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INTRACELULAR Y
SU FUNCIÓN
COMPARTIMENTALIZACIÓN CELULAR
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DIFERENTES TIPOS DE CÉLULAS
SISTEMA DE MEMBRANAS
CITOPLASMÁTICAS: ESTRUCTURA FUNCIÓN
Y TRÁFICO DE MEMBRANA
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Sistema de endomembranas
*Mitocondrias y cloroplastos
• vesícula de transporte
• se fusiona a la membrana de un
compartimento diferente
Vías en citoplasma
• Vías biosintéticas,
• proceso en el cual se sintetizan materiales en RE,
• se modifican durante su paso por el AG y
• se transportan a diferentes destinos (membrana plasmática,
lisosomas o vacuolas)
• Vía secretora,
• los productos biosintetizados en RE y AG se destinan a ser
secretados hacia afuera de las células
• En la secreción regulada
• Liberación regulada de
Ca++ del REL
desencadena
respuestas específicas
estimulada por
impulso nervioso
• Bomba de Ca++ATP
secuestra calcio del
citoplasma
• Regulación de canales
de calcio cuando
existe baja [Ca++]
Funciones de REL
Funciones de REL
• Las proteínas del REL varían según la
función celular
• Biosítesis de lípidos
Síntesis de fosfoglicéridos
Enzimas en la cara citoplásmica
producen cerca de 10 millones de
fosfoglicéridos/seg/cél. Iniciciando a
partir de glicerrol 3 fosfato y dos
ácideos grasos, posteriormente se le
agregan las cabezas hidrofílicas por
enzímas específicas.
Glycerophospholipid synthesis. Phospholipids are predominantly formed
in the cytosolic leaflet of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane.
PtdOH is the first phospholipid made. It is either modified to produce
CDP-DAG, the precursor of PtdIns, or dephosphorylated to produce
DAG, the precursor of PtdCho, PtdSer, and PtdEtn. Notably, PtdCho
and PtdEtn can additionally be synthesized outside of the ER. PtdCho is
also made in the Golgi complex, and PtdEtn is also produced in the
mitochondrial inner membrane. BMP/LBPA is not included in the
diagram because its biosynthetic components have not been
determined. The schematics representing the phospholipids illustrate
major functional groups rather than complete molecular structures.
Noncylindrical phospholipids are outlined with triangles in the legend.
The direction of the triangle indicates whether they are conical or
inverted conical structures. The glycerol kinase pathway is traditionally
considered only a minor source of glycerol 3-phosphate. GK, glycerol
kinase; GPDH, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; DHAP,
dihydroxyacetone phosphate; G3P, glycerol 3-phosphate; GPAT,
glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase; LPAAT, lysophosphatidic acid
acyltransferase; CoA, coenzyme A; NAD+, nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide; PAP1, phosphatidic acid phosphatase 1; CDS, CDP-DAG
synthase; CTP, cytidine triphosphate; CDP, cytidine diphosphate; CMP,
cytidine monophosphate; PIS, PtdIns synthase; CK, choline kinase; CT,
choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase; CEPT,
choline/ethanolaminephosphotransferase; PSS, PtdSer synthase; EK,
ethanolamine kinase; ET, ethanolamine-phosphate cytidylyltransferase;
EPT1, ethanolaminephosphotransferase 1; CPT1,
cholinephosphotransferase; IMS, intermembrane space; PSD, PtdSer
decarboxylase.
• Biosítesis de lípidos
Síntesis de colesterol
• Enzimas citoplasmáticas y de REL catalizan la síntesis del
colesterol (22 pasos)
• Iniciando con acetil Co-A
• Metabolito intermediario geranilo pirofosfato consiste en
dos grupos de isopentilo (5 carbonos). Precursores de
feransilo y geranilgeranilo (precursores de moleculas de
anclaje de proteínas periféricas como Ras y Rab
• Mecanismos de retroalimentación negativa controlan el
contenido de colesterol en RE.
Biosíntesis de
membranas del RE
• Se originan de membranas preexistentes
RER
RETICULO ENDOPLASMICO RUGOSO
Targeting of RNCs to the Sec61 complex. The mRNAs encoding proteins with ER signal sequences may be targeted to the vicinity of the
RER by a translation-independent mechanism and bind to a currently unidentified mRNA-binding protein (mRNA-BP). The SRP particle
binds to the 80S ribosome and mediates targeting to the ER via interaction with SRα. Cooperative GTP binding to SRP54 and SRα leads
to dissociation of SRP from the RNC and attachment of the RNC to the Sec61 complex. Signal sequence insertion into the SSB site gates
the translocation channel. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2013 Feb; 5(2): a013342. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a013342
Posttranslational translocation pathway in yeast. (A) A diagram of the yeast Sec62/Sec63
complex. (B) Posttranslational translocation through the SEC complex. Fungi-specific
subunits (Sec66 and Sec71) are not shown for clarity. Substrate delivery to the
Sec62/Sec63 complex by Hsc70 precedes signal sequence insertion into the SSB site.
BiP is recruited to the SEC complex by the lumenal J-domain of Sec63. BiP binding to
substrates promotes posttranslational translocation.
Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2013 Feb; 5(2): a013342. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a013342
Importación de proteínas solubles al RER
Síntesis de proteínas integrales
Síntesis de proteínas ancladas a lípidos
Glucosilación en RER
Muchas de las proteínas sintetizadas en RER se
transforman en glucoproteínas
• glucosilación de tipo O (CHOS unidos al O de la serina,
treonina o hidroxicolina
• glucosilación tipo N (CHOS unidos al N de un residuo de
aspargina)
This figure highlights similarities
between the biosynthetic pathways
of N-linked glycosylation in archaea
(a) compared to eukarya (b) and
bacteria (c). The elongation steps
flagged in yellow in (b) do not have
counterparts in (a) and (c).
SCR
DEL RE AL AG
• Del RE al AG: el primer paso es el transporte vesicular
• Existen sitios en RER en los cuales se fusionan vesículas de
transporte en vesículas más grandes.
• Las vesículas de transporte al fusionarse entre sí forman el
ERGIC compartimento intermedio entre RE Y AG (endoplasmic
reticulum Golgi intermediate compartment)
ERGIC y ensamblaje de coronavirus
Fig 2. The coronavirus life cycle. The replication cycle starts with attachment of
the virion by its S protein, that is, through the S1 subunit thereof, to the receptors
on the host cell. This interaction leads to fusion of the virus envelope with a
cellular membrane, for which the S2 subunit is responsible. From the genomic
RNA that is released by disassembly of the incoming particle the pol1a and pol1b
genes are translated, resulting in the production of two large precursors (Pol1a
and Pol1ab), the many cleavage products of which collectively constitute the
functional replication–transcription complex. Genes located downstream of the
pol1b gene are expressed from a 3′‐coterminal nested set of subgenomic (sg)
mRNAs, each of which additionally contains a short 5′ leader sequence derived
from the 5′ end of the genome (shown in red). Transcription regulatory sequences
(TRSs) located upstream of each gene serve as signals for the transcription of the
sgRNAs. The leader sequence is joined at a TRS to all genomic sequence distal to
that TRS by discontinuous transcription, most likely during the synthesis of
negative‐strand sgRNAs. In most cases, only the 5′‐most gene of each sgRNA is
translated. Multiple copies of the N protein package the genomic RNA into a
helical structure in the cytoplasm. The structural proteins S, M, and E are inserted
into the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), from where they
are transported to the ER‐to‐Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) to meet
the nucleocapsid and assemble into particles by budding. The M protein plays a
central role in this process through interactions with all viral assembly partners. It
gives rise to the formation of the basic matrix of the viral envelope generated by
homotypic, lateral interactions between M molecules, and it interacts with the
envelope proteins E, S, and HE (if present), as well as with the nucleocapsid,
thereby directing the assembly of the virion. Virions are transported through the
constitutive secretory pathway out of the cell—the glycoproteins on their way
being modified in their sugar moieties, whereas the S proteins of some but not all
coronaviruses are cleaved into two subunits by furin‐like enzymes (see text for
references).
APARATO DE
GOLGI
SCR
Aparato de Golgi
• También llamado Complejo de Golgi
• Cara cis y media---se elimina glu del oligosacárido central y se pierde también la
mayoría de las manosas, se añaden otros sacáridos en la cara media y trans
• La proteína de recubrimiento
tiene distitntas funciones:
• Provocan qeu la membrana se
curve y se forme la vesícula.
• Se seleccionan los componentes
que van a ser transportados por
la vesícula.
Figure 15-19b Essential Cell Biology (© Garland Science 2010)
Table 15-4 Essential Cell Biology (© Garland Science 2010)
Tipos de vesículas de
tranporte y su función
• Tipos de vesículas recubiertas:
• Vesículas recubiertas de COPII-
mueven materiales del RE “hacia
adelante” hacia el ERGIC y aparato de
golgi.
Transporte de enzimas
y proteínas de
membrana
• Proteínas son retenidas en RE o AG por
una secuencia específica en la parte C-
terminal de la proteína
• RE = lis-asp-glu-leu (KDEL)
• AG = lis-lis-X-X (KKXX)
Vía anterógrada
Vía retrógrada
Tipos de vesículas de
transporte y su función
• Más alla del AG: sorteo (ordenamiento)
de las proteínas en red trans de golgi
(TGN)
• Sorteo y transporte de enzimas lisosómcias
• Proteínas lisisomales son marcadas con la fosofrilación
de sus residuos de manosa.
• Estas enzimas son reconocidas y capturadas por
receptores de manosa-6-fosfato (MPRs).
• Son transportadas a través de vesículas recubiertas de
clatrinas a lisosomas
Sorteo y transporte de enzimas lisosomales
Enzimas lisosomales son
transportadas del TGN al
lisosoma en vesículas
recubiertas de clartrina.
• La recubierta de esta
vesícula contien:
• Cubierta externa
compuesta por clatrina.
• Cubierta interna
compuesta por proteínas
adaptadoras (GGAs).
La orientación de las vesículas hacia un organelo en
especial está dada por una familia de proteínas
llamadas
• v-SNARE en las vesículas
• la recepción de estas vesículas se da
por una miembros de la familia t-
SNARE
Pasos propuestos en la identificación de una vesícula de transprote y
una membrana de destino
Las proteínas SNARE son muy
importantes en la fusión de
membranas
PROTEIN MACHINERY
FOR SECRETORY
TRANSPORT.
Coat proteins help sort soluble cargo and
transmem- brane proteins into a coated bud
that pinches off a donor membrane as
(A) a coated vesicle or
(B) larger vesicular tubular carriers.
Motor proteins move carriers along either
microtubules (shown here) or actin
filaments. Long coiled-coil tethers or
multimeric tethering complexes attach
carriers to an acceptor membrane. SNARE
(soluble N- ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor
attachment protein receptor) proteins on
the carrier and acceptor membrane then
form a complex that drives membrane
fusion and delivery of the carrier’s
membrane and content to the acceptor
membrane. During this process, the relative
topology of the lipids and transmembrane
proteins is maintained.
LISOSOMAS,
PEROXISOMAS Y VACUOLAS
SCR
LISOSOMAS
Lisosomas
• Su densidad es variable
• Desdoblamiento de material
ingerido
• Organismos unicelulares obtienen
material mediante digestión
• En organismos superiores el
sistema fagocitarios (macrófagos
y neutrófilos) digieren los
microorganismos invasores
(Fagocitosis)
• Destrucción y sustitución de
organelos
• Organelo se rodea de membrana
donada por RE
• Membrana que rodea organelos
se fusiona con membrana
lisosomal (vacuola autofágica,
Autofagosoma),
• Pexofagosoma (peroxisomas)
• Xenofagosoma (bacterias)
Lisosoma primario
Contiene enzimas y todavía no
participan en digestión
Lisosomas secundarios
Fagolisosomas: lisosoma primario
unido a vesícula fagositaria
Citolisosoma: vesícula unida a
vacuola autofágica
Corpúsculo residual
Organelo después de terminar la
digestión
Eliminado por exocitosis
Retenido en la célula como
gránulos de lipofuscina
(neuronas se acumula,
característicos de proceso de
envejecimiento)
Figure 15-36 Essential Cell Biology (© Garland Science 2010)
Actividad lisosómica en fertilización
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis
evita fusión de fagosoma
con lisisoma
• Coxiella burnetii es
resistente a pH ácido y
enzimas lisosómicas
• Listeria monocytogenes
posee fosfolipasa que
destruye la membrana del
fagosoma y le permite salir a
citoplasma
Table 3 Representative human pathogens and the biochemical properties of pathogen-containing phagosomes
Strategy Organism Mechanisms of survival and phagosome properties
Altered Mycobacterium tuberculosis Phagosome is mildly acidic and continuously interacts with recycling endosomes bearing the TfRs that provide the bacteria with iron
phagosome
maturation
M. tuberculosis–containing phagosomes are Rab5 positive but devoid of PI(3)P and EEA1
Maturation arrest is mediated by the expression of numerous effector proteins (e.g., SapM and PknG) and lipids (e.g., lipoarabinomannan)
Burkholderia cenocepacia Delay maturation of their vacuole
B. cenocepacia–containing phagosomes acquire early markers [i.e., Rab5, PI(3)P, and EEA1], but Rab7 activation and phagosome
acidification are perturbed
LAMP proteins are eventually acquired, indicating lysosomal fusion
Require the expression of unknown bacterial effectors secreted through type IV and/or type VI secretion systems
Coxiella burnetii Internalized C. burnetii transit through Rab5- and Rab7-positive compartments
Ultimately reside within an acidic lysosome-like compartment
Bacteria-containing vacuole acquires markers of autophagy (e.g., LC3), indicating intersection with autophagosomes, ostensibly for nutrient
acquisition
Histoplasma capsulatum Evade formation of late phagosomes and phagolysosome fusion
Perturb V-ATPase activity, blocking acidification, which prevents vesicular fusion and the acquisition of lysosomal markers (i.e., LAMP-2)
Leishmania donovani and L. major Leishmania spp. impair phagosome maturation by blocking the fusion of late endosomes and lysosomes
The blockade in maturation requires the expression of a unique surface glycolipid, LPG
F-actin accumulation around the parasite-containing phagosome also occurs in an LPG-dependent manner, ostensibly to form a cage that
blocks fusion of late endosomes and lysosomes
Phagosome Listeria monocytogenes Express a pore-forming toxin, LLO, that in conjunction with various lipases solubilizes the limiting membrane of the phagosome
lysis
Maturation of the phagosome is rapidly prevented by LLO-dependent pore formation and perturbation of luminal H+ and Ca2+
concentrations
Shigella flexneri Lyse phagosomes in which they reside, entering the cytosol and disseminating via actin-based motility
Phagosome escape requires the function of the Mxi-Spa type III secretion system and the secreted effector proteins IpaB, IpaC, and IpaD
Theileria parva Rapidly escape phagosomes through an unknown mechanism and replicate in the cytosol
Induce uncontrolled proliferation of infected cells, and through the expression of the protein TaSE, attach to host cell microtubules to
disseminate between daughter cells
Genesis of a Chlamydia trachomatis Upon phagocytosis, C. trachomatis construct a unique vacuole, termed the inclusion, in which the bacteria replicate
unique vacuole
Inclusion is devoid of early and late phagosome markers (Rab5 and Rab7, respectively) and does not resemble a proper phagosome
Many effector proteins (e.g., IncA) are required for C. trachomatis to usurp host cell functions and to construct its inclusion
Toxoplasma gondii Invade phagocytes and reside in a unique vacuole that, although derived from the host cell plasma membrane, is largely devoid of host
transmembrane proteins
The vacuole does not acidify, and T. gondii induces the formation of a pore in its vacuole to gain access to diffusible nutrients from the host
Host cell microfilaments and vimentin associate with the T. gondii–containing vacuole, ostensibly to dock it in proximity to the nuclear
membrane
Abbreviations: EEA, early endosomal antigen; LAMP, lysosome-associated membrane protein; LLO, listeriolysin O; LPG,
Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2012. 7:61–98
lipophosphoglycan; PI(3)P; phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate; TfR, transferrin receptor.
Phagocytosis and phospholipids. Phagocytosis occurs
when a large particle engages specific receptors on the
cell surface. This results in a modest localized increase in
PtdOH and PtdIns(4,5)P2, and a pronounced
accumulation of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3. These changes in lipid
content are accompanied by (and at least partly
responsible for) the engagement of Rho-family GTPases
that signal to actin-nucleating factors, which promote actin
polymerization. Filamentous actin (F-actin) propels the
pseudopod around the particle. To allow completion of
phagocytosis and scission of the vacuole, F-actin must be
disassembled. The elimination of PtdIns(4,5)P2 by lipases
and phosphatases terminates the positive signals for actin
polymerization. PtdIns(3)P appears on the phagosomes
as it separates from the plasmalemma. PtdIns(3)P
promotes membrane fusion, outward budding, and also
invagination. Additionally, it recruits a member of the
NADPH oxidase 2 complex (NOX2), fostering reactive
oxygen species generation. Though not formally
demonstrated, PtdInsK-FYVE (PIKfyve) is likely recruited
to late phagosomes where we assume it generates
PtdIns(3,5)P2. The pathway ends at the phagolysosome,
which is itself a dynamic, self-degrading organelle.
Bottom right: several intracellular pathogens can interfere
with phagosome maturation. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
contains a glycosylated PtdIns, mannose-capped
lipoarabinomannan (Man-LAM), which blocks PtdIns(3)P-
dependent trafficking. Listeria monocytogenes injects a
PtdIns-specific PLC (PtdIns-PLC) that promotes
phagosome permeabilization and escape of the pathogen
into the cytosol. Legionella pneumophila anchors a
protein called SidC to PtdIns(4)P to capture vesicles
derived from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), to
remodel the phagosomal compartment.
Peroxisomas presentes en
células de plantas y animales
• Microcorpúsculos de 0.5-
1µm de diámetro
Peroxisomas presentes en
células de plantas y
animales
• Proteinas de peroxisomas se
sintetizan en citoplasma y son
importadas al organelo
Proliferación y replicación
de peroxisomas en
Arabidopsis
Figure 3. Model for peroxisome proliferation and
replication in Arabidopsis.
The PEX11 family of proteins (PEX11a-e) acts in the
initial steps of peroxisome proliferation and
replication, resulting in pronounced elongation or
expansion of peroxisomes. Proteins overseeing the
subsequent membrane constriction are not known.
Fission of the constricted peroxisomes is enabled by
the scission activities of dynamin-related proteins
DRP3A and DRP3B, which are tethered to the
peroxisome membrane by FIS1A and FIS1B. The
divided peroxisomes are then transported to
various parts of the cell by the indicated myosin
proteins (XI-2, XI-I, XI-E, XI-K) along actin cables.
The transcription factor HYH has been implicated in
the phyAmediated light regulation of peroxisome
elongation via activation of the PEX11b gene.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), isoproturon, ozone and
Jasmonates (JA) are other cues that induce or
repress peroxisome proliferation through factors
currently unknown, indicated by dotted arrow.
Kaur, N., Reumann, S., & Hu, J. (2009). Peroxisome biogenesis and function. Arabidopsis Book, 7, e0123..
PEROXISOMAS DE MAMÍFEROS
METABOLISMO DE
AMINOÁCIDOS
PASOS EN
FORMACIÓN DE
PURINAS,
PIRIMIDINAS,
COLESTEROL, AC.
BILIARES, LÍPIDOS
ÉSTERES
TRANSPORTADORES
Y ENZIMAS DE
OXIDACIÓN α
TPR
PROTEINAS DE TRANSPORTE
• Biosíntesis de lípidos
• Células animales (colesterol y dolicol-RE y peroxisomas)
• En hepatocitos (colesterol y ácidos biliares)
• Metabolismo de metanol
(alcohol oxidasas)
• Pasos finales de síntesis de
penicilina
• Ciclo de glioxilato
UNIKONTAS (AMIBAS,
METAZOOS Y FUNGI)
FUNCION DE PEROXISOMAS
FUNCION DE PREOXISOMAS EN
PLANTAS Enzimas peoxisómicas
• Germinación de semillas, • Involucradas en la vía de las
• Maduración de la fruta, pentosas fosfato
• Respuesta al estrés abiótico y • Oxidación de ácidos grasos
biótico, • Ciclo de glutation-ascorbato
• Foto-morfogénesis, • Biosíntesis de acido jasmónico y
• Fotorrespiración, auxina
• Biosíntesis de • Metabolismo del oxido nítrico y
hormonas y la señalización especies reactivas de oxígeno
• Oxígeno reactivo y ON
Peroxisomas
en plantas
Peroxisomas en
plantas
• Más grandes en
semillas de plantas, en
la germinación
dependen de
oxidación de ácidos
grasos para obtener
energía
• Convertir ácidos
grasos en CHO´s
Ac.graso----acetil-
CoA + oxalacetato----
citrato-----glucosa
Ciclo del glioxilato
VACUOLAS DE
CÉLULAS VEGETALES
• Más del 90 % del volumen total de las
células vegetales esta ocupada por una
vacuola rodeada de una membrana
(tonoplasto)
• Diversas funciones
• Almacén transitorio de solutos y de
macromoléculas (iones, azúcares, aa,
proteínas y polisacáridos)
• Almacén de compuestos tóxicos (glucósidos
con cianuro y glucosinolatos), liberados
cuando planta es danada
• Almacenamiento de
desechos de reacciones
metabólicas
• Generar presión en
célula que permite
mantener el volumen
celular, suminsitra apoyo
mecánico y la fuerza
necesaria para estirar la
pared celular y permitir
que las células vegetales
aumenten de volumen
• Sitios de digestión
parecidas a lisosomas
(hidrolasas ácidas)
MUERTE
CELULAR EN
PLANTAS
MEDIADA POR
LA VACUOLA
Figure 1 Two different ways of
vacuole-mediated cell death:
a destructive way triggered by
vacuolar membrane collapse
and a non- destructive way
involving no vacuolar membrane
collapse. The non-destructive
way involves fusion between the
vacuolar membrane and the
plasma membrane leading to
discharge of vacuolar hydrolytic
enzymes outside of the cell,
resulting in indirect cell death
(upper).
The destructive way is caused by
vacuolar membrane collapse
followed by the release of
vacuolar hydrolytic enzymes into
the cytosol, resulting in rapid
and direct cell death (lower). V,
vacuole; cw, cell wall; pm,
plasma membrane