@ee0e000000000080000808080 SECURITY FOLLOWING SEPTEMBER 11 2001 Pipelines... Specific a SRO Actions: identify process for assessing pipeline system and facility vulnerabilities ‘Develop uniform definitions of securty conditions =Devolop graduated set of countermeasures for each security condition level ‘Quick Measures: ‘Limited access to pipeline mapsyinformation identity key facilities and secure ‘=Background checks for selected state and pipeline personnel ‘Security exercise program '§Plan rapid restoration of pipeline service following an attack/sabotage. '™Some USA pipeline companies are: ‘Controlling access, Using intrusion detection, Reviewing electronic systems ‘against cyber-errorism, Preplanning with FBVmiltary, Hiring armed guard Future: 'Government/industry partnership to address securily needs. Already started. Penspen Lt 1 oman repr ree sens Risk Management (insurance) $e Penspen Integrity © Penspen Ltd 158 TestaRISK MANAGEMENT - Past The tool used by orgar management'* '= the process enabling the systematic identification, analysis and management of critical business risks" "= Many eneray organisations focus on the *hazard’ risks only '= This is achieved by transferring the risk of physical asset loss or damage to a rational or international insurer, "= Insurers have traditionally welcomed this type of business. Why? '™ Cil and gas assets have been good quailty over past 20 years © There wore many insurers in the market looking for business in this type of risk. = This has changed... '© Ageing infrastructure is failing ' $00,000,000 of insured physica losses in Midsle Eastin 2001 and 2002 mainly due to ageing |© Intemational reinsurance market has reduced from billion capacty to $tbilion to absorb global energy risk tions to ensure bi ess and shareholder value is ‘isk (© Ponspen Lis 180 RISK MANAGEMENT - Future '= Recent catastrophic eneray incidents have resuled in global insured energy claims exceeding global premiums by 100% © Sovoral incidents have been attibuted to ageing infrastructure ‘= Insurers will now only accept ‘high quality’ risks '§ Energy companies now need to use independent risk engineering reports or ‘asset valuations to manage this process '§ However, do we need to insure against every risk? "= Energy companies now need to assess all risks, and provide an optimum balance between risk retention (they carry this risk and cost) and nsk transfer (to the insurance market). Don’ ‘over-insure’. = This requires an assessment of ALL business risks: '§ BUSINESS - Operational, strategic and financial 1 HAZARDS - Hazards such as fre, explosions and natural perils = We do this by using consistent risk processes in a company. '™ Identify Risks; Analyse/Measure Risks; Design Against Risks; Implement ‘Action Plans to Reduce/Etiminale Risks; Measure Success and Improvements, ‘oPenspen is 60 eeaee@aeaoeeaeoecoonu eoeoeoaeaeoeooeaeaeaeededeUseful Information eee min mepen ae im CONVERSION UNITS a 1 inch = 25-4 mm 4 mile = 1.6094 km 4 mite per hour = 1.6004 km per hour = 0.447 metres per second 1 pound (b) = 0.4563 kg, 1 Newion = 0.225 ibs 1 bar = 14.509 pst Weight: 1 cui of carbon steel = 0.283 Ibs = 0.128 kg cum =7810 kb = 17300 bs Flow: Misec = (barelsayy275 O° D = inside diameter of pipe in inches usec = (bareliday/83.820? (© Ponspen Lid 2CONVERSION UNITS ER To generate 1GW (1.000000 000"wattshour) of eect Kom 9 0% een power ston, you would noms 500) moti tones of col or = seston encaiani Wau Romuga no tn 1 Srna. Ee * — (Bocce SE hain tDeg”— Secnewen Ini, SSE tise ein co a rs) sate Sig Saaceam een, steuatsnirts ime? Lan feos ee serra a ir sou aeaee i fers ree eo iz Eh anata sani acai ‘6 CONVERSION UNITS cule [re a Taare ied ot oie as arenes = a peouerceie per ay re nom) at a reference condition eer Ra aERST) Tee eS Fi PRs fs Se" {nde on | lr ae be oo eee mt = rane Tee aan a scasaas Sarat comets = — Sogn net __| cubic metres per year. = teats eerie ae oe 001525 bar and 15°. “Sean a i heey wean von ie enn a aw nh peo ~ Depron SG ngs wtb oa rw ot (© Penspen tis 168 eee@aeeeaeeeeaeoeeaoeaesoeoeeeeed eo@®ee02eoeo0e00020000000000800820890 PRESSURE TO STRESS ee = Usually, the main load on our pipeline is from the pressure exerted on the pipe by the fluid in it. Pressure is a force that will expand our pipelin = Pressure - When expressed with reference to pipe, itis the force per unit area exerted by the medium in the pipe = Atmospheric pressure (Payo.)- The pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere (ait and water Vapour) on the earth's surface. The average ‘atmospheric pressure at sea level (for scientific purposes) has been defined at 14.696 pounds per square inch absolute. ™ Pressure absolute (P.) - (usually ‘PSIA’) - Perfect vacuum, Absolute pressure is obtain gauge pressure to atmosphere pressure, “Atmospheres” are understood to be absolute. Absolute pressure must be {Sed in equations of state and in all gas-law calculations. Gauge pressures below atmospheric pressure are called "vacuum * ™ Pressure gauge (P,) - (usually atmospheric pressure. P, ipeline Indust operant UY Pressure in excess of a 1ed by algebraically adding Pressures reported in "PSIG’) - Pounds per square inch above P+ Panes » We use gauge pressure in the Logon to wu aga.ora for more defniions. 165 WHICH DIAMETER AND WALL THICKNESS? '™Most pipeline design codes use OUTSIDE DIAMETER in the hoop stress formula, This gives a conservative (high) stress, '"The more accurate cylinder hoop stress formula (using both intemal and outside diameter) gives values of hoop stress <5% different from those obtained using the simple formula for D/>20, '§ AP! pipe has a constant outside viameter (Oo), Internal diameter is Do ~ 2xwall thickness. [ASME uses nominal (specified) wall thickness in its design stress calculation because. Ewen the old versions of ASME 831 were written, seamless pipe was widely used. Ahe under-thickness tolerance for seamless pipe was much greater than pipe made from plate, |The industry did not want to base ‘seamless pipe. ‘mUsing nominal wall thickness would cover both seamless and welded pipe ‘Mit was justified by historically safe practice. ‘Other codes in other countries may use minimum wall thickness — check your codest ©Ponspen uid ‘wall thickness on the large under-tolerance ofOVERPRESSURES ‘Changes in flow, or the sudden closure of a valve, will cause pressure surges. ‘Pipelines must be protected from these surges (by, for example, a relief valve). However, because these surges are inevitable, most design codes allow them to exceed the design pressure, providing they are controlled. Additionally, when setting protective devices on a pipeline, itis impossible to set them at exactly the design pressure. If they were set at design pressure, they would always be activating themselves due to, €.g., minor pressure changes. ‘Pipeline design standards recognise this, and these are accommodated in the allowances for pressure surges. Most codes ‘allow’ 10% overpressures. MBS 8010 limits these surges to a maximum of 10% the internal design pressure. IGE TD/1 also limits overpressures to 10%, but additionally limits their duration to no more than 5 hours at any one time, or for more than 20 hours per day ‘© Peneoan Ls 1s ‘DANGEROUS FLUIDS” - In the UK anil betnot one, Bot at 56.5* Defies dangerosn sce 2 FFamanbleand wie gas amma and lei at low vapour presae Des conveyeda) asa Flea a (gio) Tut) ea above Fama iui low vapour presre ‘Check vapor pressar ete a8) Ysifatore bar Fumie at soe FFammabl ei btnot oxic. Ooie at 78.4 Fummble aso oe FFammable asso xe Fimmable sn xg at ow vaca presne ens okey th ter ‘etfsamabl oe Yeifstove7bar Flammable asa te Sefatove7bar mma ume ie “cose ede it se is arn eeeaeeaoeaeeedaoend ooo oeoeoaeoaeoaeaeeaeeaee@eeoeaeeeodeg0202000000000008080 PIPELINE VALVES ne Block valves may be opened or closed to permit or block the flow of the products in both directions, "= They are required on both sides of pump stations and major waterways (e.g. 100 feet wide or greater, 1 They are also selectively placed along the mainline to isolate sections of the pipe into shorter segments. | Thoy may be automatic, remote or manually operated, depending on their function, © Block valves may limit loss of product fa spill occurs. '§ Block valves include manual gate valves, remote gate valves and station block valves (suction valves and discharge valves) Chock valves allow product flow in one direction and are designed to be held open by flowing oil and to drop closed automatically when product flow stops or is reversed, ‘This helps control the flow ofthe product through the pipeline and limits the amount of product which could be lost in the event of a leak "= Prossure relief valves are designed to open automatically when thermal or operating pressure reaches a pre-determined pressure sot point. This relieves pressure in the line and the valve wil close when the pressure is reduced below the valve set point. (© Penepon Lit 169 PIPELINE LEGISLATION - Effect of Pipeline Failures* ja ‘iojr accents can cause pipeline safety programs to change siecton 181965. Natchitoches, LA |sThe Pipeline Safety Program (OPS) was started ata reaction to tis ere — Gas pipeline, 17 fatalities =F resident Johnson sated in 1967 hat gas pipeline safety wast be assured by new measures. 11986, Mounds View, MN. Long. Seam wel faire ‘SGasoln flue of Willams Pipsie ited. 483 barrel releaced. 2 aaliies.Ervzonmentat damage ‘increase n numberof OPS inspectors + new legislation introduced including use of instrumented pigs (although they woul nt have prevented this fate) 181985. Reston, VA Prior excavation damage. ‘Colonial Pipetine hada ,000 bare lease of dogo ito the Potomac River 7400 bares recovered by containment barers "#1994 Edson, NJ. Mecranical damage (crack in gouge grew wth tine) ‘Texas Easter gas ne gre. junes. 2 hours o aot the rupture with manual valve '§OPS convened Safty Summ on piatne research 11996, Botingnam, WA. Extemal force damage ‘sOlympic pipeline. 6600 barrels of gasline entered a creck ad ignited. 3 fatale, ‘Generated major public and congressional safety concems '§2000, Carlsbad, NM. nteal corosion fund inside pipe, 181950 gas ine ruptured. 12 ataltes~ campers nearby. ‘© Ponspen Ls 10PIPELINE DESIGN CODES -Linking in to Regulations ‘in 1980, President Kennedy made a broad commitment to consumer safely 'This theme was carried forward by President Lyndon B. chron. "The Natural Gas Pipeline Safoty Act (now caled the Pipaline Safely Law 49 U.S.C. Section 60101 et 09), enacted on Aug, 12, 1966, estabished exclusive federal author for safely reguaton of interstate transmission tnes and non-excusive federal authority for satety regulation of gathering lines in orutal eas, as well as nvastate\ransmission and distribution pipelines, 'NThe intent ofthe Law sfor states to assume responsibly for inastate pipeline safety. while the federal goverment [U.S. Depariment of Transportation (O07), Researen and Special Programs ‘Administation, Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) retains responsibilty for intestale pipeline ately 'sThe American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distibution Piping Systems Code's 1968 edition was used by the Offce of Pipeline Satety (OPS) a a basis for issuing the Federal Pipeine Safety Reguiations as embodied by 49 CFR, Part 192, 'mAtough the Code may appear tobe explicit, ts interpretation isnot as clear-cut. This is particulary tive where itis incorporated into 49 CFR, Part 182. The Code documents standards that were. ‘developed from years of operating experience and empiical data and Is the fru of commited ‘engineers reducing complexities into simple practic. '™The Hazardous Liquid Pipeline Safety Act (HLPSA) of 1979, as amended, authorized the DOT to regulate pipeline transportation of hazardous liquids, 'mBoIh ofthe above Acts have been recodified in 49 U.S.C. Chapter 60101 et seq. and give the federal {government authority over pipelne safely fr transporting hazardous iquids, natural, and other gases. ‘OPenepen ts 7 LOCATION CLASSIFICATION -U SA itis of interest to note that a study of fies following a gas pipeline failure showed a Clear trend between burn radius and pressure, but no correlation with pipe diameter (and hence considered a secondary effect). |The study plotted the radius ofthe bum area around a pipeline against pipeline pressure, and concluded that an upper bound: Upper Bound Burn Radius for a Gas Pipeline Pressure Radius 260 psi ‘aft (28.1m) 987 psi 6108 (186m) '=This Table gives a simple ‘rule of thumb for safe distances (ignoring wind speeds, terrain, etc); for example, a pipeline at a pressure of 1000 psi would cause burn damage up to a distance of ~200m either side ofits corridor, ifit failed and the gas ignited. ‘Most gas pipeline failures do not ignite; on average, ignition will occur in less than 4% 9 failures, although failures in larger diameter pipelines are more likely to ignite (21% of Pipeline incidents on pipe of diameter >16”igrite). (© Ponspon Lit m eeeoaoeaeeaeveed econo oe oeoeoeoeeeeeeo®@eeeaooneoonde00d0e200000000008380 J. ~COMO EVALUAR DEFECTOS CAUSADOS POR CORROSION? Penspen Andrew Palmer A member of the Penspen Group ‘A member of the Penspen GroupjError! Estilo no definido.jError! Estilo no definido. ‘Advanced Methods for Defect Assessment in Pipelines. Page 9 of 6How to Assess Corrosion Defects Penspen Integrity © Penspen Ltd LECTURE sss ey . ircumferential corrosion defect assessment '™ Published methodologies for assessing corrosion = Summary of published methods ASME 8316 = Modified B31G = DNV Other considerations, Constructing acceptance charts (©Penspen LidINTRODUCTION eee ‘©Penspen its a INTRODUCTION ™ Corrosion is a time dependent, environmentally-assisted mechanism that causes a metal to deteriorate by reaction with its environment. = Corrosion results in metal loss. '= The corrosion defect can have a smooth or Irregular profile, and possibly contain blunt or” sharp features. = Corrosion requires four factors to be present: '= anode, cathode, metalic path connecting the ‘anode and cathode (e.9. a pipeline), an electrolyte (e.g. soll and groundwater for ‘external pipewall corrosion, or untreated crude «il for intemal pipewall corrosion), © If any of these factors are not present or prevented (e.9. coating a pipeline), then oPenapS$ffp50n cannot occur. eeoaeeeeaeoaoea eeoeaeaeaeaeeeede @e9e2ee00000080 ee @©eeee0e00 INTRODUCTION = Corrosion can be caused by galvanic attack, or it may be chemically induced (e.g. microbiological induced corrosion). "© Galvanic corrosion is associated with the flow of current between two metals (one an anode, the other a cathode) ina common electrolyte 1 Mest metals contain both anodic and cathodic areas (€9. old pipe connected to new pipe). "= can resut in large areas of general corrosion, 4ocal pitting, and/or selective corrosion. |= Microbiological induced Corrosion (MIC) is ‘from bacteria always present in sol, water, tc... The bacteria do not cause the corrosion ~ but they create changes in the electrolyte, .g. by changing sulphides into sulphuric acid, "= MIC typical has a rougher surface with axially fjentated ridges, ©Penspan fs a INTRODUCTION - Corrosion Types Internal corrosion External corrosion Corrosion in the parent plate Corrosion approaching/inicrossing girth) | seam welds Axial = Circumferential = Spiral ™ Single corrosion defects Colonies of interacting corrosion defects (©Penspen LisINTRODUCTION - Corrosion Types erste trating Corson ‘©Poneven Ls INTRODUCTION - Preferential Corrosion at Welds = Electric resistance (ERW)* or flash welded (FW) seam welds are susceptible to ee ‘preferential’ corrosion (the bond line : corrodes preferentially to the surrounding steel) that can produce a ‘sharp’ V-shaped notch along the bondline (ext and int). 0 rt crenon Note that this is predominantly a problem with older ERW and FW line pipe. = Preferential corrosion can occur at welds (girth and seam). 1 ‘Narrow axial external corrosion’ can occur along longitudinal welds in wrapped pipe © Caution is required when assessing corrosion in {) low toughness welds or corrosion coincident with [aaa weld defects = K ‘Penepen eeaeeeeaoe oa eoeaoaooaoea eoeooeaeaeaee €@ee20000000000000800008980 INTRODUCTION - Environmental Cracking (HIC, SCC and Sscc) Environmentally assisted corrosion, such as stress corrosion cracking (low pH and high pH SCC), hydrogen induced cracking (HIC), etc., must be ‘assessed using different methods to those describe subsequently, because the degradation mechanism causes cracking, blistering, etc. ™ HIC, SCC, SSCC are covered in the ‘How to Assess Cracks’ part of the course. ™ Generally, these types of environmentally assisted corrosion must be assessed using different methods to those describe subsequently, because the degradation mechanism causes cracking, blistering, ete. '= They are usually controled or prevented by materiat ‘election, control of product, etc., and their actual assessment is rare. ©Penspen Lis INTRODUCTION - Effect of Toughnes: Very old, low toughness line pipe & welds | are not covered by our equations. | 2 8 & G1 08 8 ge 33 8 [Toushness’ Dependent fitriow Stress? Dependent 2 (Using flow stress = (yield + UTS\/2) 38 =214 (2/3 Cherpy) (16 815) 0 © Penspen Unt Toughness 1»INTRODUCTION - Effect of Toughness Example of’ line pipe toughness in USA 22 | -—evoor mentor eae 2 a oe f. nk ie “|G fa ot Guo i ge oF Be ~t gi » ig » " INTRODUCTION - Definition of Corrosion Dimensions ‘clroumferential extent (© Perspen Ltd defect depth longitudinal extent defect axial length circumferential length pipe wall thickness pipe diameter longitudinal extent ieee ot \ BELA eeeoe@aeeeaoodoenaea ac eaoeaooeooeooeoesoeoeeee ©AXIAL CORROSION DEFECT ASSESSMENT SSS ©Penspen Lut 13 CORROSION DEFECT - Axial Dit eet d= defect depth 2c(or!) = defect axial length t = pipe wall thickness © Ponspen Lit 1“AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS -H istory of Assessment Methods ‘= The methods for assessing corrosion defects are based on research at Battelle Memorial Institute (USA) in the 1960s & 70s, for the American Gas Association (AGA), = Upto 1973, over 300 full scale tests were completed, including: 1 92 tests on artificial through wall defects, '= 48 tosts on artificial part wall defects (machined V-shaped notches). = They developed: 1 2 fallure criterion for through wall defects, © 2 failure criterion for part wall defects. = Subsequently, more tests, and numerical analysis, have been used to further validate, and develop methods for assessing corrosion ©Penspen Lit 6 AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS - Failure Equations {in terms of defect area) % failure stross a flow stress a defect depth These equations apply t pipe wall thickness 0 Intemal and external A cross sectional area of metalioss [defects Ay ‘ofiginal cross sectional area u Folias factor (bulging factor) These oquatons are known asthe NGT@° equation, afer te project number used o develop the equations at Batoe oFenspen Lt @eeeeaeoeeeaeeaen ea eon eoeoeaeaesoeoeeee@AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS - Folias/Bulging’ Factor RUPTURE As bulging (©Penssen Lad @ Increasing defect Failure Stross (or pressure)AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS - Failure Curves pe VLE, ath cf & Failure Strese/Vield Stren; Pionas Baaee nanen nenee- sean aeoas| erenens —_2c/RE (normalised defect length) 9 AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS - The curves are applicable to both internal & external defects. INTERBAL CORROSION (© Penspen is @eeeoaoeoeaeeaoeaeaooeoeooeooeooeaoeaeaeeeaeCORROSION DEFECTS - Why Don’t Pits Fail? Radial stress is small Defect does not want to fal ‘outwards’ (© Ponspen id a -——_,_—S__ AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS -Leak/ Rupture Leak/rupture boundary for corrosion is higher (~0.4) ingth Failure Stress/Yield StroAXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS -M ore Likely to Fail as a Leak ee ‘Corrosion is a time dependent failure. lait can preferentially corrode to a leak, even when its length is sufficient to cause rupture So, corrosion ‘prefers’ to lea corrosion CAN AND DOES rupture (@ Sloan Very deep area in pit corrodes to a pinhole and leaks AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS - Pressure/Stress to use in Equations ——— If you are calculating the FAILURE STRESS (or pressure) of a known defect in a pipeline, this predicted failure stress must be compared to the maximum operating stress in your pipeline if the predicted failure stress Sa aT (or pressure) of a defect is o ye below the maximum operating t stress (or pressure) , the def ei adi will fail the pipeline. 1M If the predicted failure stresé (or pressure) of a defect is above the maximum operating stress (or pressure), the defect will not fail the pipeline. (© Penspen tid 56 eoeoeeeoaoendea eee oeooeoeaoeaoeeeee ©AXIAL CORROSION DEFECTS - Pressure/Stress to use in Equations you are calculating the DEFECT SIZE that will fail at the operating stress of the pipeline, the operating stress is used as the failure stress in the equation ™Remember that the - maximum operating Stress in your pipeline | 7 operating _ may occasionally be a above your MAOP, and your design stress "This maximum stress (pressure) may be governed by settings on relief valves, leak detection systems, etc., And this maximum stress (pressure) may be > design (© Penspen Lis CORROSION DEFECTS - Not axially-orientated (but with main dimension axial Corrosion can be ‘non-axial’: depthiarea is the same, but length needs to be ‘projected’ to give ‘an equivalent length. Use this equivalent length in equations. ‘© Penspon adCIRCUMFERENTIAL CORROSION DEFECT ASSESSMENT ee Penspen Ls a CIRCUMFERENTIAL CORROSION DEFECT -Loads benaing jay moment Internal Pressure = Internal pressure induces a hoop stress and an axial stress. The hoop stress is at least twice the axial stress, depending on the end restraint. ‘= Thermal loads, ground or pipe movement, loss of support (e.g. spanning), bends, supports, etc., can induce axial andlor bending stresses. (©Ponspen Les a @eeeaeoee@aeeoeaoeoeoeaeeea oes oeaee ees@e20e20e0000000000000000909080 CORROSION DEFECTS IN CIRCUMFERENTIAL DIRECTION failure exiterion for ‘circumferential extent ct Internal pressure, axial len} loads, bending moment failure criterion for Jongitucnal extent intemal pressure MAXIAL stress, NOT hoop stress may be the mejor stress acting on defect. '™Ofien you must check for failure due to both hoop stress & axial stress, Axial stress is from internal pressure, thermal stresses, ground movements, etc.. (©Penspen Les CIRCUMFERENTIAL CORROSION DEFECTS — Failure Equation* % axial stress at failure o flow stress a defect depth 20 circumferential length of defect t pipe wall thicknoss i Pipsiractoas “This equation is known as the Kastner equation ‘© Penspen LidWHEN DOES THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL EXTENT OF A CORROSION DEFECT NEED TO BE CONSIDERED? —____ ee "Corrosion can have axial extent and circumferential extent "Therefore, it can fal due to hoop stress and axial stress Under pressure loading only, the axial dimension is the critical dimension, ‘and unless the circumferential length > axial length, you need not consider the circumferential failure. 'mIf you have external loads (e.g. mining subsidence or spanning) you must Conduct the two calculations: ‘sFailure under pressure loading ‘sFailure due to the axial loads ‘Hoop Stress from pressure loading ‘© Penspen Lid PUBLISHED ‘METHODOLOGIES’ FOR ASSESSING CORROSION DEFECTS ee (© Penspen is 2 @eeeeaeeaeaeoaoeaeoeooeaoeaeooeeeoeaeeee ©©ee000020000000000008080 ee CORROSION ASSESSMENT METHODS. The equations we have covered are ‘classic’ or historical equations. They are very good! ‘But we have to choose a flow strength, Folias factor, safety factor, ete. This may be difficult "Therefore, organisations have Produced guidance documents that Present a complete procedure for assessing corrosion. These methods are used extensively for assessing data reported by pigs. (© Penspen tts Py PUBLISHED METHODS FOR ASSESSING CORROSION ‘OLD’ METHODS = ANSI/ASME B31G = modified B31 = RSTRENG (Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe) = SHELL 92 ‘= Line pipe Corrosion Group Sponsored Project (LCGSP) [DNV-RP- F101) = DNV Joint Industry Project [DNV-RP-F101] cal = PCORR = PCORRC = Pipe Axial Flaw Failure Criterion (PAFFC) = API579 ©Ponspen is‘OLD’ AND ‘NEW’ PUBLISHED METHODS = The ‘old’ methods for predicting the burst pressure of a corroded pipeline methods) $C =>) were, predominantly, developed & validated. ~~ through full scale tests on older line pipe steels. '™ these methods are biased towards older, relatively e....) lower toughness, stee! 1 these methods are generally applicable to older, dirtier steels and should be used whenever there a= is a doubt regarding the applicabilly of the new” methods. = The ‘new’ methods were developed and validated through tests on modem, high toughness, line pipe steels. = '™ These methods are biased towards the behaviour rn, ik line pipe steel

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