& 5647+674-5 ) / *4137-5

EI @A ?

F IEJE

E JAH AI
A H A @AI @ EJE I =NE =JEGKAI

  1 JH @K?JE

= FK HA =HGKAH =K ? KHI @AI ?D=FEJHAI @) = OIA @AI = = CEAI @ELAHIAI A JHA @AI @ =E AI L=HE I F=H ANA F A = H =FF=HEJE I KI @ELAHI @ CKEIA A JI @A = HA =JE @A +D=I AI K = IE E EJK@A A JHA = H I KJE @ GK=JE I @E HA JEA AI AJ  JK@A @A ?AHJ=E AI IKEJAI K HEGKAI A ?=I A F KI LE@A J AJ @ J DEIJ HEGKA A J E F HJ= ?A BKJ @A ?A B=EJ = F KI @E ?E A FAH?AL EH AIJ = GK=IE E@A JEJ @AI H C AI @A ?= ?K @= I 3 4 + R(X ) C (R, R) AJ? AI FHA EAHI ANA F AI = = CKAI JHELE=KN BKHA J JK@E I F=H /=KII LAHI & =EI E B= KJ =JJA @HA A E EAK eme @K '` IE ? A F KH GKA  IA JA = ?AIIEJ @A @ EJE I FH ?EIAI = JE @A B ?JE  K HEGKA = =EJ IAHLEH @A CKE@A AI = = CEAI FH ? @A JAI J= J ? A A LAHH= F KI E  ANF EGK AI ? A H IK J= J @A ANEIJA ?A @A ?AHJ=E AI >E A?JE I  AI EI HFDEI AI =O= J @AI ?=H=?J HEIJEGKAI HA =HGK=> AI @A F KI AI F H=JE I @K ?= ?K KIKA BKHA J C= A A J E JAHFH J AI ? A @AI B ?JE I =O= J ?AHJ=E AI FH FHE J I F=HJE?K E HAI E J HAII= JAI ?AIJ F=H AKH JK@A GKA KI = I ? A ?AH

EI @A ?

F IEJE

+ A = LK =K ?D=FEJHA $ K A F H=JE  AIJ K A =FF E?=JE (x, y ) f (x, y ) GKE @AKN > AJI A =II ?EA K JH EIE A 6 KJAB EI KJE EIA @= I  JK@A @AI IJHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI K A J=JE IF ?E= A C H= EI= J ?A A @AI GK=JHA F H=JE I E =CA F=H f @A (x, y ) IA JA x f y  AI E B H =JE?EA I @EIA J GKE I=CEJ @K A J=JE E N A F=H FF IEJE = J=JE FH N A KIKA A f (x, y ) AJ A  @A =FF E?=JE f AIJ A B=EJ ?D EIE F=H E K A FAJEJA EIJA @A IO > AI H=FFA = J AI F H=JE I KIKA AI  A F KI I KLA J + . . .  =E IE K A JA A =FF E?=JE IA JAH= F=H ANA F A : (x, y ) x y E =HHELA A A BH GKA A J GK KJE EIA J KJ IE F A A J AI ? LA JE I KIKA AI @ ?HEJKHA @AI I AI AJ @AI FH @KEJI ? A = LK F KH AI J=JE I @A ?= ?K @= I AI AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I @EJ GKA AIJ K A E @A ? F IEJE = = J @A E F @= I G IE E = F = G  A ?=I A F KI BH GKA J = E AIJ @EJA E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A 3K= @ AI A IA > AI I J @EIJE ?JI F=H A I KLA J @A E ANJAH A ?AIJ F=H ANA F A A ?=I @K FH @KEJ I?= =EHA =II ?E= J @AKN LA?JAKHI u AJ v A H A u v AJ F KI IF ?E= A A J IE JK@EA K A =FF E?=JE @A K E @= I E @EH= I KLA J GKA K AIJ K A IA > A @ F H=JAKHI K GKA K F HA IKH E

 ! 2H FHE J I @AI

EI @A ?

F IEJE

E J HAJ @AI EI @A ? F IEJE J= J @A FAH AJJHA @AI ?= ?K I = = CKAI =KN F H=JE I KIKA AI IAK AI AI EI FH IA J= J ?AHJ=E AI @AI FH FHE J I LE@A JAI @A =HEJD JEGKA I J KJE EI AI A FH=JEGKA +A I J @ ? ?AI FH FHE J I GKE J J @ C=C AI AJ =KNGKA AI =@ @AI I ? A A LAHH= F KI E @AI H=E I A A JI C H=KN FAH AJJA J = HI I KLA J @A @ @KEHA @=KJHAI FH FHE J I GKE A @ ? K A J ?AII=EHA A J - K ?AHJ=E IA I = EIJA GKE IKEJ AIJ @=E AKHI FJE = A

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

?AIJ @EHA GKA AI @ELAHIAI FH FHE J I @ AI I J E @ FA @= JAI K A E FAKJ AI F I I @AH J KJAI I=KB K A AJ GKA A ? KLHA  FAK FH I J KJ ?A GKE = J KC E J HAII= J F=H AI KJE EI=JAKHI 5 EJ @ ? K A E @A ? F IEJE K A =FF E?=JE @A E E @= I E  = FH FHE J @=II ?E=JELEJ  IE E JAH A IKH E ?AIJ @EHA GKA (x, y ) x y AIJ @EH= GKA AIJ =II ?E=JELA  K GKA A F II @A

(x, y, z ) E 3 , (x y ) z = x (y z ).
?A GKE E F EGKA GK FKEIIA HACH KFAH =H>EJH=EHA A J AI ?= ?K I F=HJEA I =E IE =@@EJE  H@E =EHA AJ = K JEF E?=JE I J =II ?E=JELAI =EI F=I = I KIJH=?JE E = @ELEIE FKEIGKA x (y z ) = x y + z = (x y ) z AJ GKA (x/y )/z = x/(y/z ) K> EA I KLA J @A JAH AI F=HA JD IAI @= I AI ?= ?K I KJE EI= J K A E =II ?E=JELA IE @EH= GKA AIJ ?

KJ=JELA  K GKA A F II @A = FH FHE J @A ?

(x, y ) E 2 , x y = y x.

KJ=JELEJ 

AI EI =II ?E=JELAI AJ ? KJ=JELAI KI I J AI F KI B= E E HAI =EI = LK =K FH ? @A J ?D=FEJHA K E F HJ= J ANA F A @A E ? KJ=JELA = K JEF E?=JE @AI =JHE?AI K A CH= @A FHK@A ?A IE F IA @= I @A JA I ?=I F KH A F=I IA =EIIAH A JH= AH @AI H ANAI @A ?= ?K @ALA KI E ? HHA?JI @EJ GKA e E AIJ K

A J AKJHA @A E  F KH =
x E, x e = e x = x.

IE

EJE e e e AJ e I J A J AKJHA =K F KI ,= I + 0 A J AKJHA F KH + AJ  AIJ A J AKJHA F KH @= I M2 (R) O2 = 0 1 0 AIJ A J AKJHA F KH + AJ I2 = AIJ A J AKJHA F KH 0 1

@ JHA B=?E A A J A =FF EGK= J = @ A JI AKJHAI GKE A FAKJ ANEIJAH GKK

@AKN  AIJ 0 0

5E = E F II @A K A J AKJHA e @EJ GKA x E F II @A K IO JHEGKA x F KH = E  IE x x = x x = e @ JHA ? A FH ? @A A J GKA x A FAKJ F II @AH GKK IAK IO JHEGKA IE = E AIJ =II ?E=JELA JA I KLA J x1 A IO JHEGKA @A x @= I ?A ?=I AJ =FFA A I KLA J = HI E LAHIA @A x ,= I + x AIJ A IO JHEGKA @A x F KH =@@EJE IE x = 0 1/x AIJ A IO JHEGKA @A x F KH = K JEF E?=JE AJ  = F=I @A IO JHEGKA @EJ GKA = E AIJ H CK E HA IE F KH J KJ a x AJ y @A E  a x = a y x = y AJ x a = y a x = y +AJJA FH FHE J @A IE F E ?=JE  AIJ A F=HJE?K EAH LH=EA F KH K A E =II ?E=JELA F KH =GKA A a F II @A K IO JHEGKA = FH FHE J = F KI E J HAII= JA ? ?AH = J @AKN EI @A ? F IEJE IKH A A A A IA > A E  AIJ = @EIJHE>KJELEJ IE AJ I J ?AI @AKN EI AIJ @EIJHE>KJELA IKH  @H EJA AJ C=K?DA IE F KH J KJ x y AJ z @A E E JAH AI @EJ GKA

x (y z ) = (x y ) (x z ) et (x y ) z = (x z ) (y z );
?AIJ ?AJJA FH FHE J GKE KIJE A AI ?= ?K I = C >HEGKAI KIKA I @A @ LA FFA A JI AJ B=?J HEI=JE I

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

F !

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI KIKA AI

 5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI
= B= = F KI =JKHA A @A C H= EIAH AI ?= ?K I KIKA I ? IEIJA K EH K A IA > A @K A K F KIEAKHI EI @A ? F IEJE L HE = J ?AHJ=E AI @AI FH FHE J I @ EAI F KI D=KJ @EJ = HI GKA A IA > A AIJ K E @K A ?AHJ=E A IJHK?JKHA AJ AI FH FHE J I GKE @ ELA J AJHA L HE AI I=FFA A J AI =NE AI @A = IJHK?JKHA =E IE = FDH=IA (E, , ) AIJ K = A=K IEC E A GKA AJ I J @AKN EI @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH E AJ GKA AI L HE A J K A ?AHJ=E A EIJA @A FH FHE J I GK ?AH= F KI >=I = JD HEA IA FH ??KFA = HI @A @AKN JOFAI @A GKAIJE I @ JAH E AH AI =KJHAI FH FHE J I GK FAKJ @ @KEHA AJ ? =IIE AH AI @E HA JI A IA > AI =O= J = A A IJHK?JKHA = LK =E IE =K ?D=FEJHA FH ? @A J ?AHJ=E I ANA F AI @A ?= ?K I L= => AI @= I J KI AI AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I F=H ANA F A A B=EJ GKA 0.v AIJ A LA?JAKH K  AJ A B=EJ GKA J KI AI AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I =O= J = A A @E A IE IA HAIIA > A J AIJ K ANA F A @A H IK J=J @A ? =IIE ?=JE GKE IAH= ? FH ?EI A J AJ @ JH  =K ?D=FEJHA '

5JHK?JKHA @A CH KFA
5 EJ E K A IA > A K E @K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A @EJ GKA (E, ) AIJ K CH KFA IE ?AJJA E AIJ =II ?E=JELA F II @A K A J AKJHA AJ IE J KJ A J @A E =@ AJ K IO JHEGKA ?AIJ @EHA GK = F KH J KJ x y AJ z @A E 

x (y z ) = (x y ) z =II ?E=JELEJ @A =
GKE ANEIJA K A J

E 

J e @A E JA GKA F KH J KJ x @A E A J x @A E  A IO JHEGKA @A x F KH 

xe=ex=x
AJ GKA F KH J KJ x @A E E ANEIJA K JA GKA

x x = x x = e.
5E @A F KI = E L HE A F KH J KJ x AJ y @A E 

xy =yx
@EJ GKA (E, ) AIJ K CH KFA ? K A J=JE =@@EJELA AJ A IO J x

?

KJ=JELEJ @A 

KJ=JEB K => EA @= I ?A ?=I KJE EIA I KLA J JHEGKA @A x I=FFA A I KLA J  FF I @A x AJ AIJ

(Z, +) K (R, +) (C , ) I J @AI ANA F AI LE@A JI @A CH KFAI => EA I ANAH?E?A JOFA !! E @EGKA AI OA I @A @ JHAH GKK A E JA A GKA x y = (x + y )/(1 + xy ) @ A A IA > A 1, 1 K A IJHK?JKHA @A CH KFA =EI E ANEIJA @AI CH KFAI @A JOFAI JH I L=HE I HA ? JHAH= =E IE A / JHEA =K ?D=FEJHA  @AI ANA F AI =JKHA I @A CH KFAI EI K A I KH?A E F HJ= JA @ANAH?E?AI JOFAI ? IEIJA JK@EAH AI FH FHE J I @K A IA > A  E K E E @A =JHE?AI AJ JHAH GKE B H A K CH KFA F KH = K JEF E?=JE 

! )


A=KN AJ ? HFI

5E K CH KFA => EA (E, ) AIJ K E @K A IA? @A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A J A  @EJ GKA (E, , ) AIJ K = A=K IE ?AJJA E AIJ =II ?E=JELA @EIJHE>KJELA 

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

F "

@H EJA AJ C=K?DA IKH = A J K EJ  )E IE (A, , ) AIJ K =

E AJ IE ANEIJA K A=K IE (x, y, z ) A3

A J AKJHA u F KH =

=FFA

x (y z ) = (x y ) z x (y z ) = (x y ) z xy=yx x (y z ) = (x y ) (x z ) (x y ) z = (x z ) (y z )
4 C AI @A ?= ?K  AJ

e A, x A, x e = e x = x x A, y A, x y = y x = e u A, x A, x u = u x = x
JA I KLA J 0A  A J AKJHA e @A = A=K (A, , ) F KH = E AJ 1A  A J K EJ AI A JI @A A =@ AJJ= J K IO JHEGKA F KH = E  I J @EJI E LAHIE> AI AJ A IO JHEGKA @A x I=FFA A = HI E LAHIA AJ AIJ J  A F KI I KLA J x1  = J=JE 1/x AIJ FH I?HEHA AJ x/y @ EJ AJHA HA F =? F=H x y 1 K y 1 x IKEL= J AI ?=I 5E @A F KI = E AIJ ? KJ=JELA = A=K AIJ @EJ ? KJ=JEB ,= I ?A @AH EAH JOFA @= A=K AI E@A JEJ I HA =HGK=> AI I J L= => AI =LA? @AI J=JE I ? LA => AI IE F IA 2A = 1A 1A AJ x2 = x x = F=H ANA F A (x y )2 = x2 y 2 2A x y J KJAB EI >EA @AI IKHFHEIAI HAIJA J F IIE> AI =E IE E ANEIJA @AI = A=KN 2A = 0A  AI IEJK=JE I KIKA AI @A ?= ?K ? HHAIF @A J @AI = A=KN ?AIJ A ?=I @A (Z, +, )  =EI F=I @A (N, +, ) ?=H (N, +) AIJ F=I K CH KFA K @A = A=K @AI F O AI R X ?AJJA @AH E HA FDH=IA AIJ K CH=LA =>KI @A = C=CA E B=KJ A B=EJ FH ?EIAH AI @AKN EI @A ? F IEJE KJE EI AI ,= I K = A=K =O= J =K E I @AKN A JI JHA =EI A J GKA 0A = 1A AJ GKA 0A = F=I @A IO JHEGKA F KH = E  5E J KI AI =KJHAI A JI @A A I J E LAHIE> AI JHAH= A ? =IIA GKA A IA > A @AI A JI K I A = A {0A } B H A K CH KFA F KH = E  @EJ = HI GKA (A, , ) AIJ K ? HFI AI H C AI @A ?= ?K @= I K ? HFI HAIIA > A J IK I= A J =KN H C AI @A ?= ?K @= I 4 K + F KH GK JA = HI AI EI AJ F=H AI IO > AI @=@@EJE AJ @A K JEF E?=JE H@E =EHA  K F=H @AI IO > AI O HAIIA > = J >A=K? KF e IA JA = HI   K K IO > A = = CKA O  . . .  AJ u  A J AKJHA F KH IA JA   K I . . .  1 O = ?AFA @= J A ? HA K A FH FHE J A J=EHA @A = K JEF E?=JE GKA ?AI @ EJE I A JH= A J F=I E ANEIJA @AI ? HFI ? KJ=JEBI  =EI AKH JK@A AIJ HEC KHAKIA A J D HI FH CH= A

1 I=CEJ A B=EJ @A ?A GK =FFA =EJ =KJHAB EI @AI = A=KN unitaires = @ EJE ?EA A =O= J ?D= C A A?JAKH IA AH= @ ? I @A ? ? KHI @=J= J @=L= J '' AI = A=KN KIGK ?AJJA @=JA A ? F HJ=EJ F=I ?AII=EHA A J @ A JI K EJ I AJ AI = C >HAI J=EA J @ ? J KJAI @AI = A=KN 

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

F #

" -IF=?AI LA?J HEA I = C >HAI

=@ EJE @AI AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I @ A =K FH ? @A J ?D=FEJHA IA C B=EJ =E IE I EJ (E, +) K CH KFA => EA K K ? HFI ? KJ=JEB 5E ANJAH A  J A . =FF E?=JE @A K E @= I E (x, y) x.y E  (E, +, .) AIJ K K AIF=?A LA?J HEA IE = H= EIA A = K A E @EJ GKA

(a K )(x, y E )(a.(x + y) = a.x + a.y) (a, b K )(x E )((a + b).x = a.x + b.x) (a, b K )(x E )(a(b.x) = (ab).x) (x E )(1K .x = x)

@EIJHE>KJELEJ @H EJA @EIJHE>KJELEJ C=K?DA FIAK@ =II ?E=JELEJ  1K AIJ A J K EJ 

,= I A ?=@HA @K FH CH= A FHA @ A C H= K C= 4 K + =EI J KI AI H IK J=JI @K ?D=FEJHA FH ? @A J I J A B=EJ LH=EI F KH K AIF=?A LA?J HEA IKH K ? HFI K ? KJ=JEB GKA ? GKA 5 EJ (E, +, , .) K A IA > A K E @A @AKN EI E JAH AI + AJ AJ @K A E ANJAH A . JA A GKA (E, +, .) I EJ K K AIF=?A LA?J HEA 5E = E L HE A =LA? = E + J KJAI AI FH FHE J I @A = IJHK?JKHA @= A=K I=KB ANEIJA ?A @K A J K EJ L EH JA FH ? @A JA @EJ GKA E AIJ K A K = C >HA IE AI EI L HE A J @A F KI

(a K )(x, y E )(a.(x y) = (a.x) y = x(a.y))?

F=JE>E EJ @AI FH @KEJI

5E @A F KI (E, +, ) AIJ K = A=K @EJ GKA = C >HA AIJ K EJ=EHA = LK =K FH ? @A J ?D=FEJHA GKA Mn (K, +, ., ) JH=EJ K A K = C >HA K EJ=EHA K =KJHA E F H J= J ANA F AI @= C >HA  = C >HA @AI A @ HFDEI AI IAH= @ @= I A FH ?D=E ?D=FEJHA

# 5 KI IJHK?JKHAI
7 I KI A IA > A F @K A IA > A E K E @K A IJHK?JKHA = C >HEGKA AIJ K A I KI IJHK?JKHA @A E  IE AIJ LE@A AJ IJ=> A F KH AI F H=JE I @A E O ? FHEI ?A AI ? ?AH = J ANEIJA ?A @ FF I I K @E LAHIAI ?AIJ @EHA GKA = HAIJHE?JE @AI EI F AIJ A ? HA E JAH A AJ GKA F K E @AI EI HAIJHAE JAI AIJ K A IJHK?JKHA @K A A JOFA GKA E )E IE F=H ANA F A @= I A ?=I @K A = C >HA E JHA B=?E A A J GKA ?A = HALEA J (a K )(x, y F )(x + y, x y, a.x F ) ?=H  FF I @A x AIJ (1).x @EH= IKEL= J AI ?=I GKA F AIJ K I KI = A=K K I KI AIF=?A LA?J HEA K A I KI = C >HA . . . @EIF IA I KLA J @A ?=H=?J HEI=JE I F KI H=FE@AI ? A = LK =K ?D=FEJHA FH ? @A J F KH GKA S I EJ K I KI AIF=?A LA?J HEA @A E E IK J GKE I EJ LE@A E ? KI @= I E AJ GKA F KH J KI x AJ y @A S AJ J KJ @A K =EJ x + y S ,A A A F KH GKA (G , ) I EJ K I KI CH KFA @A (G, ) E IK J GKA G I EJ LE@A E ? KI @= I G AJ GKA F KH J KI x AJ y @A G =EJ x y G  y @ IEC A  A J E LAHIA @A y F KH = E 

HFDEI AI
!  , EJE IC H= AI

IE J HAIIA I KLA J A = C >HA @AI =FF E?=JE I = = J @K A IJHK?JKHA CH KFA = A=K = C >HA . . .  LAHI K A =KJHA @A A A JOFA AJ FH IAHL= J AI F H=JE I 2 KI FH ?EI A J I EJ K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH E AJ K A E @A ? F IEJE

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

F $

E JAH A IKH F K A =FF E?=JE f @A E LAHI F AIJ =FFA A (E, ) LAHI = IJHK?JKHA (F, ) IE F KH J KJ (x, y ) E 2

HFDEI A @A = IJHK?JKHA

f (x y ) = f (x) f (y )
GK =FFA A F=HB EI @AI B H K AI @A JH= IF HJ @A IJHK?JKHA 7 ANA F A JOFEGKA AIJ =FF E?=JE x ex L HE AH= GKA ?AIJ K HFDEI A @A (R, +) LAHI (R, ) 2 KI C H= A A J IE F KIEAKHI EI E JAHLEA A J @AI B H AJHA L HE AI F KH J KJAI AI F H=JE I )E IE K HFDEI @A (E, +, ., ) LAHI (F, , ., )  F=H ? @EJ = J JEF E?=JE ANJAH A @AI @AKN = C >HAI AIJ K A =FF E?=JE f F KH J KI x AJ y @A E AJ J KJ a @A K K AI = = CKAI @ ELA J A @A K = C >HAI = = J E@A JEGKA A J = K @A E LAHI F JA A GKA

f (x + y) = f (x) f (y), f (a.x) = af (x), et f (x y) = f (x) f (y).

A J HFDEI A GKE IEC E A FAK FH I GKE HAIFA?JA = B H A AIJ I KLA J KJE EI ? A IK NA F KH @ IEC AH @AI =FF E?=JE I L HE = J ?AHJ=E AI FH FHE J I IKF F A J=EHAI 2=H ANA F A = LK GKA AI >E A?JE I @ HEL=> AI @ HEL A K A I=FFA =EA J @AI @E HFDEI AI ,= I ?A ?=I AI HFDEI AI GK LEA J @A @ EH I J A ? HA =FFA I @AI D HFDEI AI F KH LEJAH AI ? BKIE I =LA? @=KJHAI ?=I F IIE> AI AI HFDEI AI ? IAHLA J AI FH FHE J I = C >HEGKAI FAKJ JHAH F=H ANA F A GKA IE e AIJ A J AKJHA F KH @= I E AJ IE f AIJ K HFDEI A @A (E, ) LAHI (F, ) f (e) AIJ A J AKJHA @A F  K F KI FH ?EI A J @A f (E ) C H= IE E AIJ K A IJHK?JKHA @K ?AHJ=E JOFA AJ IE f AIJ K HFDEI A f (E ) L HE A F=H JH= IF HJ @A IJHK?JKHA AI A AI =NE AI GKA E ?AIJ A A K OA @A @ JHAH H=FE@A A J @= I ?AHJ=E I ?=I GKA ?AI =NE AI I J A A?JELA A J L HE I F=H K A IJHK?JKHA f (E )  =EI @ALE AH f AIJ = HI I KLA J ANJHA A A J @E ?E A  A H IK J=J A F KI FH ?EI @A ?A JOFA AIJ = ? IAHL=JE @AI I KI IJHK?JKHAI GKE IAH= LKA F KI E =FFA A EI HFDEI A @A (E, ) LAHI (F, ) F=H ANA F A K A >E A?JE f @A E LAHI F JA A GKA f I EJ K HFDEI A @A (E, ) LAHI (F, ) AJ GKA f 1 I EJ K HFDEI A @A (F, ) LAHI (E, ) A FH=JEGKA LAHH= GKA ?AJJA @AKNE A ? @EJE AIJ L HE A F KH AI IJHK?JKHAI KIKA AI @ I HI GKA f AIJ >E A?JELA 5E ANEIJA f EI HFDEI A @A (E, . . .) LAHI (F, . . .) @EJ GKA E AJ F I J EI HFDAI J KJ IA F=IIA = HI ? A IE F KL=EJ =K E I F KH AI EI ? ?AH AI E@A JE AH E AJ F ?AIJ ?A CA HA @=HCK A J GKE KIJE A AI = = CEAI @ J = F=H =K @ >KJ = LK F=H ANA F A =K ?D=FEJHA FH ? @A J ANEIJA ?A @K A >E A? JE A JHA + AJ K ?AHJ=E A IA > A @A =JHE?AI  =FF E?=JE GKE A L EA a + ib IKH a b = =JHE?A  E AIJ =EI @A JHAH GKE I=CEJ A B=EJ @K EI HFDEI A b a AJ E = FK AJHA KJE EI F KH @ AH K A @ EJE  @AI ? F ANAI AI HFDEI AI A JHA AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I J HA K K L ?=>K =EHA F=HJE?K EAH GKE IAH= @ J=E =K FH ?D=E ?D=FEJHA K A =FF E?=JE E =EHA AIJ K D HFDEI A @A K AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I ?AIJ @EHA K A =FF E?=JE f @K AIF=?A LA?J HEA E @= I K AIF=?A LA?J HEA F JA A GKA

(k K )(x, y E )(f (x + k y) = f (x) + kf (y))

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

F %

 @ JHA GKA ?AJJA K EGKA B H K A GKEL=KJ =KN @AKN HA =JE I @A JH= IF HJ @A IJHK?JKHA LKAI F KI D=KJ 5E E = F F=H A @A @ HFDEI A @A E  AI >E A?JE I E =EHAI I J =FFA AI @AI EI HFDEI AI AJ = HI JHA GKA J KJAI AI FH FHE J I = C >HEGKAI JA AI GKA = @E A IE  @A E AJ F I J AI A AI AJ AI A @ HFDEI AI >E A?JEBI I J @AI =KJ HFDEI AI A AI =FF E?=JE I E =EHAI @A E @= I K I J =FFA AI @AI B H AI E =EHAI

HFDEI AI AJ I KI IJHK?JKHAI
A=KN = C >HAI AJ?  = A JD H HFDEI A A @A

2 KH AI IJHK?JKHAI KIKA AI CH KFAI = JH= IF HJ IKEL= J I

E =CA AJ E =CA H ?EFH GKA @K A I KI IJHK?JKHA F=H K J @AI I KI IJHK?JKHAI

A H = EJ ?AJ ? AIJ F=I J KJ B=EJ HEC KHAKN E B=K@H=EJ F KJ J @EHA @= I ?D=GKA ?=I F=HJE?K EAH GKA IE F=H ANA F A (E, . . .) AJ (F, . . .) I J @AKN = C >HAI E1 AJ F1 @AKN I KI = C >HAI HAIFA?JELA A J @A E AJ F  AJ f K HFDEI A @= C >HAI A JHA 1 E AJ F = HI f (E1 ) AIJ K A I KI = C >HA @A F AJ f (F1 ) AIJ K A I KI = C >HA @A E  JH I A F=H ANA F A F KH = IJHK?JKHA @A CH KFA IE f : G H AIJ K H FDEI A @A CH KFAI (G, ) AJ (H, ) I J @AI CH KFAI @ A JI AKJHAI HAIFA?JEBI e1 AJ e2  AJ IE G1 AIJ K I KI CH KFA @A G f (G1 ) = {y H |x G1 , y = f (x)} AIJ LE@A E ? JEA J f (e1 ) = e2  AJ IJ=> A ?=H f (x)f (x )1 = f (xx 1 ) f J= J K HFDEI A H=EI AH=EJ @A A A AJ F KI IE F A A J F KH E =CA H ?EFH GKA f 1 (H2 ) @K I KI CH KFA @A H 1 AIJ A F=HJE?K EAH I KLA J ? @A F KH JHAH GKK A IA > A E AIJ K I KI CH KFA @A G F=H ANA F A @A @ JAH E AH K HFDEI A f @A G LAHI K CH KFA >EA ? K ? A (R, +) K (C , ) JA GKA E = f 1 (0) HALAHH= ?AJJA E@ A HI @A  JK@A @AI I KJE I @AI IOIJ AI E =EHAI D C AI E =CA AJ E =CA H ?EFH GKA @K I KI AIF=?A LA?J HEA F=H K A =FF E?=JE E =EHA I J @AI I KI AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I A F=HJE?K EAH JA 1 (f ) = f (E ) E =CA @A f  AJ Ker (f ) = f 1 {0}  O=K @A f  7 A JK@A F KI FH ?EIA @A ?AI JE I IAH= B=EJA =K FH ?D=E ?D=FEJHA

-NAH?E?AI
 4 ,= I N = I KIJH=?JE
= @ELEIE AIJ A A K A  E @A ? AIJ A A K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A F IEJE E JAH A -J @= I R ,= I 4

 5 EJ K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH G =II ?E=JELA JA A GKE ANEIJA K A J e G L HE = J x G x e = x AJ x G x G x x = e JHAH GKA (G, ) AIJ K CH KFA  ? A ?AH= F=H JHAH GKA F I= J y = e x = yx =e KJE EIAH= = HI z = (x ) F KH JHAH GKA x = y A F EAH= A K =HCK A J = = CKA F KH FH KLAH GKA x x = e

!   5 EJ (A, +, ) K = A=K JA GKA F KH J KJ x A

=EJ x x = x  @EJ GKA A AIJ K = A=K > A  JHAH GKA @= I A IAK 1A AIJ E LAHIE> A - ?= ?K = J @A @AKN = E HAI (x + x) (x + x) A @ @KEHA GKA F KH J KJ x @A A x + x = 0A ?= ?K = J = HI (x + y ) (x + y ) JHAH GKA A AIJ ? KJ=JEB

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI

F &

"   5 EJ (K, +, ) K ? HFI H I K@HA @= I K  GK=JE

E ? KA a AJ b ? IJ= JAI @A K AJ a = 0K

x + b = 0K =LA? x

#  

JHAH GKA A IA > A D @AI >HAI @ELEIE> AI F=H # @= I ?AIJ @EHA GKA D = {y Z | x Z, y = 5x} AIJ K I KI CH KFA @A (Z, +) 2 KHGK E AIJ ?A F=I K I KI = A=K @A (Z, +,)

6 !! 5 EJ
JHAH GKA th x AIJ K => EA

x+y 1 + xy AIJ K A E E JAH A IKH E =II ?E=JELA JHAH GKA =FF E?=JE f : x HFDEI A @A (R, +) LAHI (E, ) AJ A @ @KEHA GKA (E, ) AIJ K CH KFA
= E @A ? F IEJE @ EA IKH E = 1, 1 F=H x

y =

$ 

 F IA x y = x y 2 + 1 + y x2 + 1 JHAH GKA =FF E?=JE x sh x AIJ K EI HFDEI A @A (R, +) LAHI (R, ) AJ GKA (R, ) AIJ K CH KFA => EA
 F IA x y = xln y JHAH GKA = E AIJ K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH I = 0, + =II ?E=JELA AJ ? KJ=JELA JHAH GKA =FF E?=JE x ex AIJ K EI HFDEI A @A (R, +, ) LAHI (I, , ) AJ A @ @KEHA GKA (I, , ) AIJ K ? HFI ? KJ=JEB JHAH GKA A IA > A @AI I KI = C >HA @A Mn (K) =JHE?AI JHE= CK =EHAI IKF HEAKHAI @ H@HA n AIJ K A

% 

&   ' 

 K FAKJ JHA   5 EJ H A IA > A @AI =JHE?AI @A M2 (C) @A = B H A z1 z2 JHAH GKA (H, +, ) AIJ  H=FFA A GKA z AIJ A ? KCK @A z  z2 z1 K ? HFI ? KJ=JEB GK =FFA A A ? HFI @AI GK=JAH E I  F KHH= FA IAH 1 0 i 0 ANFHE AH AI =JHE?AI @A H =E@A @AI =JHE?AI I2 = I= 0 1 0 i 0 1 0 i J= AJ K =  1 0 i 0

& 5647+674-5 ) / *4137-5

2=

EI @A ?
  !

F IEJE
EI @A ?

E JAH AI
A H A @AI @

....................................... F 
EJE I =NE =JEGKAI

1 JH @K?JE 2H FHE J I @AI

F IEJE EI @A ? F IEJE

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI KIKA AI

 ! " #
5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI 5JHK?JKHA @A CH KFA ) A=KN AJ ? HFI -IF=?AI LA?J HEA I = C >HAI 5 KI IJHK?JKHAI

.................................... F !

HFDEI AI
! !
, EJE

............................................................ F #
IC H= AI

HFDEI AI AJ I KI IJHK?JKHAI

-NAH?E?AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F %

& 5647+674-5 ) / *4137-5

. H K =EHA

EI @A ?
, EJE

F IEJE
 
= @ A @K A =FF E?=JE f ? f : (x, y ) z = f ((x, y )) J A I KI @A E 2 @= I E GKE J KJ @EJ = HI GKA AIJ K A E

=FFA A E @A ? = = J @K FH @KEJ E F @= I G  = @ B H A E N A (x, y ) x f y

F IEJE

5 EJ E K A IA > A f K A =FF E?=JE ? KF A (x, y ) @A E =II ?EA f (x, y ) GK JAH= x y @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH E 
2

EJE

= EIJA B H A @K K F KIEAKHI A IA > AI AJ @K A  K @A F KIEAKHI E @A ? F IEJE @= I ?AI A IA > AI ?AIJ @EHA F=H ANA F A A JHEF AJ (E, , ) I=FFA A K A IJHK?JKHA

EJE

 !

, EJE  " @EJ GKK A E @A ? F IEJE  K GKA A F II @A = FH FHE J @=II ?E=JELEJ  IE

E JAH A

IKH E AIJ =II ?E=JELA

(x, y, z ) E 3 , x (y z ) = (x y ) z

@EJ GKK A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH E AIJ ?  K GKA A F II @A = FH FHE J @A ? KJ=JELEJ  IE

EJE

 #

KJ=JELA

(x, y ) E 2 , x y = y x

C=K?DA IE

EJE

 $

@EJ GKK A

AIJ @EIJHE>KJELA IKH K A

E  @H EJA AJ

(x, y, z ) E 3 , x (y z ) = (x y ) (x z )
AJ

(x, y, z ) E 3 , ( x y ) z = (x z ) (y z )

E JAH A

EJE

IKH E IE

 %

@EJ GKA e E AIJ

A J AKJHA F KH =

E @A ?

F IEJE

x E, x e = e x = x.
=LA? ?AJJA @ EJE E A FAKJ ANEIJAH =K F KI GKK A J AKJHA

 & 5E e AIJ A J AKJHA F KH = E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH E @EJ GKA x E = F KH IO JHEGKA y F KH = E  IE x y = y x = e  A F EA =KIIE A JAH A @ FF I F KH AI EI =II ?E=JELAI AJ ? KJ=JELAI AJ @ E LAHIA

EJE

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI B H K =EHA

5JHK?JKHAI AJ I KI IJHK?JKHAI KIKA AI

/H KFAI = , EJE A=KN ? HFI

F II @= J K A J AKJHA AJ JA A GKA J KJ 1 I KLA J x A IO JHEGKA @A x @= I ?A ?=I

 @EJ GKA = E K EJ E @K A IJHK?JKHA @A CH KFA  K GKA (E, ) AIJ K CH KFA IE AIJ K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH E =II ?E=JELA
A J F II @A K IO JHEGKA  JA

(G, ) AIJ @

? K CH KFA IE (x, y ) G2 x y G AJ IE

(x, y, z ) G3 , x (y z ) = (x y ) z, e G, x G, x e = e x = x et x G, x G, x x = x x = e.
@EJ GKA (G, ) AIJ K A J  A J AKJHA

, EJE 5E @A F KI = E AIJ ? CH KFA => EA  K ? KJ=JEB ,= I ?A ?=I

F=H 0G AJ A IO JHEGKA @A x F=H x

KJ=JELA JA BH GKA

=FFA A I KI CH KFA @K CH KFA (G, ) K I KI A IA > A G @A G G G GKE I EJ K CH KFA F KH = HAIJHE?JE @A G +A = GKEL=KJ A B=EJ  E LAHIA @A x AJ =

EJE

G AIJ LE@A AJ IJ=> A F KH AI F H=JE I AJ x x1 A A E F HJ= JA ?=H=?J HEI=JE IKEL= JA G G (G , ) I KI CH KFA @A (G, ) G = ?A GKE GKEL=KJ e G  (x, y ) G 2 , x y 1 G (R , )

3KA GKAI ANA F AI @A CH KFAI KIKA I (Z, +) (C, +) (R X , +) AJ? @A E LAHI E }, ) (R + , ) ({z C / |z | = 1}, ) ({f / f AIJ K A >E A?JE

@EJ GKA AI EI AJ K EIIA J A @K A IJHK?JKHA @= A=K  K GKA (A, , ) AIJ K = A=K IE (A, ) AIJ K CH KFA => EA @ J  A J AKJHA I=FFA A  A J K  K A H  @A A AJ IA JA I KLA J 0A  AJ IE AIJ K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH A =II ?E=JELA @EIJHE>KJELA @H EJA AJ C=K?DA IKH = E AJ F II @= J K A J AKJHA =FFA A J K EJ @A = A=K AJ I KLA J J 1A  5E @A F KI = E AIJ ? KJ=JELA @EJ GKA (A, , ) AIJ K = A=K ? KJ=JEB

EJE

"

A @A A GKE I EJ K = K EJ 
IO

EJE

=FFA A I KI = A=K @K = A=K (A, , ) K I KI A IA > A A=K F KH AI HAIJHE?JE I @A AJ A =LA? A A A A J

+A = GKEL=KJ 1A A AJ A IJ=> A F KH AI F H=JE I AJ x x  A JHEGKA @A x F KH = E  @ = ?=H=?J HEI=JE IKEL= JA A A 1 A A (A , , ) I KI = A=K @A (A, , ) (x, y ) A 2 , x (y ) A (x, y ) A 2 , x y A

3KA GKAI ANA F AI @= A=KN KIKA I (Z, +, ) (C, +, ) (R X , +, ) J KI AI = A=KN @=FF E?=JE I JA I GKA (C (R), +, ) AJ? ,=KJHAI ANA F AI I J B KH EI =KN ?D=FEJHAI % AJ ' = A=KN @A =JHE?AI AJ @=FF E?=JE I E =EHAI

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI B H K =EHA

F !

@EJ GKA (K, , ) AIJ K ? HFI IE (K, , ) AIJ K = IE J KI AI A JI K I @A K J K IO JHEGKA F KH = E ?AIJ (K {0K }, ) AIJ K CH KFA  F H=JE @A K

EJE

A=K AJ @EHA IE

EJE

@A IO

% 5E (K , , ) AIJ K I KI = A=K @K ? HFI (K, , ) IJ=> A F KH JHEA F KH = IA? @A E @EJ GKA (K , , ) AIJ K I KI ? HFI

+A = GKEL=KJ 1K K AJ K IJ=> A F KH AI F H=JE I x x AJ 1 x x  A IO JHEGKA @A x F KH = E  @ = ?=H=?J HEI=JE IKEL= JA K K 1K K (K , , ) I KI ? HFI @A (K, , ) (x, y ) K 2 , x (y ) K 1 (x, y ) K K , x y K  K = K {0K } + HFI KIKA I (Q, +, ) (R, +, ) (C, +, ) (R(X ), +, )

-IF=?AI LA?J HEA I = C >HAI , EJE & 5 EJ (E, +) K CH KFA => EA K K ? HFI . K A E @A ? F IEJE ANJAH A (, x) K E .x E @EJ GKA (E, +, .) AIJ K K AIF=?A LA?J HEA IE
(a, x, y) K E 2 , a.(x + y) = a.x + a.y (a, b, x) K 2 E, (a + b).x = a.x + b.x (a, b, x) K 2 E, a(b.x) = (ab).x x E, 1K .x = x
@EIJHE>KJELEJ @H EJA @EIJHE>KJELEJ C=K?DA FIAK@ =II ?E=JELEJ  1K AIJ A J K EJ  

=FFA A I KI AIF=?A LA?J HEA  @A (E, +, .) (E, +, .) AIJ K K AIF=?A LA?J HEA K I KI A IA > A LE@A @A E IJ=> A F KH AI @AKN EI

EJE

'

S E S = ?A GKE GKEL=KJ 0E S  S AIJ K I KI AIF=?A LA?J HEA @A (E, +, .) (, x, y) K S 2 , x + .y S

5 EJ (A, +, .) K K AIF=?A LA?J HEA AJ K A E @A ? F IEJE E JAH A IKH A (A, +, ., ) AIJ K A K = C >HA IE AIJ =II ?E=JELA @EIJHE>KJELA  @H EJA AJ C=K?DA IKH + AJ IE

= E F HJ= JA ?=H=?J HEI=JE

IKEL= JA

EJE



(, x, y) K A2 , .(x y) = (.x) y = x (.y) ?

5E @A F KI (A, +, ) AIJ K = A IA > A A=K

F=JE>E EJ @AI FH @KEJI

@EJ GKA = C >HA AIJ K EJ=EHA

EJE

=FFA A I KI = C >HA @K A K = C >HA (A, +, ., ) K I KI LE@A @A A IJ=> A F KH AI JH EI EI IKEL= JA



= = ?=H=?J HEI=JE

A AIJ K A I KI = C >HA @A (A, +, ., )

A A A = ?A GKE GKEL=KJ

2

0A A 

(, x, y) K A , x + .y A 2 (x, y) A , x y A

5JHK?JKHAI = C >HEGKAI B H K =EHA

F "

HFDEI AI
AIJ K

EJE !  5 EJ (G, ) AJ (H, ) @AKN CH KFAI f =FF E?=JE HFDEI A @A CH KFAI IE
(x, y ) G2 , f (x y ) = f (x) f (y );
JHA =EI

@A G LAHI H

A J GKA ?A = E F EGKA GKA f (eG ) = eH AJ f (x1 ) = (f (x))1

5E f : G H AIJ K HFDEI A @A CH KFAI AJ G AJ H @AI I KI CH KFAI HAIFA?JE LA A J @A G AJ @A H f (G ) AIJ K I KI CH KFA @A H AJ f 1 (H ) AIJ K I KI CH KFA @A G

B AIJ K

EJE

! 5 EJ (A, +, ) AJ (B, , ) @AKN = A=KN f =FF E?=JE HFDEI A @= A=KN IE

(x, y ) A2 , f (x + y ) = f (x) f (y ) et f (x y ) = f (x) f (y )

@A A LAHI

5E f : A B AIJ K HFDEI A @= A=KN AJ A AJ B @AI I KI = A=KN HAIFA?JE LA A J @A A AJ @A B f (A ) AIJ K I KI = A=K @A B AJ f 1 (B ) AIJ K I KI = A=K @A A

, EJE ! ! 5E (E, +, .) AJ (F, +, .) I f : E F AIJ K A =FF E?=JE E =EHA IE

J @AKN K AIF=?AI LA?J HEA I

@EJ GKA

(, x, y) K E 2 , f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y).
5E f : E F AIJ K A =FF E?=JE E =EHA AJ S AJ S @AI I KI AIF=?AI HAIFA?JELA A J @A E AJ @A F f (S ) AIJ K I KI AIF=?A @A F AJ f 1 (S ) AIJ K I KI AIF=?A @A

E f : E F AIJ K LAHI (F, +, .) AJ IE

EJE

! "

5E (E, +, ., ) AJ (F, +, ., ) I J @AKN K = C >HAI @EJ GKA HFDEI A @= C >HAI IE f AIJ K A =FF E?=JE E =EHA @A (E, +, .)

(x, y) E 2 , f (x y) = f (x) f (y).

,= I AI GK=JHA ?=I FH ? @A JI IE f AIJ @A F KI >E A?JELA @EJ 1 HFDEI A AJ @ JHA = HI GKA f AIJ =KIIE K EI HFDEI A

GKA f AIJ K EI

EJE

! #