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Tesis Roy La Touche
Tesis Roy La Touche
TESIS DOCTORAL
Patológica
MADRID, 2014
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Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud
Departamento de Bioquímica, Fisiología y Genética Molecular,
Farmacología y Nutrición, Anatomía y Embriología Humana e
Histología Humana y Anatomía Patológica
CERTIFICAN:
y el diagnóstico” ha sido realizado por Don. Roy La Touche Arbizu (D.N.I.: 50349803
C) bajo nuestra supervisión y dirección y cumple con los requisitos necesarios para
Y para que así conste a los efectos oportunos, firmamos el presente certificado en
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Avda. de Atenas s/n E 28922 Alcorcón Madrid España Tel. 34 91 4888855 Fax 34 91 4888831
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A mis papás, Hilda y Melvin por su amor incondicional, esfuerzo constante y sacrificios
realizados durante toda la vida para que yo pudiera llegar hasta aquí, sin ellos este
proyecto no se hubiera podido realizar, gracias por ser mi ejemplo de vida y por las
A mis 5 hermanos y a todos mis sobrinos por estar ahí y comprender mi ausencia en
corazón
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AGRADECIMIENTOS
concluir sin la inestimable ayuda y colaboración de muchas personas que han aportado
En mi primer lugar quisiera agradecer a mis dos directores de tesis, el Dr. Carlos
Goicoechea García y el Dr. Josué Fernández Carnero por su ayuda y orientación durante
motivación que me ofreció para realizar la tesis una vez que terminé el Máster en
Estudio y Tratamiento del Dolor que él dirigía. Tanto el Dr. Carlos Goicochea como
Dra. Mª Isabel Martín Fontelles y todo su equipo han sido referentes para mí por su
dolor. Conocerles y que hayan sido mis profesores ha sido un privilegio que me ha
con ellos…
Al Dr. Josué Fernández Carnero tengo muchas cosas que agradecerle y algunas
van más allá de este mismo proyecto. Durante todos los años que he tardado en finalizar
este proyecto Josué siempre ha estado detrás de cada paso que di, aportando nuevas
sobre todo gracias al amigo que has sido durante estos años.
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Haciendo una retrospectiva de lo que han sido estos años y el proceso para llegar
a conseguir este proyecto, tengo que reconocer que hay personas que han facilitado mi
adaptación a un país diferente al mío, pero el que considero un gran país del cual ya
formo parte, y en este sentido quiero agradecer especialmente al Dr. José Antonio
Martín Urrialde de la Universidad San Pablo CEU, quien me tendió una mano
Brains de CSEU La Salle, los profesores Joaquín Pardo, Alfonso Gil, Ibai López de
Uralde y Héctor Beltrán por su colaboración en las últimas investigaciones de esta tesis.
Universidad San Pablo CEU por su ayuda y enseñanzas entorno al tratamiento y análisis
investigación y ha estado implicada en todas los estudios que conforman esta tesis, su
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amor y cariño han sido suficientes para seguir adelante cuando se presentaron las
dificultades. Gracias mi vida por todo y porque cada día es único a tu lado…
A mis cinco hermanos, John, Vivian, Marco, Mayela y Dennis, y todos mis
sobrinos a los que amo mucho y añoro a diario, quiero dedicar esta tesis. Ellos han
sabido comprender mis muchas ausencias en momentos especiales en los que aunque
hubiera querido estar no me ha sido posible, sé que ellos se alegran de los éxitos que he
podido conseguir y yo me alegro de que sean mi familia del cual estoy muy orgulloso
Finalmente quiero dedicar este proyecto a mis papás Hilda y Melvin que son
admiración. Ambos con sus actos me han enseñado lecciones de vida impagables, son
pocas las palabras de gratitud que podría escribir en estas frases para expresar mi
profundo agradecimiento, todo y cada una de las cosas he podido conseguir se lo debo a
ellos.
finalizo con esta tesis, a pesar de esto, en su memoria he querido darle este pequeño
homenaje que en su día le hice la promesa que lo finalizaría con el máximo esfuerzo.
Ella me apoyó en todo momento, sobre todo en los momentos difíciles y me arropó con
sus palabras de amor constantes. Gracias Mami te recuerdo todos los días y te voy a
esfuerzo y trabajo por sus seis hijos, su vida es ejemplo de lucha diaria y en todo
esfuerzo son principios que he podido aprender de mi papá, estos me han servido para
entender que el camino hacia un objetivo no siempre es fácil y que las metas no son lo
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más importante sino el esfuerzo que dediques a ello. Gracias Papi por todo, te quiero
En toda investigación clínica los pacientes son determinantes y sin duda alguna
lo más importante, quiero agradecer a todos los pacientes que amablemente accedieron
a participar en los estudios que conforman esta tesis, espero que el conocimiento que
hemos generado sirva de alguna manera para mejorar la atención que reciban o en
motivar a otros investigadores que continúen con estas líneas. Gracias a todos los
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ÍNDICE GENERAL
RESUMEN…………………………………………………………………………...XV
Abreviaturas………………………………………………………………..…...…..XXI
1. INTRODUCCIÓN…………………………………………………………………..1
1.2.1 Epidemiología…………………………………………………………....7
1.3.1 Epidemiología…………………………………………………………..10
1.4.2 Epidemiología…………………………………………………………..14
Craneofacial…………………………………………………………………..18
Craneocervical………………………………………………………………..20
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1.6.4 Sinergias neuromusculares cervicales y masticatorias…………….……24
3. OBJETIVOS……………………………………………………………….……….51
4. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS……………………………………………………….57
4.1 Participantes……………………………………………………………….….60
5. RESULTADOS…………………………………………………………………….77
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5.7 Estudio VII……………………………………………………………..……192
6. DISCUSIÓN………………………………………………………………………205
Dolor Craneocervical……………………………………………….………208
Sensoriomotora Trigeminal………………………………………………...209
Craneofacial/craneomandibular…………………………………………...213
7. CONCLUSIONES……………………………………………………………..…225
8. BIBLIOGRAFÍA………………………………………………………………....229
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RESUMEN
los diferentes tipos de DCF de origen musculoesquelético el más prevalente son los
cefalea, el dolor de cuello y los TCM, además se ha comprobado que el dolor de cuello
se asocia significativamente con los TCM y que la gravedad de estos se incrementa con
clínicos que aporten información más precisa en cuanto a la posible repercusión clínica
discapacidad y el DCF.
serie de casos y un ensayo clínico aleatorio controlado que incluyeron a pacientes con
dolor de cuello crónico mecánico, pacientes con TCM atribuido a dolor miofascial,
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- Medidas de auto-registro psicológicas, de dolor y discapacidad (inventario de
escala tampa de kinesiofobia, TSK-11; Escala visual analógica del dolor, EVA;
del efecto o el mínimo cambio detectable para determinar la relevancia clínica de los
resultados.
Resultados:
sujetos asintomáticos, sin embargo estas diferencias son pequeñas; 2) Se identificó que
los pacientes con dolor de cuello crónico mecánico presentan hiperalgesia mecánica en
pacientes con cefalea atribuida a TCM con moderada discapacidad cervical presentaron
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comprobó que distintas posturas craneocervicales inducidas experimentalmente
DCF. Finalmente, en los estudios en donde se realizó una intervención en pacientes con
terapia manual sobre la región cervical producen un efecto inmediato y a corto plazo en
Conclusiones:
el dolor y la kinesiofobia deben ser tomados en cuenta ya que son predictores de las
los primeros hallazgos sobre el efecto del tratamiento de fisioterapia específico sobre la
Esta tesis aporta nuevos datos que pueden contribuir clínicamente al diagnóstico, la
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LISTA DE PUBLICACIONES ORIGINALES
Esta tesis está basada en las siguientes publicaciones originales que forman parte de una
Jan;27(1):48-55
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psychometric validation of a new questionnaire. Pain Physician. 2014 Jan-
Feb;17(1):95-108.
manual therapy and exercise directed at the cervical spine on pain and
Mar;29(3):205-15.
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ABREVIATURAS
CP Conductancia de la piel
EMG Electromiografía
FC Frecuencia cardíaca
FR Frecuencia respiratoria
GC Grupo control
GE Grupo experimental
MC Migraña crónica
ME Migraña episódica
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MIAD Modelo integrado de adaptación al dolor
NMDA N-metil-D-aspartato
TC Temperatura cutánea.
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INTRODUCCIÓN
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1. INTRODUCCIÓN
simplificado a que, si no había daño no había dolor, si había daño tendría que
a nivel medular. Melzack y Wall (Melzack and Wall, 1965) tuvieron una
situación del dolor crónico (Melzack, 1993), sin embargo lo que si permitió fue la
del dolor.
esta se amplía el concepto del dolor integrando las influencias que puedan tener las
funciones cognitivas del cerebro, los sistemas de regulación del estrés y los
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- Dimensión sensorial-discriminativa: identifica, evalúa, valora y modifica
límbicas.
lo cual los factores fisiológicos, psicológicos y sociales son tomados en cuenta, así
tisular real o potencial, o descrita en términos del daño” (Merskey and Bogduk,
1994).
crónico, esta clasificación toma en cuenta la evolución del dolor desde el punto de
mantenimiento.
El dolor agudo tiene un curso temporal relacionado con los procesos de reparación
(Chapman et al., 2011) y representa una señal de alarma disparada por los
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tratamiento o en la recuperación del dolor agudo puede generar que este se
Se define el dolor crónico como “el que persiste más allá del tiempo normal de
parámetro más utilizado para definir la diferencia entre el dolor agudo y el dolor
crónico, esta clasificación tiene sus limitaciones teniendo en cuenta que el dolor
crónico presenta una naturaleza multifactorial (Turk and Rudy, 1988). En este
sentido Von Korff y Dunn (Von Korff and Dunn, 2008), han comprobado que un
tiene mayor valor predictivo que solo la clasificación basada en el tiempo de dolor
un daño tisular que produce una respuesta inflamatoria que sensibiliza los
origen inflamatorio que se liberan en el área del daño tisular, tales como la
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(citoquinas, bradiquinina, histamina) que favorecen la síntesis de la enzima
en el tejido dañado (Chen et al., 1999; Guenther et al., 1999; Hucho and Levine,
2007).
Woolf, 2009), este fenómeno representa una acción protectora del organismo con
dolorosa que se extiende más allá del área de la lesión y abarca zonas no afectadas
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1.1.2 Proceso de sensibilización central
pesar de la ausencia de un daño potencial (Woolf and Costigan, 1999); por otra
parte, la característica defensiva propia del dolor agudo no está presente en esta
condición.
(alodinia), por otra parte los estímulos dolorosos serían percibidos como una
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1.2 Dolor Musculoesquelético Crónico
1.2.1 Epidemiología
interacción psicosocial del paciente (Becker et al., 1997; Breivik et al., 2006).
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El DMC se ha convertido en el principal motivo de consulta de dolor crónico en
al., 2002).
en la actualidad clínica se tiene muy en cuenta al SDM, aún más conociendo que
dolores relacionados con el raquis (Chen and Nizar, 2011), el dolor de hombro
La Neck Pain Task Force define el dolor cervical como un evento episódico a lo largo
de la vida que presenta una recuperación variable entre los diferentes episodios
dolor cervical mecánico se puede definir como aquel localizado en el territorio situado
del cuerpo, y en la parte anterior por encima del borde superior de la clavícula y el
esternón dejando fuera el contorno facial; con o sin irradiación a la cabeza, tronco y
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miembros superiores (Guzman et al., 2009). Los signos de irradiación del dolor son
contemplados por esta definición, en relación con esto Bogduk (Bogduk, 2003) sugiere
que los signos de irradiación hacia la extremidad superior no deben asumirse como
parte del dolor cervical ya que estos son más propios del dolor cervical radicular y
fisiopatológicamente estas dos condiciones son muy distintas, además añade que la
Más acorde con la sugerencia de Bogduk (Bogduk, 2003) es la definición propuesta por
Merskey y Bogduk (Merskey and Bogduk, 1994), en esta, el dolor cervical se define
como el dolor que surge en una región limitada superiormente por la línea nucal
superior, lateralmente por los márgenes laterales del cuello, e inferiormente por una
trastornos que afectan al cuadrante superior, aunque rara vez es síntoma de la presencia
de tumor, infección u otra afección grave (Bogduk, 2003). El dolor cervical puede
estar provocado o asociado a una patología local o una enfermedad sistémica tales como
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musculoesqueléticos y problemas psicológicos pueden considerarse factores de riesgo
et al., 2009).
Entre los factores psicológicos asociados a un mal pronóstico de dolor cervical que se
han descrito son los estados de angustia, sufrimiento, enfado o frustración en respuesta
2008).
Existe mucha literatura que avala que los cambios degenerativos cervicales van
de que los cambios degenerativos obtenidos con RMN cervical se correlacionen con
síntomas de dolor cervical. Tampoco hay evidencia suficiente para demostrar que la
degeneración de disco sea un factor de riesgo para tener dolor de cuello (Nordin et al.,
2008).
ejercicio físico, ante la presencia de un dolor de cuello, éste tendrá mejor pronóstico que
que el ejercicio puede tener un efecto protector contra el dolor cervical (van den Heuvel
et al., 2005).
Entre los factores predictivos relacionados con el dolor crónico se han encontrado, el
1.3.1 Epidemiología
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dolor de cuello en la población general se ha estimado entre 10% y 15%, siendo más
en algún momento de sus vidas (Côté et al., 1998). En la población que sufre dolor
pirámide, en la que la base es conformada por un gran número de casos de dolor leve,
por encima pocos casos que consultan por su dolor y en la punta solo unos pocos casos
de dolor invalidante (Côté et al., 1998; Hogg-Johnson et al., 2009). Cote y cols.
encontraron que el 39.4 % de los individuos han tenido dolor cervical en los últimos 6
dolor cervical, lo volverán a sufrir entre 1 -5 años más tarde y la mayor parte no se
dividen los grupos de edad en dos grandes grupos: jóvenes y mayores, siendo los de
peor pronóstico estos últimos. Hill y cols. (Hill et al., 2004) realizaron un estudio en el
que los sujetos se dividen en tres grupos de edades; se observó que en el grupo de edad
de entre 45-59 años, existe una tendencia 4 veces mayor a que el dolor cervical se
Más de 1/3 de los pacientes desarrollan síntomas crónicos que durarán más de 6 meses
síntomas 5 años después del primer episodio de dolor de cuello (Enthoven et al., 2004;
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graves y un 79% mejoran del dolor pero no desaparece completamente (Gore et al.,
1987).
El dolor craneofacial (DCF) es una denominación general que es utilizada para describir
por una variedad de condiciones, estructuras o etiologías (Armijo Olivo et al., 2006;
orofaciales (Okeson and de Leeuw, 2011). Los signos y síntomas más prevalentes que
se han observado en los pacientes con DCF son: dolor al abrir la boca, dolor a la
porcentaje, las áreas de expansión del dolor que se han descrito como más prevalentes
son: alrededor de los ojos, alrededor de la región temporal, en la zona anterior a la oreja
2002). Los factores psicológicos están muy presentes en el DCF y se han observado
(TCM) dolorosos, TCM causados por artritis o artrosis, distonías y discinesias faciales y
El término TCM se refiere a una serie de signos y síntomas que afectan a la musculatura
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Okeson, 1997), se considera un proceso patológico multifactorial causado posiblemente
hormonales y cambios a nivel articular (Liu and Steinkeler, 2013). Estos trastornos se
caracterizan por: (a) dolor orofacial y/o en la ATM o en los músculos masticatorios; (b)
Los factores psicosociales tienen un papel relevante en los TCM, en un reciente estudio
afrontamiento ante el dolor presentan una repercusión importante sobre los TMD
(Fillingim et al., 2011), por otra parte, Kindler y cols. (Kindler et al., 2012)
encontraron que los síntomas depresivos están más presentes en pacientes con TCM
articulares mientras la ansiedad estuvo más asociado con TCM de origen muscular.
TCM (Licini et al., n.d.). Evidencia reciente describe que las pacientes femeninas con
Existen diversos criterios diagnósticos para clasificar los TCM (Benoliel et al., 2011;
Schiffman et al., 2010), sin embargo la clasificación más utilizada en la actualidad son
los Criterios diagnósticos de investigación para TCM (en inglés, Research Diagnostic
Schiffman et al., 2010), estos criterios presentan una fiabilidad y validez contrastada
los subtipos más comunes de TCM (Look et al., 2010). Los Criterios diagnósticos de
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investigación para TCM establecen la clasificación en dos grandes secciones definidos
en dos ejes: Eje I: Diagnóstico del dolor; y el Eje II Estatus psicosocial (Schiffman et
al., 2014). Es importante destacar que estos criterios han sido recientemente revisados y
al., 2014).
temporomandibular.
bloqueos intermitentes
limitación de la apertura
limitación de la apertura
craneomandibulares
1.4.2 Epidemiología
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Davies, Ryan, et al., 2002). En relación al sexo es más prevalente en mujeres y el rango
de edad donde se presenta con mayor frecuencia es entre los 18-25 años y los 56-65
adulta (LeResche, 1997). Las mujeres presentan en general más signos y síntomas de
TCM y además estos son frecuentes y más severos que en los hombres (Adèrn et al.,
2014; Carlsson, 1999; LeResche, 1997), por otra parte las mujeres tienen menos
9.3% de TCM graves (Campos et al., 2014). En pacientes ancianos se encontró mayor
prevalencia del 30% de síntomas de TCM (De Kanter et al., 1993), en otro estudio se
más de un signo de TCM (Gesch et al., 2004). Se ha observado una mayor prevalencia
signos entre los sujetos de 35 y 50 años (Yekkalam and Wänman, 2014) y la evidencia
muestra una prevalencia menor en edades adultas (Carlsson, 1999; Matsuka et al., 1996;
diagnóstico de dolor muscular, el 42% de luxación del disco y 57.5% otros trastornos
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En cuanto a la incidencia, Kamisaka y cols. realizaron un estudio longitudinal en un
y dolor de cuello
Los TCM, las cefaleas y el dolor de cuello son trastornos muy relacionados (Sipilä et
al., 2002; Storm and Wänman, 2006; Wiesinger et al., 2007). Varios estudios han
informado que los signos y síntomas se superponen entre los pacientes con TCM,
TCM y que la gravedad de éstos se incrementa con la gravedad del dolor de cuello
(Ciancaglini et al., 1999; Nilsson et al., 2013; Wiesinger et al., 2009), adicionalmente,
presencia de cefalea, dolor de cuello y dolor orofacial (Rantala et al., 2003). Stuginski-
crónica (MC) y episódica (ME), en esta investigación se identificó que el 73% de los
pacientes adolecentes con cefalea han observado una alta comorbilidad con los TCM
(Nilsson et al., 2013), además en pacientes adolescentes con TCM, encontraron que los
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pacientes que presentaban alteraciones musculares y alteraciones musculares y
Se ha sugerido que los TCM, las cefaleas y el dolor de cuello pueden tener una base
fisiopatológica similar (Ashina et al., 2006; Marklund et al., 2010; Svensson, 2007), por
otra parte se ha identificado que la cefalea podría ser un factor de riesgo de sufrir dolor
Rantala y cols. describió que de entre 1339 sujetos evaluados la prevalencia de signos
relacionados con la ATM fue del 10%, el dolor orofacial fue del 7%, la cefalea del 15%
y el dolor de cuello el 39% (Rantala et al., 2003), por otra parte, Plesh y cols. mostró
que el 53% de los pacientes con TCM que presentaron dolor de cabeza severo, el 54%
tenía dolor de cuello (Plesh et al., 2011). Un estudio realizado con 487 mujeres Sami
encontró que un 17% de estas presentó dolor en la regiones mandibular y orofacial que
describe que la duración del dolor en la región mandibular, las molestias al realizar la
apertura, el dolor de cuello y un nivel educativo bajo estaban relacionados cuando los
relación con esto dato, Weber y cols. encontraron que el 88,24% de los pacientes con
TCM presentaron a su vez dolor cervical, en esta investigación se sugiere que esta
La prevalencia del latigazo cervical en pacientes con TCM ha sido estudiada en una
la prevalencia del latigazo cervical en pacientes con TCM varía entre 8,4% a un 70%,
este resultado se comparó con la población general sin TCM en donde la prevalencia de
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latigazo cervical se encuentra entre 1,7% y 13%, además en esta revisión se señala que
los pacientes con TCM con antecedentes de haber sufrido un latigazo cervical presentan
más signos de alteración de la ATM como limitación de la apertura bucal, más dolor
articular, cefalea y síntomas de estrés. Los autores de esta revisión sugieren que el
latigazo cervical puede ser un iniciador y/o un factor agravante, así como una condición
Diversas estructuras de la región cervical pueden provocar dolor referido hacia la región
identificación de los patrones del dolor que pueden afectar al cráneo, la región
craneomandibular y la región orofacial. Son muchos los estudios que demuestran que
occipitales producen dolor referido hacia la región craneofacial en pacientes con TCM y
Fricton et al., 1985; Wright, 2000). Muchos de estos patrones de dolor referido
evocados por PGM fueron descritos por Simons y cols. (Simons et al., 1999) (Figura
1).
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Figura 1. Representación modificada de los patrones de dolor referido hacia la región craneofacial provocado por
cervical superior y la cabeza (Dreyfuss et al., 1994), también Dwyer y cols. con un
cabeza (Dwyer et al., 1990), estos patrones fueron confirmados con gran similitud en
pacientes (Aprill et al., 1990; Cooper et al., 2007). Se ha sugerido que el patrón de dolor
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la cefalea cevicogénica (Cooper et al., 2007), sin embargo en el caso del disco
(Figura 2).
Figura 2. Representación, según la evidencia científica de los patrones de dolor referido de estructuras articulares
cervicales hacia áreas craneocervicales (Aprill et al., 1990; Cooper et al., 2007; Dreyfuss et al., 1994; Dwyer et al.,
1990).
Craneocervical
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disponible relacionada con las posibles relaciones entre estas regiones tomando en
/craneocervical fue el desarrollado por Brodie (Brodie, 1950), este autor desarrolló un
esquema gráfico (Figura 3), que explicaba cómo la postura erguida de la cabeza se
modelo es que una actividad mandibular como el apretar isométricamente tendría que
estar equilibrada por la activación de los músculos cervicales cuando la cabeza está
erguida (Brodie, 1950; Thompson and Brodie, 1942), Rocabado desarrolló un modelo
craneomandibular trabajan de forma sinérgica en una cadena funcional; por otra parte
este autor sugiere que la posición de la mandíbula y del hueso hiodes depende de la
21
Figura 3. Esta figura representa el esquema diseñado por Brodie, para explicar el equilibrio mecánica neuromuscular
entre las regiones craneocervical y craneomandibular (Brodie, 1950; Thompson and Brodie, 1942).
tesis teóricas anteriormente descritas (Gillies et al., 1998; Suzuki et al., 2003), un
observó como resultado principal que la actividad muscular de la región cervical influye
lograr una mejor activación de los músculos que realizan la apertura y para generar una
posición más favorable para el movimiento (Koolstra and van Eijden, 2004).
22
1.6.2 Estudios in-vivo de la relación craneomandibular/craneocervical
que participa la ATM y las estructuras asociadas, como por ejemplo la deglución y la
masticación.
(Visscher et al., 2000), en relación con esto, Omure y cols. observaron que al inducir
mandibular (Solow and Tallgren, 1976). Otro de los aspectos importantes que se han
23
A
Figura 4. Este esquema representa el efecto de la postura de protracción craneocervical sobre la dinámica mandibular
representa una posteriorización del cóndilo mandibular asociado a la postura de protracción craneocervical.
La electromiografía ha sido uno de los instrumentos más utilizados para investigar las
apretamiento (Clark et al., 1993; Davies, 1979; Hochberg et al., 1995; Rodríguez et al.,
rechinamiento dentario (Rodríguez et al., 2011; Venegas et al., 2009), en relación con
24
50% del músculo masetero (Clark et al., 1993), evidencia reciente demuestra que
durante la masticación se produce una acción concomitante entre los músculos masetero
Hellmann et al., 2012). Al contrario de la mayoría de los estudios que se han realizado
cabeza y de las fibras superiores del músculo trapecio. (Armijo-Olivo and Magee,
2007).
A B
25
Figura 5. Esta figura representa un esquema diseñado según la evidencia científica que muestra que el apretamiento
dentario modifica la actividad electromiográfico de músculos cervicales (A). En la figura B se muestra una
concomitancia entre los movimientos craneocervicales y craneomandibulares (el movimiento de apertura bucal se
craneocervical).
trapecio y esternocleidomastoideo (Ceneviz et al., 2006), sin embargo parece ser que los
apretamiento dentario.
producía una gran activación del músculo temporal y una moderada activación del
que la flexión craneocervical (Ballenberger et al., 2012), en relación con esto, Forsberg
craneocervical se produce entre 10º y los 20º (Forsberg et al., 1985). Estudios en donde
26
et al., 2008), digástrico (Ohmure et al., 2008) y geniogloso (Milidonis et al., 1993).
2001; Zafar, 2000; Zafar et al., 2000, 2002), estos hallazgos sugieren que las funciones
y esta coordinación es mayor en los movimientos más rápidos (Zafar et al., 2000) y en
mandibular (Eriksson et al., 2000). Entre los movimientos que presentan una
craneocervical (Eriksson et al., 1998) (Figura 5). Resultados similares se han obtenido
en otros estudios (Kohno, Kohno, et al., 2001; Torisu et al., 2002; Yamabe et al., 1999);
apertura mandibular fue significativamente mayor en los niños que en los adultos, los
autores de esta investigación sugieren que esa situación se genera en los niños como
Dos de las funciones orales en donde participa la ATM son la fonación y la masticación,
27
(Häggman-Henrikson and Eriksson, 2004; Miyaoka et al., 2004), específicamente se ha
masticatorios, pero además de acuerdo a como sea el tamaño del bolo alimenticio que se
En la actualidad contamos con evidencia científica muy abundante que demuestra las
teorizado que las acciones concomitantes son comandos pre-programados a nivel central
(Torisu et al., 2001; Zafar, 2000) y que las funciones vienen moduladas por
comprender las situaciones comorbilidad del dolor de cuello y el DCF o las alteraciones
28
Goadsby, 2003a, 2003b; Bartsch, 2005; Piovesan et al., 2003), este centro de
Malick and Burstein, 1998; Malick et al., 2000, 2001) (Figura 6) e inclusive tiene
conexiones neurales con áreas del diencéfalo y el tronco encefálico relacionadas con la
divisiones: oftálmica, V1; maxilar, V2; y mandibular, V3); b) el ganglio del trigémino
trigeminales del tronco encefálico (los núcleos trigeminales, los tractos trigeminales y
las vías tálamo-trigeminales) (Sessle, 2005b; Waite and Ashwell, 2004) (Figura 6). El
mixto ya que tiene una división sensorial y una motora (Majoie et al., 1995; Sanders,
de la cara, la cavidad oral y parte de cráneo (Majoie et al., 1995; Sessle, 2005a).
29
Figura 6. La imagen representa la organización neuroanatómica del sistema trigeminal desde la periferia hasta las
conexiones neurofisiológicas a nivel central. S1, corteza somatensorial primaria; VMP, núcleo ventral posteromedial
El ganglio de Gasser es una estructura fina, considerado como un análogo craneal de los
más grande anatómicamente (Dixon, 1963; Kerr, 1963; Moses, 1967). La mayoría de
divisiones del nervio trigémino (V1, V2 y V3) residen en el ganglio de Gasser, en donde
Närhi, 1999; Jacquin et al., 1986; Leiser and Moxon, 2006), pero hay que tomar en
cuenta que los cuerpos celulares de algunas aferencias periodontales y de los husos
Las fibras aferentes primarias trigeminales terminan en los tejidos craneofaciales como
30
terminaciones nerviosas libres y funcionan como nociceptores, estos pueden activarse
1999, 2005b, 2011; Takemura et al., 2006). Una serie de componentes neuroquímicos
mecanismo periférico que ayuda a proteger los tejidos lesionados de repetidos agravios
área cigomática, el labio superior, una parte de la cavidad nasal y oral (incluyendo los
que es la parte del dermatoma C2 (Majoie et al., 1995; Sanders, 2010). Las fibras
del músculo digástrico, el músculo tensor del tímpano y el músculo tensor del velo
palatino (Kamel and Toland, 2001; Majoie et al., 1995). En la figura 7 se representan
31
Figura 7. Representación gráfica de los dermatomas trigeminales y cervicales.
El nervio trigémino tiene cuatro núcleos centrales en el tronco encefálico (un núcleo
motor que proporciona inervación motora: y d) el núcleo espinal trigeminal, que media
el dolor, la sensibilidad térmica y táctil (Majoie et al., 1995; Sessle, 2000) (Figura 8).
b) interpolar (SVi); y c) caudal (SVc) (Sessle, 1999, 2000, 2005b, 2011). Los sub-
núcleos SVo y SVi se asocian con la transmisión de la percepción táctil; por otra parte,
especialmente con el dolor intra-oral y peri-oral (Dallel et al., 1988, 1990; Raboisson et
32
Figura 8. Representación gráfica de los núcleos trigeminales, también se muestra la subdivisión del núcleo trigeminal
espinal en sus 3 sub-núcleos: SVo, sub-núcleo trigeminal oral; SVi, sub-núcleo trigeminal interpolar; SVc, sub-
sustancia gelatinosa del asta de posterior de la medula espinal ya que sus neuronas
tienen morfología celular similar, así como las conexiones sinápticas, y sus funciones.
"asta dorsal medular" (Sessle and Hu, 1991; Sessle, 1987; Sessle et al., 1986). El sub-
1983; Ebersberger et al., 2001; Schepelmann et al., 1999; Sessle and Hu, 1991; Sessle,
33
1987, 2005b).
En las láminas superficiales y profundas del SVc predominan dos tipos de neuronas
amplio [RDA]), estas neuronas trasmiten información aferente nociceptiva hacia centros
superiores (núcleo ventral posteromedial del tálamo [VPM]) (Sessle, 1987, 2000,
2005a, 2011). Las neuronas NE sólo responden a estímulos nocivos (por ejemplo,
y/o C); las neuronas RDA son excitadas por estímulos no nocivos (por ejemplo
estímulos táctiles), así como por estímulos nocivos, y pueden recibir impulsos aferentes
La mayoría de neuronas NE y RDA, también pueden ser excitadas por otros tipos de
entradas aferentes periféricas de diversas regiones como las meninges, tejido vascular,
los dientes, la ATM o en los músculos masticatorios (Burstein et al., 1998; Dostrovsky
et al., 1991; Sessle, 1996, 1999, 2000). Los extensos patrones convergentes de entradas
neuronas NE y RDA en el SVc, este fenómeno podría explicar la mala localización del
dolor profundo, así como la difusión del dolor referido que es condición típica de
estructuras de esta misma región anatómica como la formación reticular y los núcleos
Específicamente las neuronas del SVc proyectan hacia el núcleo VPM del tálamo a
través de una vía multisináptica denominada tracto lemnisco trigeminal dorsal (tracto
34
trigeminotalámico dorsal) (Dougherty and Willis, 1992; Dougherty et al., 1992; Sessle,
1999; Sherman et al., 1997) (Figura 9). Las neuronas nociceptivas del núcleo VPM
conexiones como por ejemplo con la corteza cingulada anterior, situando a estos
circuitos neurales como parte de la dimensión afectivo-emocional del dolor (Sessle and
Figura 9. Representación gráfica del tracto trigeminotalámico dorsal. GT, ganglio trigeminal; NTE, núcleo
trigeminal espinal; SVc; sub-núcleo trigeminal caudal; VPM, Núcleo ventral posteromedial del tálamo; S1, corteza
somatosensorial primaria.
ramo dorsal, un ramo ventral y los nervios sinovertebrales (Alix and Bates, 1999;
35
Bogduk, 1981), estos nervios inervan a nivel motor y sensitivo diversas estructuras de la
parte posterior de la cabeza y el cuello (Bogduk, 2001) que pueden generar dolor
(20%) este nervio carece de raíz dorsal y en estos casos las células ganglionares se
pueden encontrar entre las raíces del nervio espinal accesorio (Ouaknine and Nathan,
1973). Este nervio carece de distribución sensitiva cutánea, sin embargo a través de su
rama dorsal inerva sensitivamente a nivel profundo los músculos cortos del triángulo
suboccipital (Bogduk, 1982), su ramo ventral pasa por detrás y debajo de articulación
arteria carótida y vertebral. La rama ventral de este nervio inerva los músculos
al., 1988).
nervios occipital menor, occipital mayor y el nervio auricular mayor (Poletti, 1991; Shin
et al., 2007), estos tres nervios sensitivos más la zona cutánea que inervan conformarían
36
los dermatomas de la región craneocervical, estos dermatomas (C2, C3) tienen una
representación que incluye la parte posterior del cráneo (cuero cabelludo), el ángulo de
1991). Es importante destacar que la mayor distribución cutánea del nervio C2 está
El CTC es una unidad anatómica-funcional que forman las astas dorsales de los dos
(Becker, 2010; Hoskin et al., 1999; Hu et al., 2005; Piovesan et al., 2003). Estudios
cervical C2-C3 (Goadsby and Hoskin, 1997; Kaube et al., 1993; Strassman et al., 1994).
cervicales (Bartsch and Goadsby, 2003b; Bartsch, 2005; Bogduk, 2001; Goadsby et al.,
2008; Hu et al., 1995, 2005; Piovesan et al., 2003) (Figura 10). Evidencia científica de
and Goadsby, 2002, 2003a; Hu et al., 1993; Sessle et al., 1986; Yu et al., 1995), y
también se tiene evidencia de este mecanismo en seres humanos (Busch et al., 2006;
37
Figura 10. Representación gráfica del complejo trigeminocervical (CTC).
El CTC puede ser sensibilizado por aferencias nociceptivas primarias provenientes del
músculo masetero y de la ATM (Cairns et al., 2001, 2002; Nishimori et al., 1986;
Shigenaga et al., 1988), además se ha descrito que las aferencias primarias nociceptivas
provenientes de la piel y de los músculos cervicales son capaces de excitar neuronas del
CTC (Bartsch and Goadsby, 2003a; Le Doaré et al., 2006; Sessle et al., 1986), sin
embargo parece ser que la principal contribución aferente cervical hacia este complejo
neural está mediada por la raíz de C2, representada periféricamente por el nervio
occipital mayor (Bartsch, 2005), en relación con esto, Goadsby y cols. demostraron que
la activación de las fibras aferentes del nervio occipital mayor aumentan la actividad
metabólica de neuronas del CTC (Goadsby et al., 1997), por otra parte, Le Doare y cols.
38
implicados en estas sinapsis (Le Doaré et al., 2006), varios estudios han demostrado que
SVc (Chiang et al., 1998; Yu et al., 1996), así como los receptores de la neuroquinina y
animal, que la lesión sobre un nervio espinal superior provoca alodinia mecánica y la
dolor orofacial extraterritorial producido después de una lesión (Kobayashi et al., 2011).
Xie describe que en la sensibilización central trigeminal las células gliales tienen una
observado otros cambios en las propiedades de las neuronas del trigeminales y en las
vías nociceptivas medulares (Bereiter et al., 2005; Chiang et al., 1998, 2005; Lam et al.,
región facial y en la duramadre (Burstein et al., 1998), en relación con este hallazgo,
39
Bartsch y Goadsby encontraron que la estimulación del nervio occipital mayor podía
estudios realizados con modelos animales han demostrado que la estimulación química
músculos masticatorios y cervicales ipsilaterales (Hu et al., 1993, 1996; Shin et al.,
posteriores de la rata (Hu et al., 1995). Por otra parte, se ha demostrado que la inyección
hallazgos sugieren que existe una potente conexión refleja entre el sistema trigeminal y
han descrito en estudios realizados en sujetos sanos, en donde se observó que un dolor
estos músculos (Wang et al., 2004); otra de las manifestaciones motoras a nivel
40
mandibular que se han observado es la limitación momentánea de la apertura
músculo masetero se produce una alteración del control motor de las acciones
localización del dolor, hiperalgesia, alodinia mecánica (Katsarava et al., 2002; Kaube et
al., 2002; Sessle, 1999, 2002, 2011) y una disfunción de la activación del sistema
inhibitorio descendente (King et al., 2009; Maixner et al., 1998; Sarlani et al., 2004)
La recepción de los estímulos nociceptivos por las neuronas de segundo orden del CTC
and Goadsby, 2003b; Sessle, 1999, 2000), se ha demostrado que la manipulación de las
2004; Knight and Goadsby, 2001; Knight et al., 2002), el núcleo magno del rafe
(Edelmayer et al., 2009) y el bulbo rostroventral (Lambert et al., 2008) pueden modular
(Fields et al., 1991) (Figura 11), sin embargo es importante destacar que la activación
dolor crónico (Porreca et al., 2002; Ren and Dubner, 2002; Sugiyo et al., 2005; Venegas
41
et al., 2009). Otros estudios en donde se ha estimulado químicamente la región posterior
del hipotálamo han demostrado que esta región también influye en la modulación
nociceptiva del CTC (Bartsch et al., 2005; Bartsch, Levy, et al., 2004).
Figura 11. Representación gráfica del sistema inhibitorio descendente y las estructuras implicadas en la modulación
de la actividad nociceptiva. SVc, sub-núcleo trigeminal cervical; NTE, núcleo trigeminal espinal; BRV, bulbo
rostroventral; vlPAG; área ventrolateral de la sustancia gris periacueductal; HT, hipotálamo; S1, corteza
somatosensorial primaria.
(Beitz, 1982; Beitz et al., 1987) que tienen una actuación en la modulación del dolor
(Mason and Fields, 1989). Por otra parte, se ha demostrado que en la médula espinal y
42
el bulbo rostroventral es la 5-HT (Beitz, 1982; Clatworthy et al., 1988; Fields et al.,
dolor inflamatorio persistente de la ATM que los receptores 5-HT3 en el CTC están
sobre el nervio occipital han sido de las más utilizadas en las últimas décadas, son
varios los estudios que se sugieren que la neuro-estimulación periférica del nervio
importante de los pacientes en los que se aplica este tratamiento (Jasper and Hayek,
2008; Lee and Huh, 2013; Saper et al., 2011; Serra and Marchioretto, 2012; Silberstein
et al., 2012; Slavin et al., 2006). Siguiendo con las intervenciones sobre el nervio
occipital, hay que destacar que Leroux y Ducros en una recientemente revisión de
esteroides con o sin adición de anestésicos locales sobre el nervio occipital en pacientes
de los ataques, sin embargo varios estudios describen que el dolor local tras la
43
intervención es un efecto secundario muy común pero no considerado grave (Leroux
and Ducros, 2013), en otra revisión narrativa se sugiere que la infiltración del nervio
occipital mayor presenta efectos positivos sobre los pacientes con migraña pero se
señala que estos datos se interpreten con precaución ya que se han extraído de estudios
con pobres diseños metodológicos (Ashkenazi and Levin, 2007). Posterior a esta
comprobar el efecto de una infiltración del nervio occipital mayor y de puntos gatillo de
músculos paravertebrales y del trapecio utilizando anestésicos locales con y sin cortico-
(Mellick and Mellick, 2003, 2008; Mellick et al., 2006) y en niños (Mellick and
et al., 2009) por otra parte, los efectos adversos descritos fueron pocos y la mayoría de
para modular el dolor en pacientes con cefalea han sido muy investigadas en las últimas
dos décadas, específicamente se debe destacar que un gran número de ensayos clínicos
44
muestran que la terapia manual, el ejercicio terapéutico o la combinación de ambas
con cefalea tensional y cefalea cervicogénica (Castien et al., 2011, 2012, 2013; Espí-
López and Gómez-Conesa, 2014; Espí-López et al., 2014; van Ettekoven and Lucas,
2006; Hall et al., 2007; Mongini et al., 2012; Ylinen et al., 2010).
45
46
JUSTIFICACIÓN
47
2. JUSTIFICACIÓN DEL TRABAJO REALIZADO
representan una de las zonas anatómicas más complejas del organismo, esta situación
que afectan a la región craneofacial como por ejemplo los TCM, las cefaleas y el dolor
es esencial para ayudar a los pacientes que presentan estos problemas (Graff-Radford,
2007).
modulación nociceptiva, así como los sistemas de clasificación del paciente y los
contar con más estudios que apoyen los hallazgos demostrados y que además terminen
de la región cervical sobre el DCF, por otra parte, creemos que es importante aclarar
Keluskar, 2012), sin embargo no contamos con evidencia científica suficiente que
en los pacientes con TCM, este es uno de los motivos centrales que justifica esta tesis
48
doctoral y que nos lleva a plantear diversos objetivos entorno a esta cuestión.
limitaciones que presentan los estudios y los abordajes clínicos basados en modelos
del DCF (Reid and Greene, 2013), en una parte de esta tesis hemos intentado contestar
determinación de la experiencia del dolor para los pacientes (Carlson, 2008; Shephard et
al., 2014).
49
50
OBJETIVOS
51
3. OBJETIVOS
crónico.
Jan;27(1):48-55
52
Assessment in Asymptomatic Subjects and Chronic Neck/craniofacial Pain
sensoriomotora trigeminal.
revision)
craneofacial crónico.
53
Minimal Detectable Change of Two Tests for Craniocervical Posture
Feb;17(1):95-108.
Feb;17(1):95-108.
54
with Headache Attributed to Temporomandibular Disorders. 2014 (En
revision)
effects of manual therapy and exercise directed at the cervical spine on pain
Mar;29(3):205-15.
55
56
MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
57
4. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
Se realizaron un total de 7 estudios con diferentes diseños metodológicos (Tabla 2). Los
TCM (Estudios II, III, IV y V), una clínica universitaria de la Comunidad de Madrid
(Estudios II, III y V). Los procedimientos utilizados en las investigaciones de esta tesis
doctoral se realizaron bajo las directrices de la Declaración del Helsinki. Todos los
comenzar con las investigaciones y estas fueron aprobadas previamente por los
respectivos comités de ética locales. Una visión general de los diseños de estudio,
intervenciones.
muestra (19 mujeres; 10 (32 mujeres; 28 (13 mujeres; 10 (132 mujeres; 60 (26 mujeres; 15 (14 mujeres; 5 (10 mujeres; 5
N=39 GC
(26 mujeres; 13
hombres)
Características de Pacientes con TCM/ GE= pacientes con GE=dolor de Pacientes con GE1=Cefalea Pacientes con Pacientes con
los Participantes dolor miofascial TCM/ dolor miofascial cuello crónico DCF atribuida a TCM TCM/ dolor TCM/ dolor
58
crónico crónico y dolor de cuello mecánico a.TCM/ dolor con moderada miofascial miofascial
d.Cefalea discapacidad
tensional cervical
e. Migraña GC=Sujetos
asintomáticos
Media y Desviación 34.69 ±10.83 GE=41,7±11,7 GE=28±5 46±13.06 GE1=44.31±10.9 37±10 GE=33,19±9,49
GC=40.61±10.01
Diseño del Estudio Estudio prospectivo Estudio prospectivo Estudio Estudio Estudio Estudio Ensayo clínico
transversal de un
diseño de un
cuestionario
ECD
TSK-11
de la región antero-posterior
cervical de la región
movilización
postero-anterior
de C5)
-ETCM
Abreviaturas: TCM, trastornos craneomandibulares; DCF, dolor craneofacial; DCCF, dolor cérvico-craneofacial; UDP, umbral de
59
dolor a la presión; MAI, máxima apertura interincisal; EVA, escala visual analógica del dolor; END, escala numérica del dolor; GE,
grupo experimental; GC, grupo control; IDC, índice de dolor cervical; IDD-CF, inventario de dolor y discapacidad craneofacial;
BDI, inventario de depresión Beck; STAI, cuestionario de ansiedad estado-rasgo; HIT-6, cuestionario de impacto de la cefalea;
ECD; escala de catastrofismo ante el dolor; TSK-11, escala de Tampa de Kinesiofobia; EVAF, escala visual analógica de fatiga;
TMO, terapia manual ortopédica; ETCM, ejercicio terapéutico de control motor; CP, conductancia de la piel; FC, frecuencia
4.1 Participantes
al., 2010), aunque es importante mencionar que además se establecieron otros criterios
LeResche, 1992; Schiffman et al., 2010); b) dolor bilateral en los músculos masetero y
temporal; c) duración del dolor mayor a 6 meses; d) intensidad del dolor mayor a 30mm
El estudio III contó con una muestra de pacientes con dolor de cuello crónico mecánico
inespecífico. Conceptualmente esta dolencia se define como una afectación que presenta
de la musculatura cervical. Además los pacientes incluidos en este estudio tenían que
60
tener el dolor en un periodo superior a 6 meses. Los criterios de exclusión adoptados en
La muestra del estudio IV estuvo representada por pacientes con distintos tipos de DCF
como los siguientes, cefalea tensional, migraña, cefalea atribuida a TCM, artralgia y
dolor miofascial. Los criterios de inclusión fueron los siguientes: a) pacientes mayores
LeResche, 1992; Schiffman et al., 2010); d) presencia de los síntomas dolorosos de más
El estudio V fue conformado por pacientes con cefalea atribuida a TCM de acuerdo a
los criterios de la Clasificación Internacional de las Cefaleas (IHS, 2013) y los criterios
cervical (IDC) (Andrade Ortega et al., 2010), por otra parte se debe mencionar que en
cervical según el IDC (discapacidad leve y moderada) (Andrade Ortega et al., 2010).
Los criterios de exclusión adoptados en estos estudios fueron los siguientes: a) TCM
61
Criterios diagnósticos de investigación para TCM (Dworkin and LeResche, 1992;
Los estudios II y VII contaron con una muestra de pacientes con DCCF crónico, estos
(descrito en los estudios I y VI). Definimos DCCF como un dolor de origen muscular
cervical y craneofacial. Los criterios de exclusión adoptados en estos estudios fueron los
62
Variables Medidas Estudios
I II III IV V VI VII
Intensidad del dolor a. Escala visual X-a X-b X-a X-a X-a
b. Escala numérica de
dolor
b. Escala CMD
c.
un calibre digital.
b. Postura de cabeza
estado/rasgo
dolor
63
4.2.1 Medidas de auto-registro
compuesta por 13 ítems, cada ítem puntúa del 0 al 4. El rango de puntuación total se
Miedo al Movimiento
original que fueron psicométricamente pobres (Gómez-Pérez et al., 2011; Kori et al.,
1990). La puntuación total del TSK-11 se encuentra entre 11 – 44 puntos y cada ítem
al dolor. El TSK-11 tiene dos sub-escalas: evitación de actividad y daño, además esta
La intensidad del dolor se midió con la escala visual analógica del dolor (EVA). La
EVA consiste en una línea de 100 mm, en el que el lado izquierdo representa "ningún
dolor" y el lado derecho "el peor dolor imaginable". Los pacientes colocan una marca
donde se sentían que representan la intensidad del dolor. Se ha comprobado que este
64
En la medición de la intensidad del dolor también se utilizó la escala numérica del dolor
(END), esta escala presenta 11 puntos posibles representados en números del 0 (sin
dolor) al 10 (máximo dolor). Se ha demostrado que END presenta una buena fiabilidad
y validez en pacientes crónicos (Jensen and McFarland, 1993; Jensen et al., 1999).
Percepción de Fatiga
percibida. La EVAF consiste en una línea vertical de 100 mm en la que la parte inferior
Discapacidad Cervical
Ortega et al., 2010; Vernon and Mior, 1991). Este cuestionario consta de 10 ítems, con
6 posibles respuestas que representa 6 niveles de capacidad funcional, que van desde 0
(sin discapacidad) a 5 (discapacidad total) puntos. Las puntuaciones más altas indican
La versión española del HIT-6 (Bjorner et al., 2003; Gandek et al., 2003) consiste en un
cuestionario de seis ítems que evalúa la gravedad y el impacto del dolor de cabeza en la
vida del paciente. Los resultados de HIT-6 están estratificados en cuatro clases basadas
en el grado de impacto: poco o ningún impacto (HIT-6 puntuación de: 36-49), impacto
moderado (HIT-6 puntuación de: 50-55), impacto sustancial (HIT-6 puntuación de: 56-
59), y el impacto severo (HIT-6 puntuación de: 60-78) (Bjorner et al., 2003). El HIT-6
65
ha demostrado propiedades psicométricas aceptables (Martin et al., 2004).
Síntomas de Ansiedad
and Lushene, 1982). Consta de 2 escalas independientes, una escala de ansiedad estado
y una escala de ansiedad rasgo, con 20 puntos cada uno, lo que resulta en una
Las escalas de estado y rasgo evalúan la ansiedad como un estado emocional actual y
1982).
Síntomas Depresivos
presenta adecuadas propiedades psicométricas (Penley et al., 2003; Wiebe and Penley,
2005)
como se pueda sin dolor. Esta distancia se mide en milímetros entre el incisivo superior
y el incisivo inferior. La MAI se midió con la escala TheraBite (Model CPT 95851;
Atos Medical AB; Sweden) y con la escala craneomandibular (Escala CMD. Patente.
66
(ICC = 0,95 - 0,96) (Beltran-Alacreu et al., 2014).
compuesto por un cabezal de goma (1 cm2) unido a un manómetro, se utilizó para medir
UDPs (Figura 13). La presión ejercida se mide en kilogramos (kg); por lo tanto, los
promedio de las 3 mediciones se calculó para obtener un único valor para cada uno de
los puntos medidos en cada una de las evaluaciones. Los UDPs se evaluaron en varios
de algometría tiene alta fiabilidad intra-evaluador (ICC = 0,94 a 0,97) para la medición
67
de los UDPs (Walton et al., 2011).
Figura 13. Medición del umbral de dolor a la presión con el algómetro digital.
Figura 14. Puntos de áreas trigeminales y cervicales en donde se midieron los umbrales de dolor a la presión en los
diferentes estudios.
Postura Craneocervical
Utilizamos el dispositivo CROM para medir la postura de cabeza (PC). Este dispositivo
68
tiene tres partes: a) una estructura plástica con forma de gafas; b) tres inclinómetros,
uno para cada plano de movimiento; y c) un brazo plástico para medir la de cabeza
graduada en el instrumento en 0,5 cm, que indican la distancia horizontal entre el puente
dispositivo está hecho de plástico con una pantalla LCD de 5 dígitos y se puede medir
El evaluador explica en primer lugar que la medición se llevará a cabo mientras está
69
acostado en una camilla. En este momento, el evaluador mostró los calibradores
digitales al tema y dijo: "Usted sentirá que el instrumento contactará con su esternón y
en la barbilla; en ese momento no se debe mover”. Una vez en su lugar, la medición fue
Estudio I
y protracción craneocervical)
Estudio II
Se seleccionaron a los pacientes y los sujetos asintomáticos del grupo control, después
70
Estudio III
Estudio IV
dolor y discapacidad.
Estudio V
Estudio VI
Estudio VII
71
4.4 Análisis Estadístico
las variables continuas que se presentan como media ± desviación típica (DT), intervalo
se utilizó para comparar las diferencian entre las variables categóricas (nominales). Se
Se utilizó la t de Student para la comparar las variables continuas entre los dos grupos.
Cuando las comparaciones se realizaron con más de dos grupos o se intentó analizar la
interacción con otras variables se aplicó una ANOVA de una, dos o tres vías según
procediese, seguido de un test post hoc de Bonferroni para analizar las comparaciones
múltiples. En uno de los estudios se realizó un análisis con una ANCOVA de dos vías
Se calculó el tamaño del efecto (d de Cohen) para las variables principales estudiadas.
De acuerdo con el método de Cohen, la magnitud del efecto fue considerado como
pequeño (0,20 a 0,49), medio (0,50 a 0,79), y grande (0,8) (Cohen, 1988).
factores para la extracción se basa en el criterio de valor propio de Kaiser (valor propio
≥1) y la evaluación del gráfico de sedimentación (Ferguson and Cox, 1993). La calidad
identidad y debe ser <0,05 (Bartlett, 1954). La prueba de KMO mide el grado de
multicolinealidad y varía entre 0 y 1 (debe ser mayor que 0,50-0,60) (Kaiser, 1974).
72
indican los puntajes mínimos y máximos posibles en los cuestionarios. El efecto suelo-
techo se considera que está presente si más del 15% de los encuestados logró el mayor o
buena fiabilidad: ICC ≥ 0,75; fiabilidad moderada: ICC ≥ 0,50 y <0,75; y escasa
entre las dos medidas refleja un cambio real y no un error de medición (Haley and
Pinkham, 2006).
Pearson. Un coeficiente de correlación de Pearson mayor que 0,60 indica una fuerte
correlación, un valor entre 0,30 y 0,60 indica una correlación moderada, y uno por
debajo de 0,30 indica una correlación baja o muy baja (Hinkle et al., 1988). También se
asociaciones entre los resultados variables primarias (variables criterio) con las
73
(FIV) para determinar si existían problemas de multicolinealidad en cualquiera de los
modelos analizados.
variable de predicción incluida en los modelos finales reducidas para permitir una
variable criterio que se está estudiando. Para el análisis de regresión, se utilizó la regla
los estudios.
El programa estadístico para Ciencias Sociales (SPSS 21, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL
EE.UU.) se utilizó para el análisis estadístico. El nivel de significación para todas las
74
Tabla 4. En esta tabla se puede observar las pruebas estadísticas utilizadas en cada uno
de los estudios.
I II III IV V VI VII
- Análisis descriptivo X X X X X X X
- t de student X X X
- ANOVA X X X X X
- ANCOVA X
- Efecto suelo-techo X
75
76
RESULTADOS
77
5. RESULTADOS
5.1 Estudio I
pressure pain threshold in patients with myofascial temporomandibular pain disorders. Clin
Resultados
musculares con inervación trigeminal [masetero (M1 y M2) y temporal anterior (T1)] entre
realizadas día a día fue buena, presentando un coeficiente de correlación intra-clase en los
rangos de 0,89-0,94 y 0,92 hasta 0,94 para UDP y la MAI, respectivamente, entre las
Conclusiones
craneocervicale.
78
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
convergent afferent inputs mentioned above might play a (6) current or recent therapy for the disorder within the
considerable role. Further, it is noteworthy that changes in previous 2 months.
head posture can alter the position of the mandible28,29 and Each participant received a thorough explanation
the activity of the masticatory muscles.30 Higbie et al31 about the content and purpose of the treatment before
demonstrated increased mouth opening in a forward head signing an informed consent relative to the procedures. All
position as compared with the neutral or retracted head procedures were approved by the local ethics committee in
position, in healthy individuals. Furthermore, postural and accordance with the Helsinki Declaration.
deep cervical flexor training as well as cervical manual
therapy have been shown to improve TMD signs and Experimental Procedures
symptoms.21,32,33 Each patient with myofascial TMD pain were
Although Visscher et al27 did obtain a wide range subjected to a protocol for assessing maximum active
of head postures in both patients with craniomandibular opening and PPT in 3 different cranio-cervical postures as
dysfunction and healthy ones, their results data did not follows and illustrated in Figure 1:
support the suggestion that craniomandibular dysfunction
is related to abnormal head posture, even in the presence of Neutral head posture (NHP) defined as the position
cervical spine dysfunction. On the basis of their findings, assumed when the individual was told to sit and maintain
Olivo et al34 found that the association between head and their head in a vertical position. This position was further
cervical posture with intra-articular or muscular TMD is confirmed as neutral if the tragus of the ear and acromion
not clear. were bisected by a plumb line.
Given the conflict in the literature as to whether there Forward head posture (FHP) defined as anterior
is an association between head posture might be related translation of the head with or without lower cervical
to craniofacial signs and symptoms; the aim of this study is flexion. It is claimed that the FHP is associated with an
to assess the influence of cranio-cervical posture on the increase in upper-cervical extension.37,38
maximal mouth opening (MMO) and pressure pain thresh- Retracted head posture (RHP) defined as posterior
old (PPT) of the trigeminal region in patients with translation of the head over the trunk associated with
myofascial TMD pain. upper cranio-cervical flexion and extension of the low-
to-mid cervical spine.39
MATERIALS AND METHODS All measurements were conducted by 2 physiothera-
Patients pists who had experience in research evaluations, one in
TMD patients were recruited from November 2008 to charge of placing the patient in the measurement position
March 2009 and were referred from 3 private dental clinics and the other responsible for the recording of MMO
in Madrid, Spain. Patients were selected if they met all of and PPT. All patients underwent 3 measurements of each
the following criteria: (1) a primary diagnosis of myofascial variable in the 3 head positions on 3 different days. A
pain as defined by the Axis I, category Ia and Ib (ie, washout period of 24 hours was incorporated between each
myofascial pain with or without limited opening), of the measurement day.
RDC/TMD,2 (2) bilateral pain involving the masseter and A software program was used to obtain blocked
temporalis, (3) a duration of pain of at least 6 months, (4) a randomization of the size to arrange the order of measure-
pain intensity corresponding to a weekly average of at least ment (GraphPad Software, Inc, CA). An average of 15
30 mm on a 100 mm visual analog scale, and (5) a presence minutes per patient was required to perform the random-
of bilateral TrPs in both the masseter and temporalis ized measurements of MMO and PPT in NHP, FHP, and
muscles diagnosed following the criteria described by RHP. Every patient maintained their head in each position
Simons et al.35 TrPs were diagnosed according to the for 5 seconds during these measurements.
following criteria: (1) presence of a palpable taut band in
skeletal muscle, (2) presence of a hypersensitive tender spot Establishment of the Measurement Positions
within the taut band, (3) local twitch response elicited by A plumb line hanging from the ceiling and a cervical
the snapping palpation of the taut band, and (4) reproduc- range of motion (CROM) device (Performance Attainment
tion of referred pain in response to TrP compression. These Associates, 958 Lydia DR, Roseville, MN) was used
criteria have shown good interrater reliability (k) ranging to determine each patients’ cranio-cervical postures. The
from 0.84 to 0.88.36 CROM instrument measured the degree of FHP or RHP
All patients included in the study were examined by and the active cervical range of movement. The CROM
an experienced TMD specialist, with more than 4 years of instrument uses a clear plastic eyeglass-like frame with 2
clinical practice, from the University Center of Clinical dial-angle meters, a head arm that includes a vertebral
Research of the Cranial-Cervical-Mandibular System, locator and bubble leveller (Fig. 2). The head arm was
Faculty of Medicine, San Pablo CEU University. placed in the frame of the CROM horizontally to the head.
Patients were excluded if they presented any signs, The base of the vertebral locator was placed on the C-7
symptoms, or history of the following diseases: (1) intra- spinous process so that the bubble leveller was centered
articular disc displacement, ostheoarthrosis, or arthritis of within the 2 vertical lines on the dial with the examiner
the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), according to cate- standing to the left of the patient to read the sagittal plane
gories II and III of the RDC/TMD2; (2) history of trauma- meter (Fig. 2). When the sagittal plane meter read zero and
tic injuries (eg, contusion, fracture, and whiplash injury); with the head arm horizontal (parallel to the floor), the
(3) systemic diseases: (fibromyalgia, systemic lupus erythe- intersection of the head arm and vertebral locator was
matosus, and psoriatic arthritis); (4) neurologic disorders recorded as the head posture measurement in centimeters.
(eg, trigeminal neuralgia); (5) concomitant diagnosis of Excellent reliability has been showed for the measurement
any primary headache (tension type or migraine); and of FHP using the CROM instrument [intrarater reliability
FIGURE 1. Measurement of maximum mouth opening with TheraBite, controlling the head position with the CROM device and plum
line: A, retracted head posture. B, Forward head position. Measurement of pressure pain thresholds at masseter and temporalis muscles
with a mechanical algometer, controlling head position with CROM device: C, forward head position. D, Neutral head position. CROM
indicates cervical range of motion.
(interclass correlation coefficient, ICC=0.93) and interrater told to “slide your jaw and head forward until the examiner
reliability (ICC=0.83)].40 tells you to stop” upon reaching the target plum line (Fig. 1).
Cranio-cervical postures were measured in the sitting Movement into a RHP was also performed with the
position attained by instructing the patient to sit in a CROM by instruction to position the head posteriorly in
comfortable upright position with the thoracic spine in a horizontal plane allowing the tragus to be aligned to the
contact with the back of the chair. The feet were positioned target plumb line placed 4 cm posterior to the base plumb
flat on the floor with knees and hips at 90 degrees and arms line. Each patient was instructed to continually maintain
resting freely alongside. their eyes at the same horizontal level while being told to
Forward and retruded head postures were achieved by “slide your jaw and head backward until the examiner tells
initial placement into the NHP using the plumb line as you to stop” upon reaching the target plum line (Fig. 1).
explained earlier. Movement into a FHP was performed
with the CROM after verbal instruction to position the Measurement of MMO
head forward in a horizontal plane allowing the tragus to be The MMO was measured with a TheraBite range of
aligned to a target plumb line placed 8 cm anterior to the motion scale (Model CPT 95851; Atos Medical AB;
base plumb line. Each patient was instructed to continually Sweden) (Fig. 2). The patients were told to: “Open your
maintain their eyes at the same horizontal level while being mouth as wide as possible without causing pain or
FIGURE 2. Description and representation of measurement devices: TheraBite scale (A); CROM device: plastic eyeglass-like frame with 2
dial-angle meters (B), head arm (C), and vertebral locator and bubble leveller (D).
RESULTS
The general demographic data and pain-related data
are shown in Table 1. Figure 4 represents the study sample
size and the reasons for exclusion of the patients. All the
patients who started the study were analyzed, and there
were no dropouts or losses.
51 patients screened
3,50
TABLE 2. Descriptive and Intrarater Reliability Statistics for * * *
* * * NHP
Measurements of MMO in Patients With Myofascial TMD Pain 3,00 * * RHP
(N=29) in the 3 Cranio-cervical Postures * * FHP
2,50
PPT (kg/cm2)
Posture Mean±SD 95% CI ICC 95% CI for ICC SEM
2,00
NHP 40.8±3.12 39.69-42.07 0.93 0.89-0.96 0.78
RHP 36.8±3.6 35.69-38.25 0.93 0.85-0.96 0.92 1,50
FHP 43.7±2.93 42.58-44.81 0.94 0.90-0.97 0.68
1,00
CI indicates confidence interval; FHP, forward head posture; ICC,
intraclass correlation coefficient; MMO, maximal mouth opening; NHP, 0,50
neutral head posture; RHP, retracted head posture; SEM, standard error of
the measurement; TMD, temporomandibular disorders. 0,00
M1 M2 T1
TABLE 3. Descriptive Statistics for Measurements of PPT (kg/cm2) in Patients With Myofascial TMD Pain (N=29)
NHP RHP FHP
Measurement Points Mean±SD 95% CI Mean±SD 95% CI Mean±SD 95% CI
M1 2.2±0.61 1.97-2.44 1.91±0.52 1.71-2.11 1.73±0.48 1.55-1.92
M2 2.4±0.61 2.17-2.64 2.1±0.55 1.91-2.35 1.91±0.55 1.7-2.12
T1 2.43±0.58 2.2-2.65 2±0.58 1.84-2.28 1.82±053 1.62±2
CI indicates confidence interval; FHP, forward head posture; NHP, neutral head posture; PPT, pressure pain threshold; RHP, retracted head posture; SD,
standard deviation; TMD, temporomandibular disorders.
TABLE 4. Intrarater Reliability Statistics for Measurements of PPT in Patients With Myofascial TMD Pain (N=29) in the 3 Cranio-cervical
Postures
NHP RHP FHP
Measurement Points ICC 95% CI for ICC SEM ICC 95% CI for ICC SEM ICC 95% CI for ICC SEM
M1 0.93 0.87-0.96 0.16 0.9 0.82-0.94 0.16 0.93 0.87-0.96 0.12
M2 0.91 0.84-0.95 0.18 0.92 0.86-0.96 0.16 0.92 0.87-0.96 0.15
T1 0.89 0.82-0.94 0.19 0.94 0.89-0.97 0.14 0.92 0.86-0.96 0.13
CI indicates confidence interval; FHP, forward head posture; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; NHP, neutral head posture; PPT, pressure pain
threshold; RHP, retracted head posture; SD, standard deviation; SEM, standard error of the measurement; TMD, temporomandibular disorders.
patients there seemed to be an increase in the retrodiscal theoretical reflections and future research needs to prove
space and decrease in the distance between the shoulder and whether postural changes truly alter the nociceptive trigem-
external auditory meatus. Therefore, an improved condyle inal mechanism.
fossa relationship was apparent as the resting condylar
position became more anterior in conjunction with a Study Limitations
reduction of the FHP. The results of this study must be taken with caution
Recent evidence and the results of this study support the because the objective measurements were performed in
existence of a relationship between the biomechanical action an experimentally forced posture and not a natural one. It
of the cranio-cervical region and jaw movements, but our would also be interesting to determine in future research
results do not show the degree of clinical implication that the whether the PPT is modified with different natural postures
different postures have specific to intrinsic TMJ disorders. and whether postural alterations may affect or may be an
aggravating factor in the development of orofacial pain. It
PPT is also important to state that our participant sample only
Our findings show that PPT values modify depending included patients with myofascial TMD. Therefore, it is
upon the head posture in which they are measured. This imperative that future research apply the same method-
variability could be because of increased excitability of ology with healthy individuals and other cohorts of TMD
the trigeminal muscular nociceptors induced by different to determine whether the results can be replicated.
cranio-cervical postures within which the PPT was mea-
sured. In relation to orofacial nociception, an interaction Clinical Implications
between somatosensory processing and sensory-motor The anatomic and physiological interaction between
function is supported by our data.52 the cranio-cervical and temporomandibular regions as
The results of our research cannot determine the showed in this research supports the concept of a functional
reason by which the PPT decreases in the RHP and FHP as trigeminocervical coupling during jaw activities that influ-
compared with the NHP values. However, if our data ences the inherent modifications that we observed in MMO
is added to the findings of others it may lead to the and PPT. This factor must be taken into account during
development of different theories that offer additional patient evaluation to control for variations in measurement.
explanations. We suggest that the PPT variations may be The methodology that we used can result in a more
because of experimental biomechanical modifications of structured assessment of the MMO and PPT in neutral
muscle and soft tissue that were produced when the patients position, within which we observed that average values were
tried to hold the FHP and the RHP, which generated obtained with excellent intrarater reliability. Postural treat-
augmented electromyography (EMG) activity and masti- ment has already been shown to be useful for reducing TMD
catory reflexes. Modification of the activity produced at myofascial pain and improving MMO.33,60 We have demon-
each of the aforementioned postures could be causing PPT strated experimentally that pain thresholds at the trigeminal
alteration. Furthermore, increased jaw-reflex activity may area can be modified only by changing the cranio-cervical
be triggered by enhanced fusimotor drive, thereby elevating posture. As PPT values diminish in FHP and RHP, it would
muscle spindle discharge resulting in reflex facilitation. be useful to consider new therapeutic strategies to improve
Elevated fusimotor drive may in turn lead to increased TMJ the cranio-cervical posture toward a NHP and future
stiffness and pain. Earlier research has supported the research should determine whether postural treatments can
premise that experimental pain can augment masticatory help to modulate pain in myofascial TMD patients.
reflex activity.53–56
A recent study has shown that masseteric EMG
activity increases in the presence of a forced FHP.48 In CONCLUSIONS
addition, EMG changes in the suprahyoid muscles have The results of this study shows that the experimental
been observed in experimentally induced FHP.57 However, induction of different cranio-cervical postures influences
in direct contrast, earlier studies have found increased the MMO and PPT values of masticatory and joint func-
masticatory EMG activity in head extension,58 which is tion of the temporomandibular complex. Our observations
a component of the RHP. Johansson and Sojka59 have support the concept of a biomechanical relationship and
proposed a model to explain the spread of muscle pain interaction within the trigeminocervical complex as well as
based on the g-motoneuron system in which muscle stiffness inherent nociceptive processing in different cranio-cervical
and pain are increased by enhanced activity of primary postures. Why or how postural modifications influence the
muscle spindle afferents. This hypothesis may explain some PPT and MMO values are issues that are beyond the scope
of the results of this study, however, such thoughts are only of this study.
42. Chesterson LS, Sim J, Wright CC, et al. Inter-rater reliability 52. Sessle BJ. Mechanisms of oral somatosensory and motor
of algometry in measuring pressure pain thresholds in healthy functions and their clinical correlates. J Oral Rehabil. 2006;33:
humans, using multiple raters. Clin J Pain. 2007;23:760–766. 243–261.
43. Eriksson PO, Zafar H, Nordh E. Concomitant mandibular and 53. Svensson P, Macaluso GM, De Laat A, et al. Effects of local
head-neck movements during jaw opening-closing in man. and remote muscle pain on human jaw reflexes evoked by fast
J Oral Rehabil. 1998;25:859–870. stretches at different clenching levels. Exp Brain Res.
44. Zafar H, Nordh E, Eriksson PO. Temporal coordination 2001;139:495–502.
between mandibular and head-neck movements during jaw 54. Wang K, Svensson P, Arendt-Nielsen L. Effect of tonic muscle
opening-closing tasks in man. Arch Oral Biol. 2000;45:675–682. pain on short-latency jaw-stretch reflexes in humans. Pain.
45. Häggman-Henrikson B, Nordh E, Zafar H, et al. Head 2000;88:189–197.
immobilization can impair jaw function. J Dent Res. 2006;85: 55. Wang K, Arendt-Nielsen L, Svensson P. Excitatory actions of
1001–1005. experimental muscle pain on early and late components of
46. Visscher CM, Huddleston Slater JJ, Lobbezoo F, et al. human jaw stretch reflexes. Arch Oral Biol. 2001;46:433–442.
Kinematics of the human mandible for different head postures. 56. Wang K, Arendt-Nielsen L, Svensson P. Capsaicin-induced
J Oral Rehabil. 2000;27:299–305. muscle pain alters the excitability of the human jawstretch
47. Ohmure H, Miyawaki S, Nagata J, et al. Influence of forward head reflex. J Dent Res. 2002;81:650–654.
posture on condylar position. J Oral Rehabil. 2008;35:795–800. 57. Milidonis MK, Kraus SL, Segal RL, et al. Genioglossi muscle
48. Rocabado M. Arthrokinematics of the temporomandibular activity in response to changes in anterior/neutral head
joint. Dent Clin North Am. 1983;27:573–594. posture. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1993;103:39–44.
49. Hackney J, Bade D, Clawson A. Relationship between forward 58. Funakoshi M, Fujita N, Takehana S. Relations between
head posture and diagnosed internal derangement of the occlusal interference and jaw muscle activities in response to
temporomandibular joint. J Orofac Pain. 1993;7:386–390. changes in head position. J Dent Res. 1976;55:684–690.
50. Munhoz WC, Marques AP, de Siqueira JT. Evaluation of body 59. Johansson H, Sojka P. Pathophysiological mechanisms in-
posture in individuals with internal temporomandibular joint volved in genesis and spread of muscular tension in occupa-
derangement. Cranio. 2005;23:269–277. tional muscle pain. Med Hypotheses. 1991;135:196–203.
51. Olmos SR, Kritz-Silverstein D, Halligan W, et al. The effect of 60. Komiyama O, Kawara M, Arai M, et al. Posture correction as
condyle fossa relationships on head posture. Cranio. 2005;23: part of behavioural therapy in treatment of myofascial pain
48–52. with limited opening. J Oral Rehabil. 1999;26:428–435.
La Touche R. Reliability, Standard Error, and Minimal Detectable Change of Two Tests for
Nuestro objetivo fue examinar la fiabilidad de dos mediciones para evaluar la postura
craneocervical (PC y DME). Además, se evaluó una posible asociación entre las variables
postura craneocervical entre sujetos asintomáticos y pacientes con dolor cérvico- craneofacial.
Resultados
pacientes DCCF (CCI = 0,93 y 0,81, respectivamente) y para DME (rango CCI entre 0,78-0,99).
La fiabilidad intra-evaluador se mantuvo alta cuando se evaluó 9 días más tarde. Los resultados
de fiabilidad inter-evaluador fue alta para la PC (rango CCI entre 0,94 a 0,96) y fue justa para la
DME (rango CCI entre 0,78 a 0,79). El EEM de PC fue de 0,41 hasta 0,75 cm, mientras que el
MCD fue 0,96 a 1,74 cm. El SEM para la DME fue 1,61 a 7,06 mm, mientras que el MCD fue
3,76 a 16,47 mm. Se observó una correlación positiva moderada en ambos grupos entre HP y
SCD (sujetos asintomáticos, r = 0,447; pacientes con DCCF, r = 0,52). Análisis realizado con
una t de student mostró diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los grupos para las
medidas de la postura craneocervical, pero estas diferencias eran muy pequeñas. Se encontró
Conclusiones
Las mediciones para evaluar la postura craneocervical son fiables cuando se realizan por uno o
87
Reliability, Standard Error, and Minimal Detectable Change of Two Tests for
The study protocol was approved by the local ethics committee of the Center for
Advanced Studies University La Salle, Madrid (Spain).
1
Reliability, Standard Error, and Minimal Detectable Change of Two Tests for
ABSTRACT
PURPOSE:
patients with neck and craniofacial pain to facilitate diagnosis and determine
treatment strategies. There is insufficient research regarding the intra-rater and inter-
Digital Calliper.
OBJETIVE:
METHODS:
asymptomatic adult subjects and 60 CCFP patients who volunteered for the study.
Two raters measured head posture (HP) and the sternomental distance (SMD) using
RESULTS:
Intra-rater reliability of the HP measurement was high for asymptomatic subjects and
and for SMD (ICC range between 0.78-0.99), the intra-rater reliability remained high
2
when evaluated 9 days later. Inter-rater reliability was high for HP (ICC range
between 0.94-0.96) and fair for SMD (ICC range between 0.78-0.79). The HP
standard error of measurement (SEM) was 0.41–0.75cm while the minimal detectable
change (MDC) was 0.96–1.74cm. The SMD SEM was 1.61-7.06mm while the MDC
was 3.76-16.47mm. A moderate positive correlation for both groups was observed
between groups for measures of craniocervical posture, but these differences were
very small. No statistically significant correlations between the HP and SMD with the
CONCLUSION:
The CROM device and Digital Calliper were reliable means of measuring HP and
SMD when performed by two or one raters in asymptomatic subjects and CCFP
patients.
KEYWORDS:
INTRODUCTION
The optimal position of the head is the one in which the cranium is not inclined,
retracted, rotated, or extended. This position minimizes the muscle forces needed to
compensate the tendency of the head to tilt forward.[1] Currently, many professions
(office workers, clerks, carriers, etc.) require workers to spend much of their work day
sitting. In this situation one may adopt an excessive forward head posture (FHP).[2]
3
This head posture (HP) may occur due to a front translation of the head, a flexion of
the lower cervical spine, or both, and is also associated with an increase in extension
of the upper cervical spine.[3] It has been suggested that FHP increases the
compressive forces of the cervical zygapophyseal joint and those in the rear of the
vertebrae,[4] causing changes in the length and strength of the connective tissue
leading to stretching of the anterior neck structures and shortening of the posterior
neck pain to facilitate the diagnosis and determine treatment strategies. In addition, it
is very important to monitor a patient’s progress.[5] This growing interest around the
importance of the HP by researchers and clinicians is due to the belief that FHP is
associated with the development and persistence of certain disorders, such as cervical
craniofacial pain.[8] Regarding the association between the FHP and pain, there are
patients with neck pain versus asymptomatic subjects,[9] while others do not.[10]
Attempts have been made to quantify FHP in many ways, both objectively and
among others.
The CROM was designed to measure cervical range of motion but it can also measure
protraction and retraction of the head.[14] In the trial conducted by Garret et al.[14],
HP was measured in a sitting position with the CROM. The authors found high intra-
4
examiner reliability (ICC=0.93) while inter-examiner reliability was good
(ICC=0.83).
hypothesize a direct association between the SMD and the HP. We found only two
studies that evaluated the SMD, but they did not association it with HP.[15, 16]
measurement of HP using the CROM, therefore our purpose was to examine this
METHODS
Study design
design. This study was planned and conducted in accordance with the Guidelines for
Sample size
Sample size was calculated using the method described by Walter et al.[18]. This
Correlation Coefficient (ICC). The minimally acceptable ICC value (ρ1 = 0.7) versus
an alternative ICC reflecting the expected value (ρ1 = 0.8) was chosen. To obtain a
power of 80% (β = 0.2) and significance level of 5%, we determined that a sample of
at least 53 healthy subjects was required for intra-rater and inter-rater reliability (two
sets of 2 measurements were performed each day for two days). In addition, under the
5
same conditions, we determined that a sample of at least 57 symptomatic subjects was
required for intra-rater reliability (1 set of 2 measurements were performed each day
for three days). To estimate sample size we used the Power Analysis & Sample Size
Subjects
university campus and the local community through flyers, posters, and social media.
18 and 65 years of age and must not have experienced: (1) neck or face pain during
data collection, or (2) a history of neck or face pain in the prior six months.
cervico-craniofacial pain patients. The sample was recruited two private clinics
(Madrid, Spain). A diagnosis of CCFP of muscular origin was the first inclusion
weakness and lack of endurance in the neck and jaw) that were exacerbated by
maintained postures and movement, generating pain at the cervical and craniofacial
regions [19]. The specific inclusion criteria were: a) signs of disability and pain in the
5 points on the Neck Disability Index (NDI)[22]; f) bilateral pain of the temporal,
masseter, suboccipital and trapezius muscles. Patients were excluded if they had any
6
"red flags,"[23] a rheumatologic disease, any type of cancer, cervical radiculopathy,
conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the
local ethics committee. Prior to their participation, subjects gave written informed
consent.
Evaluators
The assessments were made by two physical therapists with more than three years of
clinical experience using the CROM to measure range of movement (ROM) and head
session on how to use the Digital Calliper and how to measure the SMD.
Instrumentation
In this study we used the CROM equipped to measure the HP. The device used was
the CROM 3. It has the appearance of eyeglasses and is made from a lightweight
plastic with three inclinometers, one for each plane of motion. It is adjusted using a
hook-and-loop strap. The part of the device used to measure HP includes the forward
head arm and the vertebra locator. The forward head arm is equipped with a ruler
marked in 0.5 cm units, indicating the horizontal distance between the bridge of the
nose and the vertebra locator. The vertebra locator has a leveler bubble on top to
assist with accurate positioning. In this study the inclinometers were not used because
The digital calliper was used to quantify the SMD. The device is made of plastic with
a 5-digit LCD display, and can measure in inches or millimeters (mm) and with a
range of 0.01 mm to 150 mm. It also includes a ruler provided with a nonius, for
accurate measurement of lengths or angles. The one used for measuring length
comprised of a rule divided into equal parts on which a nonius slides such that n-1
7
divisions of the rule are divided into n equal parts of the nonius. It has two tips for
controlling internal and external measurements. The digital calliper is used for direct
Procedures
The assessments were made between May and June of 2012 in our university
laboratory for asymptomatic subjects and between July and September of 2014 for
symptomatic subjects. Each healthy subject visited the laboratory on two different
occasions separated by a space of 48 hours. On the first day, rater A performed the
first assessment followed by rater B. On the second day, rater B performed the first
1 and trial 2) and 9 days (between trial 2 and trial 3). In symptomatic subjects, the
assessment always was performed by the same rater. In both samples of subjects, each
rater used a data collection sheet on which to record the measurements. Before the
assessments, subjects removed eyeglasses, caps, and any jewelry. The measurements
in this study were taken twice, and the order in which they were performed was as
follows:
1. Head Posture
To quantify HP, the subjects were told to stay in the starting position: sitting in a chair
with a back rest, feet flat on the floor, and arms hanging alongside the body. The
evaluator placed the CROM on the subject’s head like a pair of eyeglasses and
adjusted it with the strap. The evaluator then located the spinous process of C7 and
placed the vertebra locator on it, adjusting the pressure until the subject indicated that
the pressure of the device was felt. Once the subject felt the pressure over C7, the
8
evaluator stated, “From this moment you should not move”. This was performed as a
Then the subject was asked to stand up and then sit back into the starting position.
The evaluator standing to the left side of the subject, found the spinous process of C7
and placed the vertebra locator such that it formed a 90° angle with the head arm of
the CROM with the bubble indicating the instrument was level (Figure 1. A). This
measurement was made twice, and between the first and the second measurements the
subjects were asked to stand up and sit back into the starting position again,
2. Sternomental Distance
The evaluator first explained to the subject that the measurement would take place
while lying on a couch. Also at this time the evaluator showed the Digital Calliper to
the subject and said: “You will notice contact on your sternum and on your chin; at
the moment you notice that you should not move.” When the subject understood the
statement and gave the evaluator permission to proceed, the subject was asked to lie
in a supine position on the couch, looking at the ceiling. When the subject was in
position the evaluator gave the instruction: “Don’t move your head.” Once in place,
the measurement was taken from the jugular notch of the sternum to the chin
protuberance (Figure 1. B). The measurement was taken twice between the subject
was instructed to roll to a right lateral position and then return to the supine position.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data were analysed with the SPSS statistical package (SPSS v.20.0; SPSS, Inc,
Chicago, IL). The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to analyze the normal
9
The intra-rater and inter-rater reliability was evaluated using the Intraclass Correlation
classification: good reliability, ICC ≥ 0.75; moderate reliability, ICC ≥ 0.50 and
two measurements and the standard deviation (SD) of the difference.[25] A 95% of
the differences is expected to be less than two SDs. The closer the mean difference
was to 0 and the smaller the SD of this difference, the better was the agreement.[25]
The Bland–Altman analysis was used to compare the values of HP and SMD obtained
by the two raters separately. Similarly, comparisons were made to confirm the
Altman analysis was performed using MedCalc for Windows, version 12.5.0.0
ICC is the reliability coefficient.[26] Measurement error is the systematic and random
error of a patient’s score that is not attributable to true changes in the construct to be
measured.[27]
Responsiveness was assessed using the Minimal Detectable Change (MDC). The
MDC90 expresses the minimal change required to be 90% confident that the observed
change between the two measures reflects real change and not measurement error.[28]
It is calculated as .[28]
The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to analyze the association between HP
and SMD in the two samples of subjects, also used to analyze the correlations
between the variables of disability with the data HP and SMD in patients with CCFP.
10
A Pearson correlation coefficient greater then 0.60 indicated a strong correlation,
between 0.30 and 0.60 indicated a moderate correlation, and below 0.30 indicated a
Finally, the independent t-test was used for the analysis of HP and SMD variables
(using the mean of the trial 1 and 2), comparing the collection data for the two
samples.
RESULTS
women; the subjects were between 18 and 53 years of age (mean=38.1, SD=10.5
were women; the subjects were between 19 and 61 years of age (mean=41.7, SD=11.7
both groups are presented. The group of symptomatic subjects presented a mean of
14.78 ±4.04 of neck disability and 16.30±7.11 of craniofacial disability. All variables
subjects were excluded from the study based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Asymptomatic subjects
The ICC value for intra-rater reliability of single measures separated by a space of 48
hours was 0.93 for HP and ranged from 0.95 to 0.99 for SMD. Descriptive statistics,
ICCs and associated 95% CIs, SEMs and MDC90 between each evaluator´s trials are
presented in Table 1.
ICC values for interrater reliability of single measures ranged from 0.78 to 0.79 for
SMD and from 0.94 to 0.96 for HP. Descriptive statistics, ICCs and associated 95%
CIs, SEMs, and MDC90 between each rater´s trials are presented in Table 1.
11
The Bland-Almand analysis for the intra-rater and inter-rater performances are shown
for assessement of HP and SMD in Table 2. The mean differences in all Bland-
Almand analysis were close to zero, suggesting that appropriate intra-rater and inter-
showed large variability, would indicate error and suggesting that SMD assessment is
The ICC value for intra-rater reliability of single measures separated by a space of 48
hours was 0.88 for HP and 0.79 for SMD. When the singles measures were separated
by a space of 9 days, the ICC value for intra-rater reliability was 0.81 for HP and 0.76
for SMD. Descriptive statistics, ICCs and associated 95% CIs, SEMs and MDC90
The Bland-Almand analysis for the intra-rater performances are shown for
analysis were close to zero, suggesting that appropriate intra-rater and inter-rater
large variability, would indicate error and suggesting that SMD assessment is reliable
between the HP and SMD with the disabilities variables. Neck disability is strong
12
Asymptomatic subjects versus chronic cervico-craniofacial pain patients
The independent t-test for comparison between the asymptomatic and symptomatic
samples, using the mean of the trial 1 and 2 (separated by 48 hours), found
mean differences and associated 95% CIs between the two samples are presented in
Table 5.
DISCUSSION
influence on the pathophysiology of the cervical region.[4, 30] Our results show
strong intra- and inter-rater reliability when measuring HP with the CROM device. As
for the examination of the SMD, results obtained with the Digital Calliper reflected
strong reliability.
instruments,[1, 11–13] but disadvantages were low reliability,[11, 31] high cost, and
radiological diagnosis was used, the risk of radiation exposure to the subject must be
considered.
In the literature we found only one study in which the intra- and inter-rater
intra and inter-rater reliability.[14] If we compare this data with our own, we find
strong intra-rater reliability in both investigations, while our inter-rater reliability was
superior to that obtained by Garrett et al.[14] for asymptomatic subjects but not for
similar samples. An important aspect to note is that the time did not influence the
13
intra-rater reliability and the results were very similar at 48 hours and 9 days later. It
has been suggested that a range of 2 to 14 days is generally acceptable for analyzing
test reliability.[34]
As we mentioned, the SMD measured by the Digital Calliper showed high intra-rater
reliability where it showed acceptable inter-rater reliability. Again, we find only one
article that mentions the SMD, but that investigation was designed to generate a
prediction rule for the degree of difficulty when performing a laryngoscopy.[15, 16]
(SD=1.50), whereas we found SMD to be between 107.5 and 113.57 of our study.
This difference could be explained by the fact that their measurement protocol was
performed measuring the cervical extension. It is also worth mentioning that the
measure was performed using a ruler with an accuracy of 5 mm rather than a Digital
Calliper with a resolution of 0.01 mm. We feel this fact supports a contention that our
We found the intra-rater MDC of HP varied from 1.27 cm to 1.74 cm but that the
inter-rater MDC was between 0.96 cm and 1.30 cm. We also found that the intra-rater
MDC of the SMD was between 3.76 mm and 14.55 mm while the inter-rater MDC
was between 16.13 mm and 16.47 mm. Is considered MDC the smallest quantity
above the SEM, although it should not be assumed that this change has reached the
craniocervical posture, the results show that there are statistically significant
differences between both groups, with higher measures in the group of CCFP,
however you have to take into account that the differences are very small and exceed
slightly the MDC in the HP measurement (mean difference -1.27 cm), nor for the
14
SMD (mean difference -5.01 mm), other studies have found similar results to ours,
asymptomatic subjects versus symptomatic subjects with neck pain [30] and
posture and disability variables, this result is supported by recent evidence [36, 37],
being this issue controversial.[38] We have found a strong correlation between neck
disability and craniofacial disability (r=0.79), other studies have also found similar
Furthermore, the Pearson correlation coefficient between HP and the SMD is 0.447
for asymptomatic subject and 0.56 for symptomatic subjects, suggesting a moderate
correlation. We believe this is the first study to determine this association; we found
that the previous studies measuring the SMD do not correlate it to HP. Thus, we can
assume that there is a relationship between HP in the sitting position and SMD in
Limitations
This study has several limitations that must be discussed. We agree with Garret et
al.[14] that a limitation exists in the head arm of the CROM in that it is marked in
increments of 0.5 cm, making it hard to determine a measurement when the indicator
is between two marks. We believe that the reliability and data collection could be
improved if the head arm was marked in mm. Lastly, we calculated the MDC but not
interest in clinical practice. We must remember that the MDC is not the same as the
associated with an external criteria that indicates when that change has occurred.[35]
We have not calculated the MCRC, so we do not know the grade of clinically
15
significant improvement. Future randomized controlled trials should identify
interventions that influence the HP and SMD, this could help assess the performance
of this test when subjected to clinical interventions and also with those results could
CONCLUSIONS
The CROM and the Digital Calliper are reliable instruments for measuring HP and the
correlation between HP and the SMD and strong correlation between neck disability
craniocervical posture and disability variables. We also believe further studies should
consider the MCRC and the influence of longer periods between examinations on the
measures.
16
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23. Greenhalgh S, Selfe J (2009) A qualitative investigation of Red Flags for serious
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19
FIGURES AND LEGENDS
Figure 1. A) Placement of CROM with the head arm for the measure of Head Posture
with the vertebra locator. B) Evaluator taking measure from the jugular notch of the
20
Figure 2. Scatter Diagram showing correlation between Head Posture and the
21
Table 1. Intra-rater and Inter-rater reliability and descriptive statistics for
measurements in asymptomatic subjects.
Rater A Rater B
Trial 1 Trial 2 ICC 95% SEM MDC90 Trial 1 Trial 2 ICC 95% SEM MDC90
(Mean (Mean 3,1 CI for (Mean (Mean 3,1 CI for
± SD) ± SD) ICC ± SD) ± SD) ICC
HP (cm) 18.97 ± 19.07 0.93 0.88 – 0.60 1.40 18.77 18.96 0.93 0.89 – 0.55 1.30
2.47 ± 2.19 0.96 ± 2.35 ± 2.19 0.96
SMD 108.50 109.03 0.99 0.98 – 1.61 3.76 105.07 107.54 0.95 0.85 – 2.75 6.42
(mm) ± 16.55 ± 0.99 ± ± 0.97
16.14 14.55 14.21
Trial 1 Trial 2
Rater A Rater ICC 95% SEM MDC90 Rater Rater ICC 95% SEM MDC90
(Mean B 3,1 CI for A B 3,1 CI for
± SD) (Mean ICC (Mean (Mean ICC
± SD) ± SD) ± SD)
HP (cm) 18.97 ± 18.77 0.94 0.90 – 0.56 1.30 19.07 18.96 0.96 0.93 – 0.41 0.96
2.47 ± 2.35 0.96 ± 2.19 ± 2.19 0.98
SMD 108.50 105.07 0.78 0.63 – 7.06 16.47 109.03 107.54 0.79 0.66 – 6.91 16.13
(mm) ± 16.55 ± 0.87 ± ± 0.87
14.55 16.14 14.21
22
Table 2. Statistical metrics from Bland-Altman analysis of the intra-rater and inter-
rater measurements in asymptomatic subjects.
Intra-rater
Rater A Rater B
Mean 95% CI for LOA (Lower Mean 95% CI for LOA (Lower
differences mean limit-Upper differences mean limit-Upper
± SD differences limit) ± SD differences limit)
HP (cm) -0.10 ± 0.85 -0.34 to 0.15 -1.76 to 1.57 -0.19 ± 0.79 -0.41 to 0.04 -1.73 to 1.36
SMD (mm) -0.53 ± 2.28 -1.18 to 0.12 -4.99 to 3.94 -2.47 ± 3.89 -3.58 to -1.37 -10.10 to 5.16
Inter-rater
Trial 1 Trial 2
HP (cm) 0.19 ± 0.79 -0.03 to 0.42 -1.35 to 1.74 0.10 ± 0.59 -0.06 to 0.27 -1.05 to 1.25
SMD (mm) 3.43 ± 9.99 0.59 to 6.27 -16.14 to 23 1.49 ± 9.78 -1.29 to 4.26 -17.68 to 20.65
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; HP, head posture; LOA, limits of agreement;
SMD, sternomental distance; SD, standard deviation.
23
Table 3. Intra-rater reliability and descriptive statistics for measurements in chronic
cervico-craniofacial pain patients.
Rater A
HP (cm) 20.40 ± 20.23 20.03 ± 0.88 0.80 – 0.54 1.27 0.81 0.70 – 0.75 1.74
1.50 ± 1.58 1.84 0.92 0.88
SMD 111.53 113.57 112.73 0.79 0.67 – 5.60 13.07 0.76 0.63 – 6.24 14.55
(mm) ± 12.41 ± ± 13.78 0.87 0.85
11.83
24
Table 4. Statistical metrics from Bland-Altman analysis of the intra-rater
measurements in chronic cervico-craniofacial pain patients.
Intra-rater
SMD (mm) -2.03 ± 7.92 -4.08 to 0.01 -17.56 to 13.49 0.83 ± 8.82 -1.45 to 3.11 -16.46 to 18.12
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; HP, head posture; LOA, limits of agreement;
SMD, sternomental distance; SD, standard deviation.
25
Table 5. Comparison between the asymptomatic subjects and chronic cervico-
craniofacial pain patients samples for measurements.
26
5.3 Estudio III
El objetivo del presente estudio fue investigar la sensibilización del trigémino en pacientes con
dolor de cuello crónico mecánico, además se observaron la interacción de los resultados con
Resultado
Los resultados mostraron que los niveles de UDPS son significativamente menores
bilateralmente sobre los puntos musculares del masetero, temporal, los del trapecio superior, y
también los puntos medidos en las articulaciones cigapofisiarias de C5-C6 (P <0,001), pero no
sobre los puntos del músculo tibial anterior (P = 0,4) en pacientes con dolor de cuello crónico
mecánico, en comparación con los controles. La magnitud de la disminución de los UDPs fue
mayor en la región cervical, en comparación con la región del trigeminal (P <0,01). Los UDPs
Conclusiones
pacientes con dolor de cuello crónico mecánico, lo que sugiere la difusión de la sensibilización a
la región del trigémino en esta población de pacientes. Los resultados de este estudio sugieren
que existe la presencia de un proceso de sensibilización del NCT en esta población. Este
114
The Journal of Pain, Vol 11, No 3 (March), 2010: pp 256-263
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate bilateral pressure-pain sensitivity over the tri-
geminal region, the cervical spine, and the tibialis anterior muscle in patients with mechanical chronic
neck pain. Twenty-three patients with neck pain (56% women), aged 20 to 37 years old, and 23
matched controls (aged 20 to 38 years) were included. Pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) were bilaterally
assessed over masseter, temporalis, and upper trapezius muscles, the C5-C6 zygapophyseal joint, and
the tibialis anterior muscle in a blinded design. The results showed that PPT levels were significantly
decreased bilaterally over the masseter, temporalis, and upper trapezius muscles, and also the C5-C6
zygapophyseal joint (P < .001), but not over the tibialis anterior muscle (P = .4) in patients with
mechanical chronic neck pain when compared to controls. The magnitude of PPT decreases was
greater in the cervical region as compared to the trigeminal region (P < .01). PPTs over the masseter
muscles were negatively correlated to both duration of pain symptoms and neck-pain intensity (P <
.001). Our findings revealed pressure-pain hyperalgesia in the trigeminal region in patients with
mechanical chronic neck pain, suggesting spreading of sensitization to the trigeminal region in
this patient population.
Perspective: This article reveals the presence of bilateral pressure-pain hypersensitivity in the
trigeminal region in patients with idiopathic neck pain, suggesting a sensitization process of the tri-
gemino-cervical nucleus caudalis in this population. This finding has implications for development of
management strategies.
ª 2010 by the American Pain Society
Key words: Neck pain, trigeminal sensitization, pressure pain threshold.
C
hronic mechanical neck pain is a significant clinical toms,4 and many will continue to exhibit moderate
problem. It seems that the prevalence of neck pain disability at long-term follow-up.17 The economic
is as high as the prevalence of low back pain. A sys- burden associated with the management of neck pain
tematic review reported a 1-year prevalence for neck is second only to low back pain in annual workers’ com-
pain ranging from 16.7 to 75.1%, with a mean of pensation costs in the United States.44
37.2%.11 A best-evidence synthesis showed an incidence Although the aetiology of insidious mechanical neck
rate for self-reported neck pain in the general popula- pain is under debate, it is clear that neck pain is multifac-
tion between 146 and 213 per 1,000 patients per year.21 torial in nature, with both physical and psychosocial con-
Nearly half of neck-pain patients develop chronic symp- tributors.38 In recent years, there has been an increasing
interest in the study of nociceptive-pain processing in
Received May 31, 2009; Revised June 29, 2009; Accepted July 22, 2009.
different musculoskeletal-pain conditions. For instance,
Address reprint requests to César Fernández de las Peñas, Facultad pressure pain thresholds5,32 have been extensively used
de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Avenida de Atenas for investigating mechanical pain hypersensitivity in
s/n, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain. E-mail: cesar.fernandez@urjc.es
1526-5900/$36.00 several chronic pain conditions, eg, whiplash,36 fibro-
ª 2010 by the American Pain Society myalgia,9 unilateral migraine,14 repetitive strain injury,18
doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2009.07.003 tension-type headache,13 osteoarthritis,1 low back
256
La Touche et al 257
27 15
pain, or carpal tunnel syndrome. Nevertheless, the 0 = no pain, 10 = maximum pain) was used to assess cur-
phenomenon of sensory hypersensitivity has been rela- rent level of neck pain. Patients also completed the Neck
tively recently investigated in mechanical nontraumatic Disability Index (NDI) to measure perceived disability,42
neck pain.37 the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) to assess symp-
Scott et al33 found that the hypersensitivity present in toms of depression,2 and the State-Trait Anxiety Inven-
individuals with idiopathic neck pain seems to be con- tory (STAI) for assessing state and trait anxiety.34
fined to the neck area with little evidence of spread to The NDI consist of 10 questions measured on a 6-point
more remote body regions, eg, the tibialis anterior mus- scale (0 = no disability, 5 = full disability).42 The numeric
cle, as opposite happens in chronic whiplash. The pres- score for each item is summed for a score varying from
ence of hypersensitivity restricted to the neck region 0 to 50, where higher scores reflect greater disability.
may reflect segmental local sensitization, but not wide- The NDI has demonstrated to be a reliable (intraclass cor-
spread central sensitization, in patients with idiopathic relation coefficients ranging from .50 to .98)24 and valid
neck pain. self-assessment of disability in chronic neck pain.19,39
Several studies have reported that patients with neck The BDI-II is a 21-item self-report measure assessing
pain also suffered from symptoms in the orofacial affective, cognitive, and somatic symptoms of depres-
region,7,8,23 and headaches.29 The expansion of symp- sion.2 Patients choose from a group of sentences that
toms from the neck area to the trigeminal region may best describe how they have been feeling in the past 2
be related to the convergence of the nociceptive sec- weeks. Higher scores indicate higher levels of depressive
ond-order neurons receiving both trigeminal and cervi- symptoms.2 The BDI-II showed good internal consistency
cal inputs into the trigemino-cervical nucleus caudalis (alpha coefficient .90) and adequate divergent validity.41
in the spinal gray matter of the spinal cord.25 To the The STAI is a self-report assessment device which
best of our knowledge, no previous study has investi- includes separate measures of state and trait anxiety.34
gated the pressure hypersensitivity over the trigeminal In the present study, the trait-anxiety subscale which
region in chronic mechanical neck pain. Further, Rhudy denotes relatively stable anxiety proneness and refers
and Meagher31 demonstrated that psychological states, to a general tendency to respond with anxiety to per-
particularly anxiety and depression, induce an increased ceived threats in the environment was used. Participants
effect on pressure-pain sensitivity. Therefore, the aim of use a 4-point response scale ranging from ‘‘almost never’’
the present study was to investigate trigeminal sensitiza- to ‘‘almost always’’, indicating the extent to which they
tion in patients with chronic mechanical neck pain con- experience each emotion. The State-Trait questionnaire
trolling psychological aspects, such as depression and has shown good internal consistency (a = .83). Higher
anxiety. scores indicate greater trait anxiety.34
Finally, healthy controls were recruited from volunteer
who responded to a local announcement and were ex-
Methods cluded if they exhibited a history of neck, facial, or
head pain (infrequent episodic tension-type headache
Subjects
was permitted), any systemic disease or any history of
Patients presenting with mechanical insidious neck
traumatic event (whiplash).
pain referred by their primary-care physicians to a spe-
The study was conducted in accordance with the Hel-
cialized physical-therapy clinic between September
sinki Declaration, and all subjects provided informed con-
2007 and February 2008 were screened for possible eligi-
sent which was approved by the local ethics committee.
bility criteria. Mechanical neck pain was defined as gen-
eralized neck and/or shoulder pain with symptoms
provoked by neck postures, neck movement, or palpa- Sample Size Determination
tion of the cervical musculature. Symptoms had to be bi- The sample-size determination and power calculations
lateral and present for at least 6 months. Patients were were performed with an appropriate software (Tamaño
excluded if they exhibited any of the following: 1) unilat- de la Muestra, v.1.1, Universidad de Medicina, Madrid,
eral neck pain; 2) diagnosis of fibromyalgia;43 3) previous Spain). The calculations were based on detecting, at
whiplash; 4) cervical spine surgery; 5) clinical diagnosis of the least, significant clinical differences of 20% on pres-
cervical radiculopathy or myelopathy; 6) history of previ- sure pain threshold (PPT) between both groups,28 with
ous physical-therapy intervention for the cervical region; an alpha level of .05 and a desired power of 80%, and
7) presence of severe degenerative arthritis (confirmed an estimated interindividual coefficient of variation for
by cervical radiography taken for all patients over the PPT measures of 20%. This generated a sample size of
age of 30 years); 8) less than 18 years; 9) diagnosis of at least 16 participants per group.
any TMD, according to the Research Diagnostic Criteria
for TMD (RDC/TMD)10; or 10) concomitant diagnosis of PPT Assessment
primary headache.
PPT is defined as the minimal amount of pressure
where a sensation of pressure first changes to pain.40 A
Demographic and Clinical Data mechanical pressure algometer (Pain Diagnosis and
Demographic data including age, gender, height, Treatment Inc, Great Neck, NY) was used in this study.
weight, location, and nature of the symptoms was col- The device consists of a round rubber disk (1 cm2)
lected. An 11-point numerical point rate scale22 (NPRS; attached to a pressure gauge. The gauge displays values
258 Trigeminal Pain Sensitivity in Neck Pain
2
in kg/cm , ranging from 0 to 10 kg. The mean of 3 trials (dominant or nondominant) as within-subject factor
(intraexaminer reliability) was calculated and used for and group (patients or controls) as the between-subject
the main analysis. A 30-second resting period was factor. A 2-way ANCOVA test was used for assessing the
allowed between each trial. The reliability of pressure al- differences in PPT Index with side (dominant, nondomi-
gometry has been found to be high in both asymptom- nant) as within-patient factor, point (masseter, tempora-
atic subjects6 (ICC .91 [95% CI .82–.97]) and neck pain lis, upper trapezius, tibialis anterior muscles, and the
patients45 (ICC .78–.93; 95% CI .53–.97). C5-C6 joint) as between-patient factor, and age, sex,
BDI-II, and STAI scores as covariates. Post hoc compari-
Study Protocol sons were conducted with the Bonferroni test. Finally,
The study protocol was the same for neck-pain pa- the Spearman’s rho (rs) test was used to analyze the asso-
tients and healthy controls. All examinations were ciation between PPTs and the clinical variables relating to
done in a quiet, draught-free, temperature- and humid- symptoms, disability, anxiety, and depression. The statis-
ity-controlled laboratory (24 C 6 1 C, relative humidity tical analysis was conducted at a 95% confidence level
25–35%). All participants were restricted from vigorous and a P value less than .05 was considered statistically
exercise from the day prior to the examination. None significant.
of the patients were taking any preventive drug at the
time the study was performed. Participants were not al- Results
lowed to take analgesics or muscle relaxants through
the 72 hours prior to the examination. PPTs were mea- Demographic and Clinical Data of the
sured bilaterally over masseter and temporalis muscles, Patients
the articular pillar of C5-C6 zygapophyseal joint (based Forty consecutive patients presenting with neck pain
on palpation of C6-C7 spinous processes), the upper tra- between January and May 2009 were screened for possi-
pezius muscle (midway between C7 and acromion), and ble eligibility criteria. Seventeen patients were excluded:
tibialis anterior muscle (upper one-third of the muscle concomitant diagnosis RDC/TMD (n = 8), migraine (n = 5),
belly) by an assessor blinded to the subject’s condition. and previous whiplash (n = 4). Finally, 23 patients (10
The masseter and temporalis muscles were chosen as tri- men and 13 women) with mechanical neck pain, aged
geminal areas, the articular pillar of C5-C6 and the upper 20 to 37 years (mean, 28 6 5 years; mean weight, 70 6
trapezius muscle were chosen as the most common sites 10 kg; mean height, 168 6 10 cm), and 23 matched con-
of involvement in idiopathic neck pain, and the tibialis trols, aged 20 to 38 years old (mean, 28 6 6 years; mean
anterior was chosen as a remote distant site. The order weight, 66 6 11 kg; mean height, 168 6 9 cm) were in-
of assessment was randomized between the participants. cluded. No significant differences between both groups
for age (P = .9), weight (P = .3) and height (P = .8) were
Pressure Pain Threshold Data found. Patients with neck pain showed greater levels
Management (P < .001) of depression (BDI-II, 7.5 6 3) and anxiety
In the current study, the magnitude of sensitization (STAI, 22.4 6 3.2) as compared to controls (BDI-II, 3 6 3;
was investigated by assessing the differences of absolute STAI, 10 6 8, respectively).
and relative PPT values between both groups. For rela- Within the patient group, mean duration of neck pain
tive values, we calculated a ‘‘PPT Index,’’ dividing the history was 10 6 4.6 months (95% CI 7.8–11.7 months),
PPT of each patient at each point by the mean of PPT the mean intensity (NPRS) of neck pain was 3.6 6 1.5
score of the control group at the same point. PPT indices (95% CI 3.2–4.8), the mean NDI was 18.5 6 3.3 (95% CI
were only calculated in those PPT levels significantly dif- 17–20), the mean BDI-II was 7.5 6 1.6 (95% CI 6–9), and
ferent between patients and controls. A greater PPT In- the STAI was 22 6 3 (95% CI 21–24). Furthermore, posi-
dex (%) indicates lower degree of sensitization. tive correlations between duration of pain history with
current level of pain (rs = .55, P = .007 [Fig 1A]) and
Statistical Analysis BDI-II (rs =.58, P = .004 [Fig 1B]) were found: the longer
the duration of the symptoms, the greater the intensity
Data were analysed with the SPSS statistical package
of the perceived pain and the greater the self-reported
(SPSS v.16.0; SPSS, Inc, Chicago, IL). Results are expressed
depression. Further, current level of pain was also posi-
as mean, standard deviation (SD), and 95% confidence
tively correlated to disability (rs = .57, P = .004 [Fig 2A])
interval (95% CI). The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was
and to BDI-II (rs = .64; P = .001, [Fig 2B]): the greater the
used to analyze the normal distribution of the variables
intensity of the perceived pain, the greater the self-re-
(P > .05). Quantitative data without a normal distribution
ported disability and the greater the self-reported
(ie, pain history, current level of pain, and NDI) were an-
depression.
alyzed with nonparametric tests, whereas data with
a normal distribution (PPT levels, BDI-II, and STAI) were
analyzed with parametric tests. The intraclass correlation Pressure Pain Sensitivity Over the
coefficient (ICC) was used to evaluate the intraexaminer Trigeminal Region
reliability of PPT data. A 2-way ANCOVA was used to in- The intraexaminer repeatability of PPT readings for the
vestigate the differences in PPT assessed over each point masseter and temporalis muscle was .9 and .92 for the
(masseter, temporalis, upper trapezius, tibialis anterior most painful side and .91 for the contralateral side. The
muscles, and the C5-C6 zygapophyseal joint) with side standard error of measurement (SEM) was .14 kg/cm2
La Touche et al 259
Figure 1. Scatter plots of relationships between duration of history of neck pain and NPRS values (A) and between history of
neck pain and Beck Depression Inventory (B) A positive linear regression line is fitted to the data (NPRS: numerical pain rate scale,
range 0 to 10).
for the most painful side and .11 kg/cm2 for the contra- patients showed bilateral lower PPT levels in both points
lateral side. as compared to healthy controls (P < .001). Table 1 shows
The ANOVA revealed significant differences between PPT over the upper trapezius muscle and the C5-C6 zyga-
both groups, but not between sides, for PPT levels over pophyseal joint for both sides within each group.
the masseter (group: F = 257.3, P < .001; side: F = .58,
P = .447) and temporalis (group: F = 124.8, P < .001; Pressure Pain Sensitivity Over the Tibialis
side: F = .06, P = .803) muscles. Over both muscles, pa- Anterior Muscle
tients showed bilateral lower PPT levels than healthy
The intraexaminer repeatability of PPT over tibialis an-
controls (P < .001). Table 1 summarizes PPT assessed
terior muscle was .93 for the most painful side and .91 for
over the masseter and temporalis muscles for both sides
the contralateral side, whereas the SEM was .18 and .2
within each study group.
kg/cm2, respectively.
The ANOVA did not find significant differences
Pressure Pain Sensitivity Over the between groups and sides for PPT levels over the tibialis
Cervical Region anterior muscle (group: F = 1.49, P = .461; side: F = .05, P =
The intraexaminer repeatability of PPT over the C5-C6 .824). Table 1 shows PPT over the tibialis anterior muscle
joint and the upper trapezius muscle was .91 for the most for both sides within each group.
painful side and .89 for the contralateral side, respec- There was no effect of age, BDI-II, or STAI score on PPT
tively. The SEM was .11 and .13 kg/cm2 for the most pain- levels (P > .2), although there was an effect of sex at the
ful side and .15 kg/cm2 for the contralateral side. tibialis anterior with females having lower PPTs (F = 8.8,
The ANOVA revealed significant differences between P = .005) than males.
both groups, but not between sides, for PPT levels over
the upper trapezius muscle (group: F = 355.9, P < .001; Pressure Pain Threshold Indices
side: F = .03, P = .851), and the C5-C6 zygapophyseal joint The ANOVA revealed significant differences for PPT
(group: F = 291.5, P < .001; side: F = .08, P = .776). Again, indices between sites (F = 8.7, P < .001), but not between
Figure 2. Scatter plots of relationships between duration of NPRS pain values and Neck Disability Index (A) and between NPRS pain
values and Beck Depression Inventory (B) A positive linear regression line is fitted to the data (NPRS: numerical pain rate scale, range
0 to 10).
260 Trigeminal Pain Sensitivity in Neck Pain
Table 1.Pressure Pain Thresholds (PPTs) in Patients With Mechanical Neck Pain (n = 23) and
Matched Control Subjects (n = 23). Mean Values 6 Standard Deviation and 95% Confidence
Intervals in Parenthesis (kg/cm2)
MECHANICAL NECK PAIN HEALTHY CONTROLS
*Indicates significant difference between neck pain and control subjects (ANOVA, P < .001).
sides (F = .03, P = .859). The post hoc analysis showed reflecting peripheral nociceptor sensitization. Further-
significant differences between both masseter and tem- more, our study increases evidence that pressure-pain hy-
poralis muscles with the upper trapezius muscle (P < .001) peralgesia is not only restricted to cervical joints (C5–C6 or
and between the temporalis muscles with the C5-C6 joint C2–C3 as previously reported) but also to cervical muscles
(P = .02). In such a way, the cervical region (upper trape- (upper trapezius). This is expected since the upper trape-
zius muscle and C5-C6 joint) showed lower PPT indices zius muscle receives nerve innervation from the C2–C4
(greater degree of sensitization) compared to the tri- level. Nevertheless, lower PPT levels over the upper trape-
geminal region (masseter and temporalis muscles) for zius may also be related to muscle spasm residing in the
both sides (Fig 3). neck muscles in this patient population.
The present study demonstrated that patients with
mechanical chronic neck pain also have pressure-pain hy-
Pressure Sensitivity and Clinical Features
peralgesia in the trigeminal region. This finding may re-
in Patients with Mechanical Neck Pain flect a sensitization process of the trigemino-cervical
Finally, a significant negative correlation between his- nucleus caudalis due to the convergence of inputs from
tory of symptoms and PPT levels over both masseter mus-
cles (dominant side: rs = –.64, P < .001 [Fig 4A];
nondominant side: rs = –.42, P = .04 [Fig 4B]) was found:
the longer the duration of the symptoms, the lower the
PPT levels over both masseter muscles. In addition, cur-
rent level of pain intensity was also negatively correlated
with bilateral PPT levels over the masseter muscles (dom-
inant side: rs = –.62, P < .001 [Fig 5A]; nondominant side:
rs = –.51, P = .02 [Fig 5B]): the greater the pain intensity,
the lower the bilateral PPT levels. No significant correla-
tions between NDI, BDI-II, and PPT levels were found.
Discussion
This study showed bilateral pressure-pain hyperalgesia
in both the trigeminal and cervical region, but not over
the tibialis anterior muscle, in patients with mechanical
chronic neck pain as compared to healthy controls. The
decrease in PPT levels over the trigeminal region was as-
sociated with the intensity and duration of pain symp-
toms, supporting a role of the peripheral nociceptive
input as an important factor driving the development
of spreading sensitization.
Current results of cervical, but not widespread, pressure-
pain hypersensitivity in patients with idiopathic neck pain
are very similar to those previously found by Scott et al.33
The findings from both studies support the idea that me-
Figure 3. Pressure pain threshold indices in both trigeminal
chanical nontraumatic neck pain is characterized by pres- and cervical points. The boxes represent the mean and percen-
sure-pain hyperalgesia in the cervical spine, probably tile scores, and the error bars represent the standard deviation.
La Touche et al 261
Figure 4. Scatter plot of the relationship between duration of history of neck pain and PPT levels in both dominant (A) and nondom-
inant (B) masseter muscles (n = 23). A negative linear regression line is fitted to the data (PPT: pressure pain threshold, kg/cm2).
the trigeminal and cervical regions. In fact, neck-pain pa- back pain,27 osteoarthritis,1 carpal tunnel syndrome,15
tients included in the current study were completely and unilateral shoulder pain.16 The existence of sensiti-
asymptomatic in the orofacial region, which supports zation mechanisms in local pain syndromes suggests
that the pressure-pain hyperalgesia found over masseter that sustained peripheral noxious input to the central
and temporalis muscles reflects a sensitization process. nervous system plays a role in the initiation and mainte-
Nevertheless, it seems that there is a greater sensitization nance of sensitization process.26 This is supported by the
degree in the cervical spine. This is supported by the fact fact that central sensitization is a dynamic condition
that the magnitude of PPT changes was higher over the influenced by multiple factors, including activity of pe-
upper trapezius muscle (48–49%) and C5-C6 zygapophy- ripheral nociceptive inputs.20 For instance, in insidious
seal joint (51–53%) when compared to the magnitude of mechanical neck pain, where there is no sudden nocicep-
PPT changes over the masseter (57–58%) and temporalis tive barrage to the central nervous system as in patients
(60%) muscles. Nevertheless, there is no consensus about with whiplash syndrome, a prolonged, continued noci-
the PPT that are needed to consider differences as real ceptive barrage from different cervical structures, eg,
changes.37 Different studies6,35,45 have suggested that muscles12 or facet joints,3 may be capable of leading to
differences ranging from 123 kPa to 200 kPa (1.2–2 kg) impairment in the nociceptive processing of the trige-
are needed to consider real differences. In the current mino-cervical nucleus caudalis. This was supported by
study, differences between trigeminal (1.4–1.5 kg) and the fact that duration of symptoms was positively related
cervical regions (1.5–2 kg) were placed within this inter- to current level of pain and PPT levels over the masseter
val, so differences between both groups can be consid- muscle. On the contrary, Scott et al33 found that duration
ered as real. of pain symptoms was not related to PPT levels over the
Our results increase the evidence that nontraumatic cervical spine. It should be considered that patients in-
neck pain is characterized by segmental, but not wide- cluded in the study by Scott et al have a greater duration
spread, sensitization mechanisms that are mostly of symptoms (mean: 51.5 6 40 months), were more dis-
restricted to the trigemino-cervical region. The involve- abled (NDI: 29 ± 16), and had greater levels of anxiety
ment of segmental sensitization mechanisms has been (STAI: 40.6 ± 11) than patients included in the present
reported in several local pain syndromes, eg repetitive study (duration of symptoms: 10 ± 4.6 months; NDI,
strain injury,18 chronic tension-type headache,13 low 18.5 6 3.3; STAI, 22.4 6 3.2), which may explain
Figure 5. Scatter plot of the relationship between duration of NPRS pain values and PPT levels in both dominant (A) and nondom-
inant (B) masseter muscles (n = 23). A negative linear regression line is fitted to the data (PPT: pressure pain threshold, kg/cm2).
262 Trigeminal Pain Sensitivity in Neck Pain
differences between both studies. Finally, we do not theless, further studies investigating the influence of
know if sensitization mechanisms found in this study psychological factors are required.
are mediated via a deregulation of second-order neu-
rons in a segmental fashion or via glia30 and other im-
mune cells that reside in the trigeminal-cervical region.
Future studies are needed to further elucidate the mech- Conclusion
anisms involved in trigemino-cervical sensitization in Bilateral pressure-pain hyperalgesia was detected in
neck pain. both trigeminal and cervical regions in patients with me-
It has been suggested that anxiety and depression may chanical chronic neck pain. The decrease in pressure pain
influence pressure-pain hypersensitivity.31 Our results thresholds in the trigeminal region was associated with
were independent of levels of depression (BDI-II) and the intensity and duration of the neck-pain symptoms,
the state anxiety (STAI). Additionally, patients included supporting a role of the peripheral nociceptive input as
in the present study showed scores < 8 points in the a driving factor for inducing sensitization. Our study fur-
BDI-II, which are considered normal.2 Our results agree ther supports that nontraumatic neck pain shows sensiti-
with those previously reported by Scott et al33 in which zation in the trigemino cervical region, which has clinical
anxiety appears not to influence pressure-pain sensitivity implications in terms of spreading symptomatology to
in patients with insidious mechanical neck pain. Never- this body area.
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5.4 Estudio IV
Resultados
La versión final del IDD-CF consta de 21 ítems, el análisis factorial exploratorio reveló dos
factores ("El dolor y la discapacidad" y "el estado funcional de mandíbula"), ambos factores con
valor propio mayor que uno, que explican 44,77% de la varianza. No se observaron efectos
suelo o techo. Se confirmó una alta consistencia interna de la IDD-CF (α de Cronbach: 0,88) y
también para las dos subescalas (0,80 a 0,86 α de Cronbach). Basándose en el resultado de CCI
=0,90 (IC del 95% 0,86 hasta 0,93) fue considerado como una excelente fiabilidad test-retest. El
IDD-CF se observó una correlación moderada con la mayoría de los cuestionarios evaluados (r
= desde 0,36 hasta 0,52) y una fuerte correlación con el IDC (r = 0,65, p <0,001). El IDC, la
Conclusiones
El IDD-CF mostró buenas propiedades psicométricas. Con base en los hallazgos de este estudio,
123
Pain Physician 2014; 17:95-108 • ISSN 1533-3159
Prospective Evaluation
From: 1Department of Physiotherapy, Background: Orofacial pain, headaches, and neck pain are very common pain conditions in
Faculty of Health Science, The Center the general population and might be associated in their pathophysiology, although this is not
for Advanced Studies University La
Salle. Universidad Autónoma de yet clarified. The development and validation of a prediction inventory is important to minimize
Madrid, Aravaca, Madrid, Spain; risks. Most recent questionnaires have not focused on pain, but pain is the common symptom
2
Research Group on Movement and in temporomandibular disorders, headaches, and neck pain. It is necessary to provide tools for
Behavioral Science and Study of Pain, these conditions.
The Center for Advanced Studies
University La Salle, Universidad
Autónoma de Madrid; 3Institute of Objectives: The purpose of this study is to present the development and analysis of the
Neuroscience and Craniofacial Pain factorial structure and psychometric properties of a new self-administered questionnaire
(INDCRAN), Madrid, Spain; 4Hospital (Craniofacial Pain and Disability Inventory [CF-PDI]) designed to measure pain, disability, and
La Paz Institute for Health Research
functional status of the mandibular and craniofacial regions.
(IdiPAZ), Madrid, Spain; 5Faculty of
Medicine, Universidad San Pablo
CEU, Madrid, Spain; 6Department Study Design: Multicenter, prospective, cross-sectional, descriptive survey design. A
of Methodology of the Behavioural secondary analysis of the reliability of the measures was a longitudinal, observational study.
Sciences, Faculty of Psychology,
Universidad Nacional de Educación
a Distancia, Madrid, Spain; Setting: A convenience sample was recruited from a hospital and 2 specialty clinics in Madrid,
7
Department of Neurology, Hospital Spain.
Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain;
8
Department of Physical Therapy, Methods: The study sample consisted of 192 heterogeneous chronic craniofacial pain
Occupational Therapy, Rehabilitation
and Physical Medicine, Universidad patients. A sub-sample of 106 patients was asked to answer the questionnaire a second
Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Madrid, time, to assess the test-retest reliability. The development and validation of the CF-PDI were
Spain conducted using the standard methodology, which included item development, cognitive
debriefing, and psychometric validation. The questionnaire was assessed for the following
Address Correspondence:
Roy La Touche
psychometric properties: internal consistency (Cronbach’s α); floor and ceiling effects; test-
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud retest reliability (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient [ICC]; Bland and Altman method); construct
Centro Superior de Estudios validity (exploratory factor analysis); responsiveness (standard error of measurement [SEM] and
Universitarios La Salle minimal detectable change [MDC]); and convergent validity (Pearson correlation coefficient),
Calle la Salle, 10
by comparing visual analog scale (VAS), the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK-11), the Pain
28023 Madrid SPAIN
Email: roylatouche@yahoo.es Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), the Neck Disability Index (NDI), and the Headache Impact Test-6
(HIT-6). Multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the strength of the associations
Disclaimer: There was no external with theoretically similar constructs.
funding in the preparation of this
manuscript. Conflict of interest: Each
author certifies that he or she, or a Results: The final version of the CF-PDI consists of 21 items. Exploratory factor analysis revealed
member of his or her immediate 2 factors (“pain and disability” and “jaw functional status”), both with an eigenvalue greater
family, has no commercial than one, explaining 44.77% of the variance. Floor or ceiling effects were not observed. High
association (i.e., consultancies, stock internal consistency of the CF-PDI (Cronbach’s α: 0.88) and also of the 2 subscales (Cronbach’s
ownership, equity interest, patent/
licensing arrangements, etc.) that α: 0.80 – 0.86) was confirmed. ICC was found to be 0.90 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.86 –
might pose a conflict of interest 0.93), which was considered to be excellent test-retest reliability. The SEM and MDC were 2.4
in connection with the submitted and 7 points, respectively. The total CF-PDI score showed a moderate correlation with most of
manuscript. the assessed questionnaires (r = 0.36 – 0.52) and a strong correlation with the NDI (r = 0.65; P
Manuscript received: 06-21-2013
< 0.001). The NDI, VAS, and TSK-11 were predictors of CF-PDI.
Accepted for publication: 08-25-2013
Limitations: Only self-reported measures were considered for convergent validity. Future
Free full manuscript: research should use physical tests to explore the clinical signs relating to pain and disability.
www.painphysicianjournal.com
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Pain Physician: January/February 2014; 17:95-108
Conclusion: The CF-PDI showed good psychometric properties. Based on the findings of this study, the CF-PDI can be used in
research and clinical practice for the assessment of patients with craniofacial pain.
Key words: Craniofacial pain, temporomandibular disorders, headache, neck pain, disability, development, questionnaire,
reliability, psychometric validation, minimal detectable change
96 www.painphysicianjournal.com
Psychometric Validation of the Craniofacial Pain and Disability Inventory
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Pain Physician: January/February 2014; 17:95-108
the line where they felt best represented their pain of the probability that the initial correlation matrix is
intensity (30). an identity matrix and should be < 0.05 (41). The KMO
The Spanish version of the TSK-11 is a self-reported test measures the degree of multicollinearity and varies
questionnaire that assesses fear of re-injury due to between 0 and 1 (should be greater than 0.50 – 0.60)
movement (31). The TSK-11 is an 11-item questionnaire (42).
that eliminates psychometrically poor items from the
original version of the TSK (32) to create a shorter ques- Reliability
tionnaire with comparable internal consistency. The For reliability, internal consistency and reproduc-
TSK-11 has a 2-factor structure: activity avoidance and ibility were examined. Internal consistency was estimat-
harm, and has demonstrated acceptable psychometric ed using Cronbach’s α and item total correlation coef-
properties (31). ficients. For a questionnaire to be internally consistent,
The Spanish version of the PCS assesses the degree α levels should be above 0.7 (43).
of pain catastrophization (33,34). The PCS has 13 items The test-retest reliability (repeatability) was evalu-
and a 3-factor structure: rumination, magnification, and ated using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC).
helplessness. The theoretical range is between 0 and 52, An ICC value above 0.70 is considered acceptable (44).
with lower scores indicating less catastrophizing. The We also constructed a Bland Altman Plot by calculating
PCS has demonstrated acceptable psychometric proper- the mean difference between 2 measurements and the
ties (33). standard deviation (SD) of the difference (45). In this
The Spanish version of the NDI measures perceived plot, 95% of the differences are expected to be less
neck disability (20,35). This questionnaire consists of 10 than 2 SDs.
items, with 6 possible answers that represent 6 levels of
functional capacity, ranging from 0 (no disability) to 5 Floor and Ceiling Effects
(complete disability) points. The NDI has demonstrated Potential floor and ceiling effects were measured
acceptable psychometric properties (20). by calculating the percentage of patients indicating the
The Spanish version of the HIT-6 (36,37) is a 6-item minimum or maximum possible scores in the question-
questionnaire that measures the severity and impact of naires. Floor and ceiling effects are considered to be
headache on the patient’s life. The HIT-6 has demon- present if more than 15% of respondents achieved the
strated acceptable psychometric properties (38). highest or lowest possible total score (44).
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Psychometric Validation of the Craniofacial Pain and Disability Inventory
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Pain Physician: January/February 2014; 17:95-108
100 www.painphysicianjournal.com
Psychometric Validation of the Craniofacial Pain and Disability Inventory
Table 3. Items of CF-PDI distribution and factor loadings according to principal component analysis with Oblimin rotation
including Kaiser correction (N = 192).
Factor 1 Factor 2
1 ¿Presenta dolor en la cara?
0.79 0.45
Do you feel any pain in your face?
2 ¿Se ha visto afectada su calidad de vida por esta dolencia?
0.58 0.21
Is your quality of life affected by this pain?
3 Intensidad de dolor en la cara.
0.68 0.23
Pain intensity on your face.
4 Le incapacita su dolor a la hora de tener relaciones afectuosas del tipo: besos, abrazos, relaciones sexuales…
Does the pain make you unable to have emotional relationships, such as: kisses, embraces, or sexual 0.69 0.06
relationships?
5 ¿Tiene dolor al reír?
0.68 0.19
Do you feel any pain when you laugh?
6 ¿Su dolencia hace que evite el sonreír, hablar o masticar?
0.44 0.13
Does your condition make you avoiding smiling, talking or chewing?
7. ¿Tiene dolor en la mandíbula?
0.53 0.38
Do you feel any pain in your jaw?
8 ¿Escucha algún ruido al mover la mandíbula?
0.40 0.23
Do you hear any noise when you move your jaw?
9. ¿Nota que su mandíbula se le sale o se le traba?
0.33 0.31
Do you feel your jaw getting out of place or getting stuck?
10. Intensidad de dolor al masticar
0.47 0.72
Pain intensity when chewing
11. ¿Siente cansancio en la mandíbula, al hablar o al comer?
0.38 0.73
Do you feel any tiredness in your jaw when you talk or eat?
12. ¿Tiene dificultad para abrir la boca?
0.23 0.73
Do you have any trouble when you open your mouth?
13. Intensidad de dolor al hablar
0.40 0.74
Pain intensity when talking.
14. ¿Tiene miedo de mover la mandíbula?
0.20 0.73
Do you fear moving your jaw?
15. Alimentación.
0.24 0.72
Nutrition
16. ¿Con qué frecuencia tiene dolor en el cuello?
0.76 0.31
How often have you got any neck pain?
17.¿Con qué frecuencia tiene dolor de cabeza?
0.61 0.41
How often do you have a headache?
18. ¿Con qué frecuencia tiene dolor de oído?
0.47 0.34
How often do you have an earache?
19. ¿Qué siente al tocarse la zona dolorosa?
0.53 0.23
What do you feel when you touch the painful area?
20 ¿Su dolor le altera el sueño?
0.59 0.21
Does the pain disrupts your sleep?
21 ¿El dolor le interfiere a la hora de desempeñar su actividad laboral?
0.38 0.36
Does the pain interfere in your work?
Test-Retest Reliability
The response to the CF-PDI provided by a random the scale after 12 days. ICC based on absolute agree-
subsample of 106 patients (gender women: 70, 66.7%; ment measures was 0.90 (95% CI: 0.86 – 0.93). The con-
age: 45.6 ± 12.9 years; duration of the disorders: 69.0 ± structed Bland and Altman plot for test-retest agree-
46.2 months) showed satisfactory temporal stability of ment showed a good reliability for total CF-PDI score
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Pain Physician: January/February 2014; 17:95-108
Convergent Validity
The total CF-PDI score was signifi-
cantly associated with all the assessed
questionnaires (Table 5), but the cor-
relation with the NDI, was the most
important in our sample.
Linear Regression
The resulting beta coefficients,
ranging from 0.50 to 0.17, indicate
independent contribution of each scale
to the prediction of CF-PDI, the criteri-
on variable. NDI, VAS, and TSK-11 were
predictors of CF-PDI, significance < 0.05
Fig. 2. Bland Altman plot illustrating the test-retest reliability of the CF-PDI. (as illustrated by the higher standard-
A total of 106 patients participated in the test-retest assessment. The central line ized coefficients [beta] and P-values).
representing the mean difference between test and retest scores, which was - 2.22, NDI was the most important variable
and the 95% limits of agreement are presented as flanking lines.
(Table 6). PCS and HIT-6 were excluded
as predictor variables this time.
Discussion
The present study describes a
methodical approach to the develop-
ment and validation of a new self-ad-
ministered questionnaire to measure
disability, pain, and functional status
of the mandibular and craniofacial
region in patients with craniofacial
pain. Our results demonstrate that the
CF-PDI is psychometrically valid and
reliable. In addition, the instrument
has proven to be easy to complete,
and only requires a relatively short
time to administer. The CF-PDI was de-
veloped in Spain for Spanish patients
with craniofacial pain and TMD. How-
ever, since the CF-PDI does not contain
items that are specifically related to
Spanish culture, it could be translated
and used internationally.
Fig. 3. Bland Altman plot illustrating the test-retest reliability of the Pain
and Disability subscale. A total of 106 patients participated in the test-retest The design of the CF-PDI was
assessment. The central line representing the mean difference between test and based on a biopsychosocial approach.
retest scores, which was -1,73, and the 95% limits of agreement are presented as This conceptual model, recommended
flanking lines. by the International Classification
of Functioning Disability and Health
(52,53), can assess the disease from a
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Psychometric Validation of the Craniofacial Pain and Disability Inventory
CF-PDI, craniofacial pain and disability inventory; SD, standard deviation; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; 95% CI, 95% confidence
interval; SEM, standard error of measurement; MDC, minimal detectable change
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Pain Physician: January/February 2014; 17:95-108
Table 6. Multiple linear regression models with CF-PDI (A), pain and disability (B), and jaw functional status (C) as criterion
variable, and NDI, VAS, TSK-11, PCS as predictor variables (N = 192).
Regression
Standardized
Criterion variable Predictor variables coefficient Significance (P) VIF
coefficient (β)
(B)
NDI 0.77 0.50 0.000 1.37
VAS 0.13 0.19 0.001 1.26
TSK-11 0.22 0.17 0.004 1.17
A. CF-PDI
Excluded variables
PCS-Total -- 0.08 0.253 1.62
HIT-6 -- 0.01 0.905 1.46
NDI 0.55 0.49 0.000 1.37
PCS-Magnification 0.68 0.25 0.000 1.26
VAS 0.10 0.21 0.000 1.17
Excluded variables
B. Pain and Disability PCS-Total -- -0.50 0.480 0.40
TSK-11 -- 0.09 0.098 0.77
HIT-6 -- 0.08 0.159 0.68
PCS-Rumiation -- -0.06 0.314 0.70
PCS-Helplessness -- -0.00 0.968 0.61
NDI 0.17 0.29 0.000 1.22
PCS-magnification 0.28 0.20 0.007 1.22
Excluded variables
PCS-Total -- -0.13 0.207 2.49
C. Jaw Functional Status TSK-11 -- 0.09 0.258 1.29
HIT-6 -- -0.13 0.076 1.33
PCS-Rumiation -- -0.00 0.968 1.42
PCS-Helplessness -- -0.16 0.059 1.65
VAS -- 0.06 0.436 1.26
CF-PDI, craniofacial pain and disability inventory; VAS, visual analogue scale; TSK-11, Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia; PCS, pain catastrophizing
scale; NDI, Neck Dibility Index; HIT-6, headache impact test-6, VIF, variance inflation factor
In this study, we choose a retest interval of 12 days tect very small changes. Changes higher than the MDC
(approximately), in order to avoid variations in clinical can be interpreted as real and not due to measurement
status and patients remembering their previous an- error, with an acceptable probability level. These results
swers. A longer interval for a test-retest study of health may help to calculate the sample size of future studies
may be inappropriate as fluctuations in the patient’s aiming to assess the effectiveness of craniofacial pain
health status can occur (59). In relation to this, Streiner interventions.
and Norman suggested that a retest interval of 2 to 14 Construct validity was evidenced by significant cor-
days is generally acceptable (60). relations between the CF-PDI with all the questionnaires
The test-retest reliability for the total CF-PDI score and scales used in the validation process. A moderate
was considered to be excellent (ICC: 0.90; 95% CI: 0.86 correlation between CF-PDI with the HIT-6 and the VAS
– 0.93). Also, we were able to verify that the test-retest (r = 0.38 – 0.46) was observed. In addition, the PCS and
reliability was high for each subscale. TSK-11 showed moderate correlation with the CF-PDI
The measurement of SEM was 2.4 points, corre- and the pain and disability subscale (r = 0.36 – 0.52). This
sponding to 11.7% of the mean CF-PDI values and 3.8% is consistent with recent evidence demonstrating that
of the maximum possible score. Based on the SEM, the patients with craniofacial pain or craniomandibular dis-
MDC was 7 points (34.5% of mean values). Considering orders report higher levels of catastrophizing (61-63).
that the score of the questionnaire ranges from 0 to 63 Furthermore, pain-related catastrophizing has been
points, 7 points represents 11.1% of the maximum pos- associated with the progression of pain intensity and
sible score, which means that the CF-PDI is able to de- signs of disability in chronic craniofacial pain (64-68).
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Psychometric Validation of the Craniofacial Pain and Disability Inventory
Previous research demonstrated the relationship studies will need to be performed to assess the dis-
between fear of jaw movements and craniofacial pain criminant power of the CF-PDI for specific diagnostic
(69,70), but only limited evidence supports it. However, entities.
there is higher evidence showing that pain-related fear The sample size was sufficient to test the new in-
is associated with reduced activities in daily life and strument’s reliability, convergence validity, and explor-
is also a strong predictor of disability in other chronic atory factor analysis. However, it was too small to be
musculoskeletal disorders (71-75). able to carry out confirmatory factor analysis. Kline has
Pain catastrophizing and pain-related fear are 2 suggested a sample size of 10 – 15 subjects per item to
constructs that have been linked to the chronicity of perform this statistical analysis (83). It should be noted
musculoskeletal pain through the “fear avoidance that statisticians disagree on the issue of appropriate
model” (76). Based on the results of multiple linear sample size for confirmatory factor analyses. In relation
regression analysis, pain intensity (VAS: β = 0.19, P = to this, DeVellis stated that as the sample size becomes
0.001) and fear of pain and movement (TSK-11: β = 0.17, larger, the relative number of respondents per item can
P = 0.004) were predictors of CF-PDI. For jaw functional diminish (84), and that a sample of 200 is adequate in
status, and pain and disability, the variable predictor most studies (85).
was pain catastrophizing (PCS-Magnification: β = 0.25, Another limitation is that only self-reported mea-
P < 0.001; β = 0.20, P = 0.007). sures were considered for convergent validity. Future
The principal predictor for CF-PDI and the 2 sub- research should use physical tests to explore the clinical
scales was the variable of neck disability (NDI: β = 0.29 signs relating to pain and disability, and assess whether
– 0.50, P < 0.001). In addition, a strong correlation was these are associated with the CF-PDI.
observed between CF-PDI and pain and disability factor The last limitation of the study is the cross-sectional
with NDI (r = 0.65 – 0.69). This is in line with the results design, which prevented us from investigating the abili-
of Olivo et al (77) who described a strong relationship ty of the CF-PDI to detect responsiveness to change over
between neck disability and jaw disability (r = 0.82). time. Although in this study we investigated in a short
Several studies have reported the high prevalence and period of time the reproducibility and the MDC, a longi-
comorbidity between orofacial pain, TMD, headache, tudinal study or one with an experimental design with
and neck pain (65,78-81). Our findings suggest the a follow-up period would be required to understand
importance of taking into account the neck disability how CF-PDI scores change over time. Furthermore, such
questionnaires when assessing patients with craniofa- a study would allow us to obtain information such as
cial pain. the Minimum Clinically Important Difference.
Limitations
Conclusion
Our study has several limitations. First, there is Evidence has shown that the CF-PDI has a good
a gender disproportion as the sample had a smaller structure, internal consistency, reproducibility, and
proportion of men. However, our findings showed no construct validity, and provides an objective tool for as-
significant differences in scoring between genders. The sessing pain and disability in craniofacial pain patients.
evidence suggests that the prevalence of craniofacial Neck disability showed a strong association with the CF-
pain is higher in women (82). PDI, and is also a significant predictor of the construct.
The second limitation of this study is that we did Based on the findings of this study, the CF-PDI could be
not assess the CF-PDI in healthy subjects; the sample used in research and clinical practice for the assessment
consisted of patients with chronic pain. Further of treatment outcomes.
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108 www.painphysicianjournal.com
5.5 Estudio V
Objetivos de estudio
Nuestro objetivo fue estudiar la influencia de la discapacidad y el dolor de cuello sobre las
variables sensoriales y motoras del trigémino en pacientes con cefalea atribuida a TCM.
Resultados
Los resultados de EVAF fueron mayores a 6 minutos (media 51,7, IC 95%: 50,15-53,26) y 24
horas después (21.08, IC 95%: 18,6-23,5) para las pruebas en el grupo que muestran
minutos, 44,16, IC del 95%: 42,65 a 45,67 / 24 horas después, 14,3; IC del 95%: 11,9-16,7) y el
grupo de control (6 minutos, 29.92, IC 95% 28,29-31,55 / 24 horas después, 4,65; IC del 95%:
2.5 a 7.24). El análisis muestra una disminución en el MAI sin dolor inmediatamente después de
las pruebas de todos los grupos y se observó que esta disminución sólo se mantuvo en el grupo
de discapacidad moderada 24 horas después de la prueba. Los UDPs de la región del trigémino
se redujeron inmediatamente en todos los grupos, mientras que a las 24 horas se observó una
disminución sólo en los grupos de pacientes. Los UDPs de la región cervical disminuyeron sólo
negativa más fuerte se encontró entre MAI sin dolor inmediatamente después de la prueba y el
IDC en ambos grupos: grupo de discapacidad leve (r = -0.49, P <0,001) y grupo de discapacidad
Conclusiones
Nuestros resultados sugieren que la discapacidad y dolor de cuello tienen una influencia en las
138
The Influence of Neck Disability and Pain Catastrophizing about Trigeminal
Temporomandibular Disorders
1. Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Science, The Center for Advanced Studies
University La Salle. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Aravaca, Madrid, Spain.
2. Motion in Brains Research Group, The Center for Advanced Studies University La Salle,
Universidad Autónoma de Madird.
3. Institute of Neuroscience and Craniofacial Pain (INDCRAN), Madrid, Spain
4. Hospital La Paz Institute for Health Research, IdiPAZ. Madrid, Spain.
Madrid, Spain
5. Faculty of Medicine, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Madrid, Spain
6. Department of Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Rehabilitation and Physical
Medicine, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain.
Calle la Salle, 10
28023 Madrid
SPAIN
Fax number:
1
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to investigate the influence that neck pain and disability
TMD.
attributed to TMD and 39 healthy controls was done. Patients were grouped according
to their scores on the neck disability index (NDI) (mild and moderate neck disability).
Initial assessment included the visual analogue scale (VAS), pain catastrophizing scale,
NDI and the Headache Impact Test-6. The protocol consisted of baseline measurements
of pressure pain thresholds (PPT) for mechanical pain sensitivity in the trigeminal and
cervical region and the pain-free maximum mouth opening (MMO), performance of the
provocation chewing test, immediately after data collection and 24 hours after. During
the provocation chewing test, patients were assessed for subjective feelings of fatigue
RESULTS: The VAFS were higher at 6 minutes (mean 51.7; 95% CI: 50.15-53.26) and
24 hours after (21.08; 95% CI: 18.6-23.5) for tests in the group showing moderate neck
disability compared with the mild neck disability group (6 minutes, 44.16; 95% CI
42.65-45.67/ 24 hours after, 14.3; 95% CI: 11.9-16.7) and the control group (6 minutes,
29.92; 95% CI 28.29-31.55/ 24 hours after, 4.65; 95% CI: 2.05-7.24). The analysis
shows a decrease in the pain-free MMO immediately after the tests for all groups and
this decrease was observed only in the group of moderate disability 24 hours after the
test. PPTs of the trigeminal region were decreased immediately in all groups, whereas at
24 hours a decrease was observed only in the groups of patients. PPTs of the cervical
region decreased only in the group with moderate neck disability 24 hours after the test.
The strongest negative correlation was found between pain-free MMO immediately
2
after the test and NDI in both groups: mild (r=-0.49; P<0.001) and moderate (r=-0.54;
catastrophizing, disability.
3
INTRODUCTION
.
Temporomandibular disorders (TMD), headaches and neck pain are very closely
related diseases[1]. Several studies have reported the overlapping signs and symptoms
among patients with TMD, headaches and neck pain, respectively[2, 3]. It has been
shown that neck pain complaints were also significantly associated with TMD[4, 5] and
that psychosocial factors have an influence on the presence of head, neck and orofacial
pain[3].
neck pain and headache was assessed in 1339 non-patients. Often painless TMJ
symptoms were found in 10% of subjects, orofacial pain in 7%, headache in 15% and
neck pain in 39%[3]. Plesh et al. showed that 53% of patients with TMD had severe
headache and 54% had neck pain[6]. It has been suggested that TMD and headaches
disability and pain with cervical disability[10, 11]. Several experimental studies have
described functional connections between the craniofacial and cervical afferent fibres
via patterns of neural convergence of the trigeminal nucleus and the upper cervical
18]. In relation to this, it has been observed in experimental studies that the pain
muscles can bi-directionally modify the activity of the stretch reflexes[13, 15]. Also, in
basic research, a reflex relationship has been observed between the activity of the
nociceptors of the TMJ and the activity of the fusimotor-muscle spindle system of the
cervical muscles[17]. This information is useful for proposing theories about the
4
influence of the cervical region over the possible nociceptive and sensory-motor
present, there is insufficient information demonstrating the influence of neck pain and
TMD. This could be a key issue, since improvements could be made by changing the
diagnostic and therapeutic approach to these patients. We used the primary hypothesis
disorder that affects the temporomandibular region[19]. The pain may be unilateral or
bilateral and is represented in the facial region, at the masseter and temporal region[19].
An important criterion for clinical diagnosis is that the headache occurs or is aggravated
by provocative manoeuvres (such as the palpatory pressure on the TMJ and masticatory
muscles) and/or mandibular active or passive movements[19, 20]. Recently, it has been
found that the diagnostic criteria that have greater sensitivity and specificity for this
type of headache are: 1) the provocation of pain by palpation of the temporalis muscle
or jaw movements and 2) the fact that pain changes with the movements of the jaw in
behaviour that may be present in patients suffering TMD, especially knowing that a
percentage of these patients develop painful chewing[22, 23], difficulty performing jaw
During the last decades, the relationship between masticatory muscle pain and
disordered jaw motor behaviour has been studied widely; see for example the review by
5
masticatory sensory-motor system[28]. Furthermore, Kurita et al. found a positive
correlation between chewing ability and TMJ pain and reduced mouth opening[29].
addition, a recent study in patients with chronic orofacial pain demonstrated that fatigue
the assessment and treatment of chronic pain is widely accepted[34]. A key point to
note about patients with headache attributed to TMD is that an association between
emotional functioning and increased frequency of headache has been found[35]. This
factors with pain and disability associated with trigeminal sensory-motor variables in
this research. A significant amount of scientific evidence has shown the influence of
The primary objective of this research is to investigate the influence that pain and
disability of the neck may have on trigeminal sensory-motor variables in patients with
whether the psychological or disability variables have any association with the studied
sensory-motor variables.
6
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design
and questionnaires, and also instructed the participant not to say anything that could
reveal their pain, disability trait or state. The reporting of the study follows the
statement) [42].
After receiving detailed information about the experiment, the volunteers gave
their written informed consent. All of the procedures used in this study were planned
under the ethical norms of the Helsinki Declaration and were approved by the local
ethics committee.
Participants
attributed to TMD and 39 healthy controls were recruited for the study. The sample was
recruited from outpatients of a Public Health Centre (Madrid, Spain) and two private
clinics specializing in craniofacial pain and TMD (Madrid, Spain). Patients were
selected if they met all of the following criteria: 1) Headache and facial pain attributed
Diagnostic Criteria for TMD[43, 44] to classify patients with painful TMD (myofascial
pain, TMJ arthralgia and TMJ osteoarthritis); 3) pain symptoms history of at least the 6
months previous to the study; 4) pain in the jaw, temples, face, neck, pre-auricular area,
or in the ear during rest or function; 5) neck pain and disability and quantified according
7
There were 83 patients categorized into two groups according to their scores on the
NDI[45]: 1) mild neck disability (NDI 5-14), and; 2) moderate neck disability (NDI 15-
24). The criteria for exclusion were: 1) a history of traumatic injuries (e.g., contusion,
3) neuropathic pain (e.g., trigeminal neuralgia); 4) unilateral neck pain; 5) cervical spine
Healthy controls were recruited from our academic university campus and the
local community through flyers, posters, and social media. Healthy participants were
examined and were included in the study only if they had no history of craniofacial
pain, headache or neck pain and had been free of any other painful disorders for the six
months prior to the experiment. All subjects had complete dentition, did not use any
medication, had no dental pathology and none were regular gum chewers. Subjects who
reported oral parafunctions (i.e., tooth grinding, tooth clenching) were excluded.
Experimental Protocol
After consenting for the study, recruited patients were given a battery of
questionnaires to complete on the first day of the experiment. These included various
the visual analogue scale (VAS) for pain intensity and the validated Spanish versions of
the pain catastrophizing scale (PCS), the NDI and the impact associated with headache
was assessed using the Headache Impact Test-6 (HIT-6). The experimental protocol
immediately after, and 24 hours after, the provocation chewing test. Participants
pain sensitivity at the trigeminal and cervical region and the pain-free maximum mouth
opening (MMO). The PPT and MMO measures have been employed in previous
8
studies[46] and are further described below. During the performance of the provocation
chewing test, data were collected regarding the subjective feelings of fatigue and pain
grams of hard gum; this protocol was modified from Karibe et al.[47]. Chewing gum
was employed to elicit pain and muscle fatigue. The participants performed the test in
the sitting position, which was attained by instructing the patient to sit in a comfortable
upright position, with the thoracic spine in contact with the back of the chair, but
without contact of the craniocervical region with the seat. The feet were positioned flat
on the floor with knees and hips at 90 degrees and arms resting freely alongside.
Tests were carried out by exclusively using the right side for chewing; the
metronome was set at 80 beats per minute to indicate chewing rate, as documented in a
previous study[48]. The participants were instructed to chew gum initially for 60
seconds to soften its initial hardness, then after 70 seconds of rest, the signal was given
Questionnaires
The Spanish version of the PCS assesses the degree of pain catastrophizing[49, 50]. The
PCS has 13 items and a 3-factor structure: rumination, magnification and helplessness.
The theoretical range is between 0 and 52, with lower scores indicating less
The Spanish version of the NDI measures perceived neck disability[45, 51]: This
functional capacity, ranging from 0 (no disability) to 5 (complete disability) points. The
addition of all of the points obtained from each of the items gave the level of disability,
9
with higher scores indicating greater perceived disability. The NDI has demonstrated
The Spanish version of the HIT-6[52, 53] consists of a six-item questionnaire measuring
the severity and impact of headache on the patient’s life. The results of HIT-6 are
stratified into four grade-based classes: little or no impact (HIT-6 score: 36-49),
moderate impact (HIT-6 score: 50-55), substantial impact (HIT-6 score: 56-59), and
severe impact (HIT-6 score: 60-78)[52]. The HIT-6 has demonstrated acceptable
psychometric properties[54].
Pain intensity
Pain intensity was measured with the VAS. The VAS consists of a 100 mm line, on
which the left side represents “no pain” and the right side “the worst pain imaginable”.
The patients placed a mark where they felt it represented their pain intensity[55].
b) Pain intensity perceived at different times during the course of the chewing
The visual analogue fatigue scale (VAFS) was used to quantify fatigue at
different times during the course of the chewing provocation test and at 24h after
completion. The VAFS consists of a 100-mm vertical line on which the bottom
represents “no fatigue” (0 mm), and the top represents “maximum fatigue” (100
10
A digital algometer (FDX 25, Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, CT, USA),
comprised of a rubber head (1 cm2) attached to a pressure gauge, was used to measure
PPTs. Force was measured in kilograms (kg); therefore, thresholds were expressed in
calculated to obtain a single value for each of the measured points in each of the
assessments. PPTs were assessed at one point in the masseter muscle (2.5 cm anterior to
the tragus and 1.5 cm inferior to the zygomatic arch), one point in the temporalis muscle
(anterior fibres of the muscle; 3 cm superior to the zygomatic arch in the middle point
between the end of the eye and the anterior part of the helix of the ear), in the
and in the upper trapezius muscle (2.5 cm above the superior medial angle of the
scapula). The device was applied perpendicular to the skin. The patients were asked to
raise their hands at the moment the pressure started to change to a pain sensation, at
which point the assessor stopped applying pressure. Compression pressure was
gradually increased at a rate of approximately 1 kg/s. This algometric method has high
Pain-free MMO
MMO was measured with the patients in a supine position. The patients were
asked to open their mouths as wide as they could without pain. The distance between
the superior incisor and the opposite inferior incisor was measured in mm with a
INDCRAN, Madrid, Spain). The inter-rater reliability of this procedure has been found
11
Sample size
The sample size was estimated with the G*Power Program 3.1.7 for Windows
outcome measures (fatigue and pain intensity). To obtain 80% statistical power (1-β
error probability) with an α error level probability of 0.05, using analysis of variance
generated a sample size of 31 participants per group. Allowing a dropout rate of 20%
and aiming to increase the statistical power of the results, we planned to recruit at least a
differences.
Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 21, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL
USA) software was used for statistical analysis. The independent t-test and one-way
ANOVA was used for analysis of the self-report psychological and pain-related
variables (NDI, PCS and HIT-6), as well as pain duration and the subjects’
sociodemographic data (age, weight, height), comparing the baseline data for the three
groups. Results are presented as mean, standard deviation (±SD), range and 95%
factors analysed were group (i.e., moderate neck disability group, mild neck disability
group and healthy group), sex (i.e., female and male) and time (measurement per minute
12
during the test and after 24 hours). The hypothesis of interest was the group vs. time
interaction.
The 2-way repeated-measures models of ANOVA were used to test the effect of
the task on the outcome secondary variables (i.e., PPTs and pain-free MMO). The
factors analysed were group and time (baseline, immediately after and after 24 hours),
and also the interactions group vs. time interactions were analysed. In the analysis,
assessed using the Mauchly sphericity test), the number of degrees of freedom against
which the F-ratio was tested was corrected by the value of the Greenhouse–Geisser
adjustment. Post hoc analysis with Bonferroni corrections was performed in the case of
method, the magnitude of the effect was classified as small (0.20 to 0.49), medium (0.50
provocation test and self-reports for pain-related and psychological measures were
examined using Pearson correlation coefficients. Multiple linear regression analysis was
performed to estimate the strength of the associations between the results of VAS
[model 1], VAFS [model 2] and pain-free MMO [model 3] (criterion variables) after 24
hours following completion of the provocation chewing test and NDI, PCS, HIT-6 and
VAS were used as predictor variables. Variance inflation factors (VIFs) were calculated
to determine whether there were any multi-collinearity issues in any of the three models.
values and adjusted R2. Standardized beta coefficients were reported for each predictor
13
variable included in the final reduced models to allow for direct comparison between
the predictor variables in the regression model and the criterion variable being studied.
For regression analysis, the 10 cases per variable rule was applied in order to obtain
reasonably stable estimates of the regression coefficients[61]. The significance level for
RESULTS
of the sample are summarized in Table 1. Finally, the total study sample consisted of
122 participants (77 females and 45 males). Table 1 shows no statistically significant
were no differences in the duration of pain and perceived pain intensity on a regular or
spontaneous basis in specific groups of patients, but differences were observed in NDI,
PCS and Hit-6 (p<0.05). The different diagnosis for TMD of the included patients were
as follows: 28 patients (33.7%) were diagnosed with myofascial pain, 8 patients (9.6%)
with arthralgia, 13 patients (15.6%) with osteoarthritis and 34 patients (40.9%) with a
provocation chewing test; in the group of patients with moderate neck disability, nine
participants (21.9%) withdrew between minutes 5 and 6 of the test as well as six
participants in the group of patients with mild neck disability (14.2%). All of the
(F=10.86; P<0.001), VAFS (F=4.06; P=0.02) and PPTs of the trapezius muscle
14
(F=3.96; P=0.022). Post hoc analysis showed higher values of VAS and VAFS in
women compared to men for the three groups (P<0.05). PPTs in the trapezius muscle
values were lower in women than in men (P<0.05) for the two groups of patients; in the
control group there was no difference in this value. No differences (group vs. sex
P<0.001), and significant differences for the group factor (F=416.65; P<0.001)
regarding the VAS results during the provocation chewing test. VAS behaviour during
the tests can be seen in Figure 1-A. Post hoc analysis revealed that higher values on the
VAS during provocation chewing test for the moderate neck disability group compared
to the mild neck disability group and the control group. The results obtained 24 hours
after the test showed no differences between the groups of patients, but there were
For fatigue perceived during tests, the ANOVA showed a significant effect for
group vs. time interaction (F=13.05; P<0.001) and for the group factor (F=371.12;
P<0.001). VAFS behaviour during the tests can be seen in Figure 1-B. VAFS values
were higher at 6 minutes and 24 hours after the test in the group of moderate neck
disability compared with the other two groups. The post hoc analysis shows the
Pain-free MMO
Regarding the pain-free MMO ANOVA revealed a significant effect for group
vs. time interaction (F=2.75; P=0.02) and for the group factor (F=65.74; P<0.001). The
post hoc analysis shows a decrease in the pain-free MMO immediately after the tests for
15
the three groups, but this decrease was observed only in the group of moderate disability
The PPTs for all points of the trigeminal and cervical region showed statistically
significant differences by ANOVA in the group vs. time interaction and group factor
(P<0.001). According to the post hoc analysis of the PPT masseter muscle, the results
showed a decrease in all groups for measurements both immediately and 24 hours after
the test (P<0.05); however, this decrease was greater in the group showing moderate
neck disability (d>0.8). Changes in temporalis muscle PPT’s were observed in both
measures for the group of moderate neck disability (P<0.001; d>0.8). In the group of
mild neck disability, changes were only observed immediately after the test (P=0.002;
For PPT in the cervical region (trapezius muscle and suboccipital muscles), the
post hoc analysis shows a decrease of values measures immediately and 24 hours after
the test (P<0.001) for group of moderate neck disability. This decrease in PPT can be
considered large for the suboccipital region (d>0.9) and small-medium for the trapezius
muscle (d=0.27 and 0.61). In the group with mild neck disability, changes were
observed only in the trapezius muscle PPT measurement immediately after the test
the PPT measurements in the cervical region in the group of healthy subjects (P>0.05).
Correlations Analysis
MMO, VAS and VAFS measured immediately and 24 hours after the tests for the
16
groups with moderate and mild neck disability. The strongest correlations were found in
the analysis for the group with moderate neck disability, where the pain-free MMO
immediately after the test was negatively associated with NDI (r=-0.54; P<0.001). For
the mild neck disability group, the greater correlation was between the MMO results
after 24 hours and NDI, which had a negative association (r=-0.49; P<0.001).
VAS and pain-free MMO after 24 hours regarding all of the self-report results for pain-
related and psychological measures in the patient groups with moderate and mild neck
In the first model, the criterion variable VAFS was predicted by pain
catastrophizing (for both groups), explaining 17% and 12% of variance, respectively.
The following variables, VAS (moderate neck disability, β=-0.001; P=0.10, mild neck
disability, β=-0.053; P=0.72), HIT-6 (moderate neck disability, β=0.004; P=-0.97, mild
neck disability, β=-0.071; P=0.63), and NDI (moderate neck disability, β=-0.082;
P=0.59, mild neck disability, β=-0.070; P=0.67) were not significant predictors.
In the second model, the VAS after 24 hours was predicted by HIT-6 (moderate
neck disability group) and pain catastrophizing (mild neck disability group), explaining
22% and 14% of the variance, respectively. The VAS (moderate neck disability, β=-
0.27; P=0.06, mild neck disability, β=-0.13; P=0.41), NDI (moderate neck disability,
β=0.19; P=0.17, mild neck disability, β=0.24; P=0.13) and PCS (moderate neck
disability, β=0.16; P=0.25) and HIT-6 (mild neck disability, β=-0.054; P=0.71) were not
significant predictors.
17
In a third model, the pain-free MMO was predicted by NDI for both groups;
these models accounted for between 14% and 21% of the variance. The PCS (moderate
neck disability, β=0.20; P=0.19, mild neck disability, β=0.13; P=0.39), the VAS
(moderate neck disability, β=-0.34; P=0.85, mild neck disability, β=-0.26; P=0.13) and
HIT6 (moderate neck disability, β=-0.24; P=-0.066, mild neck disability, β=0.20;
DISCUSION
can induce pain, fatigue and other trigeminal sensory-motor changes in patients with
previous studies which have also observed sensory changes induced experimentally by
provocation test used in our study was similar to other investigations[47, 63, 65].
However, some studies have used longer and also shorter durations for the masticatory
test, reporting significant changes in both situations for both patients and healthy
subjects[48, 62, 64, 66–68]. It is important to mention that group changes were found in
the healthy subjects, but these were smaller than in the other groups, this could be
explained by the observation that exercise can induce pain and increased
pain during the test may be due to masticatory muscle ischemia followed by the
account that there is sufficient evidence to suggest fatigue as a factor that increases the
pain perception[73].
18
In this regard, our findings show strong positive correlations between fatigue
and perceived pain associated with the masticatory provocation test in the three assessed
groups. These results may explain in a general way the observed sensory-motor
changes, although they are not sufficient to justify neither the between-groups
differences nor the influence of cervical disability. Reflections and discussion of these
issues are presented in the following section in an effort to clarify and achieve a better
One of the hypotheses proposed in this study is that cervical disability has an
influence over the trigeminal sensory-motor variables, modifying them. The results
obtained support this hypothesis because we observed greater changes in the moderate
cervical disability group immediately and 24 hours after the test. In addition, it was
hypothesized that the psychosocial factors would have a relationship with the results of
the masticatory provocation test and specifically with the pain and fatigue variables.
This relationship was proved after observing an association with pain catastrophizing.
Gender Differences
Regarding pain perception and fatigue during the test, our data show that gender
influences the results of the three groups: women presented with the greater perception
of pain intensity and masticatory fatigue. These results are consistent with previous
however, other investigations have not observed the interaction of gender factors with
experimentally-induced pain or masticatory fatigue [65, 74]. This research has not been
the differences in the results of men and women, although it is important to state that
there are many studies which present evidence-based results regarding the response that
19
women have to other painful clinical situations, adding the evidence of experimentally-
induced pain studies which indicate that women have a greater pain sensitivity than men
In this study, we have identified that patients with mild to moderate cervical
disability present a greater perception levels of pain and fatigue compared with healthy
subjects. It is important to mention that the group with moderate cervical disability
presented the greatest changes at the sensorial variables measured along the test,
immediately after and 24 hours after the test, with the exception of the pain intensity
between groups.
Although there are many studies that have used a provocative test to induce
masticatory pain and fatigue, we have only found one study similar to ours, in which
disorders presented greater masticatory pain and fatigue induced by the test compared to
We note recent scientific evidence that injuries to the cervical region may alter
the masticatory motor control and normal mandibular open-close function[76–78]. The
findings of this study may be related to this issue, because our results show that the
masticatory provocation test reduces the pain-free MMO at the end of the test, as seen in
the three groups assessed; these results are similar to previous studies[47, 72]. However,
we need to point out that the reduction was greater in both patient’s groups and it was
20
important to highlight that the regression analysis showed that cervical disability is a
masticatory activities (chewing)[79–82], plus recent studies also support that the neck
[83–85] and it seems that the activity of the neck muscles is increased as the demand for
masticatory work is greater[86]. Although most of these studies have been performed in
healthy subjects, we believe that these data are useful to try to explain some of the
results of this research. In this sense, we propose the theory that the masticatory motor
patterns are more altered with the presence of greater cervical pain or disability. This
might alter the behaviour, recruitment and coordination of the neck and mandibular
motor systems, thus generating higher levels of fatigue and pain during the provocation
This same theory could explain the results of decreased PPTs at the trigeminal and
cervical regions, noting that the PPTs changes were higher in the patient groups and that
most changes in the cervical PPTs at 24 hours occurred in the group of moderate
cervical disability. As a contributing factor to this situation, the presence of neck pain
must be considered, as this can lead to lower values of trigeminal PPTs compared to
healthy subjects [87]. Although we believe that there may be a direct relationship
between the trigeminal sensory-motor changes with cervical pain and disability, we
must also consider the possibility that the changes seen in patients would have been
system. Patients with chronic pain may be more susceptible to develop a central
21
sensitization process[88]. Wolf et al. suggest that in painful conditions where there is a
Radford proposed that in central sensitization, changes appear in afferent pathways that
trigeminal nucleus[90]. In addition, there are many studies in TMD patients that have
sensitization[91–97].
regression analysis, we have observed that pain catastrophizing and the impact of
headache on the quality of life (HIT-6) were associated with the pain perception and
predictor for fatigue at 24 hours after the test in the moderate cervical disability group,
and in the mild cervical disability group it was a predictor for perceived cervical
disability and fatigue after 24 hours. Pain catastrophizing is defined as a cognitive factor
either a real or anticipated pain experience[98, 99]. It has been described that in patients
with TMD, catastrophizing contributes to the chronification of pain and disability [100].
It has also been associated with a greater use of health system services, with greater
clinical findings at assessment associated with a negative mood[40, 41] and with
alterations of the functional mandibular status[10]. Regarding the perceived fatigue and
pain catastrophizing, we did not find any clinical or experimental trials that have
22
examined their association in patients with craniofacial pain and TMD; but we found
kinematic variables (i.e., amplitude, velocity, frequency cycle) which were measured
with a procedure using very short exposure times (15 seconds of chewing)[32]. In this
were observed; however, we must take into account that the purpose of that study was
not to induce pain or fatigue to observe the response, as we did in this research. It is
important to note that a recent systematic review concluded that there is an association
between catastrophizing and fatigue and that the former influences the latter
The relationship between psychological factors, motor activity and pain seems to
be present in various cases of musculoskeletal pain, but the explanation for this is
complex and limited so far. Peck et al.[105] and Murray and Peck[106] have proposed a
possible explanation for this and have created a new Integrated Pain Adaptation Model
(IPAM). This model basically explains that the influence of pain on motor activity
new motor recruitment strategy in order to minimize pain. However, this motor
response may be associated with the appearance of another pain or worsening of the
existing pain[105, 106]. This model is based on the multidimensional features (sensory
the sensory-motor system through the peripheral and central connections that this
23
system has with the autonomous nervous system, the limbic system and other higher
centres[105, 107].
According to the results of this research, we found that neck pain and disability
can influence sensory and motor variables of the masticatory system. These findings
cervical region in the diagnostic protocols for TMD and headache attributed to TMD. It
is noteworthy that the most commonly used diagnostic and classification methods for
patients with TMD do not include a specific assessment of neck pain and disability[20,
44, 108]. A diagnostic criterion observed recently in patients with headache attributed to
pain-free MMO and have also found that patients with greater neck disability have
increased fatigue and pain induced by the masticatory test. These findings lead us to
assume that the cervical region may have an important role for this type of headache,
but this has to be confirmed in future research, as these data can be extrapolated only to
patients with this type of headache who also associate neck disability.
pain and disability as part of the overall therapeutic strategy, as this could be beneficial
to reduce the negative sensory symptoms and improve masticatory motor control. We
believe that this approach should be investigated in future studies, but it must be taken
into account that we have recent evidence that therapeutic exercise and manual therapy
to the cervical region produce positive effects on pain modulation in trigeminal areas
24
In this study and other longitudinal or transversal studies, we have shown the
influence of psychosocial factors on patients with TMD[36, 110, 111]; specifically, our
the masticatory activity. This finding shows the interaction between sensory-type
variables with psychological variables, which should be considered a crucial issue when
rehabilitation of patients with headache attributed to TMD. It has been shown that
and, furthermore, it has been found that it causes neuroplastic adaptive changes
therapeutic exercise may be a good alternative to take into consideration; it has been
these results were similar to cognitive behavioural therapy in patients with chronic
Limitations
The results of this study should be discussed with the consideration that there are
several limitations. Although the sample size was calculated to have adequate power
and further losses were less than 20%, the results were not compared with a group with
25
headache attributed to TMD but without the presence of neck pain and disability. To
extrapolate the results to a clinical population would require similar but future studies to
be implemented using patient sample protocols with and without neck pain and
disability. Another limitation to consider is that pain catastrophizing was assessed as the
As the only motor variable measured in this research was pain-free MMO, other
kinematic variables should be taken into consideration in future research as they may
provide more information. Moreover, we believe that measuring motor variables of the
cervical region could also be useful to analyse possible correlations with masticatory
variables.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study suggest that neck pain and disability have an influence
In particular, it was observed that patients with moderate neck disability showed greater
changes immediately and 24 hours after the masticatory provocation test. Our data
between the craniocervical region and the craniomandibular region. Regarding pain
was observed. These findings support the need to recognize the interaction between
26
Competing interests
Authors’ contributions
RL, AP, AG, JF participated in the study design, manuscript preparation and editing and
data acquisition. JP, SA, RL participated in the performed the statistical analysis,
database management and manuscript preparation. All authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
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behavioral treatment in chronic low back pain. J Pain 7:261–71. doi:
10.1016/j.jpain.2005.10.011
36
Figure 1. Data represent mean value and error bars with 95% confidence intervals of
the mean of the pain intensity score (A), and the visual analogue fatigue scale scores
(B). Recorded during the 6 min and 24 hours after provocation chewing test. Level of
Figure 2. Comparison between groups of the pain intensity (A) and perceived fatigue
(B) immediately (6 min) and 24 hours after the provocation chewing test. Data represent
mean value, error bars with 95% confidence intervals of the mean and effect size (d).
37
Table 1. Summary of Demographic, Pain and Psychological Variables
Heigth (cm) 167.56±12.4 152-183 165.54±12.09 150-185 169.97±8.51 156-189 1.98 0.14
7
Age (years) 44.31±10.9 22-59 40.95±12.89 19-60 40.61±10.01 30-65 1.3 0.27
PCS (points) 17.09±3.75 7-23 15.8±4.02 7-22 5.46±1.75 2-9 143 0.01
Abbreviations: NDI, Neck Disability Index; PCS, Pain Catastrophizing Scale; HIT-6, headache impact
test-6; Visual Analog Scale, VAS; SD, standard deviation
38
Table 2. Descriptive data and multiple comparisons of the assessed variables
PPT. Masseter Moderate 1.9±0.21 1.02±0.17 0.88±0.2 a) 0.89 (0.79 to 0.99)** d=4.66
Neck b) 1.03 (0.94 to 1.13)** d=5.03
Disability
PPT. Temporalis Moderate 1.99±0.19 1.55±0.25 1.62±0.23 a) 0.44 (0.39 to 0.49)** d=2.06
Neck b) 0.37 (0.25 to 0.49)** d=1.77
Disability
PPT. Trapezius Moderate 2.62±0.49 2.33±0.47 2.49±0.45 a) 0.28 (0.24 to 0.33)** d=0.61
Neck b) 0.14 (0.08 to 0.2)** d=0.27
Disability
39
Table 3. Pearson's correlation coefficient between the different variables analyzed in
the study
Groups VAS 6min. VAS 24h. VAFS VAFS 24h. MMO MMO 24h
6min. Immediately
After
Moderate NDI 0.49** 0.28 0.40** 0.07 -0.54** -0.40**
Neck
Disability
40
Table 4. Multiple linear regression analysis
Abbreviations: NDI, Neck Disability Index; PCS, pain catastrophizing scale; HIT-6, headache
impact test-6; VAS, visual analog scale; VAFS, visual analog fatigue scale; MMO, maximal
mouth opening; 24, 24 hours after of tests
41
Figure 1
**
**
** ∆
VAS (mm)
∆
** ^^ ^^ ,
*
**
**
**
∆
**
^^
VAFS (mm)
** ∆
^^
** ,
^^ ^^
^^
1 2 3 4 5 6 24
Figure 2
** (d=3.5)
** (d=1.22)
50
45
40
** (d=2.93) ** (d=1.54)
35 Moderate Disability
30 (d=0.27) Mild Disability
VAS (mm)
25
20 ** (d=1.59) Healthy
15
10
5
0
6 24
** (d=3.16)
60 ** (d=1.15)
50 ** (d=3.47) ** (d=2.47)
40
** (d=0.69) Moderate Disability
VAFS (mm)
30 Mild Disability
** (d=1.17)
Healthy
20
10
0
6 24
Time: 6 min and 24 hours
5.6 Estudio VI
Parreño S, Paris-Alemany A, Cleland JA. The effects of manual therapy and exercise directed at
the cervical spine on pain and pressure pain sensitivity in patients with myofascial
Nuestro objetivo fue investigar los efectos de la terapia manual y el ejercicio dirigido a la
columna cervical en la intensidad del dolor, la MAI y los UDPs de músculos masticatorios en
Resultados
El modelo mixto de ANOVA 2X3 reveló un efecto significativo en el factor tiempo (F = 77,8; P
<0,001), pero no para el factor lado (F = 0,2; P = 0,7) para los cambios en los UDPs sobre el
músculo masetero y más músculo temporal (tiempo: F = 66,8; P <0,001; lado: F = 0,07; P =
0,8). Las pruebas post hoc revelaron diferencias significativas entre pre-intervención y la post-
periodo seguimiento (P = 0,9) para ambos músculos. Los tamaños del efecto eran grandes (d>
1,0) para ambos períodos de seguimiento en los UDPS musculares. El ANOVA encontró un
efecto significativo de tiempo (F = 78,6; P <0,001) los cambios en la intensidad del dolor y la
MAI sin dolor (F = 17,1; P <0,001). Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre la pre-
intervención y el periodo de seguimiento (P> 0.7). Dentro del grupo tamaños del efecto eran
grandes (d> 0,8) para los resultados post-intervención y los períodos de seguimiento.
Conclusión
182
Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 2009 36; 644–652
SUMMARY No studies have investigated the effects of P < 0Æ001; side: F = 0Æ07; P = 0Æ8). Post hoc revealed
the treatments directed at the cervical spine in significant differences between pre-intervention
patients with temporomandibular disorders (TMD). and both post-intervention and follow-up periods
Our aim was to investigate the effects of joint (P < 0Æ001) but not between post-intervention and
mobilization and exercise directed at the cervical follow-up period (P = 0Æ9) for both muscles. Within-
spine on pain intensity and pressure pain sensitivity group effect sizes were large (d > 1Æ0) for both
in the muscles of mastication in patients with TMD. follow-up periods in both muscles. The ANOVA
Nineteen patients (14 females), aged 19–57 years, found a significant effect for time (F = 78Æ6;
with myofascial TMD were included. All patients P < 0Æ001) for changes in pain intensity and active
received a total of 10 treatment session over a 5- pain-free mouth opening (F = 17Æ1; P < 0Æ001). Sig-
week period (twice per week). Treatment included nificant differences were found between pre-inter-
manual therapy techniques and exercise directed at vention and both post-intervention and follow-up
the cervical spine. Outcome measures included periods (P < 0Æ001) but not between the post-
bilateral pressure pain threshold (PPT) levels over intervention and follow-up period (P > 0Æ7).
the masseter and temporalis muscles, active pain- Within-group effect sizes were large (d > 0Æ8) for
free mouth opening (mm) and pain (Visual Ana- both post-intervention and follow-up periods. The
logue Scale) and were all assessed pre-intervention, application of treatment directed at the cervical
48 h after the last treatment (post-intervention) and spine may be beneficial in decreasing pain intensity,
at 12-week follow-up period. Mixed-model ANOVAS increasing PPTs over the masticatory muscles and an
were used to examine the effects of the intervention increasing pain-free mouth opening in patients with
on each outcome measure. Within-group effect sizes myofascial TMD.
were calculated in order to assess clinical effect. The KEYWORDS: cervical spine, temporomandibular dis-
2 · 3 mixed model ANOVA revealed significant effect order, pressure pain sensitivity
for time (F = 77Æ8; P < 0Æ001) but not for side (F = 0Æ2;
P = 0Æ7) for changes in PPT over the masseter muscle Accepted for publication 25 June 2009
and over the temporalis muscle (time: F = 66Æ8;
systemic lupus erythematosus, or psoriatic arthritis); (v) were assessed at pre-intervention, 48 h after the last
presence of neurological disorders (e.g. trigeminal treatment (post-intervention) and at 12-week follow-
neuralgia); (vi) concomitant diagnosis of any primary up period.
headache (tension-type headache or migraine); (vii)
subjects who had received any form of treatment
Active pain-free mouth opening
(physiotherapy, splint therapy and acupuncture) with-
in 3 months of the study. The study was conducted in In a supine position, participants were asked to ‘open
accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, and all the mouth as wide as possible without causing pain’. At
participants provided informed consent which was the end position of pain-free mouth opening, the
approved by the local ethics committee. distance between upper-lower central incisors was
measured in millimetres. The intra-tester reliability of
this procedure was found to be high (ICC = 0Æ9–0Æ98)
Pain intensity
(32). The mean of three trials was calculated and used
The VAS was used to record the patient’s level of pain at for the main analysis. Active pain-free mouth opening
baseline, 48 h after the last treatment (post-interven- was assessed pre-intervention, 48 h after the last
tion) and at 12-week follow-up period. The VAS is a treatment (post-intervention) and at 12-week follow-
10 cm line anchored with a ‘0’ at one end representing up period.
‘no pain’ and ‘10’ at the other end representing ‘the
worst pain imaginable’. Patients placed a mark along
Treatment protocol
the line corresponding to the intensity of their symp-
toms, which was scored to the nearest millimetre. The The treatment protocol included only interventions
VAS has been shown to be a reliable and valid directed at the cervical spine. The treatment techniques
instrument for measuring pain intensity (27). It exhib- were applied by the same physical therapist with
its a minimal clinically important difference (MCID) 6 years of experience specializing in manipulative
between 9 and 11 mm (28, 29). therapy. All patients received a total of 10 sessions
over a 5-week period (twice a week). During the 10
treatment sessions all patients were treated with the
Pressure pain threshold assessment
following techniques:
Pressure pain threshold (PPT) is defined as the amount 1 Upper cervical flexion mobilization: The patient was
of pressure where the sense of pressure first changes to supine with the cervical spine in a neutral position. The
pain (30). A mechanical pressure algometer (Pain therapist brought about a contact of the occipital bone
Diagnosis and Treatment Inc, Great Neck, NY, USA) with the first finger and medial aspect of the hand, and
was used. This device consisted of a round rubber disc other hand over the frontal region of the patient’s head.
(1 cm2) attached to a pressure (force) gauge. The gauge The mobilizing force was delivered by flexing the upper
displayed values in kilograms. As the surface of the cervical region using a combination of cephalic traction
rubber tip was 1 cm2, the readings were expressed in with the occipital hand and caudal pressure with the
kg cm)2. The mean of three trials (intra-examiner frontal hand (Fig. 1). The mobilization was applied at a
reliability) was calculated and used for the main slow rate of one oscillation per 2 s (0Æ5 Hz) for a total
analysis. A 30-second resting period was allowed time of 10 min. This rate of mobilization was previously
between trials. The reliability of pressure algometry used in another study (33).
was found to be high (ICC = 0Æ91 [95% confidence 2 C5 central posterior-anterior mobilization (34): The
intervals (CI): 0Æ82–0Æ97] (31). Pressure pain threshold patient was prone with the cervical spine in a neutral
was assessed over bilateral masseter and the temporalis position. The therapist placed the tips of his thumbs on
muscles. The masseter point was located 1 cm superior the posterior surface of the C5 spinous process, while the
and 2 cm anterior from the mandibular angle, and the other fingers rested gently around the patients’ neck
temporal point was located on the anterior fibres of (Fig. 2). A grade III (large amplitude movement that
temporal muscle, 2 cm above the zygomatic arch in the moved into the resistance limiting the range of move-
middle part between lateral edge of the eye and the ment) posterior-anterior technique was applied centrally
anterior part of the helix. Pressure pain threshold levels to the C5 spinous process. The mobilization was applied
maintaining a 10-second contraction with no pain. (F = 0Æ2; P = 0Æ7) for changes in PPT over the masseter
Participants sustained the contraction for 10 repetitions muscle. Post hoc testing revealed significant differences
of 10-second duration, with a 10-second rest interval between pre-intervention and both post-intervention
between each contraction. Once this target was and follow-up periods (P < 0Æ001). However, no signif-
achieved, the exercise progressed to the next pressure icant difference was identified between the post-inter-
target, repeating the process at the new pressure target, vention and follow-up period (P = 0Æ9) for both
first increasing the holding time and then the repeti- masseter muscles. Within-group effect sizes were large
tions. This exercise protocol has been used in previous (d > 1Æ0) for both follow-up periods in bilateral masse-
studies in patients with neck pain (39–41). ter muscles. Table 1 details pre-intervention, post-
intervention, follow-up, and change scores of PPT
levels bilateral in both masseter and temporalis
Statistical analysis
muscles.
Statistical analysis was conducted with the SPSS 14.5 The mixed model ANOVA also found a significant effect
package.* Mean, s.d., or 95% CI of the values were for time (F = 66Æ8; P < 0Æ001) but not for side (F = 0Æ07;
presented. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test showed a P = 0Æ8) for changes in PPT levels over the temporalis
normal distribution of the data (P > 0Æ05). A 2 · 3 muscle. The post hoc analysis found significant differ-
mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) with time ences between pre-intervention and both post-inter-
(pre-intervention, post-intervention and follow-up) vention and follow-up periods (P < 0Æ001). However,
and side (right or left) as the within-subjects variables no significant difference was identified between the
was used to examine the effects of the treatment on PPT
over the masseter or the temporalis muscles. A one-way
repeated measure ANOVA with time (pre-intervention, Table 1. Changes in pressure pain thresholds (kg cm)2) over the
post-intervention and follow-up) as within-subject masseter and temporalis muscles
variable was used to investigate the effects of the
treatment on spontaneous pain and active mouth Pressure pain threshold (kg cm)2)
in the right masseter muscle
opening. The Bonferroni test was used for post hoc
Pre-intervention 2Æ8 0Æ7 (2Æ5 ⁄ 3Æ1)
analysis. Within-group effect size was calculated using Post-intervention 3Æ9 0Æ5 (3Æ7 ⁄ 4Æ2)
Cohen’s coefficient (d) (42). An effect size greater than Follow-up 3Æ9 0Æ6 (3Æ6 ⁄ 4Æ2)
0Æ8 was considered large; around 0Æ5, moderate; and less Pre- ⁄ post-differences 1Æ1 0Æ8 (0Æ8 ⁄ 1Æ6)
than 0Æ2, small. A P-value less than 0Æ05 was considered Pre ⁄ follow-up differences 1Æ1 0Æ7 (0Æ7 ⁄ 1Æ4)
Pressure pain threshold (kg cm)2)
as statistically significant for all analyses.
in the left masseter muscle
Pre-intervention 2Æ3 0Æ6 (1Æ9 ⁄ 2Æ6)
Results Post-intervention 3Æ6 0Æ8 (3Æ4 ⁄ 3Æ9)
Follow-up 3Æ5 0Æ7 (3Æ1 ⁄ 3Æ8)
A total of 19 patients, 14 females and 5 males, aged 19– Pre- ⁄ post-differences 1Æ3 0Æ7 (1Æ0 ⁄ 1Æ6)
57 years old (mean age s.d.: 37 10 years) partici- Pre ⁄ follow-up differences 1Æ2 0Æ8 (0Æ8 ⁄ 1Æ5)
Pressure pain threshold (kg cm)2)
pated. All subjects were right hand dominant. None of
in the right temporalis muscle
the patients started drug therapy during the time of the Pre-intervention 2Æ4 0Æ6 (2Æ1 ⁄ 2Æ7)
study. In this sample of patients with TMD the average Post-intervention 3Æ7 0Æ5 (3Æ4 ⁄ 3Æ9)
duration of symptoms was 9Æ2 months (95% CI: 7Æ7– Follow-up 3Æ5 0Æ7 (3Æ2 ⁄ 3Æ8)
10Æ6 months), and the mean intensity of spontaneous Pre- ⁄ post-differences 1Æ3 0Æ7 (0Æ9 ⁄ 1Æ6)
Pre ⁄ follow-up differences 1Æ1 0Æ7 (0Æ7 ⁄ 1Æ4)
pain was 55Æ53 (95% CI: 51Æ4–59Æ6).
Pressure pain threshold (kg cm)2)
in the left temporalis muscle
Pressure pain threshold levels Pre-intervention 3Æ0 0Æ7 (2Æ7 ⁄ 3Æ3)
Post-intervention 3Æ9 0Æ6 (3Æ6 ⁄ 4Æ2)
The 2 · 3 mixed model ANOVA revealed a significant Follow-up 4Æ0 0Æ6 (3Æ6 ⁄ 4Æ3)
effect for time (F = 77Æ8; P < 0Æ001) but not for side Pre- ⁄ post-differences 0Æ9 1Æ0 (0Æ4 ⁄ 1Æ4)
Pre ⁄ follow-up differences 1Æ0 0Æ8 (0Æ6 ⁄ 1Æ4)
*SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA. Scores are expressed as mean s.d. (95% confidence interval).
in patients with TMD this neurophysiological mecha- spontaneous pain in the orofacial region will also
nism seems plausible for explaining the bilateral hypo- increase pain-free mouth opening.
algesic effects that occurred in the trigeminal region Our study had several limitations. First, the sample
with interventions targeted to the cervical spine. size was small. Second, we did not include a control
Nevertheless, as no signs of neck dysfunctions and ⁄ or group, so we could not infer a direct cause and effect
neck symptoms reported by the patients with TMD relationship between the outcomes and the interven-
were included in this study, it was difficult to establish a tions directed at the cervical spine. It is plausible that
relationship between the treatment of the cervical spine the improvements seen in the patients may be related
and the orofacial effects found in the current study. As to the passage of time. However, we would expect this
we have discussed, it may be that the effects of cervical to be unlikely given the current duration of symptoms
interventions are more generalized rather than specific (9Æ2 months). Furthermore, it was not possible to assess
for the trigeminal area. Future studies should investi- gender differences because the size of the sample was
gate these neurophysiological mechanisms between the small. Future randomized controlled trials with a
cervical spine and the orofacial region in patients with greater number of participants and including a control
myofascial TMD. group which received traditional treatment for myo-
We also found an increase of 4Æ5 mm in pain-free fascial TMD should be conducted in order to further
mouth opening after the treatment of the cervical elucidate the effectiveness interventions directed at the
spine, which was slightly superior to the results of some cervical spine for patients with TMD.
studies investigating changes in active mouth opening
after the treatment of masseter muscle TrPs which
Conclusions
ranged from 2 mm (50) to 4 mm (51). A recent study
has reported that the application of a thrust manipu- The results of our study demonstrated that patients
lation targeted to the upper cervical spine resulted in an with myofascial TMD treated manual therapy and
increase in active mouth opening (3Æ5 mm) in women exercise directed at the cervical spine might be bene-
with mechanical neck pain (52). As the application of ficial in decreasing facial pain, increasing PPTs over the
cervical interventions induced similar improvements in masticatory muscles and increasing pain-free mouth
mouth opening when compared with treatment of the opening. Furthermore, these changes were maintained
masseter muscle, perhaps cervical techniques might be 12 weeks after discharge in our population. The effect
used as a complementary approach to manage pain in sizes were large for all of outcomes at both the 48 h and
patients with myofascial TMD. In addition, in patients 12 weeks follow-up periods. Future randomized studies
with allodynic responses in the facial region, in whom should investigate the potential of a cause and effect
the manual application of local interventions are often relationship.
extremely painful, an indirect approach directed to the
upper cervical spine may be beneficial.
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47. Vicenzino B, Collins D, Wright A. The initial effects of a 56. Miralles R, Moya H, Ravera MJ, Santander H, Zuniga C,
cervical spine manipulative physiotherapy treatment on the Carvajal R et al. Increase of the vertical occlusal dimension by
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50. Rodrı́guez-Blanco C, Fernández-de-las-Peñas C, Hernández-
Xumet JE, Peña-Algaba C, Fernández-Rabadán M, Lillo-de-la- Correspondence: Roy La Touche Arbizu, Facultad de Medicina,
Quintana MC. Changes in active mouth opening following a Universidad San Pablo CEU, Calle Tutor, 35, 28008 Madrid, Spain.
single treatment of latent myofascial trigger points in the E-mail: roylatouche@yahoo.es
the upper cervical spine affect pain sensitivity and autonomic nervous system function
2013 Mar;29(3):205-15.
Los objetivos de este estudio fueron investigar los efectos de la movilización antero-
Resultados
Conclusiones
Este estudio proporciona una evidencia preliminar del efecto hipoalgésico a corto plazo
de pacientes con DCCF de origen miofascial, lo que sugiere que la movilización puede
192
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Various techniques such as passive manipulation and mo- diseases: (1) intra-articular temporomandibular disk displace-
bilization, active mobilization, neuromuscular facilitation, ment, osteoarthrosis, or arthritis of the temporomandibular
and articular glides are included under the general term of joint, according to categories II and III of the Research
SMT.14–17 Many SMTs have demonstrated hypoalgesic Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders24,28;
effects. This hypoalgesic effect is not antagonized by na- (2) history of traumatic injuries (eg, contusion, fracture, or
loxone and does not exhibit tolerance,18 supporting the whiplash injury); (3) systemic diseases such as fibromyalgia,
theory that SMTs activate a nonopioid inhibitory system. systemic erythematous lupus, or psoriatic arthritis; (4) neu-
In addition, a concomitant activation of the sympathetic rological disorders (eg, trigeminal neuralgia); (5) concomitant
nervous system (SNS) occurs after SMT, with the degree of medical diagnosis of any primary headache (tension type or
activation depending on the technique.19,20 migraine); (6) unilateral neck pain; (7) cervical spine surgery;
Many studies have investigated the effects of SMT on (8) clinical diagnosis of cervical radiculopathy or myelopathy;
lower cervical pain,14–16,21 but there is no randomized- and (9) history of previous physical therapy intervention for
controlled trial in which SMT is used to diminish cranio- the cervical region. Each participant received a thorough ex-
facial pain. George et al22 compared cervical manipulation planation of the content and purpose of the treatment before
with a soft tissue technique at the cervical-cranial junction signing an informed consent form related to the procedures,
to improve mouth opening in healthy controls, but no sig- which was approved by the local ethics committee in ac-
nificant results were obtained. Another study examined a cordance with the Helsinki Declaration.
manual therapy and therapeutic exercise protocol applied
at the cervical spine, to treat craniofacial pain of myofascial
origin in a cohort intervention study, which resulted in an Research Design
increase in the PPT in the masticatory muscles and in- A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study
creased mouth opening.23 was performed. Patients were blind to which intervention
Consequently, the aims of this study were to extend they received, and an independent assessor, blind to inter-
previous work by investigating the neurophysiological vention assignment made the measurements and registered
effects of SMT in patients with CCFP of myofascial origin. the data. Patients were randomly allocated to either treat-
Specifically, we studied passive anterior-posterior upper ment intervention or sham intervention. Randomization
cervical mobilization (APUCM). We expected pain sensi- was performed by a computer generated random-sequence
tivity in the craniofacial and cervical regions to decrease in table created with Graphpad software (GraphPad Software
response to treatment. In addition, we expected to observe Inc., CA) before the beginning of the study. The random-
the sympathetic influence of this technique on skin con- ization sequence used a balanced block design in which
ductance (SC), breathing rate (BR), heart rate (HR), and skin randomization occurred in blocks of 2.
temperature (ST).
Procedure
Pain Intensity The experiment consisted of 3 treatment sessions. Each
The VAS was used to measure pain intensity of the patient received 3 sessions over 2 weeks, and the entire ex-
cervico-craniofacial region at rest and before and after each periment lasted approximately 8 months.
treatment. The VAS is comprised of a 100 mm horizontal The evaluator was a PT with extensive experience in
line in which the left side represents “no pain” and the right taking the experimental measurements. During the first as-
side represents “worst pain.” The patient placed a mark on sessment, pretreatment data were obtained; after measuring
the line at the point that they felt represented the intensity the PPT and VAS, the sensors were applied, and the patient
of their pain at the time. Pain intensity was quantified by was instructed to lie down on a couch and relax. The room
the assessor in millimeters. This scale has proven its reli- temperature was controlled at 251C. After 10 minutes (time
ability and validity for measuring pain intensity.32 determined for the patient to come to a normal baseline),
the first record of the sympathetic parameters was regis-
tered. The patient was then randomly assigned to 1 of the 2
Pressure Pain Threshold intervention groups, and the therapeutic technique was
PPT is defined as the minimum amount of pressure applied. Immediately after finishing the technique, SNS
needed to provoke a pain sensation.33 We used a digital variables were measured, and 5 minutes after the technique,
algometer (Model FDX 10; Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, VAS results were registered again. In the second and third
CT) comprised of a rubber head (1 cm2) attached to treatment session, the SNS variables and VAS were meas-
a pressure gauge, which measures in kg with thresholds ex- ured using the same protocol (pretreatment and posttreat-
pressed in kg/cm2. The protocol consisted of 3 measurements ment data), but PPTs were taken only 5 minutes after the
with an interval of 30 seconds between each measurement. end of the treatment (posttreatment data). Therefore, we
The average of the 3 measurements was calculated to obtain a obtained 3 pretreatment and 3 posttreatment measurements
single value for each one of the measured points in each of of SNS and VAS parameters and 1 pretreatment and 2
the assessments. This algometric method has high reliability posttreatment measurements (after the second and third
(ICC = 0.91, 95% CI, 0.82-0.97) for measuring PPT.34 PPTs sessions) of PPT.
were assessed bilaterally at 2 points in the masseter muscle
(M1 and M2), 2 points in temporalis muscle (T1 and T2), Treatment Technique
suboccipital muscles, C5 zygapophyseal joint, and upper APUCM directly influences the 3 upper cervical seg-
trapezius muscle. The device was applied perpendicular to the ments (C0-C3). The patient was placed in a supine position
skin, and the patients were asked to raise their hand the with a neutral position of the cervical spine. The PT held
moment when the pressure started to change to a pain sen- the occipital region of the patient with both hands to stabilize
sation, at which point the assessor stopped applying pressure. and maintain the position of the upper cervical structures,
This procedure was performed 3 times: before the first while applying a posterior directed force on the frontal re-
treatment session (pretreatment outcome), after the second gion of the patient (anterior to posterior force) with the an-
treatment session, and after the third treatment session terior part of the shoulder. The mobilization was applied at a
(2 posttreatment outcomes). slow rate of 1 oscillation per 2 seconds (0.5 Hz) controlled
with an MA-30 digital metronome (Korg Inc., Japan). This A 33 mixed-model ANOVA was used to determine the
oscillation rate has been used previously with a different PPT variables (M1, M2, T1, T2, suboccipital, C5, trapezius);
manual therapy technique.19 The total time of mobilization the factors were group (treatment or sham), time (pre, post 1,
was 6 minutes. Mobilization was applied in 3 intervals of and post 2) and side (right and left). Bonferroni corrections
2 minutes, with 30 seconds of rest in between, resulting in a were used for post hoc analysis of specific comparisons be-
total of 7 minutes. tween variables. Student t test determined the percent change
between groups between the first session (pretreatment) and
Sham Technique last session (posttreatment 2) outcomes. Throughout all
analyses, statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
To simulate the treatment technique, the PT applied
the same grips used with the treatment technique: 2 hands
under the occipital bone with the anterior part of 1 shoulder RESULTS
positioned anterior to the frontal bone, with the patient in Thirty-two patients (21 females and 11 males) with
supine position. However, mobilization was not applied to CCFP of myofascial origin were included in this study. No
the cervical spine. The contact with the patient was held for patients dropped out during the study, and no adverse
3 intervals of 2 minutes with 30 seconds of rest in between. events occurred with the APUCM. The t test did not reveal
Both techniques (treatment and sham) were applied by any significant differences between groups with regard to
the same PT, and each participant received the following demographic details and clinical data (P > 0.05), as shown
explanation about the intervention: “A physical therapist in Table 1. A normal distribution was confirmed with the
will apply a technique on your neck with one hand placed Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (P > 0.05).
on the posterior part of your neck and the other one on
your forehead. The purpose is to obtain changes in your Pain Intensity
neck and craniofacial pain.” The ANOVA revealed a significant grouptime inter-
action (F = 135.81; P < 0.001), and significant differences
Statistics for the time factor (F = 261.7; P < 0.001) and group factor
(F = 32.59; P = 0.003) regarding the VAS results. Post hoc
Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS version
analysis also revealed significant differences for the treatment
15.0. A Kolmogorow-Smirnov test was used to determine
group (P < 0.001), but not for the sham group (P = 0.3) for
whether the sample was consistent with a normal distri-
the descriptive data shown in Table 2. A 2-way repeated-
bution (P > 0.05). Student t test was used to analyze self-
measures ANOVA found significant intersession differences
reported psycophysical variables (NDI, STAI, and BDI)
(F = 11.86; P < 0.001) and a groupintersession interaction
and pain duration by comparing the preintervention data
(F = 17.09; P < 0.001), indicating that the change from
for the treatment and sham groups.
session to session was larger for 1 group.
The SNS variables (ST, HR, BR, SC) and VAS were
Regarding the percentage of change, a 2-way repeated-
tested with a 2 3 repeated measures analysis of variance
measures ANOVA revealed significant differences for group
(ANOVA); the factors analyzed were time (pre-post) and
factor (F = 94.24; P < 0.001) and time factor (F = 11.3;
group (treatment and sham). Timegroup interactions were
P < 0.001), represented in Figure 1A. The t test also re-
also analyzed. Post hoc analysis with Bonferroni corrections
vealed significant differences between the percent change of
was performed for specific comparisons between variables.
the total of the means for the treatment and sham groups
To determine differences between sessions in VAS and
(t = 10.03; P < 0.001).
SNS variables, a 2-way ANOVA was used, which analyzed
intersession factor and group intersession interaction
Pain Sensitivity
(presession 1, presession 2, presession 3). The percent
change for the SNS variables and VAS was obtained rela- Craniofacial Region
tive to the percent change between each session and the Analysis of the PPT within the craniofacial region was
percent of the total of the means in both groups. A 1-way performed by a 3 3 mixed-model ANOVA, which revealed
ANOVA was used to analyze the percent change in group a significant effect of time factor [M1 (F = 83.65; P < 0.001);
factor and time factor between sessions (% change session M2 (F = 67.44; P < 0.001); T1 (F = 98.05; P < 0.001); T2
1, % change session 2, % change session 3). The percent (F = 18.81; P < 0.001)], group factor [M1 (F = 12.27; P =
change of the total of the means of the 3 sessions in the 0.001); M2 (F = 18.35; P < 0.001); T1 (F = 16; P < 0.001);
treatment and placebo groups was analyzed with a Student T2 (F = 15.85; P < 0.001)] and group time interaction [M1
t test. (F = 59.65; P < 0.001); M2 (F = 48.45; P < 0.001); T1
TABLE 1. Descriptive Data of the 2 Intervention Groups: Treatment and Sham Groups
Treatment (N = 16) Sham (N = 16)
95% CI for
Mean SD Mean SD Mean Difference Mean Difference t P
Age 33.19 9.49 34.56 7.84 1.37 7.64 to 4.68 0.48 0.65
NDI 15.69 3.26 16.75 3.94 1.06 3.67 to 1.54 0.83 0.41
Pain duration 11.31 6.74 10.69 5.79 0.62 5.16 to 3.91 0.28 0.78
BDI 13.63 3.64 12.38 4.41 1.25 2.67 to 3.17 0.17 0.86
STAI 25.75 5.63 24.75 4.66 1 2.73 to 4.73 0.54 0.58
BDI indicates Beck Depression Inventory; CI, confidence interval; NDI, Neck Disability Index; STAI, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; t, t test value.
TABLE 2. Descriptive Statistics for Sympathetic Nervous System Parameters and Pain Intensity, for Pretreatment and Posttreatment
Assessments
Mean±SD
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
SC
Treatment 1.84±0.61 3.33±0.43 2.10±0.78 3.45±0.38 1.88±0.59 3.4±0.53
Sham 2.2±0.58 2.25±0.61 2.21±0.61 2.27±0.55 2.15±0.58 2.20±0.57
HR
Treatment 69.56±6.3 73.16±5 71.25±4.39 75.1±2.88 72.05±6.84 77.12±4.12
Sham 67.87±7.35 63.81±7.56 67.31±6 63.31±6.73 69.37±5.09 66.12±7.01
RR
Treatment 15.31±2.76 16.31±4.13 15.63±1.9 18.38±3.7 15.88±2.56 16.7±3.6
Sham 16.58±2.37 14.9±2.99 15.38±1.4 14.28±2.7 15.45±2.2 13.95±2.6
ST
Treatment 31.45±3.45 28.42±4.39 32.44±3.21 27.53±5.1 30.46±3.67 27.18±4.33
Sham 31.71±3.19 29.11±4.07 32.03±2.7 29.56±3.76 31.06±3.26 28.57±3.61
VAS
Treatment 43.88±7.3 29.66±8.97 31.06±8.83 18.31±9.18 29.31±11.8 14.75±11.8
Sham 42.38±9.41 41.5±7.9 45.13±7.9 42.56±6.88 44.31±8.51 42±9.05
BR indicates breathing rate; HR, heart rate; SC, skin conductance; ST, skin temperature; VAS, visual analog scale.
F = 83.57; P < 0.001); T2 (F = 16.48; P < 0.001)], but not not the sham group (P = 0.73). The descriptive data of the
for side factor [M1 (F = 0.94; P = 0.76); M2 (F = 0.13; SC are shown in Table 2. A 1-way repeated-measures
P = 0.72); T1 (F = 0.009; P = 0.92); T2 (F = 0.64; P = ANOVA found no significant intersession differences (F =
0.43)]. Post hoc testing revealed significant differences be- 0.001; P = 0.97) or group by intersession interaction (F =
tween the 3 sessions for the treatment group (P < 0.001) but 0.32; P = 0.57).
not for the sham group (P > 0.05) at all craniofacial points; ANOVA revealed significant differences in the percent
descriptive data are shown in Table 3. change between treatment sessions for the group factor
The t test revealed significant differences in the percent (F = 31.02; P < 0.001), but not the time factor (F = 0.72;
change in PPT at the right and left craniofacial points. Figure 2 P = 0.48), as shown in Figure 4A. The t test revealed sig-
shows the percent change in PPT from the pretreatment and nificant differences between percent change of the total
final posttreatment assessment. of the means of treatment and sham groups (t = 6.11;
P < 0.001).
Cervical Region
A 3 3 mixed-model ANOVA revealed a significant Breathing Rate
time effect of the suboccipital musculature (F = 96.33; P < ANOVA revealed a significant grouptime interaction
0.001), C5 zygapophyseal joint (F = 52.37; P < 0.001), (F = 8.91; P = 0.006) and a main effect of group (F = 4.36;
trapezius muscle (F = 57.41; P < 0.001), and a grouptime P = 0.045), but not time (F = 0.22; P = 0.63), for changes
interaction at the suboccipital region (F = 64.12; P < 0.001), in BR. Post hoc analysis revealed significant differences for
C5 zygapophyseal joint (F = 46.84; P < 0.001), and tra- the treatment group (P = 0.02), but not the sham group
pezius muscle (F = 65.3; P < 0.001). However, this was not (P = 0.08). The descriptive data of the BR are shown
the case for side factor [suboccipital muscles (F = 1.22; P = in Table 2. A 1-way repeated-measures ANOVA found no
0.27); C5 zygapophyseal joint (F = 1.8; P = 0.18); trapezius significant differences for intersession (F = 0.13; P = 0.87)
muscle (F = 1.57; P = 0.22)]. Post hoc analysis revealed or for groupintersession interaction (F = 0.29; P = 0.74).
significant differences in the PPT for the 3 sessions of the
treatment group (P < 0.001), but not the sham group 10
(P > 0.05), at each cervical point. Descriptive data of PPT
0
for the cervical region are shown in Table 3.
Change in VAS (%)
TABLE 3. Descriptive Statistics of PPT Assessed Pretreatment, Posttreatment 1 After the Second Session, and Posttreatment 2 After the
Third Session, Taken Bilaterally
Treatment Sham
Right Left Right Left
Pre Post 1 Post 2 Pre Post 1 Post 2 Pre Post 1 Post 2 Pre Post 1 Post 2
Orofacial region
M1 2.13±0.37 3.03±0.5 3.46±0.45 2.12±0.43 2.91±0.53 3.5±0.44 2.29±0.54 2.32±0.48 2.39±0.55 2.28±0.37 2.31±0.62 2.42±0.6
M2 2.12±0.44 2.88±0.44 3.4±0.38 2.09±0.39 2.94±0.36 3.59±0.45 2.18±0.49 2.27±0.56 2.37±0.63 2.12±0.61 2.21±0.45 2.15±0.66
T1 2.76±0.49 3.52±0.5 4.11±0.55 2.69±0.5 3.66±0.54 4.19±0.53 2.81±0.47 2.85±0.46 2.97±0.32 2.89±0.51 2.78±0.57 2.82±0.59
T2 2.97±0.48 3.59±0.51 3.95±0.58 2.8±0.56 3.77±0.47 3.98±0.66 3.04±0.46 2.91±0.61 3.06±0.55 2.86±0.58 2.9±0.46 2.97±0.46
Cervical region
Suboccipital 2.36±0.34 3.33±0.29 3.95±0.22 2.28±0.35 3.38±0.32 3.99±0.22 2.31±0.44 2.43±0.52 2.48±0.63 2.25±0.39 2.35±0.49 2.41±0.54
C5 2.47±0.42 3.09±0.65 3.63±0.52 2.46±0.45 3.26±0.69 3.69±0.49 2.52±0.44 2.55±0.38 2.6±0.4 2.64±0.44 2.74±0.61 2.63±0.43
Trapezius 2.61±0.38 3.51±0.42 4.13±0.67 2.66±0.37 3.62±0.41 4.24±0.5 2.85±0.29 2.82±0.44 2.87±043 2.69±0.4 2.53±0.56 2.6±0.58
Mean±SD.
PPT indicates pressure pain thresholds.
A 1-way ANOVA revealed significant differences in (F = 1.02; P = 0.36), as shown in Figure 4C. Significant
percent change of BR for the group factor (F = 11.34; differences between the percent change of the total of the
P = 0.002) but not for time (F = 1.03; P = 0.36) as shown means for the treatment and sham groups (t = 7.37; P <
in Figure 4B. The t test revealed significant differences be- 0.001) were observed.
tween the percent change of the total of the means for the
treatment and sham groups (t = 3.07; P = 0.004).
Skin Temperature
Heart Rate The ANOVA did not reveal any significant group
ANOVA revealed a significant group time inter- time interaction (F = 3.49; P = 0.071), time factor effect
action (F = 54.14; P < 0.001) and a main effect of group (F = 1.62; P = 0.2), or group factor effect (F = 0.53; P =
(F = 19.4; P < 0.001), but not time (F = 0.14; P = 0.71), 0.46) for changes in ST. The descriptive data of the ST are
for changes in HR. Post hoc analysis revealed significant shown in Table 2. A 1-way repeated-measures ANOVA
differences in the treatment group (P < 0.001) and the sham found no significant intersession differences (F = 2.84;
group (P < 0.001); HR data are shown in Table 2. A 1-way P = 0.06) or group intersession interaction (F = 0.25;
repeated-measures ANOVA found no significant inter- P = 0.77).
session differences (F = 1.5; P = 0.23) or group interses- Regarding percent change in ST, a 1-way repeated-
sion interaction (F = 0.45; P = 0.63). measures ANOVA did not reveal a significant difference in
Regarding the percent change in HR, a 1-way re- group factor (F = 3.25; P = 0.08) or time factor (F =
peated-measures ANOVA revealed significant differences 2.74; P = 0.07), as shown in Figure 4D. The t test did not
for group factor (F = 53.66; P < 0.001), but not time factor reveal a significant difference in the percent change of the
80.00
60.00 60.00
40.00 40.00
20.00
20.00
0.00
0.00
-20.00
M1 M2 T1 T2 -20.00
Sub-occipital C5 Trapezius
FIGURE 2. Percent change in pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) of
the craniofacial region (M1 and M2 points of masseter muscle FIGURE 3. Percent change in pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) of
and T1 and T2 of temporal muscle) for treatment and sham in- the cervical region (suboccipital muscles, C5, and trapezius
terventions at right and left sides (mean of preintervention and muscles) for treatment and sham interventions on the right and
final postintervention). Error bars represent 95% confidence in- left sides (mean of preintervention and final postintervention).
tervals of the mean. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals of the mean.
Treatment Treatment
A B 40
160 Sham Sham
Change in Skin Conductance (%)
80
10
60
40 0
20 -10
0
-20
-20
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3
-40
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3
C D
15 0
Change in Skin Temperature (%)
Treatment Treatment
Sham
Change in Heart Rate (%)
10 Sham
-5
5
-10
0
-15
-5
-10 -20
-15 -25
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Session 1 Session 2 Session 3
FIGURE 4. Percent change between the 3 sessions (mean of preintervention and postintervention) for treatment and sham groups. A,
skin conductance; (B) heart rate; (C) breathing rate; (D) skin temperature.
total of the means for the treatment and sham groups outcomes, it was apparent that the SNS values returned to
(t = 1.82; P = 0.079). a normal state of SNS activity. We suggest that the effect
produced by the technique could be due to the influence of
transient sympathoexcitation on pain mechanisms. Our con-
DISCUSSION
tention is that the physiological effects produced by the
Our findings demonstrate that the APUCM technique APUCM technique influence the suboccipital posterior sym-
applied at a rate of 0.5 Hz significantly increased SNS ac- pathetic network and TCC and act to inhibit or gate my-
tivity and produced short-term hypoalgesic effects. We are ofascial pain within the cervico-craniofacial region.
not aware of any previous studies that have measured hy-
poalgesic effects in the cervical and craniofacial regions
using APUCM. We therefore contend that this is the first Clinical Effectiveness
time that this specific manual mobilization technique ap- The results of clinical pain intensity measured by the
plied at the aforementioned frequency has been investigated, VAS indicate a decrease in the patients’ experience of pain
and our data indicate significant differences between the at rest with significant differences between treatment and
experimental and control groups. sham groups. Patients who received the intervention re-
An increase in PPT was observed after the second in- ported a decrease of 29.13 mm in VAS between the pre-
tervention compared with the presession data and after the treatment and third posttreatment assessment. Todd et al35
third intervention compared with the first posttreatment as- have stated that a minimal clinically significant change in
sessment, which is indicative of a maintained increase over VAS may be at least 13 mm, whereas more recently, Bird
the successive sessions. With regard to pain intensity, it is and Dickson36 have contended that a clinically significant
important to note the decrease in the VAS after each ses- VAS change depends on the baseline VAS of the participant
sion, which was maintained from one session to the next and and that a change of 13 mm would be clinically significant
indicates a 41.7% decrease in pain intensity from the 3 ap- for a baseline VAS < 34 mm, a change of 17 mm for a
plications. A change in the SNS, as evidenced by changes in baseline VAS between 34 and 67 mm, and a change of
SC, BR, and HR, was noted after each session, but this trend 28 mm for a baseline VAS > 67 mm. The more specific
reversed and was not maintained from one session to the next. guidelines of Bird and Dickson are supported by Emshoff
Upon comparing the first, second, and third pretreatment and colleagues in a study of chronic TMD pain patients.
They established that to be clinically significant, patients Previous research has investigated the effect of spinal
with a higher pain baseline must demonstrate a greater VAS mobilization on cervical and lumbar regions and reported
reduction than those with a lower baseline, and the minimal positive results.15,20,40,42 Sterling et al15 noted a difference
change should be of 19.5 mm or 37.9% of the VAS.37 between the improved PPT in the painful side and the
Our findings are clinically significant according to the nonpainful side, indicating a unilateral effect from a uni-
guidelines of Todd et al, Bird and Dickson, or Emshoff lateral technique. Our study demonstrates a bilateral in-
et al.35–37 crease in PPT in both cervical and craniofacial regions. This
difference could be due to the central application of the
SNS Response technique in this study as opposed to the unilateral appli-
cation of Sterling et al.
Previous studies have noted similar effects in the variables
that we measured after SMT in the cervical region.15,17,19,20,38
We observed an increase of 83.75% in SC, which is similar to Manual Therapeutic Neurophysiology
that observed by Chiu and Wright19 and Sterling et al15 who
Research in SMT has focused on the neurophysio-
observed increases of approximately 50% to 60% and 16%,
logical effects of manual manipulation and mobilizations
respectively. Studies in which SMT was applied to other body
with data suggesting activation of descendent pain inhibitory
locations also noted similar changes in SC. A 16.85% increase
systems upon short-term (initial) hypoalgesic effects.43–45
in SC was observed after a thoracic mobilization applied to
Skyba et al46 showed that mobilization of the hyperalgesic
T4,39 and a 13.5% increase in SC was observed after lumbar
knee joint in rats produced an antihyperalgesic effect. This
mobilization.40
effect, which maintained after spinal blockage of opioid or
A similar effect was noted for HR. We observed an in-
GABA receptors, could be due to descending serotoninergic
crease of 6.06% compared with previous studies that reported
or noradrenergic inhibitory mechanisms via corticospinal
changes of 10.5%,38 13%,20 and 4.5%.17 A significant change
projections from the periacueductal gray matter (PAG).46
in HR in the sham group was also noted. HR decreased by
Implications relate to noradrenaline, a PGA neurotransmitter
5.5% in the sham group, which could indicate that the
that is more effective at inhibiting mechanical nociception
treatment can increase HR, whereas the sham application is
than thermal nociception, which seems to be serotoninergi-
similar to a touch massage technique that results in a decrease
cally mediated.47,48 Others have demonstrated that SMT
of SNS activity.41
might be the ideal stimulus for PAG mediated nonopioid
Previous studies of BR have reported increases of
analgesia, hypoalgesia, sympathoexcitatory effects, and changes
44%38 and 36%.20 In our study, we observed a 10.4% in-
in motor activity.15,17,20,49 In the present study, we obtained
crease in BR in the experimental group. This discrepancy
both a sympathoexcitation and hypoalgesic effect after the
could be due to the type of mobilization that we applied.
APUCM technique, which supports the fact that the d-PAG is
Previous studies that used lateral cervical glides or poste-
influenced by the SMT technique.
rior-anterior mobilization techniques at a frequency of
One controversial issue surrounding manual therapy is
2 Hz. A significant change was not obtained in ST despite
whether a localized segmental and/or extrasegmental effect
a downward trend in both treatment and sham groups, as
is produced by SMT. Previous research has shown that
noted by Chiu and Wright.19 However, a significant de-
SMT improves symptoms distal to the segment where it is
crease of 2.5% in ST was obtained in another study.15
applied; that is, manipulation applied at the thoracic spine
The results of Sterling et al15 correlate with our data
has positive effects when performed on patients with from
with respect to the tendency of ST to decrease and the noted
mechanical neck pain,14,21 and cervical SMT can result in
change in SC. Furthermore, significant changes in blood
hypoalgesia at the elbow.50 However, other clinical studies
pressure, which we did not record, have been observed by
have shown only segmental effects causing diminished neck
Paungmali et al,17 Vicenzino et al,20 and McGuiness et al.38
pain and PPT after ipsilateral cervical mobilization.15,16
These results confirm that gentle manual mobilization
We applied a mobilization technique at the upper cer-
techniques on the cervical spine can confer positive phys-
vical spine and observed changes in the craniofacial and
iological effects.
cervical region as well as hypoalgesic effects further away
from the segment to which it was applied, suggesting that
Hypoalgesic Effects manual therapy has a general central or at least supra-
Our data indicate that the APUCM technique pro- medullar effect. A physiological or sympathoexcitatory
duces hypoalgesic effects, as demonstrated by PTT meas- effect has also been demonstrated in the upper extremity
urements made by an algometer, and support a significant after cervical or thoracic SMT,15,39 and in the lower ex-
difference between the treatment and sham groups. Sterling tremities after lumbar mobilization.40
et al15 demonstrated that a unilateral posterior-anterior It is clear that SMT activates central structures that con-
mobilization applied on the side of pain increased the PPT currently activate sympathoexcitatory and hypoalgesic effects
by 23% on the side of treatment in patients with chronic as demonstrated in our research and in that of others.15,20 The
idiopathic neck pain. We observed increases in PPT presence of an extrasegmental effect may indicate activation of
between 64% and 77% for the masseter muscle points, the d-PAG and could be mediated by various descending pain
between 38% and 59% at temporal muscle points and be- inhibitory pathways and associated tracts of the TCC that
tween 47% and 79% for the cervical points after 3 treat- allow for afferent and efferent transmission between the cer-
ments of APUCM. The greater change in PPT observed in vical and craniofacial regions.51,52
our study and others may be because our study investigated
short-term outcomes (3 treatment sessions) instead of im-
mediate outcomes (1 treatment session), due to the applied Nociceptive Modulation and the TCC
technique and the frequency of mobilization and is in- The increase in PPT caused by the APUCM technique
dicative of a real bilateral hypoalgesic effect at both regions. on the craniofacial region provides additional clinical
support for pain modulatory mechanisms in the TCC. systems can be activated by SMT on the cervical spine by
A review performed in 1998 outlined neurophysiological spinal noradrenergic and serotoninergic pathways from the
coupling between craniofacial and cervical systems.53 dorsolateral pons and rostral ventral medulla.45,46
It has been observed that manual therapeutic applica-
tions to the cervical region provoked a pain reducing effect
in the head and face. Mellick and Mellick54 and Mellick Study Limitations
et al55 observed that applying a bilateral intramuscular in- Although the results of our research are positive, we
jection of small amounts of 0.5% bupivacaine at the cervical only measured short-term changes without follow-up testing.
region caused a decrease in facial pain and headaches. In We only measured SC and ST on the right side. Other studies
addition, Carlson et al56 demonstrated that an infiltration of investigating sympathetic activation after SMT treatment
2% lidocaine on an active TrP of the trapezius muscle sig- only measured one side of the body, usually the treated side.
nificantly reduced pain and electromyographical activity of Perry and colleagues applied a unilateral lumbar mobilization
the ipsilateral masseter. and measured sympathetic activity at both lower extremities.
The only previous study of manual interventions to the They only observed significant activation in the treated side
cervical spine to manage craniofacial pain was performed but did observe a tendency toward sympathetic activation in
by La Touche et al. This study reported similar results to the untreated side.40 It would have been interesting to observe
our study: improved PPT at the masseter and temporalis if central mobilization activates SNS with the same intensity
muscles after a manual therapy protocol directed to the in both upper extremities and if it has any effect on lower
cervical spine combined with a deep neck flexors train- extremities. It also could have been interesting to measure SC
ing program.23 and ST directly on the facial region. We did not measure distal
Convergence pathways between cervical and trigemi- PPT; therefore, due to a lack of information, we cannot pro-
nal sensory afferents in the TCC are fully supported.52,57,58 vide a complete discussion about the general or segmental ef-
Stimulation of an upper cervical root, such as manipulation fect of the APUCM technique.
of the greater occipital nerve has produced changes in the This is the first time this type of mobilization at a
TCC neurons. This supports the concept that perception of frequency of 0.5 Hz has been used in a clinical randomized-
cranial pain is due to a functional convergence between controlled trial. Because different techniques require differ-
trigeminal and cervical fibers in the TCC59,60 and provides a ent frequencies of application to provoke stronger changes,
potential rationale for the relationship between headaches it would be of interest to test the same mobilization at dif-
and arm and trunk pain.61 ferent frequencies of application.
Direct stimulation of the greater occipital nerve (cer-
vical input) increases metabolic activity of the TCC62 and
trigeminal nociceptors release neuropeptides, such as sub- Clinical Implications
stance P, from laminas I and II that diffuse to laminas III to We have demonstrated that craniofacial pain can be
V depending on the intensity of the stimulus.63 The TCC modulated through an upper cervical treatment (mobilization).
itself is formed by the upper cervical dorsal horns and the The presence of craniofacial pain is a predictor factor for neck
trigeminal nucleus caudalis, which allows nociceptive input pain.9,67 It is interesting to treat this type of patient with a
to be transmitted from the TCC to higher centers.64 Pain technique that has proven effects at the craniofacial segment
modulatory structures such as the PAG, dorsolateral pon- that can also treat a possible neck dysfunction. This technique
tomesencephalic tegmentum, and rostral ventromedial me- might be contraindicated in patients with craniocervical hy-
dulla control the TCC-mediated generation of antinociceptive permobility syndrome due to the movement the APUCM
or pronociceptive states.57,58,65 provokes at the upper cervical spine and the risk this entails.68
In summary, we propose a neurobiomechanical hypo- Chronic pain can be maintained by SNS modulation
thesis to explain the possible mechanism by which a manual through the peripheric adrenorreceptor excitation of cat-
therapeutic technique causes a hypoalgesic effect in cranio- echolamine.69 Chronic TMD patients seem to present a
facial and cervical regions. This technique primarily influen- dysregulation of b-adrenergic activity, which contributes to
ces the upper cervical region (C1-C3), which is anatomically altered cardiovascular and catecholamine responses.70 The
related to the occipital bone. We believe that an anterior- dysregulation of SNS can contribute to the severity and
posterior glide of the upper cervical structures provokes an maintenance of pain. The influence of APUCM on SNS
improved arthrokinematic relationship of the target region activity makes this technique an interesting tool to treat
thereby generating improved pain-free range of movement patients with CCFP of myofascial origin and patients with
and concomitant suboccipital muscle relaxation. A secondary facial allodynia, in which other techniques applied directly
effect might reduce mechanical forces on the upper cervical on the face would be contraindicated.
neurovascular structures, thereby interrupting or inhibiting
input and reducing TCC sensitization by activating de-
scendent pain inhibitory systems. CONCLUSIONS
In addition, the TCC is the main nucleus that receives We demonstrate that APUCM reduces pain intensity
nociceptive information from the face, head, and neck.66 and increases PPT in the cervical and craniofacial regions.
Neurons inside the nuclei are considered multimodal neu- APUCM also causes sympathoexcitation, which confirms a
rons and can receive 2 or more inputs from different ori- sympathetic effect. These results indicate an influence of the
gins, such as cervical nerve roots, when manual therapy is mobilization on the CNS (medullar or supramedullar effect).
being applied. The input generated from the cervical region This study provides preliminary evidence of the short-term
can alter the nociceptive processing in the TCC and, as a hypoalgesic effect on the craniofacial and cervical regions of
result, produce a hypoalgesic effect at the facial region. patients with CCFP of myofascial origin, suggesting that
Finally, another possible mechanism to explain the effect of APUCM may cause an immediate nocioceptive modulation
our manual intervention is that descending pain inhibitory at the TTC.
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6. DISCUSIÓN
Los hallazgos mostrados en esta tesis coinciden con una gran cantidad de estudios
básico y clínico se ha comprobado como las estructuras cervicales pueden influir sobre
viceversa (Armijo-Olivo and Magee, 2007, 2013; Dessem and Luo, 1999; Eriksson et
2012; Hellström et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2005; Olivo et al., 2010; Svensson et al., 2005;
Bereiter et al., 2005; Chiang et al., 1998, 2005; Hu et al., 1993; Lam et al., 2009; Salter,
2004; Sessle et al., 1986; Yu et al., 1995): 1) las comorbilidades entre las dolencias
posibles intervenciones terapéuticas sobre la región cervical que pudieran influir sobre
206
6.1 Diferencias de Género en la Variables Somatosensoriales.
En el análisis del efecto del género sobre variables somatosensoriales en pacientes con
DCCF hay que partir de una premisa epidemiológica y es que como está representado
femenina (Adèrn et al., 2014; Carlsson, 1999; LeResche, 1997; Macfarlane, Blinkhorn,
Davies, Kincey, et al., 2002). Hemos encontrado en el estudio III (La Touche et al.,
2010) y en el estudio V (La Touche, Paris-Alemany, et al., 2014) influencias del género
provocación estuvo influenciada por el género en los tres grupos evaluados, se observó
que las mujeres presentan una mayor percepción de intensidad de dolor y fatiga
sujetos sanos (Karibe et al., 2003; Plesh et al., 1998), sin embargo es importante
mencionar que otras investigaciones no han observado la interacción del factor genero
van Selms et al., 2005). El estudio V no está diseñado con el objetivo de identificar los
evidencia de estudios experimentales relacionados con dolor inducido indica que las
mujeres presentan mayor sensibilidad al dolor que los hombres en diferentes pruebas
somatosensoriales (Fillingim et al., 2009). Finalmente destacar que en el estudio III (La
Touche et al., 2010), solo se identificó una interacción con el género en los UDPS del
207
músculo tibial anterior, mostrando unos valores significativamente menores en mujeres
al., 2014) de esta tesis han estudiado la influencia de la postura craneocervical sobre la
rango articular según la postura en que se realice el gesto (La Touche et al., 2011), estos
hallazgos también fueron comprobados por Higbie y cols. en 1999 (Higbie et al., 1999).
Además, evidencia previa refuerza estos hallazgos, ya que se han descrito las
Otro resultado que consideramos relevante en el estudio I, fue que los UDPS de áreas
teóricamente que esto puede suceder debido a cambios o ajustes que realiza el sistema
creemos que estos ajustes se producen en mecanismos sensoriales pero también en los
motores. En relación a esto, debemos mencionar que contamos con evidencia previa que
208
incrementándola (Ballenberger et al., 2012; Forsberg et al., 1985; McLean, 2005;
la postura craneocervical medido con dos instrumentos entre el grupo de pacientes con
DCCF y los sujetos asintomáticos, sin embargo es fundamental tener en cuenta que esos
los superó pero por muy poco, estos resultados se han encontrado prácticamente con las
(Silva et al., 2009) y con TCM (Armijo-Olivo et al., 2011) comparada con sujetos
asintomáticos. Por otra parte, cabe mencionar que no se encontró asociación entre la
de otras investigaciones apoyan este resultado (Armijo-Olivo et al., 2011; Cheung et al.,
2010) aunque otros lo contradicen (Lau et al., 2010). La relación entre la postura y los
sistemáticas recientes (Armijo Olivo et al., 2006; Rocha et al., 2013), además ambas
revisiones coinciden en recalcar que los estudios analizados en relación a esta temática
conclusiones.
Sensoriomotora Trigeminal.
En los estudios III (La Touche et al., 2010) y V (La Touche, Paris-Alemany, et al.,
hemos identificado que los pacientes con moderada y leve discapacidad cervical
209
presentan mayores niveles de percepción de dolor y fatiga frente a los sujetos sanos
intensidad dolor a las 24 horas en que entre ambos grupos no se presentaron diferencias
estadísticamente significativas. A pesar de que existen muchos estudios que utilizan los
test provocación masticatorias para inducir dolor y fatiga (Christensen et al., 1996; Dao
et al., 1994; Farella et al., 2001; Gavish et al., 2002; Karibe et al., 2003; Koutris et al.,
2009; Plesh et al., 1998), solo hemos encontrado un estudio similar al nuestro (estudio
(Haggman-Henrikson et al., 2004) observaron que los pacientes con latigazo cervical
presentaron mayores niveles de dolor y fatiga masticatoria inducida por el test que los
han descrito conexiones funcionales entre las regiones craniofacial y cervical a través de
patrones de convergencia neural en el CTC (Dessem and Luo, 1999; Ge et al., 2004;
Hellström et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2005; Svensson et al., 2005; Torisu et al., 2013; Wang
(Ge et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2004) además, en investigaciones básicas con animales se
actividad del sistema fusimotor de los músculos de cuello (Hellström et al., 2002), esta
210
sobre los posibles mecanismos nociceptivos (sensoriales) y motores implicados en el
Contamos con evidencia científica reciente que demuestra que lesiones sobre la región
apertura-cierre (Eriksson et al., 2004, 2007; Zafar et al., 2006), los hallazgos de estudio
V se pueden relacionar con esta cuestión ya que nuestros resultados muestran que el test
de provocación masticatorio reduce la MAI libre de dolor al finalizar el test en los tres
grupos, este resultados son similares a la de otros estudios (Karibe et al., 2003;
Svensson et al., 2001), sin embargo hay que tomar en cuenta que esta disminución fue
(después de 24 horas) en los dos grupos de pacientes. Planteamos la teoría de que los
patrones motores masticatorios estén más alterados a medida que se tenga mayor dolor
sensaciones 24 horas después. Esta misma teoría podría servir para explicar los
trigeminales y cervicales, cabe destacar que los cambios UDPs fueron mayores en los
grupos de pacientes y que la mayoría de cambios en los UDPs de la región cervical a las
coadyuvante a este situación hay que considerar que la presencia de dolor cuello puede
211
sanos como se observó en el estudio III (La Touche et al., 2010). Aunque consideramos
que puede haber una relación directa entre los cambios sensoriomotores trigeminales
central; se conoce actualmente que los pacientes con dolor crónico pueden tener mayor
Wolf y cols. sugieren que en condiciones dolorosas en donde existe una comorbilidad
cambios en las vías aferentes que hacen posible la comunicación de las neuronas
esto hay que añadir que son muchos los estudios que han encontrado en pacientes con
central (Anderson et al., 2011; Ayesh et al., 2007; Chaves et al., 2013; Feldreich et al.,
2012; Park et al., 2010; Raphael et al., 2009; Sarlani et al., 2004), sin embargo es
importante destacar que en el grupo de pacientes con dolor de cuello crónico mecánico
cervicales pero no en zonas distales, estos nos lleva a pensar que en este tipo de
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6.4. Asociación entre la Discapacidad Cervical y la Discapacidad
Craneofacial/craneomandibular.
es posible que el resultado del estudio II fuese mejor por la especificidad de la muestra
de pacientes con DCCF seleccionados, hay que tomar en cuenta que la muestra del
la discapacidad y estatus funcional mandibular no tenga tanto peso, pero esta es una
suposición que se tendrá que comprobar futuras investigaciones. Los resultados de los
una correlación positiva muy fuerte entre las dos variables de discapacidad (r=0,82)
En los estudios III (La Touche et al., 2010), IV (La Touche, Pardo-Montero, et al.,
fue un factor psicológico analizado y mostró ser un predictor de la fatiga a las 24 horas
213
en el grupo de moderada discapacidad cervical y en el grupo de leve discapacidad
cervical también fue predictor para la fatiga y la intensidad de dolor percibido 24 horas
después del test provocación masticatorio. El catastrofismo ante dolor se define como
amenaza percibida tanto real como anticipada de la experiencia de dolor (Sullivan et al.,
experimentales en los que hayan estudiado la asociación en pacientes con DCF o TCM,
pero si hemos encontrado dos estudios sobre la relación del catastrofismo del dolor con
agudo en una muestra dividida en sujetos con poco catastrofismo y alto catastrofismo,
los resultados de esta investigación mostraron que la intensidad del dolor percibida fue
más alta en los sujetos con mayor catastrofismo y además en este mismo grupo se
observó una velocidad más lenta y mayor variabilidad en los movimientos mandibulares
repetidos, los autores de este estudio sugieren que los cambios en la coordinación
motora son un ejemplo de conducta de evitación que afectan la función del sistema
muy corto (15 segundos) en pacientes con TMC atribuidas a dolor miofascial, en este
respecto al catastrofismo, sin embargo hay que tomar en cuenta que el propósito del
estudio no era inducir dolor o fatiga para observar la respuesta como si lo hemos hecho
214
Se debe destacar que en una revisión sistemática muy reciente se concluye que hay una
diaria y limitación de la capacidad para realizar ejercicio (Meeus et al., 2012; Nijs et al.,
2008, 2012). Además este constructo se ha asociado con una mayor utilización de los
un estado de ánimo negativo (Turner et al., 2001; Turner, Brister, et al., 2005) y con
una alteración estatus funcional mandibular (La Touche, Pardo-Montero, et al., 2014)
moderada entre IDD-CF con el HIT-6 y la EVA (r = 0,38 hasta 0,46). Además, ECD y
dolor y la discapacidad (r = 0,36 hasta 0,52). Esto es coherente con los datos recientes
que demuestran que los pacientes con DCF y TCM reportaron mayores niveles de
catastrofismo (Campbell et al., 2010; Fillingim et al., 2011; Quartana et al., 2010).
(Buenaver et al., 2008, 2012; Holroyd et al., 2007; Rantala et al., 2003; Velly et al.,
2011).
215
Evidencia previa ha demostrado la relación entre el miedo a los movimientos de la
mandíbula y el DCF (Rollman et al., 2012; Visscher et al., 2010), pero la evidencia
hasta el momento se consideraba limitada. Sin embargo, hay estudios que demuestran
al., 1999; Kamper et al., 2012; Vlaeyen et al., 1999; Walton and Elliott, 2013). El
catastrofismo ante el dolor y el miedo relacionado con el dolor son dos constructos que
regresión lineal múltiple en donde se identificó que la intensidad del dolor (EVA: β =
La relación entre los factores psicosociales, la actividad motora y el dolor parece estar
la misma es compleja y limitada hasta el momento. Peck y cols. (Peck et al., 2008) y
Murray y Peck (Murray and Peck, 2007) han planteado una posible explicación y para
adaptación al dolor (MIAD). Este modelo explica básicamente que la influencia del
de un individuo que termina generando una nueva estrategia de reclutamiento motor con
el objetivo de minimizar el dolor, sin embargo esta respuesta motora puede asociarse a
216
la aparición de otra dolencia o al empeoramiento del dolor existente (Murray and Peck,
dolor y cómo este influye sobre el sistema sensoriomotor a través de las conexiones
periféricas y centrales que tiene este sistema con el sistema nervioso autónomo, el
sistema límbico y otros centros superiores (Craig, 2003; Peck et al., 2008).
pacientes con TCM (Kucyi et al., 2014; Salomons et al., 2012). Salomons y cols.
(Salomons et al., 2012) encontraron en pacientes con TCM una correlación entre la
(AMS) y la corteza cingulada media (CCM), los autores de esa investigación sugieren
que la activación de esas áreas en los pacientes con TCM podrían tener una implicación
motora, hay que tomar en cuenta que el AMS neurofisiologicamente está implicada en
la planificación del acto motor (Nachev et al., 2007, 2008) y el CCM se ha asociado con
et al., 2011). En relación a los pacientes con TCM que presentaron altos niveles de
rumiación (sub-escala de la ECD), Kucyi y cols. (Kucyi et al., 2014) encontraron una
ante el dolor podría influir sobre áreas relacionadas con aspectos afectivos y
del dolor. Parece ser que los cambios funcionales o estructurales en áreas cerebrales no
217
solo se presentan en pacientes catastrofistas con TCM, también en otro estudio de
emocionales del dolor y el control motor (Gracely et al., 2004), similares resultados se
En el estudio III (La Touche et al., 2010) no se encontraron asociaciones entre los UDPs
consideramos de gran interés teniendo en cuenta que estos dos factores emocionales se
han relacionado con diferentes situaciones de dolor (Castillo et al., 2013; Roddy et al.,
2013; Simons et al., 2014), a pesar de esto no hemos encontrado ningún tipo de
asociación de los síntomas de ansiedad con otras variables relacionadas con el dolor y la
una asociación positiva con la intensidad (rho=0,65; P= 0,001) y la cronicidad del dolor
(rho=0,54; P=0.004) y este es un hecho que es recogido por una amplia parte de la
literatura científica (Salama-Hanna and Chen, 2013; Yalcin and Barrot, 2014).
Los resultados de los estudios VI y VII (La Touche et al., 2009, 2012) demuestran que
teniendo en cuenta que son las primeras investigaciones que estudian estas
intervenciones sobre pacientes con TCM. Otros estudios en pacientes con cefaleas han
218
encontrado resultados similares en cuanto a la modulación del dolor con métodos
nervio occipital (Jasper and Hayek, 2008; Lee and Huh, 2013; Saper et al., 2011; Serra
and Marchioretto, 2012; Silberstein et al., 2012; Slavin et al., 2006), infiltraciones
locales (Ashkenazi and Levin, 2007; Mellick and Mellick, 2003, 2008; Mellick et al.,
2006; Saracco et al., 2010) o tratamientos de terapia manual (Castien et al., 2011, 2012,
2013; Espí-López and Gómez-Conesa, 2014; Espí-López et al., 2014; van Ettekoven
and Lucas, 2006; Hall et al., 2007; Mongini et al., 2012; Ylinen et al., 2010).
Otro resultado a destacar, en relación al estudio VI (La Touche et al., 2009) es que el
tratamiento sobre la región cervical basado en terapia manual y ejercicio mejora la MAI
demostraron que una fijación inducida experimentalmente sobre la región cervical altera
craneomandibulares.
De acuerdo al conjunto de resultados de los estudios de esta tesis podemos afirmar que
para los protocolos diagnósticos de los TCM. Cabe destacar que los métodos
219
diagnósticos y de clasificación más utilizados para los pacientes con TCM no incluyen
una valoración especifica del dolor y la discapacidad cervical (Benoliel et al., 2011;
pacientes con cefalea atribuida a TCM es que los movimientos mandibulares, la función
dolor, además hemos identificado que los pacientes con mayor discapacidad cervical
presentan mayor fatiga y dolor inducido por el test masticatorio. Estos hallazgos nos
llevan a suponer que la región cervical puede tener un papel importante sobre este tipo
de cefalea, pero esto tiene que confirmarse en futuras investigaciones ya que estos datos
se pueden extrapolar únicamente a los pacientes con cefalea atribuida a TCM que
prevalencia de dolor de cuello en los pacientes con TCM es muy alta, pero no sabemos
Desde el punto de vista del tratamiento, el plantear un abordaje para reducir el dolor y
beneficioso para reducir los síntomas sensoriales negativos y mejorar el control motor
futuros estudios. Parte de los hallazgos de esta tesis demuestran que tratamientos de
producen efectos positivos sobre la modulación del dolor en áreas trigeminales y sobre
la mejora de la MAI libre de dolor (La Touche et al., 2009, 2012), con los cual
consideramos que es positivo integrarlos en los protocolos actuales para este tipo de
pacientes.
220
En varios de los estudios de esta tesis y en otros estudios longitudinales o transversales
et al., 2013; Fillingim et al., 2011, 2013). Específicamente nuestros resultados muestran
de tipo sensorial con variables psicológicas y esto debería considerarse como una
psicosociales que pueden ser percibidos como obstáculos para la recuperación (Main,
2013): se ha observado que lograr una disminución del catastrofismo del dolor es un
de decisiones podría ser un punto clave en el manejo del dolor y la reeducación motora
sufren TCM crónicos (Turner, Mancl, et al., 2005) y además se ha observado que en
disminución del catastrofismo del dolor (Seminowicz et al., 2013). Prescribir ejercicio
terapéutico puede ser una buena alternativa a tener en cuenta: en relación a esto se ha
observado que el ejercicio en pacientes con dolor lumbar crónico produce una reducción
221
6.8 Limitaciones y Futuras Investigaciones
Los resultados de esta tesis se han discutido con la consideración de que hay varias
estudios que conforman esta tesis se han tenido en cuenta algunas variables relacionadas
con la discapacidad y el dolor en la región cervical, sin embargo consideramos que aún
región cervical como por ejemplo, los rangos de movimiento, la resistencia muscular, la
sería necesario que futuros estudios precisaran aún más estos aspectos ya que podrían
generar nuevos datos que puedan servir para plantear alternativas diagnósticas y
terapéuticas.
intervenciones terapéuticas (VI, VII) solo se han medido los efectos inmediatos y a
corto plazo. Futuros estudios deberían investigar si estas intervenciones tienen un efecto
mantenido a medio y a largo plazo, por otra parte sería necesario realizar estudios de
tratamientos de electroterapia.
En esta tesis se han identificado algunos factores psicológicos que han presentado
222
pesar de esto y haciendo una reflexión profunda consideramos que hay otras variables
que son necesarias identificar como por ejemplo la autoeficacia o el tipo de estrategias
de afrontamiento ante el dolor, entre otras. Además sería necesario que los factores
psicológicos identificados como relevantes se sigan estudiando pero con diseños tipo
relación con la anterior reflexión, creemos que es importante realizar ensayos clínicos
utilicen se establecieran de forma multimodal para de esta forma intentar influir sobre
223
224
CONCLUSIONES
225
7. CONCLUSIONES.
craneofacial.
sujetos asintomáticos.
4. Los pacientes con dolor de cuello crónico mecánico presentan una hiperalgesia
226
8. El catastrofismo ante el dolor es un predictor de la fatiga masticatoria en
227
228
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