EL PROBLEMA DE LOS CUERPOS RIGIDOS

3.1
EL PROBLEMA DE LOS CUERPOS RIGIDOS

• el problema de los cuerpos rigidos: objetos de dos puntos en

3D que interactuan en tre si (Sistema cerrado)

• la interaccion entre los objetos dependen solo de la distancia

entre ellos

• el numero de grados de libertad: 6

• dimensiones del espacio fase: 12

 3.1
EL PROBLEMA DE LOS CUERPOS RIGIDOS

• el lagraniano del Sistema en coordenadas cartesianas

3 2 m j (rij ) 2  3 
L   V   (ri1  ri 2 ) 
2

2  
i 1 j 1  i 1 

 
 2  2
m1 (r1 ) m2 (r2 )   2
  V (r1  r2 )
2 2
• es un problema no muy trivial si intentamos tartar con el
lagrangiano en este formato: todas las 6 coordenadas
independientes en la function potencial

• busquemos un espacio de configuracion diferente

 3.1
Nuevas coordenadas generalizadas

• introduzcamos Nuevo Sistema de coordenadas:

 
    m1r1  m2 r2
r  r1  r2 ; R 
m1  m2
• R-centro del vector de masa
 
 m2 r
• entonces r1  R 
m1  m2
 
 m1r
r2  R 
•y m1  m2
 2  2
 2   m2 r   2  
 m1r 

(r1 )   R   ; (r2 )   R 
 


 m1  m 2   m1  m 2 
 3.1
Nuevas coordenadas generalizadas
• el lagrangiano en las nuevas coordenadas:

 
 2  2
m1 (r1 ) m2 (r2 )   2
L   V (r1  r2 )
2 2
 2  2
  m2 r 
   m1r 

m1  R   m2  R  
  m1  m2 
2
  m1  m2 
2

 V (r )
2

 
 2    2  2  
m1 ( R) m1m2 Rr m1 m2 r m2 ( R) m1m2 Rr
    
2 m1  m2 2(m1  m2 ) 2
2 m1  m2
   2  2  2
(m1  m2 )( R ) m1m2 (r )
V  r   V  r 
m2 m1r  
 
2(m1  m2 ) 2
2 2(m1  m2 )
 3.1
Nuevas coordenadas generalizadas
• The Lagrangian in the new coordinates:
 2  2
(m1  m2 )( R) m1m2 (r )
V  r 

L 
2 2(m1  m2 )
• The center of mass coordinates are cyclic!

• Three Euler-Lagrange equations for them can be

solved immediately
L d  L  L
    const  (m1  m2 ) R i  Pi
Ri dt  R i  R i
• Total momentum of the system is conserved: three
integrals of motion
 3.1
New generalized coordinates
• The Lagrangian in the new coordinates:
 2  2
(m1  m2 )( R) m1m2 (r )
V  r 

L 
2 2(m1  m2 )
2  2
( P) m1m2 (r )
V  r 

 
2(m1  m2 ) 2(m1  m2 )
• Let’s re-gauge the Lagrangian
2  2
( P) m1m2 (r )
V  r 

L'  L  
2(m1  m2 ) 2(m1  m2 )

• Constant term
 3.1
New generalized coordinates
• The re-gauged Lagrangian:
 2  2 m1m2
m1m2 (r ) m( r )
V  r   V  r 
  m
L' 
2(m1  m2 ) 2 m1  m2
• We reduced the two-body problem to a one-body
problem in a central potential (potential that depends
only on the distance from the origin)

• m: reduced mass

• The number of degrees of freedom: 3

• Phase space dimensions: 6

 8.1
Spherical coordinates
 2 2 2 2
m( r )  m(rx  ry  rz )
V  r    V  rx  ry  rz 
2 2 2
L' 
2 2  
• Central potential is spherically symmetric

• It is convenient to work in spherical coordinates

rx  r sin  cos  ; ry  r sin  sin  ; rz  r cos 

r  

m(r  r   r sin   )
 2 2 2 2 2  2

• Then L'   V (r )
2
 3.2
Spherical coordinates
L'  m(r  r   r sin   ) / 2  V (r )
2 2 2 2 2  2

• The Euler-Lagrange equation for φ

d  L'  L' L'
    r m sin    p  const
2 2

dt     
p
• The φ coordinate is cyclic  2

r m sin 2 
• Since the system is spherically symmetric, we have
a freedom of choosing the reference frame

• We chose it as follows: the initial velocity vector

belongs to a plane φ = const

• Then 0  0  p  0   0

 3.2
Spherical coordinates
L'  m(r  r   r sin   ) / 2  V (r )
2 2 2 2 2  2

• The Euler-Lagrange equation for θ

d  L'  L'
 
dt    
• The θ coordinate is also cyclic

• Momentum conjugate to the θ coordinate

L
p    r 2 m  const

• Angular momentum in the plane of motion relative
to the origin is conserved

r 2 m  rmr  rmv  rp  const

 3.2
Spherical coordinates 8.1

L'  m(r  r   r sin   ) / 2  V (r )

2 2 2 2 2  2

• The Euler-Lagrange equation for r

d  L'  L' V (r )
  m r  rm 
 2

dt  r  r r
• Momentum conjugate to the r coordinate
L'
pr   mr
r
• Now we can write a Hamiltonian
1  p
2

H  pr r  p   p  L'   pr  2   V ( r )
2 
2m  r 
 3.2
The effective potential
2 2
pr p
H  2
 V (r ) p  const
2m 2mr 2
p
• The effective potential Veff ( r )  2
 V (r )
2mr
• The Hamiltonian effectively depends only on 1
coordinate now

• We reduced the two-body problem to a 1D problem

of a particle with a reduced mass m in the effective
potential

• The number of degrees of freedom: 1

• Phase space dimensions: 2

 3.2
The effective potential
2 2
pr p
H  2
 V (r )  E
2m 2mr
• Hamilton equations of motion:
H pr  H p
2
dV
r   p r    3 
pr m r mr dr
H p H

  p    0
p mr 2

dH H
 0 H  const  E
dt t
 p
2

rm  pr  2m E  2
 V ( r ) 
 2mr 
 3.2
The orbit equation dr 3.5

dt 
2 
2
p 2  p
2

r  E   V ( r )  E   V ( r ) 
 
m  
2
m 2mr  2mr 2

• On the other hand
p mr 2 d dr
 2

mr 2
d 
mr dt  p
p 2  p
2

E   V ( r ) 
• Orbit equation m  2mr 2 

r
p dr
  0  
r0  p
2

r 2
2m E  2
 V (r ) 
 2mr 
 3.5
The orbit equation
r
p dr
  0  
r0  p
2

r 2
2m E  2
 V ( r ) 

 2 mr 
• The orbit equation can be integrated for potentials
with the power dependence on the distance
V (r )  ar n

If n = 2, - 1, - 2, the integral can be expressed in

trigonometric functions

• If n = 6, 4, 1, - 3, - 4, - 6, the integral can be

expressed in elliptic functions
 3.5
The orbit equation
• From Hamilton’s equations of motion:
2
p pr p dV
 2
 r  p r  r
 m p r  3
  rm
mr m mr dr
2
1 p 1 p 1 dV
 r  2 3 
dt mr d 2
mr m dr
2
d  dr  p d  p dr  p 1 dV
   2  2 3 
dt  dt  mr d  mr d  m r
2
m dr
2
d  1 dr  1 mr dV
 2   2
d  r d  r p dr
• If the orbit is known, the potential can be calculated
 Example
• Restore a potential for a spiral orbit:

r  r0 e
2
d  1 dr  1 mr dV
 2   2
d  r d  r p dr

1  1
 e   
m r0 e  
 2
dV 1 1 mr 2 dV
   2
r0 r0 e p
2
dr r r p dr
2 2 2
dV 2 p 2 p dr p
 V   V0  V0  2
dr mr 3 mr 3
mr
 3.6
Stable circular orbits
• For a circular orbit: r  const r  0
H pr  pr  0
• On the other hand r  
pr m
2
H p dV
2
p dV
p r    3 0 3

r mr dr mr dr
• For the extremum of the effective potential
2
d  p 
2
p dV (r )
  V ( r )   0  3 0
dr  2mr 2 
 mr dr
• Extremum of the of the effective potential
corresponds to a circular orbit
 3.7
The Kepler problem
1
• Kepler potential: V (r )  r
• Mediating gravitational and electrostatic
Johannes Kepler
interactions (1571-1630)
k
• Attraction: V (r )   ; k  0
r
• Repulsion: k
V (r )  ; k  0
r
• Integral orbit equation:
p dr
  0  
 p
2
k
r 2
2m E  2
 
 2mr r
 3.7
The Kepler problem
k
• Let us consider an attractive potential: V (r )  
r
p dr
  0   k 0
 k p 
2
1
r 2
2m E   
2 
u
 r 2 mr  r
du 2mE
  0    2
2
2m( E  ku ) / p  u 2
p
• Table integral:

du 2u   2mk
 2
   u  u 2
 arccos
  4
2 p
 3.7
The Kepler problem 2mk
2u  2
p
   0  arccos
2
up
2  2mk  2mE
1  2  4 2
km  p  p
   0  arccos    
2
2 Ep
1 2
2
mk 2
2 Ep up 1
1 1 cos(   0 )  u 
mk 2 km r

km  2 Ep
2  1
1  1  cos(   ) 
2
p  mk 2 0
 r

 3.7
The Kepler problem
km

1 km  2 Ep
2  C
 2 1 1 cos(   )  p
2

r p  mk 2 0

  2
2 Ep
1 1 e
 C 1  e cos(   0 )  mk 2
r
• We obtained an explicit expression for the orbit

• Depending on the values of C and e, the orbits can

assume qualitatively different shapes

• For a positive C (attraction), the shapes of the orbits

represent all possible conic sections
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7

• Effective potential for the attractive Kepler case:

2
p k
Veff (r )  2

2mr r
2
p k
Veff (0)  2
  
2 m0 0
2
p k Veff (0)  
Veff (r )  0 2

2mr r
2  p 2 
r
p Veff    Veff     0
r 2 km 
2km  
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7

• Effective potential for the attractive Kepler case:

p
2
k k 2m
Veff (r )  2
 Veff (rmin )   2
2mr r 2 p

• Minimum point of the effective potential

2 2
dVeff (r ) p k p
0  3  2  0 rmin 
dr mr r km
2
p k 2
k m k m 2 2
k m
Veff (rmin )  2
   2 
2mrmin rmin 2 p
2
p 2 p
2
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7

• Effective potential for the attractive Kepler case:

p
2
k k 2m
Veff (r )  2
 Veff (rmin )   2
2mr r 2 p
1
 C 1  e cos(   0 ) 
r
• The simplest case e  0
1 1
• Circular orbit C r
r C
2
2 Ep
2 k m
e  1  0 E 2
 V eff ( rmin )
mk 2 2 p
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7

• Circular orbit e0

2
1 p k m 2
r  E
C km 2 p
2

• Circle is one of conic sections

 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7

1 rx
• If e  0  C 1  e cos(   0 )  cos(   0 ) 
r r
1  rx  1
 r 1  e   r  erx r   erx  h  erx
C  r C
2 2
rx  ry  r  h  2erx h  e rx
2 2 2 2 h
a
2 2 1 e 2
(1  e )rx  2erx h  ry  h
2 2

2 2
 2 
2 eh
1 e   2
eh   1  e  2  rx 0
   rx  2 
 ry  1 1  e 2

 h   1  e   h 
  h
 rx  rx 0 
2
 r 
2
 b
      1
y
1  e 2

 a  b
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s 2
orbits 3.7
2
 rx  rx 0   ry 
      1 h
b
• If 0  e 1  a   b  1  e2
2
• Then 1 e 2
is real and b is positive

• The orbit is an ellipse with its center shifted from

the origin by rx 0 and two semi-major axes a and b

• Ellipse is also a conic section

 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s 2
orbits 3.7
2
 rx  rx 0   ry 
      1 V (r mk 2
min )  
 a  b eff
2 p
2

2 2
2 Ep mk
0  e 1 0  1 2
1  2
E0
mk 2 p
Veff (rmin )  E  0
• Elliptic motion is limited by two
values of r Aphelion
Perihelion
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s 2
orbits 3.7
2
 rx  rx 0   ry 
      1
 a  b
h h a 2
 b 2
 a b e
1 e 2
1 e 2
a
• This parameter is known as an eccentricity of an
ellipse
eh h
 rx 0 a  rx 0 
1 e 2
1 e
• For a constant energy, perihelion
is decreasing with increasing eccentricity
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
22 22
 rxx  rxx 00   ryy 
       1 h
b
• If e 1  a   b'  1  e2
2
• Then 1 e 2
is imaginary and b is negative

• The orbit is a hyperbola b  ib'

• Hyperbola is a conic section as well
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7

2 2
 rx  rx 0   ry 
      1
 a   b' 
2
e 1 2 Ep
1 2
1 E0
mk
• Hyperbolic motion is limited by one
value of r - perihelion
 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
2 2
(1  e )rx  2erx h  ry  h
2 2

• Finally, if e  1
2
h ry
• Then
2
2rx h  ry  h 2
rx   
2 2h
• The orbit is a parabola with its center shifted from
the origin by h / 2

• Parabola is a conic section

 3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
2
h ry
rx   
2 2h
2
e 1 2 Ep
1 2
1 E0
mk
• Parabolic motion is also limited by one value of r -
perihelion
Synopsys for orbit classification
 3.8
Motion in time dr
dt 
• In Kepler’s case: 2  p
2

r
dr E   V ( r ) 
t m  2mr 2 

2 k
2
r0 p
E   
m  2mr 2 r  2
k 2 Ep
• Substitution: r  (1  1  2
cos )
2E mk
 a(1  e cos )
3
ma ma 3
t
k 0 (1  e cos )d  k (  e sin )
ma 3
• For ψ = 2π (one period): t    2
k
 3.8
A bit of history: Kepler’s laws

Tycho Brahe/ Johannes Kepler

Tyge Ottesen (1571-1630)
Brahe de Knudstrup
(1546-1601)
• First law: “The planets move in elliptical orbits with
the sun at one focus”
2
 mk / 2 p  E  0
2
0  e 1
 3.8
A bit of history: Kepler’s laws
• Second law: “The radius vector to a planet sweeps
out area at a rate that is independent of its position in
the orbit” dA  d 
dA  r (rd  ) / 2  r r /2
dt  dt 
A    p  const
2 
r
2 m
p  r 2 m  const
• Third law: “The square of the period of an orbit is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis
length”
ma 3 4 2 ma 3
 2 2 
k k