BASIC FRACTURE MECHANICS 1, INTRODUCTION! Pipelines are one of the safest forms of transporting energy". Nevertheless, pipelines are damaged during construction and operation, and are susceptible to damage due to time dependent deterioration (e.g. corrosion). The major cause of damage and failure in transmission pipelines in Westem Europe and North America is extemal interference (also know as ‘mechanical damage’), ¢.g. a farmer gouging a pipeline accidentally, while ploughing, or a supply boat denting an offshore pipeline by dragging an anchor across it”) Consequently, methods have been developed to assess the significance of defects in Pipelines and to predict the behaviour of defects when they fail (which is then used in an assessment of the consequences of the failure). Fitness-for-purpose methods for assessing defects in pipelines use fracture mechanics as their technical basis”. Therefore, they are applied mechanics methods. Transmission pipelines usually have a relatively thin wall thickness (less than 25 mm), and the steels have been produced for many years to recognised international standards, such as APUSL. Modem line pipe steels are tough and ductile. Additionally, transmission pipelines are usually buried or subsea, and therefore they are not generally subjected to low temperatures. Accordingly, the failure of part wall defeets (such as corrosion pits) in (parent) transmission pipeline material, is by tensile necking of the ligament remaining below the defect. Sharper defects in parent material, such as scratches or gouges, fail by progressive ductile crack growth (microvoid coalescence). Defects in older pipeline steels (¢.g. those produced in the 1950s), and the thicker walled pipelines, will generally show ductile fracture initiation (although they may eventually fail by dynamic brittle fracture propagation). Consequently, defects in transmission pipelines are generally assessed using solutions based on limit loads, or plastic collapse!**". Such solutions are ‘independent’ of the material toughness. It is assumed that the toughness of the line pipe stee! is sufficiently high that the initiation of failure is due to a plastic collapse mechanism, and hence dependent only on the tensile properties of the steel, i.e. the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength. Defects in longitudinal (i.e. factory produced) pipeline welds usually fail by a ductile fracture mechanism", although defects in circumferential (field) welds can fail by brittle fracture or ductile crack growth, so methods which take into account the material toughness must be used", Other pipeline defects, such as loss of wall thickness defects within dents, can be hiehlv constrained, and can exhibit low ductility failures (i.e, toughness dependent Sailures). These defects are often assessed using elastic plastic fracture mechanics methods". "These course notes should be read in conjunction with the copies of the course overheads.The assessment of defects in pipet chased on the setence of finctite techanr Because pipeline steels are (in most practical circumstances) tough and ductile, the assessment of defects in pipelines is primarily based on plastic collapse (limit load) methods. This greatly simplifies the assessment of defects in pipelines. These notes present a general introduction to fracture mechanics, to provide the context for the specific methods for assessing defects in pipelines described elsewhere. There are a number of text books that go into the subject in significantly greater detail, e.g. References 9-11. Detailed procedutes for the assessment of defects in structures using fracture mechanics are given in documents such as PD6493:1991? "! and R6"! 2. WHAT IS FRACTURE MECHANICS? ‘A material is defined as being a brittle material if failure is preceded by no (or very little) plastic deformation, i.e. failure occurs in the elastic regime. A material is defined as being ductile if failure is preceded by significant plastic deformation. If an engineering structure does not contain any defects, or sources of gross stress concentration (e.g. holes, notches, and other geometric discontinuities), then the design of that structure is relatively straightforward. It is simply a case of selecting an appropriate material and thickness to ensure that the applied stresses do not exceed the yield strength of the material, or some other limit based on the monotonic stress-strain curve of the material However, if the structure contains defects or sources of stress concentration., then this, straightforward approach of avoiding failure is not sufficient. A defect is a source of stress concentration. In a ductile material, the material adjacent to the defect, or stress concentration, can deform plastically and redistribute the stresses, blunting the defect, thereby removing the stress concentration. In a brittle material no redistribution of stresses can occur. Fracture mechanics is the science of why things fail. It is a framework for estimating the strength of a material in the presence of defects. The fracture toughness of a material is the material property that describes this behaviour, it is a measure of the resistance of a material to the presence of a defect. ‘The effect of a defect in a material can be illustrated by considering the tensile test of a bar with a notch and a bar without a notch (but having, the same thickness as the remaining ligament in the notched bar). If the material has a low toughness, then the notched bar will fail at a much lower applied stress than the unnotched bar, because the notch acts as a stress concentration. ‘The toughness of a material is dependent upon the temperature, the strain rate (i.e. how quickly is the load applied), and the state of stress (or constraint). Constraint is a measure of the resistance of the structure to plastic deformation, it is the inhibition of plastic flow due to stress triaxiality. 2 A new edition of PD6493, to be known as BS7910, is scheduled to be published in June or July of 1999. © Andrew Palmer and Associates (A Division of SAIC Ltd) Page 2 of 10A fracture mechanics analysis considers the material properties (fracture toughness, yield strength, tensile strength, etc.), the applied load and the defect size. 3. QUALITATIVE MEASURES OF TOUGHNESS Before the development of analytical fracture mechanics, qualitative measures of toughness (such as the Charpy impact test and the Izod impact test) were used to develop an understanding of the fracture behaviour of metals, and as quality control measures in the manufacture of iron and steel. It was recognised that some materials underwent a transition from brittle to ductile behaviour with temperature (or loading rate). At low temperatures, the failure would be brittle and at high temperatures it would be ductile. Notched bar impact tests (e.g. Charpy and Izod tests) were used to measure the ductile to brittle transition temperature. A ductile to brittle transition is only seen in materials in which the yield strength increases sharply with decreasing temperature. Such behaviour is exhibited by body centred cubic materials (such as mild steel), but not in face centred cubic materials (such as austenitic stainless steel). Therefore, bec materials undergo a brittle to ductile transition, but fec materials do not. A simple explanation for the ductile to brittle transition was proposed by Ludwik"”!, and can be illustrated in a Davidenkov diagram. Ludwik proposed that the yield strength of steel increased significantly with decreasing temperature, whereas the fracture strength of steel (i.e. the cohesive strength, which is a measure of the force required to break the bonds between the atoms) is almost independent of temperature. A Davidenkov diagram is a plot of the yield strength and the fracture strength on axis of stress against temperature. If the yield strength of the material is lower than the fracture strength, as is the case at high temperatures, then the material will fail by extensive plastic deformation (i.e. the failure will be ductile). If the yield strength of the material is higher than the fracture strength, as is the case at low temperatures, then the material will fail by fracture, with little or no accompanying plastic deformation (i.e. the failure will be brittle). The theory developed by Ludwik can be used to explain, in simple terms, why the toughness of a material also depends on the strain rate and on constraint. The yield strength of a material under dynamic loading is higher than that under static loading. Therefore the brittle to ductile transition temperature increases if the strain rate is increased. The yield strength of a material also increases as the level of stress triaxiality (constraint) increases; the yield strength under plane strain conditions (e.g. a thick plate) is higher than that under plane stress conditions (e.g. a thin plate). Therefore the brittle to ductile transition temperature increases if the thickness of the specimen is increased, or if the sharpness of the notch is increased (consider a blunt notch compared to a sharp notch). Ludwik’s theory can explain the behaviour of notched bar impact tests in qualitative terms, but it should be noted that, in practice, it is too simplistic.Qualitative measures of toughness include the Charpy V-notch impact test, the Drop Weight Tear Test, and the Izod impact test. The Charpy impact test is the one most commonly used to provide a qualitative measure of the toughness of line pipe steels. A full size Charpy specimen is a rectangular bar of 10 mm square cross section with a 1 mm deep, 45 degree V notch machine in the centre of the longest side. The specimen is impacted, under three point loading, by 2 pendulum. The difference between the maximum. height of the pendulum measured before and after the impact, is a measure of the energy absorbed by the specimen when it is broken. The greater is the energy absorbed, the tougher is the material, The appearance of the fracture surface of the Charpy specimen can be examined to determine whether the failure was ductile, brittle, or some combination of the two. The Charpy impact test does not give a quantitative measure of the fracture toughness of the material, for a number of reasons, including the fact that the measured impact energy includes the energy to initiate a fracture, the energy to propagate the fracture through the specimen, and the energy to deform the specimen. Qualitative measures of toughness, in isolation, will not necessarily be representative of the behaviour of the structure. A series of Charpy impact tests may indicate that the material is ductile at a given temperature, but, in the structure, the material may actually be brittle (say if the structure is thicker than the Charpy specimen). The brittle to ductile transition temperature of the structure may be significantly different to that measured from the Charpy specimen, even though the material is the same. However, qualitative measures of toughness can be calibrated to the behaviour of a structure, through full scale and small scale testing. ‘An earlier example of the use of fracture mechanics, and relating the Cherpy impact test to the behaviour of an engineering structure, is the case of the Liberty Ships. In the context of pipeline engineering, both the Charpy impact test and the Drop Weight Tear Test are used in the control of ductile and brittle fracture propagation, after an extensive programme of full scale tests to demonstrate the validity of the relationships. ‘A number of correlations between the Charpy impact energy and the fracture toughness (as defined by K,,) have been developed'*. A Master Curve approach has been proposed by ‘Wallin as a method for correlating fracture toughness and Charpy test results" The approach comprises a Charpy-fracture toughness correlation, the effect of temperature in the transitional regime, the effect of scatter in fracture toughness and the effect of thickness. The Master Curve correlation is a powerful and versatile method of estimating the fracture toughness (K,,) transition curve from Charpy data. However, in the upper transition regime, the fracture toughness may be underestimated. 4. LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS (LEFM) Linear elastic fracture mechanics is based on the assumption of small scale yielding. In practical terms, this means that LEFM is valid when the plastic zone around the crack tip is, small in comparison to the relevant structural dimensions (crack length, thickness of the ‘© Andrew Palmer and Associates (A Division of SAIC Ltd) ~~ Page 4 of 10 eee a a ee ee ee ee ee eeremaining ligament, in-plane and out-of-plane dimensions). In analytical terms, LEFM assumes that the material behaves in a linear elastic manner, i.e. that there is negligible plastic deformation. ‘The original approach to understanding linear elastic fracture mechanics was based on energy, subsequently the concept of the stress intensity factor was introduced. The Griffith Approach Griffith applied the concept of the First Law of Thermodynamics to the formation and growth of a crack in an ideally brittle solid”). When a crack grows, there is a decrease in the elastic strain energy of the body (consider a through thickness centre cracked infinite plate held between rigid grips, when the crack extends the remote stress will decrease (the displacement is constant) and, consequently, the elastic strain energy will decrease). New surfaces are created by the extension of the crack, i.e. the surface energy of the system increases. The surface energy is the energy required to create the new crack surfaces. For the system to be in equilibrium, the rate of decrease of the elastic strain energy per increment of crack area must equal the rate of increase of the surface energy. If the rate of decrease of the elastic strain energy is greater, then the crack will propagate, For a through thickness centre cracked infinite plate, Griffith expressed the conditions for equilibrium as an equation relating the fracture stress to the crack size, of the form o vra= JE The analysis by Griffith is only applicable to an ideally brittle solid’. Griffith applied the theory to the fracture of glass and obtained reasonable agreement with the experimental fracture strength. However, the Griffith model significantly underestimates the fracture strength of metals. Modified Griffith Approach (Irwin and Orowan) In an ideally brittle solid, a crack is formed and grows simply by the severing of atomic bonds. In a material such as a metal, dislocation movement occurs adjacent to the crack tip (ie. plastic deformation occurs), and this represents an additional source of resistance to the propagation of the crack that must be overcome. Inwin!"®! and Orowan'"” independently modified the original Griffith approach, to extend its application to materials that exhibit plastic flow, proposing a relationship of the form ova = (2, +7, JE Experiments and analysis leading to the development of the modified Griffith approach indicated that, even for brittle cleavage fracture, the strain energy loss rate due to the gain in surface energy (7,) was trivial compared to the energy loss rate due to the plastic strains (ie. the deformation at the crack tip). ° The analysis by Griffith's can also be applied tothe fracture of liquids, Therefore, the key limitation of the Griffith's analysis is thatthe behaviour of the material i linear elastic.The Strain Energy Release Rate, G Inwin further developed the idea of the modified Griffith approach and, in 1956, proposed an energy approach for fracture based on the concept of the strain energy release rate, G (also known as the crack extension force or the crack driving force)"*"'. The strain energy release rate is the energy available for an increment of crack extension, and comes from the strain energy lost from the entire elastic body when the crack extends. If da is the increment of crack area, and dIT is the decrease in the strain energy of the elastic body for an increment of crack area, then G is defined as a dA “The three fundamental ideas underlying the development of this concept were: . Progressive forward motion of the crack front (leading edge or crack tip), 2. The crack extension force, G, is the rate of loss of stress field energy at the crack front per increment of crack extension, and 3. The resistance to crack extension is the rate of energy dissipation into non-elastic strains close to the crack tip. The strain energy release rate can be defined in terms of the stress and displacement fields in the vicinity of the crack tip. This single parameter, G, is a measure of the stress intensity at the crack tip, provided that the plastic zone at the crack tip is small. The crack propagates when the G exceeds a critical value G,, which is a measure of the fracture toughness of the material. The Stress Intensity Factor, K Relationships for the stress, strain and displacement fields around the crack tip in a linear elastic solid were developed by Westergaard™! and Williams”. The actual expressions are an infinite power series, but the first term dominates near the crack tip. A similar expression can be derived for the strains and the displacements, but for the stresses, the stress field near to the crack tip is defined in terms of the stress intensity factor, K, in an expression of the form us (a function of @) The stress intensity factor and the strain energy release are directly related K? =GE Irrespective of whether the fracture toughness is defined in terms of K or G, the assumption is that a single parameter defines the stress and strain fields at the crack tip. The K field is the asymptotic crack tip field in a linear elastic solid. Provided that the fracture process at the crack tip (microvoid coalescence, nucleation and propagation of microcracks, etc.) are occurring within an elastic K field, then the stress intensity factor, K, © Andrew Palmer and Associates (A Division of SAIC Ltd) Page 6 of 10(or, similarly G), can be used to characterise the fracture toughness of the material, The single parameter characterisation of the crack tip fields using G or K is valid provided that small scale yielding conditions apply. Both K and G can be used as a valid failure criterion provided that LEFM is valid. The value of K, (or G,) obtained in a valid fracture toughness test is a measure of the fracture toughness of the material tested, and can be used in the assessment of a defect in an engineering structure, provided that LEFM is valid (the structure will fail at the same value of K or G) 5. ELASTIC PLASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS (EPFM) For very tough materials and for high applied stresses (in comparison with the yield strength of the material), the assumptions inherent in LEFM cease to be valid. LEFM is only valid if the non-linear material deformation is confined to a small region around the crack tip, i.e. the crack tip and the plastic zone are surrounded by a linear elastic K field Under these conditions, the conditions at the crack tip are described by K (or G). However, as the amount of non-linear deformation at the crack tip increases (i.e. the size of the plastic zone becomes significant in relation to the structure dimensions), the linear elastic K field vanishes and LEFM is no longer valid. The fracture toughness of the material can no longer be defined in terms of G or K. Elastic plastic fracture mechanics applies to materials that exhibit time-independent, non- linear behaviour, i.e. plastic deformation. Two different parameters have been proposed for characterising the fracture toughness under elastic plastic conditions' (i.e. for describing the conditions at the crack tip), the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) and the J- Integral. Both of these parameters are equally valid for use as a failure criterion, and can be related to each other. The J-Integral and the CTOD are also valid under LEFM conditions, and they can be related to K and G (but the relationships are only valid when LEFM applies). The Crack Tip Opening Displacement The concept of the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) was proposed by Wells", During the testing of a number of specimens of tough structural steels, Wells noticed that the, initially sharp, crack tip blunted and that the degree of blunting increased in proportion to the toughness of the material The crack tip opening displacement is a direct measure of the displacement at the crack tip, and is, therefore, related to the stress and strain fields around the crack tip. When the conditions for J dominance at the crack tip are met, there is a unique rei.uvusiup oetween J and CTOD", and hence the crack tip opening displacement is a valid measure of the crack tip fields and can be used as a failure criterion under EPFM conditions. “ Modifications to LEFM to deal with plasticity atthe crack tip have been developed, based on correcting the size of the crack by a factor related tothe size of the plastic zone”, These modifications are not discussed here because they were superseded by the development of J and CTOD,The J-Integral The J contour integral was developed by Rice, by applying non-linear elastic theory to the analysis of a crack in a non-linear material. The deformation theory of plasticity is ‘equivalent to non-linear elastic theory, and the deformation theory of plasticity is a valid model of plastic behaviour under certain conditions. The J-Integral is a measure of the intensity of loading at the crack tip in an elastic-plastic solid, ie. J can be related to the stress, strain and displacement fields around the crack tip"™™" The J-Integral is also the change in potential energy (the energy release rate) when the crack advances by a unit increment of area in a non-linear material, The energy release rate definition of J is comparable with the concept of G, but whereas G is only valid in a linear material, J is valid in both a linear and a non-linear material. Provided that the fracture process zone at the crack tip is surrounded by a J field (within the J field, the stresses and strains scale with J), the J-Integral can be used as a valid failure criterion because it characterises the conditions at the crack tip. Similarly, under these conditions, the CTOD can also be used. The derivation of the J-Integral is based on small strain theory. The strains and displacements at the crack tip (in the fracture process zone) aré large and cannot be described by small strain theory. As the region of finite strains becomes large in comparison with the relevant structural dimensions, the J-Integral and the CTOD cease to be valid descriptions of the conditions at the crack tip. A single parameter description of the conditions at the crack tip is then no longer appropriate” © Andrew Palmer and Associates (A Division of SAIC Lid) Page 8 of 106. REFERENCES 1. ANON; Interstate natural gas pipelines - Delivering energy safely, Interstate Natural Gas Association of America Report, USA, 1994 2. HOPKINS,P.; Ensuring the Safe Operation of Older Pipelines, International. Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association, 28" Convention, Acapulco, Mexico, September 1994. 3. HOPKINS,P., HASWELL,J.; The Practical Assessment Methods for Application to UK Gas Transmission Pipelines, The Institute of Materials 2% Griffith Conference, Sheffield, UK, September 1995. 4. Specification for Line Pipe, Exploration and Production Department, API Specification SL, Forty First Edition, April 1, 195. 5. HOPKINS,P., COSHAM,A.; How to Assess Defects in Your Pipelines Using Fitness- For-Purpose Methods, Conference on Advances in Pipeline Technology "97, IBC, Dubai, September 1997. 6. KIEFNER,|F., Fracture Initiation, Paper G, 4th Symposium on Linepipe Research, AGA, Dallas, Texas, 1969. 7. MILLER,AG., Review of Test Results for Ductile Failure Pressure of Cracked Spherical and Cylindrical Pressure Vessels, Central Electricity Board Report TPRD/B/0489/N84, July 1984, 8. ANON; Guidance on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in Fusion Welded Structures, British Standards Institute, BSI PD 6493, 1991 9. ANDERSON,T.L.; Fracture Mechanics Fundamental and Applications, Second Edition, CRC Press, 1995 10. KNOTTL.F.; Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd., 1973. 11, HELLAN,K.; Introduction to Fracture Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1984. 12. MILNE,L, AINSWORTH,R.A., DOWLING,A.R. and STEWART,A.T.; Assessment of the Integrity of Structures Containing Defects - Revision 3, Central Electricity Generation Board Report R/H/R6, Revision 3, 1987 13, LUDWIK,P.; Element der Technologischen Mechanik, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1909. 14, PISARSKLH.G.; A Review of Correlations Relating Charpy Energy to K,, Welding Institute Research Bulleting, December 1978, pp. 362. 15. WALLIN,K; A Simple Theoretical Charpy ¥-K,, Correlation for Irradiation Embrittlement, Innovative Approaches to Irradiation Damage and Fracture Analysis, PVP-Vol. 170, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), pp 93-100. 16. WALLIN,K.; The Size Effect in K,, Results, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 22, ‘No. 6, 1985, pp 149-163. 17.GRIFFITH,A.A.; The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids, Philosophical Transactions, Series A, Vol. 221, 1920, pp. 163-198. 18. IRWIN,G.R.; Fracture Dynamics, Fracturing of Metals, American Society for Metals (ASM), Cleveland, Ohio, 1948, pp. 147-166. 19. OROWAN,E.; Fracture and Strength of Solids, Reports on Progress in Physics, Vol. XI, 1949, pp. 185-232. 20. IRWIN,G.R.; Onset of Fast Crack Propagation in High Strength Steel and Aluminium Alloys, Proceedings of Second Sagamore Conference on Ordinance Materials, Syracuse, USA, Vol. II, Syracuse University Press, 1956, pp. 289-305.21. IRWIN,G.R,; Fracture, Encyclopaedia of Physics, Vol. VI ~ Elasticity and Plasticity, S. Fliigge, Ed., Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1958, pp. 551-590. 22. WESTERGAARD,H.M.; Bearing Pressures and Cracks, Journal of Applied Mechanics (Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers), Vol. 6, No. 2,-March 1939, pp. A-49-A-53. 23, WILLIAMS.M.L.; On the Stress Distribution at the Base of a Stationary Crack, Journal of Applied Mechanics (Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers), Vol. 25, No. 1, March 1957, pp. 109-114. 24, WELLS,A.A.; Unstable Crack Propagation in Metals: Cleavage and Fast Fracture, Paper 84, Proceedings of the Crack Propagation Symposium, Vol. 1, Cranfield, UK, 1961. 25. SHIH,CF; Relationships Between the J-Integral and the Crack Tip Opening Displacement for Stationary and Extending Cracks, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1981, pp. 305-326. 26.RICERJ.; 4 Path Independent Integral and the Approximate Analysis of Strain Concentration by Notches and Cracks, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 35, June 1968, pp. 379-386. 27. RICE,R J. and ROSENGREN,GF; Plane Strain Deformation Near a Crack Tip in a Power Law Hardening Material, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, Vol 16, 1968, pp. 1-12. e 28. HUTCHINSON,J.W.; Singular Behaviour at the End of a Tensile Crack in a Hardening Material, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, Vol. 16, 1968, pp. 13-31 -APA- © Andrew Palmer and Associates (A Division of SAIC Ltd) Page 10 of 10PYT OFS Jo worstaig SALVIDOSSV (NV UAWTVd MAY (NVC SOINVHODSIN AYNLOVYA OL NOILONGOYLNI ‘ | SOINVHOAW SYNLOVeS DISVa éPIT OIVS Jo worstatg y SALVIOOSSV GNV UAW Vd MAYONY © “(joeduy Ba) ayes Bupeovurens ybiy pue (einjpesadura; uopisueq ay} MOjaq “a‘]) ainjesadwia} Moy ‘(yo}OU e “B’a) Ssaujs Jo aJe}s jeixeL} LOUINJOEI B[UG O} 9}NqIUOD s10j9e} SIseq 9aJULO “uonisues} ainjoes @ OBsapun Janau Ayanisuas aunjesadwia} Ssoijs pjaiA Mo] eAeY Jou Op Ajjes9UaH YoIm (jaa}s SSaUIE}s onuaysne Jo wniuiwnye 6:9) sjeayew osIgno payjuad aoe) SeaIeYyM ‘UONISUBI 2 JIGIYX |IIM (Ao}Je jaYdIU %G JO 993s pyiwu “6-9a) sjeueyew s1qno paujuae Apog ‘asojasay| “aunyesodwwa} Gulseaisap yim Ajdueys sas sse.js PIa!A au} YoIyM UI BsoU} ale UONISUeL] oINjoeYy e OBsepuN jeu} sjevaeWO “UONISUEL] SI] MOUS |99}S PIIW Se YONs sjeveyewW BHuyseulbue awos pue sjeuayew Asse|6 ysow ‘9}e1 Buipeo] Hulseesoul Jo ‘ainjesadwia} Bulseasoap Jo suoNIpuod Japun ‘INo|AeYyaq aq 0} a]NJONp Woy UoN!suUeL) e OBJapuN sjevayew alos asnedaq Ss! 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