predicted by the relaxed state solution of the free-
energy equation for the generic plasma that formed the
Sun and planets. Newtons law of gravitation is not used
in the calculations. Here we use the chiral approach where
R
=0, and A || B.
The compressed gas forms a cylindrical volume of plasma
which is moving through the background plasma and
rotating with a fnite angular velocity. As this mass of
plasma propagates through the surrounding gas, it loses
energy by accelerating the surrounding plasma. The cylinder
will lose energy and settle down to a minimum-energy
relaxed state, a force-free collinear cylindrical structure.
It is shown in detail elsewhere -- that the resulting feld
equations for the fow are given by
B B k (41)

v

1
]
1
( )

1
2
0
1 2
B
/ (42)
where : fuid density, B: magnetic induction feld, :
velocity of the center of mass of a fuid element, and :
ratio of specifc heats of the gas.
A pseudoplane solution to the force-free equation (1) is
given by

B k a
J kr
kr
B k a
J kr
kr
J kr
r

( )
( )
( )
2 1
2 1
0
sin
( )
cos
cos
B k aJ kr
z
2
1

where B
r
, B
, and B
z
are the magnetic induction components
in the striated rings of the gas cylinder, and

a k k z k k k
z z
+ +
,
2
1
2 2

where k
, k
1
, and k
z
are constants supplied by the boundary
conditions given by the chiral approach. If we plot of J
1

and J
0
with the functions scaled to the geometry of the
solar system, we observe that for J
1
= 0,

B J B J
2
0
2
0
, .
,
This maximizes the magnetic and kinetic energy at the
origin. In the cylindrical structure formed by the supernova
explosion, the frst root corresponds to the structure of
the star at the center of the hypothetical solar system, and
the second root corresponds to a ring of gas just outside
the star. The corresponding fow velocities in the rings
is given by eq. 42. The geometry of the confguration is
shown in fgure 1.
The signs reverse for every other ring (corotational and
contrarotational) so that the azimuthal velocities are all
prograde. The azimuthal velocity of the gas in each ring
has a direct relationship to the velocities of the planets
97
as they exist today. An examination of fgure 2 shows
that the Bode numbers of the planets out to Jupiter are
predicted by the roots of the equations describing the
relaxed state of the primordial gas. Comparison of the
measured velocity ratio with the ratios of the extrema of
J
0
(kr) show very close agreement.
For the outer planets, the Bode series fails completely for
Neptune and Pluto, but the plasma solutions, the Bessel
function roots, give exact predictions. We can observe
that if the asymptotic expansions J
1
(kr) and J
0
(kr) where
carried out, the theory could be checked all the way out
to and including Pluto.
The predicted ratios of the successive peak velocities of the
gas in the rings check the measured velocity ratios of the
inner planets within a few percent. The velocity ratios for
Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto are exact. the relaxed state of
the generic plasma predicts both the Bode number series
and Keplers harmonic law p
2
= a
3
where p: period of
the planet, a: average radius of the planet.
It is suggested that the rings of gas in the planet structure
roll up azimuthally to form balls of gas that eventually
evolve into the planet . The roll up of vortex rings to form
balls of gas is a well-known phenomenon which has been
observed in laboratory experiments.
A planet is predicted at 1.3 AU. No such planet exists
today. It is suggested that the missing planet suffered
a catastrophe either in the birthing process or at a later
time and that the residue is our moon.
Figure 1. Plots of Bessel functions versus distance (AU) of planets from the sun.
Figure 2. Orbital speed as a function of the distance
from the sun.
REFERENCES
[1] M.W. Evans. General covariant unifed feld
theory. Abramis Academic. Suffolk. Vol. 1.
2005.
[2] A.J. Wheeler. Geometrodynamics. Academic
Press, pp. 225-253. 1962.
[3] A. Einstein. The Foundation of the General
Theory of Relativity. Annalen der Physik
98
49. 1916. The Principle of Relativity. Dover,
pp. 111-164. 1952.
[4] C. Mller. Selected Problems in General
Relativity. Brandeis University 1960 Summer
Institute in Theorical Physics. Lecture Notes.
Brandeis University. 1960.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
[6] J. Argyris, C. Ciubotariu and I. Andreadis. A
metric for an Evans Vigier feld. Foundation of
Physics Letters. Vol. 11, pp. 141. 1998.
[7] N. Salingaros. Invariants of the electromagnetic
feld and electromagnetic waves. Am. J. Phys.
Vol. 53, pp. 361. 1985.
[8] D.R. Wells. Quantization effects in the plasma
universe. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. Vol. 17, pp. 270.
1989.
H. Torres-Silva: Chiral universes and quantum effects produced by electromagnetic fields
99
CHIRAL UNIVERSES AND QUANTUM EFFECTS
PRODUCED BY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
UNIVERSOS QUIRALES Y EFECTOS CUNTICOS
PRODUCIDOS POR CAMPOS ELECTROMAGNTICOS
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
La estructura aceptada del espacio y el vaco se derivan de los resultados de la cosmologa relativstica y de la teora cuntica
de campo. Se demuestra que una interfaz quiral entre regiones enantiomricas de un universo cerrado, o un universo derecho
y un universo izquierdo, relacionados por un elemento de simetra PCT a lo largo de la interfaz, representa un modelo con
todos los atributos requeridos por el vaco terico. Se desprende que el comportamiento cuntico es entonces visto que es
inducido por la interfaz de vaco. La mecnica quntica emerge como un caso especial de la mecnica clsica, ms bien
que siendo la ltima un subconjunto de la primera. Esto resuelve el problema observacional mecnico cuntico, explica
las coincidencias de los grandes nmeros cosmolgicos y toma en cuenta la antimateria en el cosmos.
Palabras clave: Vaco, interfaz quiral, campo cuntico, universo derecho (izquierdo).
ABSTRACT
The accepted structure of space and vacuum derives from the results of relativistic cosmology and quantum field theory.
It is demonstrated that a chiral interface between enantiomeric regions of a closed universe, or a (right) R-Universe and
(left) L-Universe, related by an element of PCT symmetry along the interface, represents a construct with all the attributes
required of the theoretical vacuum, in-so-far as quantum behaviour is then seen to be induced by the vacuum interface.
Quantum mechanics emerges as a special case of classical mechanics, rather than the latter being a subset of the former.
This removes the quantum-mechanical observational problem, explains the cosmological large-number coincidences,
and accounts for the anti-matter in the cosmos.
Keywords: Vacuum, chiral interface, quantum field, R(L)-Universe.
1
INTRODUCTION
The vacuum is surprisingly hard to fill, despite clear
pronouncements from both general relativity and quantum
theories. The theory of general relativity concerns the shape
of four-dimensional space and fields, whereas quantum field
theory details a structured vacuum state and particles.
The logical next step of advancing a model of the physical
vacuum, consistent with both theories, is the subject of
this paper. This is a basic assignment because of the
widely held belief that quantum theory and relativity
are essentially incompatible. The problem arises through
the presumed non-locality of quantum theory, in direct
conflict with the tenets of relativity. The difficulty,
first highlighted by Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen, now
commonly referred to as the EPR paradox. It will be
necessary to return to this dilemma as a crucial test
of any proposed vacuum. To establish the necessary
background, a brief summary of the implications of
relativistic cosmologies and of quantum field theory on
the nature of space and the vacuum is presented first. Our
conjecture is that quantum theory and general relativity
are essentially compatible when the matter is produced
100
by electromagnetic fields with R
0 and T
em
0 but
det F
0 . The electromagnetic field theory of matter

rises when we have two universes separated by a chiral
membrane. This defines the vacuum as an interface,
either between two universes or between two regions of
opposite chirality in the same universe.
Chiral approach means that our Universe is observable
area of basic space-time where temporal coordinate is
positive and all particles bear positive masses (energies).
The mirror Universe is an area of the basic space-time,
where from viewpoint of regular observer temporal
coordinate is negative and all particles bear negative
masses. Also, from viewpoint of our-world observer the
mirror Universe is a world with reverse flow of time,
where particles travel from future into past in respect to
us. The two worlds are separated with the membrane - an
area of space-time inhabited by light-like particles that
travel along light-like right or left-handed (isotropic-chiral)
spirals. In appendix 1 we show the difference in energy
between the interface and the two universes.
QUANTUM FIELD THEORY
The approach that reveals the nature of space and the
vacuum is Quantum Field Theory. Dirac produced the first
quantum field theory for massive spin half particles. The
energy spectrum was found to consist of both positive and
negative states, separated by a gap of energy E=2mc
2
.
This Dirac sea is the vacuum which therefore consists of
an infinite number of negative energy electrons, protons,
neutrons and all other spin half particles, or fermions.
Any vacancy or hole in the Dirac sea, at level -E, can be
filled by an electron dropping down from the level at E.
An amount of energy 2E is radiated, while both hole and
electron disappear into the vacuum. The hole is therefore
equivalent to a particle (called a positron) of charge +e and
of positive energy E. The mass of the electron-positron
pair that disappears produces the radiated photon or
energy quantum h E 2
2
( ) mc .
This equation can be obtained from the chiral
electrodynamics developed in accompanying papers.
This prediction of anti-particles has been confirmed
experimentally for all fermions. The model implies that the
vacuum should also support an infinite negative sea of the
anti-particles to ensure electrical neutrality. Each electron-
positron pair is linked by a photon as, seen in figure 1.
In this (Feynmann) diagram a positron differs from an
electron only through the direction of an arrow, and
positrons have been described as electrons moving
backwards in time, (chiral particle).
e
+
= e
+
e
-
e
time
()
Figure 1. (Feynmann) diagram of an electron and positron
produced by a light photon.
The lifetime of virtual particles is proscribed by the
uncertainty principle t h. Real particles can be
created when the vacuum is polarized by a sufficiently
strong chiral field.
The vacuum is assumed to accommodate virtual particle/
anti-particle pairs which requires a symmetry between
matter and anti-matter worlds. Particles and anti-particles
have the same modulus of mass, equal but opposite
charges and magnetic moments, and if they are unstable,
the same lifetime. Collectively this is known as charge-
parity-time (PCT) symmetry. In appendix 1 we explain
the PCT symmetry in our model.
The PCT theorem requires invariance for all fields under
this three-way combined operation. This is therefore also
the property of the vacuum with all its virtual particles
and intermediaries.
In view of the foregoing, the single most vexing, unresolved
problem is the imbalance between matter and anti-matter
in the observable universe. Speculations that link this
problem to the parity violation of weak interactions are
clearly at variance with the PCT theorem. Conventional
wisdom has it that anti-matter apparently disappeared
soon after the big bang, and outlandish suggestions of
its whereabouts in the universe abound. Contrary to this
we postulate regions of matter (R) and anti-matter (L)
separated by a radiation layer of chiral EM.
In Quantum theory we find quantum paradoxes dealing
with the quantum-mechanical observational problem,
non-locality and the EPR paradox. Quantum theory
demands that two systems, once in interaction, remain
correlated ever after until a measurement disturbs one of
them. This measurement then reveals not only the nature
101
of the system under study but also that of the remote
partner still linked to the first by a common wave function;
all this despite the absence of causality in the quantum
world. This instantaneous communication, through the
collapsing wave function, constitutes the non-locality of
quantum theory.
The information carried by a wave function is indeterminate
until a measurement selects a single result from an
infinite set, and changes the course of events irreversibly.
All information, however, does not perish when the
measurement selects one bit. The wave function persists
to allow alternative choices elsewhere. Each measurement,
therefore, splits the universe into two, each with independent
continued existence. Instead of a single quantum universe,
an infinite number of universes is therefore required by
the many-worlds quantum theory.
In view of the fact that quantum theory deals in non-
commuting operators, illogical conclusions in the system
are not unexpected, and are actually provided for in
quantum logic, which is based on non-Boolean reasoning.
The only problem is that it destroys locality, causality,
reality, logicality and other coherent ideas on which a
consistent cosmology can possibly be constructed. When
postulating a vacuum structure, the real challenge is
therefore to account for the unpredictability of quantum
events. Massive objects behave classically. Even large
molecules behave classically. The behaviour of very
small particles, which can be considered as isolated in
the vacuum, however, is more erratic and more wave-like.
To preserve any notion of reality it is therefore necessary
to accept the macroscopic world as the norm. It contains
quantum world as a special case, and not the other way
around.
Noting that the time evolution of both classical and quantum
mechanics merely corresponds to a change of coordinates,
it is concluded that neither system can adequately describe
irreversible processes. Natural macroscopic processes such
as decay and lifetime are therefore outside the scope of
quantum mechanics, which appears as a simplified limiting
case, useful for the description of microscopic events
only. In view of this, the standard argument that the more
fundamental quantum theory contains classical theory
as a special limiting case cannot be sustained. Prigogine
finds that quantum theory is not complete, and suggests
irreversibility as another basic element in the description
of the physical world. However, when superimposing an
entropy operator on quantum mechanics the distinction
between classical and non-classical systems disappears.
The classical theory with irreversibility therefore contains
quantum theory as a special case. That is the model to
be accepted here, assuming that classical theory, as it
describes the rational world, is universally valid. Quantum
phenomena only emerge in systems where interaction with
the vacuum produces significant perturbations. The most
basic ingredient of a cosmologically reasonable model
of the vacuum is therefore an ability to predict quantum
behaviour for sub-atomic particles.
THE VACUUM INTERFACE
The minimum statement consistent with all relevant theories
is that the physical vacuum represents an element of PCT
symmetry in four-dimensional space. Literally this defines
the vacuum as an interface, either between two universes
or between two regions of opposite chirality in the same
universe. The latter more economical situation is the more
attractive. The experimentally observed structure of the
vacuum would then represent the faint echo of another
enantiomeric world from across the interface.
Progressively smaller particles experience, to an increasing
extent, the effects of interacting with the hidden world
beyond the interface. An observer keeping track of the
particle is not aware of this hidden interaction and finds
that the motion becomes inexplicably more erratic. The
differential equation to model the motion is found to
represent a wave packet rather than a classical particle.
The mathematical description of the particles progress is
precise, but the physical interpretation is incomplete. The
crucial result is that the particle in the quantum region
does not behave differently from classical particles. Its
progress follows the same logic and causality, but since
its equations of motion are formulated with neglect of a
vital segment of its total environment, they appear more
complicated than necessary. This anomalous behaviour
decreases rapidly with increasing aggregation. The genesis
of the postulated dual system is like the spontaneous
separation of phases that occurs on the cooling of a two-
component homogeneous fluid. This happens through
symmetry breaking down when the interaction between like
entities becomes dominant. The phase separation occurs
in four dimensions and three-dimensional observations
cannot penetrate the dividing surface. A useful analogy
is to consider a bilayer of two-dimensional worlds. They
are everywhere in contact but oblivious of each other. The
interface provides the contact with the third dimension.
The three-dimensional vacuum is to be visualized in strict
analogy with this two-dimensional interfacial surface and
there is no freedom of motion, either towards or away from
the interface. To cross the interface it is necessary to move
into a third dimension, which is not an allowed operation in
102
two dimensions. The only way to detect the presence of the
interface is by quantum interaction which has little effect
on massive entities, but influences microscopic particles
dramatically. Likewise, a massive three-dimensional universe
is everywhere in contact with the three-dimensional vacuum
interface. In order to cross the interface it is necessary to
proceed along a fourth dimension.
Figure 2. Positron Spin (h /2) in L-Universe and Electron
Spin ( h /2) in a R-Universe or both are in one
Universe with two enantiomeric regions.
The exact nature of the difference between the complementary
universes makes interesting speculation, but it is useful to
think of this as a difference in chirality. It is known from
the spontaneous separation of enantiomers how chirality
can be the driving force of phase separation. It is well
known that objects with two-dimensional chirality can be
identical when analysed in three dimensions. Rotations
in the plane of these two-dimensional objects can never
bring them into coincidence, but a simple rotation about
an axis in the plane readily achieves this. The chirality
is removed by a three-dimensional operation.
Now consider a row of entities of the L-form only, along
the two-dimensional surface of a Mbius strip and with
orientation in the surface preserved. A two-dimensional
world, populated by objects of the same chirality is
obtained. However, the paper can be considered as an
interface which separates different worlds on the opposite
sides of the sheet.
One finds that it separates enantiomeric forms. The inversion
of chirality is brought about by the Mbius twist, which is
a three-dimensional operation. The Mbius ribbon is not
proposed to represent the true topology of the universe,
but is simply used here as an instructive two-dimensional
analogue. However, this surface is difficult to visualise as
it cannot be embedded in R
3
, three-dimensional euclidean
space. What is proposed instead is to consider as a model
of the physical universe some three-manifold which,
like the Mbius strip, is a non-orientable and one-sided
elliptical manifold.
The three-dimensional analog requires a four-dimensional
twist or curvature of three-dimensional space that
closes the universe onto itself and turns left-handed into
right-handed objects. Considered as a single universe in
three-dimensional space, chirality is preserved throughout.
However, the interface created by the curvature separates
regions of space with opposite chiralities. This interface
cannot be crossed in three-dimensional motion, but allows
interaction between entities near the interface to give
rise to the quantum effects, (see figure 2 of our universe
model). By the principle that the boundary of a boundary
is zero, an interface in four-dimensional space has no
two-dimensional boundary and the postulated vacuum
must be three dimensional as observed.
The present proposal pictures a universe based on the
orientable double cover of period 2. The postulated
interface, called the vacuum, is closed in four dimensions
with period , and corresponds to the relativistic
hypersurface which is the locus of light signals and
populated by bosons only.
The normal to the surface oriented in space is itself oriented
in time, the fourth dimension of the present argument. This
reduces quantum behaviour to the fluctuation along a time
coordinate, between regions of three-dimensional space.
It must be emphasized that this proposed model is
nowhere in conflict with either relativistic or quantum
theories, and is fully consistent with both. It has the merit
of simplicity and provides the logical structure to relate
quantum effects directly to the macroscopic physical
world, (see appendix 2).
APPLICATION OF THE MODEL
It is of interest to examine how the model deals with some
of the vexing problems of quantum theory, like the non-
locality embodied in the EPR argument. It is now proposed
that the behaviour of the particle remains rational also in
the quantum region, near the interface, and hence there
must be a persistent causal relationship of both individuals
from a correlated pair with their common origin. This
relationship persists until the first of the two individuals
103
becomes involved in a unique encounter. Until that point,
however, synchronised observation of the pair cannot but
reveal correlated behaviour. The degree of correlation is
neither a function of their separation nor dependent on
an exchange of information.
The model also provides a simple account of the missing
anti-matter. It is not difficult to identify anti-matter
with the enantiomeric matter introduced above. This
means that the vacuum separates the material and anti-
material worlds. However, exploration of the universe
never reveals the gradual change in chirality along
the curvature in four dimensions, and all matter is
perceived to be of the same chirality. Encounters across
the vacuum interface brings matter into violent contact
with anti-matter, and a stable universe is therefore
only possible if it is in strict equilibrium with itself.
To have a cosmic potential on opposite sides of the
interface in balance would certainly require well-tuned
characteristics of certain relevant physical parameters. It
probably requires a specific value of the fine-structure
constants, and could be at the root of the famous large
number coincidences. This mercifully eliminates
concepts like the anthropic principle and many-world
theories. It neatly places radiation in the vacuum where
it belongs, between matter and anti-matter. As across
any other interface that separates phases in equilibrium,
constant seepage must occur. This provides a plausible
origin of cosmic rays as chance excursions across the
interface, and could also account for the isotropic 3K
microwave background.
It is also necessary to consider the time-reversibility of
quantum theory and the arrow of time in the macroscopic
world. To jump into time it is necessary to cross the vacuum
interface, in either direction. Because of the curvature
of space, any displacement in the three-dimensional
universe is a small step in the same direction, and hence
a positive displacement in time. A time axis always points
directly into the interface and time flows towards the site
directly on the other side. The two-dimensional world
model assists to demonstrate how this argument defines
the arrow of time. Unfortunately, it also shows how time
travel is self-destructive through an encounter with anti-
matter. The quantum particle makes a small hop into
time, but bounces back with time-reversal and random
perturbation of its space coordinates. In contra-distinction
to classical particles it therefore manages a displacement
in space without an inevitable time advancement. It can
even appear to be in two places at the same time as in
two-slit diffraction experiments. Time-reversibility and
uncertainty principle are implied at the same time. That
is the price for not seeing the other side.
The vacuum, considered as an interface, is empty. It is
no longer required that it accommodates all the Dirac
oceans of negative quantum states. These states are on
the opposite side of the interface and they need not be
filled. As an example, the negative states for electrons
occur in the positron-rich world on the other side of the
vacuum interface. Electrons from this side are prevented
from dropping down into their negative-energy states by
the interfacial surface potential. Photons at the interface
can still be considered as representing electron-positron
pairs as before. The same holds for the rest of the quantum
field entities. The two individuals of a virtual pair are
now actually associated with different, symmetry-related
time regimes, giving substance to the definition of an
anti-particle as a particle moving backwards in time.
The most significant result of the model is perhaps the
way it distinguishes between weak and electromagnetic
interactions. In order to demonstrate the difference it
is noted again that quantum behaviour is a function of
aggregation. A massless photon at the interface interacts
equally with the material and anti-material worlds. It is the
archetype of a non-classical particle: its interaction with
exactly one half of its total environment is of necessity
ignored by any observer, and it appears to propagate like
a harmonic wave, without being a wave. The particulate
nature of the photon is demonstrable in experiments where
forced confrontation with matter so dominates its behaviour
that the influence of the anti-matter is effectively masked.
The photoelectric effect illustrates this well.
Its interaction with the other side is scaled down. It is not
at the interface in the same sense as a photon and coexists
with the positron, its reflection across the interface. It moves
like a wave-packet and interacts more strongly with its own
matter. The vector boson that mediates the weak interaction
also has mass, of about 100 GeV and, unlike the photon,
is therefore not identical with its anti-particle and reflects
across the vacuum interface that contains the element of
PCT symmetry. The weak interaction likewise has reflection
symmetry only across the vacuum interface, manifesting
itself asymmetrically on both sides of the interface. This
requires -decay to be unsymmetrical.
It remains to explain why the vacuum interface is stable,
yet separates two interactive states of matter. The answer
is that the three-dimensional interface, postulated here,
separates the two layers in time rather than space. This
prevents macroscopic interaction, provided the equilibrium
is maintained. Interaction between the opposite sides is
confined to quantum events which represent penetration of
rarefied particles into the time barrier and into the domain of
influence of the world beyond. In the appendix 2 and 3, we
examine the cosmological implications of this vacuum.
104
CONCLUSION
The implications of the vacuum interface model have
striking parallels with gauge theory. Local gauge
invariance, under an appropriate symmetry group, implies
a transformation that links an internal property like the
phase of a wavefunction or isotropic spin to a gauge field.
Breaking of the gauge symmetry has important physical
consequences. This locks the phases of the wavefunctions
together over macroscopic distances and destroys the
gauge symmetry. Gauge theory is presently being extended
successfully to incorporate the strong interaction. The
quest is to find that symmetry group which contains all
the necessary subgroups to define the gauge symmetry
of each force separately. The full symmetry occurs only
at the grand unification energy, which is so high that all
forces are equivalent. At lower energy the symmetry
breaks spontaneously and the different forces separate
into different symmetry species, as observed.
In the formalism of the present argument a free particle at the
vacuum interface has a gauge connection with the quantum
potential. The symmetry group of this gauge field contains
the unified quantum and classical theories. The contiguous
worlds that meet at the interface, like the atomic lattice at
superconductivity, provide the mechanism to create a Higgs
field which breaks the symmetry and produces the massive
worlds of classical theory, with lower symmetry.
Rigorous formulation of this theory requires definition of
the full symmetry group, containing also the symmetry
subgroups of the known forces of nature. Progressive
symmetry breaking produces each of the forces in turn
until, at the lowest level of mass separation, gravitational
effects appear for the first time. The model therefore
contains not only the seeds of grand unification, but
also the mechanism for spontaneous separation of matter
and anti-matter into different time domains. The three
stronger forces are defined in quantum-mechanical terms
and gravitation follows classical mechanics.
Quantum effects are proposed to have their origin in
the gradient at the vacuum interface. As the curvature
of space-time is distorted by large masses, so would the
gradient be enhanced, and quantum effects are predicted
to become more pronounced in the vicinity of high-density
material. Likely candidates are neutron stars, pulsars,
quasars and black holes. The effect would manifest itself
through a higher value of h, and hence more pronounced
quantum-mechanical uncertainty. More massive particles
will show quantum behaviour, and in the limit of infinite
gradient, the interface is punctured and uncertainty
becomes total (Eth). This situation corresponds to
a black hole. At an intermediate level, an increased h
would also produce radiation of constant energy quanta
at lower frequency. This represents an intrinsic red shift
of the type observed for quasar.
APPENDIX 1:A NEW INSIGHT INTO THE
NEGATIVE-MASS AND THE ACCELERATING
CHIRAL UNIVERSE
The discovery of acceleration of the universe expansion
in recent astrophysics research prompts the author to
think that Newtons gravitation law can be generalized
to accommodate the antimatter: While the force between
matters (antimatters) is attractive, the force between
matter and antimatter is a repulsive one. A paradox
of negative-mass in gravity versus a basic symmetry
( m m ) based on quantum mechanics is discussed
in sufficient detail so that the new postulate could be
established quite naturally. Corresponding modification
of the theory of general relativity is also proposed. If
we believe in the symmetry of particle and antiparticle
as well as the antigravity between them, it might be
possible to consider a new scenario of the expansion of
universe which might provide some new insight into the
interpretation of cosmological phenomena including the
accelerating universe observed.
Symmetry of space-time inversion
Starting from RQM, we consider the wavefunction (WF)
of a freely moving (along x axis) particle:
exp [ ( ) / ], i p x E t h (1.1)
where p is the momentum and E(>0) the total energy.
But what is the WF
c
of an antiparticle? Before 1956, it
was assumed to be a consequence of the operation of a
so-called charge-conjugate transformation C which can
bring a charged particle ( say an electron with charge e)
to its antiparticle (say the positron with charge e) [2]:

c
C i p x E t +
exp [ ( ) / ]. h (1.1*)
We see that the negative-energy E<0 emerges immediately
due to the basic operators in quantum mechanics (QM):

,
. p i
x
E i
t
R R

h h
(1.2)
The negative-energy difficulty at the level of QM was
remedied to some extent by the so-called hole theory
105
for positron (which is obviously impossible for the
Klein-Gordon particle) and solved formally at the level
of quantum field theory (QFT) by the redefinition of
creation (annihilation) operators.
Since the discovery of parity violation, i.e., the violation of
space-inversion P(xx) symmetry in 1956-1957, physicists
realize that not only P but also C transformations are not
conserved in the weak-interaction processes. So Eq. (1.1)
is not applicable in general and the WF of antiparticle
should be redefined as:

c
CPT i p x E t exp [ ( ) / ], h (1.3)
where the so-called time-reversal transformation T is
defined as:

T x t i p x E t ( , ) exp [ ( ) / ]. h (1.4)
Note that: First, the name time-reversal is actually a
misnomer [3, 4]. What the transformation (1.4) means
is merely a reversal of motion (pp). Second, the
correctness of definition of antiparticle WF (1.3) depends
on the validity of the CPT theorem which in turn is
ensured by basic principles of SR and QFT. Third, as
the complex-conjugate operations in C and T cancel
each other, what a combined CPT transformation in (1.3)
means is merely a sign change of coordinates (x, t) in
comparison with Eq. (1) [1, 2]. But the original meaning
of C, P and T implies that Eq. (1.3) should describe an
antiparticle with the same p and E(>0) as that of the
particle described by (1.1). Hence for antiparticles, we
should forget the hole theory and use the following
operators instead of (1.2):

,
. p i
x
E i
t
L L
h h
(1.5)
In fact, Eq. (1.5) had been proven to be the direct and
unique outcome of the full solutions to the EPR paradox
and Klein Paradox [4-6].
Fourth, once we accept Eqs. (1.3) and (1.5), the CPT
theorem becomes a new fundamental postulate, i.e., a basic
symmetry which can be stated in the following form:
Under the (newly defined) space-time inversion denoted
by PT , meaning merely xx, tt, the theory of RQM
remains invariant with its concrete solution, e.g., a particle
WF transforming to its antiparticle WF (denoted by C)
automatically. It means that our postulate reads:
PT=C (1.6)
For example, the Schrodinger equation is nonrelativistic.
But t he fol lowi ng coupled Schrodi nger l i ke
equation

i mc
i mc
t m
t m
h
h
h
h
+
+

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
( ),
(( ), +
(1.7)
is just the relativistic Klein-Gordon equation

( ) , i
t
c m c h h
+
2 2 2 2 2 4

(1.8)
with relation first pointed out by Feshbach and Villars
in 1958:

+

( / ) / ,
( / ) / .
i mc
i mc
h `
h `
2
2
2
2
(1.9)
Now we see that under the space-time inversion (xx,
tt) and the transformation:
( , ) ( , ), ( , ) ( , ), x t x t x t x t (1.10)
the Eq. (1.7) does remain invariant while a particle WF
(1.6) with | | | | > (due to E<0, see (1.8) turning to its
antiparticle WF (1.9)) with | | | |
c c
> (due to, E<0,
E
c
= E>0, see (1.9)).
Symmetry of mass inversion
Alternatively, we can restate the above basic symmetry
in the following way: Under the mass inversion:
m m x t x t x t x t , ( , ) ( , ), ( , ) ( , ),
(1.11)
the theory, e.g., Eq. (1.6), remains invariant. Although
transformation (1.6) is equivalent to transformation
(1.11), they share different advantages. The former is
relevant to unobservable coordinates (x, t) and so is
more essential in RQM and equivalent to even more
abstract symmetry of i versus i (see Eq. (1.1) versus
(1.3)), while the latter is relevant to observable mass
m and so is easily to be generalized to the case of
classical theory.
Here, wed better use the following working rule: to deal
with particle (matter) and antiparticle (antimatter) on an
equal footing, a classical theory must be invariant under
the mass-inversion transformation mm. Note that:
First, m is always positive. Second, being the external
field, the electric-(magnetic) field strength E(B) undergoes
106
no change in the transformation. Third, in RQM like
(1.7) or (1.8), the motion equation for antiparticle is
the same one as that for particle. This is because each
particle state like (1.1) contains its hidden antiparticle
field under the condition ||>||whereas an antiparticle
state like (1.3) contains its hidden particle field under
the condition |
c
|>|
c
|. Fourth, to clarify further why we
prefer the new postulate (1.6) instead of C transformation
and CPT theorem, we wish to emphasize an important
difference between a postulate (law) and a theorem.
All quantities in a theorem must be defined in advance
separately and unambiguously and the outcome of the
theorem is actually contained in its premise implicitly.
For example, the definitions of C, P and T are all clear in
mathematics and the validity of CPT theorem is ensured
by the basic principles of SR and QFT. Once C, P and
T are not conserved in experiments, they cease to be
meaningful as physical transformations. In this situation,
the CPT theorem immediately exhibits itself as a new
postulate (1.12) in which the definition of transformation
of particle to antiparticle is just contained in the same
equation. In general, a postulate or law can often (not
always) accommodate a definition of physical quantity,
and the validity of the postulate (law) together with the
definition must be verified by experiments. Hence the
establishment of a law is a process from particular to
general or an outcome of analysis and induction method.
By contrast, to prove a theorem from well-established
theories is a process from general to particular or a
consequence of deduction method.
For example, the definition of gravitational mass m is
contained in the gravitational law. The definition of inertial
mass m is contained in Newtons law. What we have done
is a similar thing - the definition of particle-antiparticle
transformation C is contained naturally in a new postulate
(1.6) - not one that comes from elsewhere.
Generalization of Einstein field equation in general
relativity
Consider a positronium and an atom of matter. If Newton
Equation is correct, there will be no gravitational force
between them. This means that the gravitational mass m
(grav.) of positronium is zero! However, the energy or the
relevant inertial mass m (inert.) of positronium is definitely
nonzero. Hence we see that in the case of coexistence of
particles and antiparticles, the equivalence principle (EP)
in the (weak) sense that [8]
m (grav.) = m (inert.) (1.12)
cannot be valid.
As is well known, the EP served as a starting point in
establishing the theory of general relativity (GR). The
possible invalidity of EP in the presence of antimatter
implies that GR is dealing with the gravitation of pure
matter without the coexistence of antimatter. Indeed, let
us look at the Einstein field equation [9]:

R g R GT

1
2
8
(1.13)
On the left side, the Ricci tensor R
v
, curvature scalar R
and the metric tensor g
v
are all functions of coordinates
x
. While on the right side, the energy-momentum tensor

T
v
is introduced to describe the existence of matter in
the vicinity (a macroscopic small volume) of x
. Then
under a transformation of mass inversion mm to
reflect that of matter to antimatter, T
v
should change its
sign due to its proportionality to the mass m. Hence Eq.
(1.13) changes sign on the right side whereas not on the
left side. This reflects the fact that GR is a classical field
theory and so cannot treat the matter and antimatter on
an equal footing.
To keep Eq. (1.13) invariant under the mass inversion, we
manage to modify its right side by a generalization as:
T T T T
eff c

, (1.14)
(where the superscript c means antimatter,) since under
the mass inversion, T T
c

and T T
c

.
Notice that the form of the energy-momentum tensor
is the same for both matter and antimatter. We stress
once again that the distinction between m and m is
merely relative, not absolute. So in the whole universe
(matter+antimatter) we have T T T
eff c

0 and
the Einstein equation is

R g R

1
2
0
(1.15)
APPENDIX 2: THE COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT
PROBLEM
Lets outline shortly the cosmological constant
problem.
Consider Einstein equation with -term ( h c 1):
R g R GT g

+
1
2
8 (2.1)
107
Here T
v
is energy-momentum tensor of the matter and
is some constant parameter having the dimension [cm
-2
].
In the used unit system the Newtonian gravitational
constant
G l cm
P
~ ~
2 66 2
2 5 10 ,

(2.2)
and according to experimental data the mean energy
density today is of the order
T cm GT cm

~ ~ ~
1
8 4 57 2
10 8 5 10

(2.3)
and

~10
56 2
cm
(2.4)
Thus, if Einstein equation (1) is used for description of
the today dynamics of our R-Universe, the quantities
in its right hand side are of the same order indicated in
(2.3) and (2.4). In our model, for the L-Universe, we have
T
v
< 0, < 0.
Now let us estimate the possible value of the right hand
side of Eq. (2.1) in the framework of canonical quantum
field theory. For simplicity consider energy-momentum
tensor in quantum electrodynamics in flat spacetime:
T F F F
i

+
1
4
1
4 2
2
( ) (
( ) ( )
)) (2.5)
Casimir effect, predicted in [1] and experimentally
verified in [2], shows for reality of zero-point energies.
Moreover, the attempts to drop out zero-point energies by
appropriate normal ordering of creating and annihilating
operators in energy-momentum tensor fail for many of
reasons (the discussion of this problem see, for example,
in [3]). Thus, at estimating vacuum expectation value of
energy-momentum tensor (2.5), it should not be performed
normal ordering of creating and annihilating operators
in (2.5). Thus we obtain for vacuum expectation value of
tensor (5) in free theory:

T
d k
k k
k
k k
k
k k
k m k
o

0
3
3 0
2
2
0
0 2 2

+
( )

_
,
(2.6)
Here m is the electron mass. The first item in (2.6) gives
the positive contribution but the second item gives the
negative contribution since these items give the boson and
fermion contributions to vacuum energy, respectively. If
integration in (2.6) is restricted by Planck scale, k l
P max
,
1
then from (2.6) and (2.2) it follows:

8 10
0
2 66 2
G T l cm
P P
~ ~ ~

(2.7)
In the vacuum interface (see figure 2), the Einstein
equation is described by

R GT g
em
P
+ 8
(2.8)
It is clear that the interaction of fields doesnt changes
qualitatively the estimation (2.7). From (2.7) and (2.3) we
see that the contribution to the right hand side of Eq. (2.1)
estimated in the framework of canonical quantum field
theory is larger about 10
120
times in comparison with the
experimental estimations.
APPENDIX 3: COSMOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
It is instructive to examine some of the cosmological
implications of the present proposal. When light traverses
intergalactic space it displays a Doppler frequency shift,
invariably interpreted in terms of receding sources, and
therefore assumed to imply an expanding universe. This
interpretation is not inconsistent with the present model,
but neither is it a necessary consequence. Curvature of
three-dimensional space along a time coordinate implies
that a distant source is separated from an observer in both
space and time. During transit, the photon moves towards
an observer ahead of it in time and therefore appears to lag
as if its source was receding. The observed red shift, as
before, is a function of separation, but the proportionality
constant does not necessarily relate distance to rate of
recession, but rather to a time separation interval, t,
t, zc rH r t t t +
( )
1
]
1 1 , where t=r/c. Hence:
z t t t +
( )
1 .
This formulation allows the calculation of a Hubble
radius rather than a Hubble age of the universe. As
t H t c r
0 0
, 1 , where the maximum value
of the interval r
0
= ct
0
is interpreted as an upper bound
to some radius of the universe. This effective radius
corresponds to 4x10
9
parsec. Converted to a dimensionless
distance, one has
N r m c e t m c e
1 0 e
2 2
0 e
3 2
10
40
.
Using this value with the dimensionless mass, or number
of baryons, of the universe, N
3
= 10
80
, a mass density
of

N N
3 1
3
10
40
is calculated. This matches the
third large number
N
2
e Gm m
p e
2
0
39
4 2 3 10 / ( ) . ,
108
the gravitational coupling constant, as required by Machs
principle, without invoking anthropic principles. There is
no reason why any of these large numbers should change
with time.
The foregoing does not demand a static universe. As
time flows, observers move along the interface and
therefore experience a gradually changing curvature.
Time evolution amounts to the threading of the interface
through the universe, and the consequent changes in
configuration are like pseudo-rotation, which increases
the isotropic appearance of the universe. The resulting
relative motion would probably be not unlike that of an
expanding universe.
In-so-far as an abstract surface like P
2
does not exist in
less than four dimensions, the vacuum interface must
likewise be four-dimensional. Its three-dimensional aspect
differentiates between the chiral forms of matter, and by
analogy, the four-dimensional vacuum could conceivably
differentiate between opposite directions in time. A closed
journey along the interface would gradually turn positive
into negative time flow as was shown for the chirality
of matter, suggesting that time has no unique beginning.
The same conclusion is reached by modern quantum
cosmologies. Hawkings idea that the universe is finite
but has no boundary in imaginary time, may indeed be
fully consistent with the four-dimensional chiral structure
arrived at here.
The model of the universe with two chiral spaces
The model of the homogenous and isotropic universe
with two spaces is considered. The background space is a
coordinate system of reference and defines the behaviour
of the universe. The other space characterizes the gravity
of the matter of the universe produced by electromagnetic
waves. In the presented model, the first derivative of the
scale factor of the universe with respect to time is equal
to the velocity of light. The density of the matter of the
universe changes from the Plankian value at the Planck
time to the modern value at the modern time. The model
under consideration describes the whole universe from the
Planck time to the modern time and avoids the problems
of the Friedmann model such as the flatness problem and
the horizon problem.
As known [14, 15], the Friedmann model of the universe
has fundamental difficulties such as the flatness
problem and the horizon problem. These appear to
be a consequence of that the space of the Friedmann
universe, on the one hand, is defined by the gravity
of the matter of the universe, and on the other hand,
is a coordinate system of reference. The solution of
the problem is to introduce the background space as
a coordinate system of reference. In this case, the
background space defines the behaviour of the universe,
and the other space characterizes the gravity of the
matter of the universe.
Let us consider the model of the homogenous and isotropic
universe with two chiral spaces. Let us introduce the
background space as a coordinate system of reference.
Then the evolution of the universe is described as a
deformation of the background space. Let us take the
homogenous and isotropic background space, with the
spatial interval of its metric is given by

ds
a dl
kl
2
2 2
4
2
1
2
1
]
1
(3.1)
Suppose that the background space is defined by the total
mass of the universe including the mass of the matter
and the energy of gravity produced by electromagnetic
waves
G T T T t
ik ik
tot
ik
em
ik ik
+ . (3.2)
Let us consider the case when the total mass of the universe
is equal to zero. It means that the Maxwell tensor vanishes,
T
ik
em
0,
but with det F
i
k
0 .
T T t
ik
tot
ik ik
+ 0 (3.3)
Then eq. (3.2) take the form

G
ik
0.
(3.4)
The solution of the equations (3.4) gives

d a
dt
2
2
0
(3.5)

da
dt
c . (3.6)
109
Thus the second derivative of the scale factor of the
universe with respect to time is equal to zero, and the
first derivative of the scale factor is equal to the velocity
of light. It should be noted that the scale factor of the
universe coincides with the size of the horizon
a ct . (3.7)
In the model (3.4), the laboratory coordinate system is
synchronous. In the laboratory coordinate system, the
background space is described by the flat metric

ds c dt a dl
2 2 2 2 2
.
(3.8)
Thus we arrive at the Milne model [16] in which the size
of the universe being the maximum distance between the
particles coincides with the scale factor of the universe and
coincides with the size of the horizon. In the universe with
one space, the Milne model is derived from the condition
that the density of the matter tends to zero 0. Here
the Milne model describes the background space of the
universe, with the total mass of the universe being equal
to zero m
tot
0.
Let us determine the relationship between the lifetime of
the universe and the Hubble constant. Since the Hubble
constant is
H
a
da
dt
1
, (3.9)
so from (3.6), (3.7), (3.9) one can obtain
t
H
1
. (3.10)
Let us estimate the size of the universe at the Planck
time and at present. Remind that the size of the universe
coincides with the scale factor of the universe. According
to (3.7), at the Planck time t G c
Pl
( / )
/
h
5 1 2
, the scale
factor of the universe is equal to the Planck length
T l G c
Pl Pl
( / )
/
h
3 1 2
. According to (3.7), (3.9), for the
modern Hubble constant H
0
18
3 10

c
-1
, the modern
scale factor of the universe is a cm
0
28
10 .
Let us determine the relationship between the mass of the
matter and the scale factor of the universe at t = const.
The total mass of the universe is equal to zero, given the
mass of the matter is equal to the energy of its gravity

m
Gm
c a
2
.
(3.11)
Allowing for (3.7) and (3.10), from (3.11) it follows that
the mass of the matter changes with time as
m
c a
G
c t
G
c
GH

2 3 3
, (3.12)
and the density of the matter, as

3
4
3
4
3
4
2
2 2
2
c
Ga Gt
H
G
(3.13)
According to (3.12), growth of the mass of the matter
takes place during all the evolution of the universe. At
the Planck time t
p1
, the mass of the matter is equal to
the Planck mass m c G
Pl
( / )
/
h
1 2
. At present, the mass
of the matter is m
0
56
1 4 10 . g , and the density of the
matter is
0
3
3 10 .
-
2
-29
g cm . Thus the model of the
universe (3.3)-(3.6) provides growth of the mass of the
matter from the Plankian value to the modern one.
We have considered the model of the homogenous and
isotropic universe with two spaces, with the behaviour of
the universe is defined by the background space. Unlike
the Friedmann model, the presented model gets rid off
the flatness and horizon problems.
Remind [14, 15] that the horizon problem in the Friedmann
universe is that two particles situated within the horizon
at present were situated beyond the horizon in the past.
In the universe under consideration, all the particles
are situated within the horizon during all the evolution
of the universe, since the size of the universe being the
maximum distance between the particles coincides with
the size of the horizon. Hence the presented model avoids
the horizon problem.
Remind [14, 15] that the essence of the flatness problem in
the Friedmann universe is impossibility to get the modern
density of the matter starting from the Planck density of
the matter at the Planck time. In the presented theory, the
density of the matter of the universe changes from the
Planckian value at the Planck time to the modern value
at the modern time. Hence the flatness problem is absent
in the presented theory.
In order to resolve the above problems of the Friedmann
universe an inflationary episode is introduced in the
early universe [14, 15]. Since the presented model
describes the universe from the Planck time to the
modern time and avoids the above problems of the
Friedmann universe, there is no necessity to introduce
the inflationary model.
110
REFERENCES
[1] H. Bondi. Negative mass in general relativity.
Rev. Mod. Phys. Vol. 29, pp. 423-428. 1957.
[2] J.D. Bjorken and S.D. Drell. Relativistic Quantum
Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1964.
[3] J.J. Sakurai. Modern Quantum Mechanics. John
Wiley & Sons Inc. 1994.
[4] G.J. Ni and S.Q. Chen. Advanced Quantum
Mechanics. Chinese Ed. Press of Fudan University.
2000. English Ed. Rinton Press. 2002.
[5] G.J. Ni, H. Guan, W.M. Zhou and J. Yan.
Antiparticle in the light of Einstein-Podolsky-
Rosen paradox and Klien paradox. Chin. Phys.
Lett. Vol. 17, pp. 393-395. 2000.
[6] G.J. Ni. Ten arguments for the essence of special
relativity. Proceedings of the 23rd Workshop on
High-energy Physics and Field Theory, pp. 275-292.
Edit: I.V. Filimonova and V.A. Petrov. Protvino,
Russia. June 2000.
[7] L. Smolin. Three Roads to Quantum Gravity.
Basic Books, p. 149. 2001.
[8] S. Weinberg. Gravitation and cosmology. John
Wiley. 1972.
[9] N.A. Bahcall, J.P. Ostriker, S. Perimutter and P.J.
Steinhardt. The cosmic triangle: revealing the state
of the universe. Science. Vol. 284, pp. 1481-1488.
May 28 1999.
[10] W. Freedman. The Hubble constant and the
expanding universe. American Scientist, Vol. 91,
pp. 36-43. Jan-Fe, 2003.
[11] M. Livio. Moving right along. Astronomy.
pp. 34-39. July 2002.
[12] P. Davies. Seven wonders. New Scientist.
September 21 2002.
gravitacin. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 1,
pp. 6-23. 2008.
[14] A.D. Dolgov, Ya.B. Zeldovich and M.V. Sazhin.
Cosmology of the early universe. Moscow Univ.
Press. Moscow. 1988.
[15] A.D. Linde. Elementary particle physics and
inflationary cosmology. Nauka. Moscow. 1990.
[16] Ya. B. Zeldovich and I.D. Novikov. Structure and
evolution of the universe. Nauka. Moscow. 1975.
[17] L. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz. The classical theory
of fields. 4th Ed. Pergamon. Oxford. 1976.
H. Torres-Silva: A new relativistic field theory of the electron
111
A NEW RELATIVISTIC FIELD THEORY OF THE ELECTRON
UNA NUEVA TEORA RELATIVSTICA DE CAMPO PARA EL ELECTRN
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se presenta un examen cualitativo sobre una nueva Teora General Relativstica para el electrn, con la
obtencin de la ecuacin de Dirac a partir de los campos electromagnticos con el campo elctrico paralelo al campo
magntico. El principio rector es el de la relatividad general, y la principal hiptesis es que de las ecuaciones fundamentales
se desprende la teora de Dirac y la teora de Maxwell - Lorentz como de dos casos especiales cuidando la coherencia
y compatibilidad entre las condiciones en las que las ecuaciones fundamentales se reducen a la ecuacin de Dirac y las
ecuaciones de Maxwell - Lorentz. Se espera que la presente investigacin arroje alguna luz sobre las desconcertantes
dificultades a las que nos encontramos en la comprensin del comportamiento de un electrn exclusivamente en funcin
de la ecuacin de Dirac y las ecuaciones de Maxwell - Lorentz. Ms all de esto, se puede investigar la posibilidad de
que otras partculas elementales se puedan regir por las mismas ecuaciones fundamentales bajo variadas condiciones
restrictivas.
Palabras clave: Ecuacin de Dirac, tensor de materia, sistema Einstein-Maxwell.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we present a qualitative discussion of a new General Relativistic Field Theory for the electron, obtaining
the Dirac equation from electromagnetic fields with the electric field parallel to the magnetic field. The guiding principle
is that of general relativity, and the main hypothesis is that the fundamental equations embrace the Dirac theory and the
Maxwell-Lorentz theory as of two special cases respectively. We concern ourselves with the consistency and compatibility
among those conditions under which the fundamental equations are reduced to the Dirac equation and the Maxwell-
Lorentz equations. We expect that the present investigation will shed some light on those perplexing difficulties which we
encounter in comprehending the behavior of an electron solely according to the Dirac equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz
equations. Beyond this, we aim to investigate the possibility that other elementary particles are governed by the same
fundamental equations under varied restrictive conditions.
Keywords: Dirac equation, matter tensor, Einstein-Maxwell system.
1
INTRODUCTION
Einsteins Dream
Albert Einstein spent several years of his life trying to
develop a theory which would relate electromagnetism
and gravity to a common unified field. Hence the name
unified field theory.
After Einstein finished his first article on the unified field
theory in 1922, despite criticism he spent much of the
second half of his life pursuing the development of the
unified field theory besides the discussion of completeness
of quantum mechanics. In the first several years, he was
very optimistic, thought success would come soon, but he
found it was full of difficulties afterwards. He considered
mathematical tools in being was not sufficient, then turned
112
to study mathematics, but never obtained any result with
real physical sense. Because Einstein wanted to found an
encompassing mathematical construct that would unite
not only gravitational field but also electromagnetic field
under a single set of equations, but then the task has
become even more difficult, with the discovery of two
other basic field: the weak interaction field and strong
interaction field. Most physicists thought Einsteins quest
was hopeless, and in fact he never succeeded. But Einstein
was convinced such a basic harmony and simplicity
existed in nature, he kept his chin up, went ahead along
his own road. Because he was apart from the mainstream
of physical research - quantum field theory, he was very
alone in his old age, but he was fearless. He still prepared
to keep on his mathematical calculation of unified field
theory on his sickbed until the day before his death. He
said with a sigh before his death: I cannot finish this
work, it will be forgotten, but it will be rediscovered
in the future. Einstein did manage to develop a theory
which wrapped electromagnetism and gravitation into
a common metric tensor. In one of his formulations of a
unified field theory (called Einstein-Schrodinger Theory),
gravitation was wrapped into the symmetric part of the
metric tensor, while electromagnetism was wrapped into
the antisymmetric part of the metric tensor. This wrapping
is possible because electromagnetism and gravity share
some mathematical similarities. They both have a stress-
energy tensor. The electric charge is analogous to the
gravitational mass. The magnetic moment is analogous to
the angular momentum moment. The electric potential and
electric field are analogous to the gravitational potential
and gravitational field, respectively. Finally, the magnetic
field is analogous to the magneto-gravitic field.
The mathematical wrapper which Einstein developed
exploits this analogy. However, the analogy between
electromagnetism and gravity breaks down at higher
field strengths when nonlinear field effects set in. As a
result, Einstein-Schrdinger theory correctly describes
electromagnetism and gravity at low field strengths where
they are not coupled to each other. However, it does not
describe the interactions between electromagnetism and
gravitation which occur at higher field strengths. Thus,
Einstein-Schrdinger theory achieved an approximate
mathematical unification, but no real physical unification
of electromagnetism and gravity. In this sense, it did not
really achieve its objective.
Kaluza and Klein developed an alternative wrapper for
electromagnetism and gravitation. Instead of wrapping
electromagnetism into the antisymmetric part of the
metric tensor, they retained a symmetric metric tensor
but added a fifth dimension. They were able to show that
Maxwells Laws and General Relativity can be expressed
in terms of their five-dimensional metric tensor. Again,
this exploits the analogies between electromagnetism
and gravity.
The problem with Einsteins unified field theory and
Kaluza-Kleins unified field theory is that they dont address
the fundamental issue. They still treat gravitation and
electromagnetism as two completely separate interactions.
Neither theory can tell you how a gravitational field is
fundamentally produced by a charged particle (electron).
Today, the search for a unified field theory has been
replaced by loftier goals. Physicists are now looking for a
so-called Theory of Everything (TOE) which will unify
not only electromagnetism and gravity, but also the nuclear
interactions and other potential physical forces such as
inflation and dark energy. At the time of Einstein, modern
particle physics had not yet been developed and the strong
and weak nuclear interactions were not well understood.
Within of the unified program a fundamental question
was if gravitational fields did play an essential part in the
structure of the elementary particles of matter (electron).
The first unimodular theory was developed by Einstein in
1919, assuming as source the Maxwell tensor, where the
quantum electron theory was not reproduced. Thus, as stated
by Einstein in 1919, we cannot arrive at a theory of the
electron [and matter generally] by restricting ourselves to
the electromagnetic components of the Maxwell-Lorentz
theory, as has long been known [6].
Motivation
In the beginning of this century, Lorentz, Poincar,
Abraham, Mie and others attempted to show that the
constitution of an electron be explained as a field of
electromagnetic nature. In order to make the motion of
the electron special-relativistic, however, it was necessary
to consider a mechanical core (Poincar) or to introduce
some nonlinearity (Mie) in the electromagnetic field under
consideration [1-3]. To overcome these difficulties appeared
to have completely been resolved with the Dirac equation
for the electron discovered in 1928. It has conventionally
been believed that the information of an electron near its
core is fully provided by the Dirac equation. The notion
of the electron formed by the conventional interpretation
of the Dirac equation is hardly acceptable as rational and
feasible. Instead, in an accompanying paper, it was shown
that the Dirac equation has a solution that indicates that an
electron is a field localized in space and deformable and
that the motion of this elementary field is determinate
and causal. Moreover, is shown, it is possible to regard the
field governed by the Dirac equation as if electromagnetic.
113
This possibility is not surprising if we note that the
intrinsic magnetic moment of an electron is a notion to be
comprehended only in the context of Faraday-Maxwell-
Lorentzs theory of electricity and magnetism. Thus we
are led to infer the following: An electron is a localized
field of which some part remote from its center may well
be regarded as normal electromagnetic, and some other
part near its center is governed by the Dirac equation
derived from parallel fields. The connection between
the two parts must be continuous and gradual, and there
is no clear-cut border between them. A real electron, as
a whole, must be a unified field governed by a common
set of partial differential equations. It is important to
anticipate the possibility that those fundamental equations
governing the field be reduced to the Maxwell-Lorentz
equations under a restrictive condition and to the Dirac
equation under another restrictive condition. Although
with the early theories of Einstein and others [6-7], there
is no deductive way of giving the fundamental equations,
it is not difficult to anticipate the following:
a. The electronic mass has its representation in the Dirac
equation, but not in the Maxwell-Lorentz equations.
On the other hand, the electronic charge is seen in
the Maxwell-Lorentz equations, but not in the Dirac
equation for a free electron. We infer from these
observations that the electronic mass and charge
are approximate substitutes of feld variables that
are functions of time and space in the fundamental
equations. Only because the variables are comparatively
less variants, they may be replaced with constants as
depending on conditions of observation.
b. The Maxwell-Lorentz equations are covariant under
the Lorentz transformation, however, the covariance
of the Dirac equation under the same transformation
is conditional. Besides, the feld variables in Maxwell-
Lorentz equations and those in the Dirac equation
are apparently of different characteristics under the
Lorentz transformation. In order to embrace those two
sets of equations as of special cases, the fundamental
equations must be formed in a geometrical frame less
restrictive than the Euclidean, i.e., as covariant for
observers in varied conditions [8-9].
These difficulties are overcomes with our Maxwells
Equations with parallel electromagnetic fields, (see
accompanying paper). Considering those observations in
the above, it is significant to recall the demonstration of the
similarity between the Dirac field and the electromagnetic
field. In the demonstration, we see a clue to electing a set
of fundamental equations that are reducible to both the
Dirac equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. In
paper (Physical interpretation of the Dirac equation with
electromagnetic mass), we considered the Dirac equation
for a free electron derived from Maxwells equations when
the electric field is parallel to the magnetic field.
The Nature of the Investigation
If one accepts as valid the principle of relativity, i.e.,
the principle of covariance of the laws under coordinate
transformations, the choice of a proper scheme of
geometry is an essential part of the task of constructing
the fundamental equations concerned. In this respect,
it is significant to recall that the Dirac equation is not
completely covariant under the Lorentz transformation.
It appears that the range of the meaning implied by the
Dirac equation can no longer be confined in the Euclid
space. This situation suggests first that the scheme of
geometry be properly generalized and then that the Dirac
equation be modified accordingly. We expect, in this way,
that the fundamental equations thus found will be able
to embrace the Dirac equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz
equations as of two special cases respectively.
In a geometrical scheme more general than the Euclidean,
each component of the metric tensor g
ij
is a function of
space-time coordinates. Therefore, it seems to be sensible
to expect that any matter field, with no exception, is
accompanied by a gravity field. The fundamental equations
govern simultaneously the matter field and the metric
field is the equation R g R kT
ij ij ij

1
2
proposed earlier
by Einstein [10-11] . The left hand side of the equation
is sometimes called the Einstein tensor G
ij
. One might
surmise that a matter field determines uniquely the Einstein
tensor of the space where the matter field is located. Thus
it appears that the Einstein tensor can be the representation
or the image of the matter field. But the uniqueness of
the relation between a matter field and the resulting
Einstein tensor is unknown. We note that the equations
to be found must be regarded only as of an approximate
means of representing the reality concerned. (None of
the equations utilized in physics may escape this fate.)
Therefore, even when a field, e.g., of an electron, governed
by those equations has a singularity that implies a strong
distortion of space curvature, one can not immediately
conclude that the real field, expected to be represented
by the solution, has the same singularity.
The field equations of general relativity are rarely used
without simplifying assumptions. The most common
application treats of a mass, sufficiently distant from
other masses, so as to move uniformly in a straight line.
All applications of special relativity are of this type,
in order to stay in Minkowski space-time. A body that
114
moves inertially (or at rest) is thus assumed to have four-
dimensionally straight world lines from which they deviate
only under acceleration or rotation. The well-known
Minkowski diagram of special relativity is a graphical
representation of this assumption and therefore refers to
a highly idealized situation, only realized in isolated free
fall or improbable regions of deep intergalactic space.
In the real world the stress tensor never vanishes and so requires
a non- vanishing curvature tensor under all circumstances.
Alternatively, the concept of mass is strictly undefined in
Minkowski space-time. Any mass point in Minkowski space
disperses spontaneously, which means that it has a space-like
rather than a time-like world line. In perfect analogy a mass
point can be viewed as a local distortion of space-time. In
euclidean space it can be smoothed away without leaving
any trace, but not on a curved manifold. Mass generation
therefore resembles distortion of a euclidean cover when
spread across a non-euclidean surface. A given degree of
curvature then corresponds to creation of a constant quantity
of matter, or a constant measure of misfit between cover and
surface, that cannot be smoothed away.
Here, a strain field appears in the curved surface. At any
point on the curved manifold the gradient of the strain field
is perpendicular to the tangent vector and coincides with
the axis of the local light cone. To relieve the stress, the
natural response of the mass point is displacement along
the stress gradient and hence it traces out a time-like world
line at constant spatial coordinates. This displacement,
along the time coordinate only, is the arrow of time,
which appears as a direct consequence of the curvature
of space. There is no time in euclidean space.
The primary cause of mass generation by space curvature
is elimination of the strict orthogonality between time
and space coordinates which allows the strain field (mass
point) to acquire complementary time-like and space-like
attributes. This is the mechanism envisaged by Corben
[4] as a model for creating mass through relativistically
invariant self-trapping of a free bradyon and a free tachyon,
(time-like and space-like waves).
The essence of the argument advanced here is that real
world-space is not euclidean and that space is generally
curved into the time dimension, consistent with the
theory of general relativity. The curvature may not be
sufficient to become obvious in a local context. However,
it is sufficient to break the time-reversal symmetry that
seems to characterize the laws of physics. Not only does
it cause perpetual time with respect to all mass, but
actually identifies a fixed direction for this It creates an
arrow of time and thereby eliminates an inconsistency
in the logic of physics: how reversible microscopic laws
can underpin an irreversible macroscopic world. General
curvature of space breaks the time-reversal symmetry
and produces chiral space, manifest in the right-hand
force rule of electromagnetism. The fact that most other
fundamental laws of physics do not refer the chirality of
space, nor the arrow of time, confirms that the curvature
on a local scale is barely detectable.
The one exception to apparent time-reversal symmetry
is the law of entropy.
It has been stated [1] that ...the second law of thermodynamics
is excluded from the classication fundamental due to its
statistical nature. This is an unconvincing explanation and
the curved-space argument provides a better mechanism
for entropy production. In any curved-space manifold
gradient vectors drive time-like displacement of separate
particles along non-parallel world lines. Even among pairs
of stationary particles three-dimensional line elements
therefore do not remain invariant over a period of time. An
initially stationary array of non-interacting particles (ideal
gas) spontaneously generates relative internal (zero point)
motion leading to chaotic distribution in a container, or
spontaneous dispersal in the open. Where local interactions
constrain dispersal, zero-point vibration develops. This
intrinsic microscopic instability, caused by the curvature
of space, is the source of entropy.
The conclusions reached here are clearly related to those of
Prigogine [5] who deduced that the irreversible creation of
matter generates cosmological entropy and that the arrow
of time is provided by the transformation of gravitational
energy into matter. The difference is that Progonines
result was obtained by incorporating the second law
of thermodynamics into the relativistic field equations,
whereas the present model makes no assumption about
macroscopic behaviour.
Theses observations, usual in classical mechanics, are
significant in evaluating Einsteins attempt recollected
in the following.
Recollection of Einsteins Attempt
It seems that Einstein devoted the last twenty years, at least,
of his life to the attempt of materializing his deterministic
view of particles. Einstein explicitly used the term unified
field theory (gravitation-electromagnetism) in the title of
a publication for the first time in 1925. Ten more papers
appeared in which the term is used in the title, but Einstein
had dealt with the topic already in half a dozen publications
before 1925 . In total he wrote more than forty technical
115
papers on the subject. This work represents roughly a
fourth of his overall oeuvre of original research articles,
and about half of his scientific production published
after 1920. As is well known, however, the endeavor
was not fruitful. In retrospect, the cause of his difficulty
appears to be in his interpretation of Schrdingers wave
equation. A clue to knowing Einsteins interpretation in
question is found in an essay published by him in 1936
(Einstein, 1936). His interpretation of wave mechanics
may be summarized as follows:
i) The wave function does not in any way describe the
condition of a single system; it relates rather to many
systems, an ensemble of systems, in the same sense
as of statistical mechanics, so Schrdingers equation
determines the time variation that is experienced by
an ensemble of systems.
ii) Quantum mechanics will not be the point of
departure in the search of the foundation of quantum-
mechanical phenomena, just as one cannot go from
thermodynamics to the foundation of mechanics, so
there must be a feld theory that results in a way of
representing particles and the representation must be
free of singularities. The foundation of the theory is
given by the differential equations of the feld, and
the theory leads also to quantum mechanics in the
same way as classical mechanics of particles leads
to thermodynamics.
Einstein emphasized often that the field in question must
be free of singularities. His reasoning seems to be based
on the following two observations: Conventional wave
functions in quantum mechanics are free of singularities.
On the other hand, in his general theory of relativity
completed in 1916, the differential equations of the metric
space completely replace the Newton theory of the motion
of celestial bodies, if the masses are substituted with
singularities of the field; those equations contain the law
of force as well as the law of motion while eliminating
inertial systems. His theory with T T
ij ij
l
Maxwel
, however,
does not explain quantum-mechanical phenomena, and is
not satisfactory (unimodular theory). Considering these
two facts, Einstein had a conjecture that a satisfactory
theory be obtained by modifying the general theory of
relativity so that the singularities do not arise in a field
determined by the differential equations of the metric space.
He assumed that the desirable modification be made by
eliminating the symmetry condition of the metric tensor
from the general theory of relativity completed in 1916.
According to Einstein, equations of such complexity as
expected can be found only through the discovery of a
logically simple mathematical scheme that determines
the equations of physics completely or almost completely.
Once one has a proper mathematical scheme, one requires
only little knowledge of physical facts for setting up a
proper theory.
In 1948, near the end of his life, Einstein thought that he had
success in formulating a satisfactory scheme of geometry
in which the metric tensor is no longer symmetric. He
hoped that this geometry could provide the framework
in which the new theory of physics be established.
Unfortunately, however, the result was disappointing;
a stationary field free from singularities could never
represent a mass different from zero. We thus recognize
that Einsteins view of conventional quantum mechanics
is partially right, and a causal and determinative law is
underlying conventional quantum-mechanical phenomena
of the electron. Considering this, it appears to be a serious
misjudgment of Einstein to attribute immediately the
cause of singularities to the symmetry condition of the
metric tensor in the Riemann geometry.
Now, we can say that the general solution of a partial
differential equation contains a set of functions whose
forms are not determined by the equation but by initial
and boundary conditions. A physically significant solution
is a particular solution that satisfies proper initial and
boundary conditions. It is a significant event in the history
of physics that Einstein had persistently failed to recognize
the significance of initial and boundary conditions in
interpreting physical laws. We see the same failure in
Diracs interpretation of the Dirac equation for the electron
if we not considerer that the Dirac equation is derived
from chiral electromagnetic fields with E || B.
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS
In the following investigation, the variables are in general
defined as tensors in a four-dimensional Riemannian space.
The mathematical treatment of them follows the ordinary
rule of tensor calculus. For the convenience of reference,
the mathematical symbols employed are mostly similar to
those in (Mller, [9-11]), unless otherwise specified.
Those equations are mutually coupled, and the strong
tendency of the electron to be a localized and stable field
must be effected by the characteristics of those equations
and proper boundary and initial conditions.
For formulating the fundamental equations, it is customary
to rely on Hamiltons principle of variation of deriving
covariant equations from a Lagrangian function. But the
choice of the Lagrangian function is arbitrary, and so is of
variation methods. There is no assurance of uniqueness of
116
the result. As Eddington remarked earlier [12], the physical
significance of the method is unknown and doubtful,
particularly when we have no means of evaluating those
resulting equations immediately and directly in comparison
with empirical information. Our experience in this field of
physics is yet naive; instead of taking any axiomatic approach,
it seems to be desirable to continue an effort of reflecting
on the physical reality via equations known thus far. The
guiding principle is that of general relativity, and the main
hypothesis is that the fundamental equations embrace the
Dirac equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz equations as of
two special cases respectively. Although we do not intend
to compare solutions of the fundamental equations directly
with empirical information, we concern ourselves with the
consistency and compatibility among those conditions under
which the fundamental equations are reduced to the Dirac
equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. We expect
that the present investigation will shed some light on those
perplexing difficulties which we encounter in comprehending
the behavior of an electron solely according to the Dirac
equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. Beyond this,
we have an ambition to investigate the possibility that other
elementary particles are governed by the same fundamental
equations under varied restrictive conditions.
The Matter Field
The equations for the matter field and those for the
metric tensor field are intimately coupled together. In a
conventional sense, however, we may call the following
the equations for the matter field:

1
0

( )

g
gF
x
g
x
ij
j
ij
j
(1)

1
0

( )

g
gF
x
g
x
ij
j
ij
j
*
(2)
In these equations, g is the determinant of the metric tensor
g
ij
; F
ij
is an antisymmetric tensor and F*
ij
is conjugate to
F
ij
; and are scalars. One might ask why these equations
are fundamental. The answer is simple: Firstly, these
equations are covariant in the Riemannian sense; secondly,
by considering the current s
elect
i
for g x
ij j
and by
assuming
magnet
i
for
g
x
ij
j
, these equations can be as

the Riemannian generalization of the Maxwell-Lorentz
equations. However, we do not immediately relate these
equations to the Maxwell-Lorentz equations; a physical
consideration is needed prior to doing so.
We expect that those equations in the above will eventually
be reduced to the Dirac equation and also to the Maxwell-
Lorentz equations, and write for F
ij

F
Q Q P
Q Q P
Q Q P
P P P
ij
z y x
z x y
y x z
x y z
0
0
0
0
_
,
.
(3)
Considering

F g g F
gg g F
ij ik jm
km
ik jm
kmst
st
* *

1
2

(4)
where
kmst
is the Levi-Civita symbol, we have

F
P P Q
P P Q
P P Q
Q Q Q
ij
z y x
z x y
y x z
x y z
*
0
0
0
0
_
,

g
F
P P Q
P P Q
ij
z y x
z x
,
*
0
0
yy
y x z
x y z
P P Q
Q Q Q

_
,
0
0
.
(5)
From here on, we shall often write P
,
for (P
x
, P
y
, P
z
) and Q
,

for (Q
x
, Q
y
, Q
z
) simply for the sake of convenience, although
they are not three-vectors. We note that in general.
P P Q Q
, , , ,
, (6)
However, if

P P
, , , ,
E B , Q Q
(7)
We have a nice approximation. We expect the equivalence
between the two sets of equations will be established, if the
metric tensor field be properly evaluated in the following.
The Metric Tensor Field
As is well known, Einstein in 1916 proposed an equation
for the metric tensor [6].

R g R kT
ij ij ij

1
2
(8)
117
where R
ij
is the contracted curvature tensor, R is the
curvature scalar, and T
ij
is the energy-momentum
tensor of the matter field. Einstein gave this equation by
considering that the only fundamental tensors that do
not contain derivatives of g
ij
beyond the second order are
functions of g
ij
and the Riemann-Christoffel curvature
tensor and that the equation is analogous to the Poisson
equation for the gravitational field to the non-relativistic
limit. It seems that Einstein proposed this equation for
the purpose of solving cosmological problems, i.e., the
structure of the universe as a whole [6]. Therefore, T
ij
is
expected to be a known tensor supplied from the data of
astronomical observation of the average mass distribution.
Schwarzschild showed that the equation with T
ij
= 0 has
a particular solution that expresses properly the gravity
field induced by a material point [12].
Only when Eq. (8) is considered simultaneously with
Eqs. (1) and (2), the equation for an elementary particle
may be solved. If it is noticed that Eq. (8) alone consists
of ten simultaneous partial differential equations of the
second order, the analytical treatment of those equations
concerned is an extremely difficult task. Moreover, it
was not completely known how T
ij
is to be constructed
in terms of F
ij

, and in the Einstein epoch. (As
noted a short time ago, the variation method is not a
decisive one.) Our present purpose is to show that the
Dirac equation and the Maxwell-Lorentz equations,
which are covariant only in the Euclidean sense, are
both attainable by linearization of the same one set
of nonlinear equations covariant in a non-Euclidean
sense. From this viewpoint, we consider that it may
not be necessary that the fundamental equations are
immediately covariant in the Riemannian sense. There
may be schemes of geometry that are more general than
the Euclidean and less than the Riemannian. It is noted
that, because of the restrictive conditions, viz., Eq. (8),
Einsteins geometry is less general than the Riemannian
[12]. According to Einstein, the Einstein tensor, the left
hand side of Eq. (8), should vanish in a space empty of
matter. On the other hand, in the Riemann geometry, it
does not vanish in general. (In the Riemann geometry,
the idea of matter does not exist.) However, the covariant
divergence of the Einstein tensor vanishes always in the
Riemann geometry as well as in [10]. As noted earlier,
Einstein chose Eq. (8) as one of the possibly simplest
equations. Our conjecture is even when we adopt
Einsteins equation the obtained equation is adequate
completely for describing the field extremely near the
center of the core of an electron. Instead of taking an
axiomatic approach, it is essential to study carefully the
circumstances under which the present investigation is
motivated.
Later Einstein [6] attempted to investigate the structure
of an elementary particle as based on the same equation.
There, however, he did not pay much attention to T
ij
. He
simply speculated that the matter field is an electromagnetic
field, using a unimodular theory with T T
ij ij
l
Maxwel
and
the magnetic field B perpendicular to electric field E,
(E B). Contrary to Einstein conjecture, in our present
problem in which an electron is considered to be a small
universe, we considerer EB, ie, we suppose that the
electron positron equation is the Dirac equation if only if
it is derived from electromagnetic fields with EB, inserted
in the original Einstein equation R g R kT
ij ij ij

1
2
,
with T T
i
ij ij
Maxwell
E B
. That means F iF
ij ij
* , where
i 1 , and s
elect
i
magnet
i
, , given by

F
x
c
J
imc
E s
e e elect
i

4
h
(9)

h
F
x
c
J
imc
B
m m magnet
i
4
(10)
(For the specific demonstration see the article Maxwells
theory with chiral current)
Thus, contrary to Einstein equation for the electron
(unimodular theory) [13], i.e., the equations for the matter
field and those for the metric tensor, do not contain
Plancks constant h, the electronic mass m and charge e,
our equation (8), (9) and (10) contain h, m, e, which are
essential to obtain the Dirac equation.
With equations (9-10), its possible to show that an electron
is like a toroid with EB, spin , without radiation and
r T mc
p
h / 2 (figure 1).
r
p
Figure 1. Electron model
118
Assumptions as regards the metric tensor field
According to the above results and considerations, we
assume that the field in question is spatially localized.
In the space outside the field, the Riemann-Christoffel
tensor is negligibly small. It would be more reasonable to
regard a part of the space as outside when the Riemann-
Christoffel tensor is negligibly small in that part. Also we
note that, owing to the other bodies of matter contained
in the universe, the tensor in question does not completely
vanish at any point of the space. But our interest is in the
local field, the electron. Hence, we ignore the curvature
of the global scale, and may consider an inertial frame
of reference outside the electron. (Einstein, perhaps due
to his esteem of Ernst Mach, did not necessarily seem
to think that the field of an electron can be completely
closed and sustained by itself [12, 13]). If we consider
an electron fixed to an inertial frame of reference, the
electron appears to be free from the influence of the
external universe. Classically, if we consider the internal
structure of the electron, the situation is not necessarily so
simple. It seems possible that a portion of the electron is
in acceleration relative to the inertial frame reference in
the same way as a portion of a spinning top resting as a
whole on the inertial frame is. Such a classical-mechanical
structure is inconceivable. However, it is sensible then to
assume that the electron has a stable structure with its own
permanent gravity field, as independent of the influence
of the external universe.
CONCLUSION
Thus we are presented a new theory called Teora Total
Simplificada (TTS) based on chiral electrodynamic which
reproduces at the first time the Dirac equation for the electron
unifying the gravity with electromagnetism [14-16].
REFERENCES
[1] W.G. Dixon, Special Relativity. University Press,
Cambridge. 1978.
[2] R. Adler, M. Bazin and M. Schiffer, Introduction
to General Relativity. McGraw-Hill, NY. 1965.
[3] M. Friedman. Foundations of Space-time theories.
Princeton U.P., Princeton, NJ. 1983.
[4] E. Witten. Duality, Spacetime and Quantum
Mechanics. Physics Today. Vol. 50, pp. 28-33.
1997.
[5] S. Weinberg. A Unified Physics by 2050. Sci.
Am. Vol. 281 N 6, pp. 68-75. December, 1999.
Essential Part in The Structure of the Elementary
Particles of Matter? The Principle of Relativity.
Dover, pp. 191-198. 1952.
[7] P.G. Bergmann and R. Thomson. Spin and Angular
Momentum in General Relativity. Phys. Rev. Vol. 2
N 89, pp. 400-407. 1953.
[8] J. N. Goldberg, Conservation Laws in General
Relativity, Phys. Rev. Vol. 2 N 111, pp. 315-320.
1958.
[9] C. Mller. On the Localization of the Energy
of a Physical System in the General Theory of
Relativity. Ann. Physics. Vol. 4, pp. 347-371.
1958.
[10] C. Mller. Further Remarks on the Localization
of the Energy in the General Theory of Relativity.
Ann. Physics. Vol. 12, pp. 118-133. 1961.
[11] C. Mller. Conservation Laws and Absolute
Parallelism in General Relativity. Mat. Fys. Skr.
Danske. Vid. Selsk. Vol. 1 N 10, pp. 1-50. 1961.
[12] A.S. Eddington. The Mathematical Theory of
Relativity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1921.
[13] A. Einstein. Die Kompatibilitt der Feldgleichungen
in der einheitlichen Feldtheorie. Preuss. Akad.
Wiss. Berlin, Phys. Math. Klasse, Sitzber, pp. 18-23.
1930.
N 1, pp. 6-23. 2008.
Maxwell system and the Dirac equation when
the electric field is parallel to the magnetic field.
2008.
[16] H. Torres-Silva. Chiral field ideas for a theory
of matter. Ingeniare. Rev. chil. ing. Vol. 16 N 1,
pp. 36-42. 2008.
H. Torres-Silva: Chiral waves in a metamaterial medium
119
CHIRAL WAVES IN A METAMATERIAL MEDIUM
ONDAS QUIRALES EN UN MEDIO METAMATERIAL
H. Torres-Silva
1
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se estudia la refraccin anmala en el borde de un medio metamaterial con fuerte quiralidad. El hecho de que
para una onda monocromtica el vector de Poynting es antiparalelo a la direccin de la velocidad de fase conduce a relevantes
propiedades que pueden tener ventajas en el diseo de novedosos dispositivos y componentes a frecuencias de microondas.
Palabras clave: Ondas quirales, metamateriales.
ABSTRACT
In this paper we study the anomalous refraction at the boundary of a metamaterial medium with strong chirality. The fact
that for a time-harmonic monochromatic plane wave the direction of the Poynting vector is antiparallel with the direction
of phase velocity, leads to exciting features that can be advantageous in the design of novel devices and components at
microwaves frequencies.
Keywords: Chiral waves, metamat erial.
1
INTRODUCTION
Composite materials in which both permittivity and
permeability possess negative values at some frequencies
has recently gained considerable attention. This idea was
originally initiated by Veselago in 1967, who theoretically
studied plane wave propagation in a material whose
permittivity and permeability were assumed to be
simultaneously negative. Recently have been constructed
such a composite medium for the microwave regime, and
experimentally the presence of anomalous refraction in
this medium is verified [1]. Previous theoretical study
of electromagnetic wave interaction with omega media
using the circuit-model approach had also revealed the
possibility of having negative permittivity and permeability
in omega media for certain range of frequencies [2]. That
is important for design of circulary polarized antennas
The anomalous refraction at the boundary of such a
medium with a conventional medium, and the fact that for
a time-harmonic monochromatic plane wave the direction
of the Poynting vector is antiparallel with the direction of
phase velocity, can lead to exciting features that can be
advantageous in design of novel devices and components.
For instance, as a potential application of this material, the
idea of compact cavity resonators in which a combination of
a slab of conventional material and a slab of metamaterial
with negative permittivity and permeability. The problems
of radiation, scattering, and guidance of electromagnetic
waves in metamaterials with negative permittivity and
permeability, and in media in which the combined paired
layers of such media together with the conventional media
are present, can possess very interesting features leading
to various ideas for future potential applications such as
phase conjugators, unconventional guided-wave structures,
compact thin cavities, thin absorbing layers, high-impedance
surfaces, to name a few. In this talk, we will first present a
brief overview of electromagnetic properties of the media
with negative permittivity and permeability, and we will
then discuss some ideas for potential applications of these
materials. In this work we discuss the chiral waves in
metamaterial media.
120
CHIRAL WAVES
In classical electrodynamics, the response (typically
frequency dependent) of a material to electric and
magnetic fields is characterized by two fundamental
quantities, the permittivity and the permeability .
The permittivity relates the electric displacement field
,
D to the electric field
,
E through
, ,
D E , and the
permeability relates the magnetic field
,
B and
,
H
by
, ,
B H . If we do not take losses into account and
treat and as real numbers, according to Maxwells
equations, electromagnetic waves can propagate through
a material only if the index of refraction n, is real.
Dissipation will add imaginary components to and
and cause losses, but for a qualitative picture, one can
ignore losses and treat and as real numbers. Also,
strictly speaking, and are second-rank tensors, but
they reduce to scalars for isotropic materials. In a medium
with and both positive, the index of refraction is
real and electromagnetic waves can propagate. All our
everyday transparent materials are such kind of media.
In a medium where one of the and is negative but
the other is positive, the index of refraction is imaginary
and electromagnetic waves cannot propagate. Metals and
Earths ionosphere are such kind of media. In fact, the
electromagnetic response of metals in the visible and
near-ultraviolet regions is dominated by the negative
epsilon concept [1-3].
Although all our everyday transparent materials have both
positive and positive , from the theoretical point of view,
in a medium with and both negative, electromagnetic
waves can also propagate through. Moreover, if such
media exist, the propagation of waves through them
should give rise to several peculiar properties. This was
first pointed out by Veselago over 30 years ago when
no material with simultaneously negative and was
known [4]. For example, the cross product of
,
E and
,
H
for a plane wave in regular media gives the direction of
both propagation and energy flow, and the electric field
,
E , the magnetic field
,
H , and the wave vector
,
k form
a right-handed triplet of vectors. In contrast, in a medium
with and both negative,
,
E x
,
H for a plane wave still
gives the direction of energy flow, but the wave itself that
is, the phase velocity propagates in the opposite direction,
i.e., wave vector
,
k lies in the opposite direction of
,
E x
,
H for propagating waves. In this case, electric field
,
E,
magnetic field
,
H, and wave vector
,
k form a left-handed
triplet of vectors.
Such a medium is therefore termed left-handed medium
[5]. In addition to this left-handed characteristic, there
are a number of other dramatically different propagation
characteristics stemming from a simultaneous change of
the signs of and , including reversal of both the Doppler
shift and the Cerenkov radiation, anomalous refraction,
and even reversal of radiation pressure to radiation
tension. However, although these counterintuitive
properties follow directly from Maxwells equations,
which still hold in these unusual materials. Such type of
left-handed materials have never been found in nature
but such media can be prepared artificially, they will
offer exciting opportunities to explore new physics and
potential applications in the area of radiation-material
interactions. Following the suggestion of Pendry, Smith
and co-workers reported that a medium made up of an
array of conducting nonmagnetic split ring resonators
and continuous thin wires can have both an effective
negative permittivity and negative permeability
for electromagnetic waves propagating in some
special direction and special polarization at microwave
frequencies [5]. This is the first experimental realization
of an artificial preparation of a left-handed material,
where on the one hand, the permittivity of metallic
particles is automatically negative at frequencies less
than the plasma frequency, and on the other hand, the
effective permeability of ferromagnetic materials for
electromagnetic waves propagating in some particular
direction and polarization can be negative at frequency
in the vicinity of the ferromagnetic resonance
frequency, which is usually in the frequency region
of microwaves. However this configuration exhibit
chirality and a rotation of the polarization so the
analysis of metamaterial presented by several authors
provides a good but not exact characterization of the
metamaterial [6]. The evidence of chirality behavior
suggests that if it is included in the conditions to obtain
a metamaterial behavior of a medium futher progress
will be obtained. In this short paper, we propose to
investigate the conditions to obtain a metamaterials
having simultaneously negative and negative and very
low eddy current loss. As a initial point, we considerer
a media where the electric polarization
,
P depends not
only on the electric field
,
E, and the magnetization
,
M
depends not only on the magnetic field
,
H, and we may
have, for example, constitutive relations given by the
Born-Federov formalism [7].

,
,
,
,
,
,
D r E r T E r ( , ) ( )( ( , ) ( ) ( , )) + (1)

,
,
,
,
,
,
B r H r T H r ( , ) ( )( ( , ) ( ) ( , )) + (2)
H. Torres-Silva: Chiral waves in a metamaterial medium
121
The pseudoscalar T represents the chirality of the
material and it has length units [7]. In the limit T 0,
the constitutive relations (1) and (2) for a standard linear
isotropic lossless dielectric with permittivity and
permeability are recovered.
According to Maxwells equations, electromagnetic
waves propagating in the direction of magnetization
in a homogeneous magnetic material is either positive
or negative transverse circularly polarized. If the
composite can truly be treated as a homogeneous
magnetic system in the case of grain sizes much
smaller than the characteristic wavelength, electric
and magnetic fields in the composite should also be
either positive or negative circularly polarized and can
be expressed as

,
,
E r t E e
j k z t

( , )
( ) ( )
0
0
(3)

,
,
H r t H e
j k z t

( , )
( ) ( )
0
0
(4)
where E E x y
0 0
( ) , and
,
,
)
,
E r t k E ( , ) , k

0
is the chiral wave number.
In this case of right polarized wave we can see that the
effective permittivity
p
and the effective permeability
p
are obtained from

,
, ,
,
,
,
D r e dr E r T xE e
jk z
jk
f
( , ) ( ( , ) )

+
+
+
zz
jk z
dr
k T Ee dr
,
,
,

+
+
( ) 1
(5)
with

p
k T
+
( ) 1
and k T
+
1.
Similary, we have

,
, ,
,
, ,
B r e dr H r e dr
jk z
eff
jk z
( , ) ( , )

+ +
(( ) ( , ) 1
+
+
k T H r e dr
jk z
,
, ,
(6)
with
p
k T
+
( ) 1 and where keff and are related
by k
eff p p
2 2
( ) . Equations (5) and (6) are exact
in principle assuming that nonlocal effects can be
neglected. This assumption is appropriate in many
cases. But in some cases, nonlocal effects can be
significant and cannot be neglected, as has been shown
in the past. In such cases, Eqs. (5) and (6) shall be not
exact. For simplicity, in this paper we have assumed
that nonlocal effects can be neglected and hence Eqs.
(5) and (6) shall be valid. In Eqs. (3 and (4) the sign of
the effective wave number can be positive or negative
depending on the product k
+
T and the energy flow. For
convenience we assume that the direction of energy
flow is in the positive direction of the z axis, but the
sign of k
eff
still can be positive or negative. In the case
of right polarization, if 1 k
+
T 0, the phase velocity
and energy flow are in the same directions, and from
Maxwells equation, one can see that the electric
,
E
and magnetic field and
,
H and the wave vector
,
k
eff
will
form a right-handed triplet of vectors. This is the usual
case for right-handed materials. In contrast, if k
+
T 1
the phase velocity and energy flow are in opposite
directions, and
,
E ,
,
H , and
,
k
eff
will form a left-handed
triplet of vectors. This is just the peculiar case for left
handed materials where the effective permittivity
eff

and the effective permeability
eff
are simultaneously
negative. So, for incident waves of a given frequency
v, we can determine whether wave propagation in the
composite is right handed or left handed through the
relative sign changes of k
eff
..
Based on Eqs. (5)-(6), we have computed T. and /
p
or
/
p
. versus /
P P
, as shown in Fig. 1 When . is very
close to
P P
, the value of T. is quite large, indicating
a strong spatial dispersion. Hence the singular point is
the very point of traditional limitation. However, with
/
P P
continuously increasing, the spatial dispersion
strength falls down very quickly. Therefore, if . is not
around
P P
, e.g. < 0 7 .
P P
or >1 3 .
P P
,
we need not take nonlinear terms into consideration at
all. Hence the strong spatial dispersion and nonlinearity
cannot put the upper limitation to chirality parameters
either.
122
0
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
1 2 3
Figure 1. The strength relationship of chirality and spatial
dispersion. T versus /
P P
The point of
/
P P
1 is singularity, corresponding
infinite spatial dispersion coefficient T. When
/
P P
>1, T becomes negative for keeping
the positive rotation term coefficients with
negative and .
CONCLUSIONS
From figure 1, it is clear that enhancing spatial dispersion
will not lead to strong chirality and will reach the traditional
limitation point. This is why we have never succeeded in
realizing strong chirality no matter how to improve the
asymmetry and spatial dispersion.
Fortunately, as pointed out earlier, the strong chirality
does not require strong spatial dispersion. Hence the
most important difference between strong and weak
chirality is that T. and . have opposite signs, which
necessarily leads to negative and . Here, . stands
for chirality and T. is the chiral coefficient of the first
order for spatial dispersion. Strong chirality roots
from using one type of spatial dispersion to get the
conjugate stereoisomer, or chirality. It is an essential
condition for supporting the backward eigenwave in
strong chiral medium.
In conclusion, a strong chiral medium behaves like
Veselagos medium. Under the weak spatial dispersion,
the energy is always positive for chiral medium. We
show that strong chirality does not equal strong spatial
dispersion, which occurs only around a singular point.
Even in this small region with very strong spatial
dispersion, the Pasteur model is meaningful. Neither
spatial dispersion nor energy will hinder chirality to be
stronger, but we cannot realize strong chirality only by
increasing the spatial dispersion. The necessary condition
of strong chiral medium is that the chirality and spatial
dispersion are of conjugated types. We remark that strong
chiral media have found wide applications in the negative
refraction and supporting of backward waves, useful in
metamaterial substrates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author acknowledges discussions with colleagues
in the school of electrical and electronic engineering
EIEE Universidad de Tarapac. This work have been
supported by the project N 8721-06 of the Universidad
de Tarapac.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Tretyakov, A. Sihvola, and L. Jylha. Photonics and
Nanostructures - Fundamentals and Applications.
Vol. 3, p. 107. 2005.
[2] M.M.I. Saadoun and N. Engheta. Theoretical study
of electromagnetic properties of non-local omega
media. Chapter 15. Progress in Electromagnetic
Research (PIER) Monograph series, vol. 9, A.
Priou, (Guest Editor), pp. 351-397. 1994.
[3] R.A. Shelby. Experimental verification of a
negative index of refraction. Science. Vol. 292
N 5514, pp. 77-79. 6 April, 2001.
[4] V.G. Veselago. The electrodynamics of substances
with simultaneously negative values of epsilon
and mu. Soviet Physics Uspekhi. Vol. 10 N 4,
pp. 509-514. 1968.
[5] D.R. Smith. Composite medium with simultaneously
negative permeability and permittivity. Phys. Rev.
Lett. Vol. 84 N 18, pp. 4184-4187. 1 May, 2000.
[6] D.R. Smith. Physical Review B. Vol. 65, p. 195104.
2002.
[7] H. Torres Silva. Chiro-Plasma Surface Waves.
Advances in complex Electromagnetic Materials,
Kruwer Academic Publishers. Netherlands, p. 249.
1997.
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INGENIARE INGENIARE

, en sus partes simtricas y antisimtricas.

) con el campo electromagntico; volvi sobre esta

contiene por construccin las derivadas

0 . Esto est plenamente de acuerdo con

es el tensor de campo electromagntico y j

. Las ecuaciones de Maxwell pueden ser

es la velocidad uniforme del

es el tensor del campo electromagntico

. Para obtener la ecuacin de onda

which can then be written as a total divergence

are the Ricci tensor, scalar

is known, then (9) is an equation for g

Let us present the introduced transformations in a more

, we obtain that any

is the dual feld strength tensor,

H. Torres-Silva: Maxwell equations for a generalised lagrangian functional

is a completely antisymmetric tensor of rank

whose covariant generalization is

= mu, where m is the rest

) is the simplest contravariant vector

and a suitable derivative

Eq. (20) can then be rewritten as

For a charge Q at the origin of the radius vector this

Integral (28) may be found in any textbook on the theory

Accordingly, the electric field due to a charge Q at the

which is nothing but the force law for which we were

. For the limit case

. This is all what Fock mentioned [7].

. We shall set up its algebraic

, into four second-order symmetric

. That is, for

separated into two groups: one

(and their derivatives)

, mixes the terms E

into the equations. This situation could

given in term of four second-order

is the totally anti-symmetric Levi-Civita symbol.

satisfy the following

(x). Greek indices run from 0 to 3,

it is easy to prove the following

the equations of motion [4]

. We impose that the congruence

satisfy the properties:

is the projector in the plane orthogonal to

will mix into the equations of motion the set of tensors

) with the set (D

). So, it is in this sense that

by means of two operators,

in terms of the Weyl tensor C

and its electric

given in terms of quadratic

. This is related to the lack of symmetry:

tensor has properties very similar indeed

and the tangent vector

, for instance, takes the form

, is the first part of the Maxwell stress tensor,

, is now the stress tensor due to presence of

=0. Using the

is the metric tensor and its elements are some

are basis vectors or tetrad felds, and these are

are basis vectors of the dual space or cotetrad

=diag (+1,1,1,1), and a Lorentz connection

. In terms of these quantities, we can defne